CHAPTER 2: COAL SELECTION

Coal selection contains the classifications and characteristics of the coal samples
that will be used for the plant. It will also include the criteria and computations for coal
selection which will be based on the combustion technology to be used .

2.1 Coal Analysis and Selection

Coal is the principal energy source because of its large deposits and availability.
Coal originated from which grew millions of years ago. Trees and plants falling into water
decayed and later vegetable matter produced peat bogs. According to geological order
of formation, coal may be of the following types: Peat, Lignite, Subbituminous,
Bituminous, Sub anthracite and Anthracite with increasing percentages of carbon (Nag,
2008). Selecting a suitable coal for steam is a very difficult task. The firing qualities of coal
are very important when we are considering combustion equipment. Slower burning coal
generates high fuel bed temperature and therefore requires forced draught fan. On the
other hand, fast burning coals require large combustion chamber. The most important
factors to be considered are sizing and caking, swelling properties and ash fusion
temperature (DIET,2009).

2.2 Coal Classification

Coal is a heterogeneous material that varies in chemical composition according to

location. In addition to the major organic ingredients of C, H2, and O2, coal also contains
impurities. The impurities that are of major concern are ash and sulfur (Woodruff, 2004).
The following are the different types of coal and its definition;

A. Anthracite

Anthracite is sometimes referred to as “hard” coal, it is shiny black or dark silver-

gray and relatively compact. It is the most advanced form in the coalification process, it
is sometimes found deeper in the earth than bituminous. It has a fixed carbon content
ranging from 86% to 98% respectively, which limits volatile matter to not more than 14%
(Kutz, 2015).

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It has a heating value of 15,000 Btu/lb Utility –type boilers are designed to burn this
low-volatile coal in pulverized coal-fired boilers (Woodruff, 2004).

B. Bituminous

Bituminous is the most plentiful and utilized coal form, it includes low, medium, and
high volatile subgroups. At a lower stage of development in the coalification process,
carbon content is less than the anthracites, from a maximum of 86% to less than 69% on
a dry, mineral-matter-free basis (Kutz, 2015).

It has a heating value between 10,500 and 14,000 Btu/lb as compared to lignite and
subbituminous coals, the heating value is higher and the moisture content and volatile
matter are lower (Woodruff, 2004)

C. Lignite

Lignite is a brown coal often retain a wood like or laminar structure in which wood
fiber remnants may be visible. It is high in seam moisture up to 50% or more (Kutz, 2015).

The heating value of the lignite is less than 8300 Btu/lb and has a high volatile matter
where it can easily ignite (Woodruff, 2004).

D. Subbituminous

Subbituminous has a minimal swelling on heating and have relatively high

moisture content of 15 to 30 percent. It is easily to ignite because of having a high volatile
matter. It has less ash and burn cleaner than lignite. They have a sulfur content less than
1% and a heating value between 8,300 and 11,500 Btu/lb (Woodruff, 2004).

E. Peat

Peat is a decaying vegetables matter formed in wetlands, it is the first stage of

metamorphosis in the coalification process. Development can be generally described as
anaerobic. In the seam, peat moisture may be 90% or higher. It has a low bulk density at
about 15 lb/ft3 and low heating value at about 6000 Btu/lb. The distances of transportation
must be short to make peat an attractive energy option (Kutz, 2015).

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2.3 Criteria for Coal Selection

There are several classification systems which attempt to find some common
principle of variation among different kinds of coal. The inventor of a practical system will
necessarily eliminate moisture and ash, for these are strictly of random occurrence in
coal. The presence in coal, as found in storage piles, or ready-to-fire, or as-received at
the laboratory, of both moisture and ash gives rise to certain variations of analysis of the
constituents (Morse, 1953).

2.4 Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis is the analysis made by heating the coal until it decomposes
successively into three of the four complex items of the proximate analysis. Since the
fourth is found by the difference, the only feasible check on the test result is to analyze
duplicate samples and compare results (Morse, 1953). Proximate analysis will also be
considered because it contains the ash and moisture content of the coal will be selected
for the combustion equipment. Table 2.1 shows the summary of proximate analysis of the
coals will be used for the selection.
Table 2.1 Summary of Proximate Analysis
ELEMENT COAL (A) [1] COAL (B) [2] COAL (C) [3]
AUSTRALIA THAILAND INDONESIA
Lower Heating 17.82 17.85 18.39
Value, mJ/kg
Moisture, % 38.7 40.96 44
Ash, % 6.7 14.7 4
Volatile Matter, % 38.3 21.18 47.9
Fixed Carbon, % 47 28..67 47.7
Source: [1] The Chemical Characteristics of Victorian Brown Coal
[2] Characteristics of Mae Moh Lignite, 2011
[3] Coal Research Analysis Update

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A. Heating Value

In boiler practice, the heat of combustion of a fuel is the amount of heat,

expressed in Btu, generated by the complete combustion, or oxidation, of a unit weight
of fuel. Calorific value or “fuel Btu value” are also describe the unit heat of combustion
of a fuel. In determining the heating value of a coal, a calorimeter is employed. The
bomb calorimeter provides a means of burning a small sample of fuel under controlled
conditions and measuring the resulting temperature rise in a given quantity of water.
High heating value fuels tend to burn with a hot flame, increasing radiant heat transfer
(Black & Veatch, 1996).

B. Moisture Content

Moisture represents an impurity that adds to the weight but not to the heating value
of coal. It enters the furnace in the form of water and leaves as steam in the flue gas.
Heat generated by the fuel actually must be expanded to accomplish this conversion.
Normally it is to the operator’s advantage to burn coal with a low moisture content to
prevent the loss of heat that results from converting the water into vapor or steam.
However, when coal is burned on grates or stokers, there are conditions that make it
advantageous to have a small percentage of moisture present. This moisture tends to
accelerate the combustion process, keep the fuel bed even, and promote uniform burning.
B. Ash Content

Ash is a non-combustible residue formed from the inorganic or mineral

components of the coal. The presence of ash residue is an important distinction between
the use of coal and the use of petroleum and natural gas. The ash residue of coal follows
no regular trend but appears to depend in part on the local geology of the particular coal
seam. The ash content of the coals can be quiet variable from one coal to another, and
will further depend on whether the coal was partially “dried” or “cleaned” to remove some
inorganic debris. The heating value is lowered by the presence of non-combustible
moisture and ash content in the coal (Sustainable Energy, 1995).

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C. Volatile Matter

This is critical for maintaining flame stability and accelerating the particle burnout.
Coals with low volatile matter, such as anthracite and low-volatile bituminous, are difficult
to ignite and require specially designed combustion systems (Woodruff, 2005).

Fuels with high-volatile matter burn quickly and require less furnace residence
time. Alternatively, fuels with low-volatile matter contents tend to burn poorly (incomplete
combustion) and may require use of supplemental fuels to assure proper flame stability
(Black & Veatch, 1996).

2.5 Ultimate Analysis

Ultimate analysis is used to determine the carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, ash
oxygen and moisture contents of a coal (Otto, 2017). The ultimate analysis will be used
for determining the sulfur content. Table 2.2 shows the summary of the ultimate analysis
of the coal that will be used for the selection of coal.

Table 2.2 Summary of Ultimate Analysis of Coal

ELEMENT COAL (A) [1] COAL (B) [2] COAL (C) [3]
AUSTRALIA THAILAND INDONESIA
Carbon 71.4 70.7 66.6
Hydrogen 4.8 5.0 4.7
Nitrogen 0.6 2.3 0.7
Sulfur 2.8 3.0 3.8
Oxygen 13.7 18.2 21.3
HGI 56 60 50
FSI 7.5 7 8
Source: [1] The Chemical Characteristics of Victorian Brown Coal
[2] Characteristics of Mae Moh Lignite, 2011
[3] Coal Research Analysis Update

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A. Sulfur Content

When selecting coal and the equipment used in burning of coal, the sulfur content
must be considered. The corrosive effects of sulfur necessitate the use of special
materials in the construction of conveyors and bunker. The dew point of flue gases is
lowered by the presence of the sulfur oxides. The flue gas temperature reduction in
economizers and air heaters must be limited to prevent the metal temperatures from
being reduced to or below the dew point. This precaution is necessary to prevent serious
corrosion. Furthermore, the sulfur oxides discharged with the flue gases pollute the
atmosphere unless adequate air pollution control equipment is utilized (Woodruff, 2004).
Low percentage will be allotted for this criteria because FB boiler is designed to burn low
quality coals that is why is can burn coals with high sulfur content.

B. Grindability Index

Measured on Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI), it is defined as indication of the

ease of grinding of coal. This is typically use for pulverized coal technology but also use
on the other two type of combustion technology. The said characteristic is useful on
determining the mill capacity. Coal with higher HGI number will indicate that the mill
capacity is also high, which means that the lesser energy is required to crush the coal.
Hard Grove Index (HGI) for good bituminous coal is 50-60%. Lower values mean more
difficult grinding (Morse, 1953).

C. Free Swelling Index

The free swelling index is a measure of volume increase of a coal when heated
under specific conditions and is reported in numbers from 0 to 9, with higher values
considered superior from a coking standpoint. Fluidized bed combustion can burn coal
that has a strong-caking with a range of 4-9 FSI (Lu,2009).

The firing qualities of coal are very important when selection of the coal and
combustion equipment is being considered, for if it were not for the effects of these
qualities, coal could be purchased on the basis of heating values alone (Morse,1953).
The following factors are to be considered in selection of the coal.

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 Sizes and grades of the coal to be used;

 Constituents which includes the proximate and ultimate analysis and ash analysis;
 Physical characteristics such as Friability, Hardgrove Grindability, or some other
standards;
 Storage characteristics;
 Performance characteristics such as coking and caking tendency;
 Corrosive characteristics (sulfur content); and
 Ignition characteristics which includes the presence of certain minerals of low
ignition temperature in the volatile.

Table 2.3 shows the summary of the criteria with its respective percentage that will be
used for the selection of coal.

Table 2.3 Criteria for Selection of Coal (distance)

CRITERIA PERCENTAGE REMARKS

LOWER HEATING VALUE 50 One of the prominent ability of fluidized bed

is that it can burn fuels with a low heating
value. That is why the lower heating value
has the highest percentage in selection of
coal.
FREE SWELLING INDEX 15 Fluidized bed boiler can burn fuel that has
strong-caking tendency with a range of 4-9
FSI. FSI is a factor to be considered
because it is the tendency of the coal to
solidify when heated at a certain range of
temperature.
MOISTURE CONTENT 10 Since fluidized bed has low corrosion rate
and it is designed to burn low grade fuel.
Moisture content is not a major factor to be
considered with high percentage.
ASH CONTENT 10 For coal having ash content, the fluidized
bed boiler can have ash related issues
because of its ability to burn low grade fuels
and includes elements that can cause
operational problems. Air quality control
facility will be needed for the design of the

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plant because the coal used in a FB boiler

has high ash content.

SULFUR CONTENT 10 Fluidized bed can withstand low grade coal

with high sulfur content by adding limestone
to reduce the SO2 concentration formed
during the combustion.

DISTANCE 5 Distance of the source from the plant is

considered because the coal sample used
for the selection is from different countries. It
will also the affect the time of delivery of coal
to the plant.

2.6 Coal Selection

In selecting the proper coal to be used for the proposed fluidized power plant, the
designers made a comparison of the three coals found in different manufacturers from
other countries.

The on which selection of coal will be based coal will have the highest score based
on the criteria given. The formula and the computations for the scores of the coal are
shown below. Table 2.4 Shows the comparison between the characteristics of coal that
will be used for the selection.

Table 2.4 Characteristics of Coal

CRITERIA COAL (A) [1] COAL (B) [2] COAL (C) [3]
AUSTRALIA THAILAND INDONESIA
Lower Heating 17.82 17.85 18.39
Value, MJ/kg
FSI,% 7.5 7 8
Moisture Content, % 38.7 40.96 44
Ash Content, % 6.7 14.7 4
Sulfur Content, % 2.8 2.22 3.8
Distance(km)[4] 4,417 2,265 1,743
Source: [1] The Chemical Characteristics of Victorian Brown Coal

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[2] Characteristics of Mae Moh Lignite, 2011

[3] Coal Research Analysis Update
[4[ Google Maps

Standard Value
Score = x Percentage
Value

A. Computation of score for Lower Heating Value:

For the computation of the coal score for lower heating value of the different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

17.82
Coal A LHV = 18.39 𝑥 50%

Score for Coal A LHV = 48.45%

17.85
Coal B LHV = 𝑥 50%
18.39

Score for Coal B LHV = 48.53%

18.39
Coal C LHV = 18.39 𝑥 50%

Score for Coal C LHV = 50%

The computation above shows that Coal A has the highest percentage compared
to the two other coal with a score of 50%.

B. Computation of score for FSI:

For the computation of the coal score for Free Swelling Index of the different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

7
Coal A FSI = 7 𝑥 15%

Score for Coal A FSI = 15%

7
Coal B FSI = 7.5 𝑥 15%

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Score for Coal B FSI = 9.33%

7
Coal C FSI = 8 𝑥 15%

Score for Coal C FSI = 8.75%

The computation above shows that Coal C has the highest percentage compared
to the two other coal with a score of 25%.

C. Computation of Score for Moisture Content:

For the computation of the coal score for moisture content of the different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

38.7
Coal A Moisture Content = 38.7 𝑥 10%

Score for Coal A Moisture Content = 10%

38.7
Coal B Moisture Content = 40.96 𝑥 10%

Score for Coal B Moisture Content = 9.45%

38.7
Coal C Moisture Content = 𝑥 10%
44

Score for Coal C Moisture Content = 8.80%

The computation above shows that Coal C has the highest percentage compared
to the two other coal with a score of 10%.

D. Computation of score for Ash Content:

For the computation of the coal score for Ash Content of the different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

4
Coal A Ash Content = 6.7 𝑥 10%

Score for Coal A Ash Content = 5.97%

4
Coal B Ash Content = 14.7 𝑥 10%

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Score for Coal B Ash Content = 2.72%

4
Coal C Ash Content = 𝑥 10%
4

Score for Coal C Ash Content = 10%

The computation above shows that Coal C shas the highest percentage
compared to the two other coal with a score of 10%.

E. Computation of score for Sulfur Content:

For the computation of the coal score for sulfur content of the different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

2.22
Coal A Sulfur Content = 𝑥 10%
2.8

Score for Coal A Sulfur Content = 7.92%

2.22
Coal B Sulfur Content = 2.22 𝑥 10%

Score for Coal B Sulfur Content = 10%

2.22
Coal C Sulfur Content = 𝑥 10%
3.8

Score for Coal C Sulfur Content = 5.84%

The computation above shows that Coal B has the highest percentage compared
to the two other coal with a score of 10%.

F. Distance

For the computation of the coal score for distance of the source for different coal
samples, the solution is shown below:

1,743
Coal A Distance = 4,417 𝑥 5%

Score for Coal A Distance= 1.97%

1,743
Coal B Distacne= 2,265 𝑥 5%

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Score for Coal B Distance= 3.85%

1,743
Coal C Distance= 𝑥 5%
1,743

Score for Coal C Distance= 5%

The computation above shows that Coal C has the highest percentage compared
to the two other coal with a score of 5%.

Table 2.5 shows the summary of the scores for the selection of coals taken from
Australia, Thailand and Indonesia.

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Table 2.5 Summary of Scores for Coal Selection

CRITERIA Equivalen COAL A COAL B COAL C Equivalent Percentage, %

t Rating (Australia) (Thailand) (Indonesia)
Coal
[1] [2] [3]
A B C
Lower Heating 50 17.82 17.85 18.39 48.45 48.53 50
Value, MJ/kg
FSI, % 15 7.5 7 8 14 15 13.13
Moisture Content, 10 38.7 40.96 44 10 9.45 8.80
%
Ash Content, % 10 6.7 14.7 4 5.97 2.72 10
Sulfur Content, % 10 2.8 2.22 3.8 7.93 10 5.84
Distance, (km) 5 4,417 2,265 1,743 1.97 3.85 5
Total 88.32 89.55 92.77
Source: [1] The Chemical Characteristics of Victorian Brown Coal
[2] Characteristics of Mae Moh Lignite, 2011
[3] Coal Research Analysis Update

Therefore, the designers choose to use the coal from Indonesia because it has the highest score with regards to the
criteria given for a fluidized bed type of combustion. Compared to other coals it has the highest sulfur content this means it
has the lowest quality that is suitable for the boiler selected, though it will not affect the combustion because of the addition
of limestone. It also has the highest heating value among the coals. The HGI of coal is not considered for the criteria because
the values are within the range recommended. Coal from Indonesia is also nearest to the proposed plant.

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2.7 Proximate Analysis of the Selected Coal

The proximate analysis gives information on coal behavior when it is heated, how
much coal goes off as gas, tar, and vapor, and how much remains as fixed carbon. Table
2.6 shows the proximate analysis of the coal selected from Indonesia.

Table 2.6 Proximate Analysis of Selected Coal

Element Percentage
Moisture 44
Ash 4
Volatile Matter 47.9
Fixed Carbon 47.7
Lower Heating Value, mJ/kg 18.39
Source: Coal Research Analysis Update

2.8 Ultimate Analysis of the Selected Coal

All coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis
determines only the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The
ultimate analysis is determined in a properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist.
Table 2.7 shows the Ultimate analysis of the coal selected from Indonesia.

Table 2.7 Ultimate Analysis of the Selected Coal

Element Percentage
Carbon 66.6
Hydrogen 4.7
Nitrogen 0.7
Sulfur 3.8
Oxygen 21.3
Source: Coal Research Analysis Update

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