TOWN PLANNING

Module I
Origin and evolution of Human settlements: Development of Town planning in the historical perspective-Town planning in
ancient, medieval, renaissance, industrial & post-industrial age- Town planning in India -ancient, medieval, colonial and
modern. Development of new towns and cities-Chandigarh and Navi Mumbai. Contributions to modern town planning
thoughts: by-Patrick Geddes, Ebenezer Howard, C A.Doxiadis, Lewis Mumford, Le Corbusier and Clarence Stein.

Origin and evolution of Human settlements:

1. Prehistory
PALEOLITHIC ( 2-3 million yrs ago)
NEOLITHIC (10,000 yrs ago)
2. History
ANCIENT AGE
MEDIEVAL AGE
MODERN AGE
CONTEMPORARY AGE

Development of Town planning in the historical perspective

1. PALEOLITHIC (2-3 million yrs. ago)

 Homo Habilus invented the herth, assembled in caves around fire to perform rites-beginning of community.
 Nomadic hunters made temporary shelters using available materials
TERRA AMATA, FRANCE
 Group of 21 huts, oval in shape
 Built using twigs and leaves around a central hearth inside
 Beginning of human settlements-man taking control over natural environment

2. NEOLITHIC (10,000 yrs. ago)

 Transition to agriculture inspired the earliest forms of urbanism in Southwest Asia
 Neolithic Revolution: Farming developed around many parts of the world at the same time- Mesopotamia, Egypt,
India, China, Americas.
 Larger settlements with higher population with more permanent materials- supported by Agriculture, trade &
transportation.
 Technological improvements-plow, potter’s wheel, textile making, metallurgy.
JERICHO, ISRAEL (8000 BC)

 Fortified settlement, with a stone wall enclosing a group of circular huts having conical roofs
CATAL HAYUK, ANATOLIA
  Unfortified, dense compact settlement with rectangular mud brick houses, no streets. bldgs. show diversification
as houses, shrines and workshops

Town planning in ancient

MESOPOTAMIA (3500 BC)
 "Mesopotamia" is a Greek word meaning, "Land between the Rivers". Mesopotamia is one of the cradles of
human civilization. Here, the earliest cities in world history appeared in Sumer, the southern delta area.

UR, SUMERIA

 Each city built a set of double walls and at least one towering temple as the centre of its surrounding agricultural
estates.
 Sacred enclosure- Temenos, religious centre of the city surrounded by massive walls & dominated by the
ziggurat.
 Temenos also included temples, palaces and government buildings.
 Houses were single-story structures of mud brick, with several rooms wrapped around an open court.
 Streets show organic pattern.

BABYLON
  The city was surrounded by 450’ high walls & a moat. City had 8 massive gates connected by streets.
 The river Euphrates flowed through the middle of the city.
 The palace, temple & ziggurat located inside the temenos.
EGYPT

 Egypt known as “Gift of Nile”-linear network of settlements along bank of Nile.

 N-S axis of Nile & E-W axis of Sun give rise to orthogonal geometry of fields and cities.
 Religion was the major factor that controlled their life- Tombs, temples, palaces were the most important
structures
 Egyptian city reflects the social structure of Egypt – common man & slaves lived in mud brick houses while upper
class lives in villas with gardens
 Towns generally had a boundary wall with only one or two entrances through the wall itself.
 Houses and towns built on a more elevated plain. These hills are called tells.
 The main street was normally placed through the centre of the town with smaller streets coming off at right
angles
 Temple districts on the other hand were better planned.
 The houses of the poorer classes in the towns were simple courtyard bldgs.
 Nobles and the upper classes of Egyptian society occupied much larger surroundings.
 Market places did not exist inside or outside the walls of the towns.
 The economy of Egypt did not require them.
CITY OF AMARNA

 365 miles south of Cairo, on eastern side of Nile River

 City of Akhetaten –the heretic king of Egypt.
 Central city housing the so called Royal palaces, the Great temple complex.
 A workers village was located on eastern part outside the main city.

 ANCIENT TOWNS
 The classical civilization of Ancient Greece emerged into the light of world history in the 8th century BC.
 In this landscape of mountains and sea many small territories, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities,
and identity developed.
 These "city-states" were fiercely independent of each other
GREEK CITIES
 Early cities had an organic pattern, following the undulating topography of the region.
 The city was surrounded by high, wide walls, fortified gateways at regular intervals.
 The high hills had the sacred precinct- often temples located here, the city grew around the foot of the hills. E.g.:
Acropolis in Athens
 The market place or Agora was the centre of urban activity, surrounded by shops/civic buildings.
 The residential areas were irregular in form with courtyard houses with no windows opening to the streets.
 Outside these wall was another public space, the gymnasium, the theatre, built into a hillside and semi-circular in
shape.
 Surrounding the city was the farmland of the city-state
AGORA

 Agora was located at the centre of the town & often occupied 5% of the city area with all major streets leading to
it.
 In planned cities agora was square or rectangular with colonnaded porticos of bldgs. Around them.
 Agora was the centre of commercial and political life-surrounded by shops & civic bldgs.
ACROPOLIS
  Typical Greek city was built around a fortified hill, called an "acropolis".
 Here was located the city's chief temple, the city's treasury, and some other public buildings.
PRIVATE DWELLINGS
 The house was basic unit of city and was placed facing south.
 There was little difference between the houses of the town- democratic nature of society.
 Streets were paved with drains, water was carried from wells.
HIPPODAMUS (5TH CENTURY B.C)

 Greek city planning concepts were formally organised by Hippocampus of Miletus.

 The grid-iron form served as the basis of the city while dwellings formed the basic unit.
 Agora & Acropolis formed the 2 focal points of the city
 Each city had a finite size –a population of 10,000 –ideal size for a ‘polis’ or city.
 When population exceed this limit a ‘neopolis’ was started near the mother city.
ROMAN CITIES

 Romans continued the legacy left by the earlier architects of the Greek world.
 Romans were also great innovators & engineers who built well planned cities &monumental structures such as
temples, basilica, aqueducts, amphitheatre, and stadia using concrete.
 Early cities like Rome located on the banks of river Tiber had an organic growth around 7 hills
  The Roman town was a pattern of grid-iron streets, developed for military defense and civil convenience and
wrapped in a wall for defense.
 In the Roman system the main north-South Street was called the cardo and the main east-West Street the
decumanus.
 These two streets were always wider than others and acted as the axes of the plan.
 Rest of the space was divided into squares were blocks of flats, insulae, were built.
 Public bldgs. -monuments, columns, and triumphal arches, large variety of temples, thermae, theatres and
arenas.
 The provision of clean water for consumption and bathing was made by building the Roman aqueduct.

 Water supply network through a system of pipes, fountains.

 Well-developed system of roads with underground sewers and drains.
 The private dwellings which could range from a humble courtyard houses, multi-storey apartments (insulae) to a
great villas of nobles.
THE FORUM
 Near their crossing in the centre of a town were located the forum, the major temples, the main ceremonial
and administrative buildings, and other structures central to the life of the community such as the major
bathing establishments.
Town planning in MEDIVAL PERIOD
 MEDIVAL TOWNS (500 AD- 14OO AD)

 It shows the radial & lateral pattern of irregular road ways with the church plaza as the principal focal point
of the town.
 The time span between falls of the Roman Empire (500 AD) till the start of renaissance (14th cen.)
 Economy was rooted in agriculture and the feudal system was the new order.
 Wars among the rival feudal lords were frequent.
 For protective measures, towns were sited in irregular terrain, occupying hill tops or islands.
 Towns assumed informal & irregular character.
 Castle was surrounded by wall & moat as a protective elements.
 Church plaza became a market place.
 Roads generally radiated from church plaza& market plaza to gates with secondary lateral roadways
connecting them.
 Irregular pattern in planning was devised to confuse enemies
 Early medieval town was dominated by church or monastery & castle of lords.
 Towns were human in scale, immediate, tangible with sequential views.
 Medieval towns characterized by congestion, overcrowding, filth & squalor.
 Epidemics like plague & fire hazard was common in 13th & 14th century.
 ‘Bastide’ is a French term and means literally ‘small fortress’.
Originally it referred to the planned new towns which were built in southwest France during the early part
of the 13th century.
Now is accepted as the general term for all planned, colonial towns (new towns) of the medieval period
including French, English, Welsh and German examples.
 Bastides have pre-determined plan forms.
Grid-iron system and rectilinear plot sub-division form the basis of their layout.

Renaissance
RENAISSANCE TOWNS (1300-1600AD)

IDEAL CITY CONCEPT

 Marks the return of classical theories in art, architecture & city planning.
 Leon batista Alberti & Leonardo davinci proposed the idea of star shaped ideal city-with radial streets from a
centre point-(resist cannon fire better)
 Formalism was grafted over congested medieval towns.
Many towns were rebuilt in order to improve circulation, sanitation and defense.
 Formal plazas were carved out & adopted monumental scale & form of classical roman cities.
 Monumental forms, axis, symmetry & sculptural buildings returned to the city.
 15th century Rome was an overcrowded pilgrim town with problems of transportation, water supply &
sanitation.
 In 1585 pope Sixtus V commissioned Dominico Fontana with restructuring the city of Rome.
 Marked out shrines as focal points with tall obelisks & connected them through a network of wide streets-
establishing a framework for cities growth.

 Formal open spaces like Plazas and squares were carved out of congested city of Rome
 Many 16th century cities like London & Paris followed the idea of monumental plaza as an urban open
space.
BAROQUE CITY
 From French gardens came idea of long vistas meeting at acute angles at one point-Patte d'oie
 In garden of Versailles(1670) , Andre Le Notre used this idea as a frame work to link together a palace,
gardens & a town- making the vast landscape comprehensible to eye.
 These ideas were transferred to baroque city design -substituting houses for trees, grand avenues for long
axes-incorporating plazas surrounded by classical bldgs.
 +3, the baroque city was formed
 E.g.: London & Paris
 In 1666 came plague & great fire which nearly destroyed the city. several proposals with sketch-plans for
radical reorganization of the City's streets were put forward
 Sir Christopher Wren's design, inspired by the Gardens of Versailles, imagined a well-ordered London with
vistas and wide, straight streets.
 In the following years city was rebuilt incorporating many ideas like avenues, parks, plazas, squares, streets
changing the face of the city.
 After the fire, regulations came such as restricting use of combustible materials, bldg. heights, setbacks,
need for open spaces, better sanitation &sewage.
 By the 1800s, the population of Paris had grown into an overcrowded medieval city.
  In 1853, under Napoleon III, Haussmann began the process of renovating France's capital city – surgery of
Paris.
 His basic instructions were to bring light and air into the central districts, improve the sanitation and living
areas, and make Paris a more beautiful city.
 Haussmann's interventions included the destruction of old, medieval neighbourhoods, widening of streets,
building large parks and public squares, and addition of fountains and sewer lines
 Earlier streets were winding, narrow, dark and unhealthy with medieval structures.
 Haussmann created large network of avenues known as ‘boulevards’ that connected the districts.-new
building along these followed a common character.
 Haussmann’s efforts went well beyond beautification, modernizing the city so as to enable the efficient
transportation of goods as well as the rapid mobilization of military troops

Industrial age
Planned Industrial Towns

 1859-Vesinet in France was planned as a town incorporating characteristics of French gardens & English
Parks- forerunner of Garden cities.
 1887, W.H. Liver Company built Port Sunlight, a workers community near Liverpool.
 1889- Cadbury ,chocolate company built , Bourneville , a garden community for workers in Birmingham
 Tony Garnier, ’Une cite Industrialle’-ideal industrial town for a pop. of 32,000 people-concept of zoning
 1882, Spanish Architect, Soria y mata, proposed the concept of a linear city- houses &buildings are set
alongside a linear network of roads & utility systems ,surrounded by gardens
Post-industrial age
FACTORY TOWNS
 In 1769 James Watt created an improved version of the steam engine that ushered in the Industrial
Revolution in Britain-drastic changes in industrial & transportation sectors.
 In 1825, first steam railroad began its operations in England.
 Mechanical production increased & trade expanded –the factory was the new magnet- attracting rural
labours to the city.
 Explosive growth of industrial towns due to migration. Manchester, as an example, experienced a 6 times
increase in its population between 1771 and 1831
 Giant sprawling cities developed during this era, exhibiting the luxuries of wealth and the meanness of
poverty in sharp juxtaposition.
 Working class lived in ‘slums’- dilapidated, over crowded tenements without proper light, ventilation &
sanitary facilities like bathroom, toilet or running water.
 Air, water & land city became polluted- epidemics like cholera often broke out.
 The wealthy moved away from the cities because they thought the "slum" was unhygienic and unpleasant.
 This led to the beginning of suburbs, or socially segregated neighbourhoods in the outskirts.
IDEAL TOWNS

 18th & 19TH century saw the emergence of many visionary ideas with a concern for the life of workers.
 Claude-Nicolas Ledoux in his visionary plan for the Ideal City of Chaux, (1776), proposed an ideal city were
workers lived close to the factory in an informal grouping of houses among gardens.
 His ideas were realised in the design of the Royal Salt works of Arc-et-Senans, France.
 Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the
cooperative movement.
 He proposed that ideal communities of about 1,200 people should be settled on land from 1,000 to 1,500
acres (4 to 6 km2).
 While mainly agricultural, it should possess all the best machinery, should offer every variety of
employment, and should, as far as possible, be self-contained townships.
 In response to existing conditions of urban squalor, regulatory laws (such as Great Britain’s Public Health Act
of 1848 and the New York State Tenement House Act of 1879) set minimal standards for housing for
workers.
PARK MOVEMENT
 Early 20th century, efforts to improve the urban environment emerged from recognition of the need for
recreation.
 Parks were developed to provide visual relief and places for healthful play or relaxation.
 New York’s Central park, envisioned in the 1850s and designed by architects Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law
Olmsted became a widely imitated model.
 supporters of the parks movement believed that the opportunity for outdoor recreation would have a
civilizing effect on the working classes, who were otherwise consigned to overcrowded housing and
unhealthful workplaces
Town planning in India
Town planning in India is an ancient science starting from
1. Indus valley
2. Vedic Period
3. Medieval period
4. Modern age
Ancient India
Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1900 BCE) also known as Harappan civilisation extending from what today is
northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River
 As of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated mainly in the
region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
 The major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Ganeriwala in modern-day Pakistan; and Dholavira, and
Rakhigarhi in present-day India
 The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply
systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings
 The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan culture) has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of
Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BCE.
 Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley were farming and
herding in South Asia started. The culture migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley civilisation.
 Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including
lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making.
 Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase
started
 Vast agricultural lands, rivers, forest surrounded each city.
Town planning
 A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization.
 The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emerged in 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in
Punjab and Sindh
 the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on
hygiene
 Urban planning included the world's first known urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes
or groups of homes obtained water from wells.
 Waste water from bathrooms was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
 Houses built using burnt bricks opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.
 All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities.
 The cities were constructed in a highly uniform and well-planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a
central authority.
 There was a citadel in the centre, but no large monumental structures like palaces or temples were built.
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
 The twin cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa formed the hub of the civilization.
 Both cities were a mile square with 40,000 population, with defensive outer walls.
 An orthogonal street layout was oriented toward the cardinal directions.
 The street layout shows an understanding of the basic principles of traffic, with rounded corners to allow the
turning of carts easily.
 These streets divided the city into 12 blocks. Except for the west-central blocks, the basic unit of city planning
was the individual house.
 A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization.
 The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emerged in 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in Punjab
and Sindh
 the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene
 Urban planning included the world's first known urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or
groups of homes obtained water from wells.
 Waste water from bathrooms was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
Mohenjo-Daro
 Mohenjo-Daro was the largest of both with an area covering 200 hectares and a population of 35,000 to 40,000.
 The citadel was built on a raised platform 45’ above the plains
 The streets ran in cardinal directions meeting at the right angles to each other.
 Secondary and tertiary streets ran between the built up areas were narrow
 Distinct zoning areas like Trade and commerce, Residential areas, cultural spaces
 Religious, institutional and Cultural spaces around the Monastery and Great bath in the west
 Trade and Administration in south. Agriculture and Industries in north.
 The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjo-Daro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or
storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
 The great bath was another important structure in Mohenjo-Daro. The floor of the bath had five layers. There
were changing rooms around. Tar and gypsum mortar between the bricks made sure no water leaked out.
 A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government or for people to meet.
 Underground drains were built on either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be
removed in order to clean them.
 The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjo-Daro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or
storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
 The great bath was another important structure in Mohenjo-Daro. The floor of the bath had five layers. There
were changing rooms around. Tar and gypsum mortar between the bricks made sure no water leaked out.
 A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government or for people to meet.
 Underground drains were built on either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be
removed in order to clean them.
 The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjo-Daro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or
storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
 The great bath was another important structure in Mohenjo-Daro. The floor of the bath had five layers. There
were changing rooms around. Tar and gypsum mortar between the bricks made sure no water leaked out.
 A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government or for people to meet.
 Underground drains were built on either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be
removed in order to clean them.
 The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjo-Daro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or
storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
 The great bath was another important structure in Mohenjo-Daro. The floor of the bath had five layers. There
were changing rooms around. Tar and gypsum mortar between the bricks made sure no water leaked out.
 A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government or for people to meet.
 Underground drains were built on either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be
removed in order to clean them.

Harappa
 Area of 150 hectares for a population of 23000
 Centre of tread with towns raised over mud brick platforms
 Citadel mound & lower town surrounded by massive wall
 large open areas inside gateway used as market or checkpoint for goods
 No division of society is reflected in plan of the city.
 Public bldgs., markets, houses & craft workshops are found in the same city.
 The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjo-Daro, and in Harappa there were about six granaries or
storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
 The great bath was another important structure in Mohenjo-Daro. The floor of the bath had five layers. There
were changing rooms around. Tar and gypsum mortar between the bricks made sure no water leaked out.
 A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government or for people to meet.
 Underground drains were built on either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be
removed in order to clean them.
Vedic Age
 Indus valley culture collapsed due to various reasons such as drying up of rivers, floods or Aryan invasion around
2000 BC
 New agricultural settlements came up in the Gangetic plain during Vedic age
 These settlements slowly evolved as towns or ‘Nagara’ references in Vedic hymns about architecture & planning
of towns.
 Traditional Vedic towns had temple as focal point- where the sacred & secular mingle
 Layout of towns in Vedic age was ideally based on social hierarchy of caste system.

 Can be seen in traditional temple towns like Madura, Sree Rangam etc.
 Several treatises were developed during Vedic period for planning of towns such as:
 Sthapatya Vedas as part of Atharva Veda-layout of a city
 smriti sasthra- street layouts
 Vaastu sasthra- on Architecture,planning,construction and design of bldgs., site selection, water sources, planting
trees
 Arthasathra- governanace & environmental management
 Manasara silpa sasthra- Grama vidhana & Nagara vidhana
  Mayamata
 Viswakarma

Town planning in Arthasasthra

 A city should be centrally located for trade & commerce.
 The site should be near a perennial water body.
 Shape can be circular, square or rectangular according to topography
 Wall around town -6 dandas high & 12 dandas wide followed by moats of 14’,12’,and 10’ wide
 Three roads in E-W and three roads in N-S shall divide the town.
 The main roads should be 8 dandas wide and other roads 4 dandas wide
 1 well for 10 houses

Medieval
 Medieval period in India was a transitional time and it was not possible under the unstable political conditions for
the planned and systematic urban growth.
 Only fortress towns under the patronage of chieftains and petty rulers could grow.
 Towns along the main routes of travel, and by the river-side had trade in food grains, cloth, swords, carpets,
perfumes and several other handicraft articles.
 Small urban centres was the ‘rule’, and only capitals were having busy life. Jaunpur was the capital city under the
rule of Firozshah.
 It was only under the rule of Akbar that the disturbed urban life was reconstituted and redeveloped. All centres –
‘dasturs’ (districts) as well as ‘parganas’ (tehsils) beside capitals in nature were also ‘garrison towns’ where
armies were invariably stationed for protection.
 Medieval towns, whether in India or anywhere else, were walled, encircled by an outside moat. The town
resembled “an island when its gates were locked at sundown”.
 Medieval town site was usually governed by physically significant terrain; it was either on a hill flanked on the
other side by a water body, or it was guarded by a ring of mounds.
 Medieval town used to have its first nucleus often as a fortress of walled property of a landlord, its internal roads
being controlled to connect the market place lying directly before the gate of the castle or place of worship.
Nucleus of the town was “the stage on which were enacted the daily drama of buying and selling, religious
pageant, tournament and procession”.
 Urban centres of the medieval times were surrounded by agricultural land, and farmers and labourers commonly
were having their dwellings near or outside the town limit. The areas within the walls of a town near its bound
were occupied by artisan castes engaged in handicrafts.
TOWN PLANNING IN SHAHJAHANABAD
SPATIAL STRUCTURE
 Urban spatial structure of Shahjahanabad was different from that of the other Mughal Capitals, because it was
planned and built by one concentrated planning effort.
 Creation of architectural expression of what has often been called the patrimonial system in its climax.
 The shurafaur ignited from the qasbah garrison posts & admn. settlements in which
 Islamic scholars also met their clients & where an integrative or even syncretists cultured prevailed –usually
established around a tomb or a waqf.
 The shurafa usually were situated to the west of the place, along one of the two boulevards at Chandni Chowk, &
originated from the employer’s palace, thus furnishing the city with an unequivocal structure.
 Those professional groups delivering fresh agrarian products to the city must have settled along the southern and
south‐south‐western rim of the city walls (Delhi gate & Turkman gate): this is where institutions, such as Masjid
gadarion (shephered’s mosque), Masjid Kasai (butcher’s mosque) were located. They all represent “low ranking
traders”.
 The closer to the core of the city the more socially recognized are the professional settled there: weavers,
producers of wool, traders of saddle‐ horses, oil‐ extractors & manufacturers of straw goods, each of them
represented by their respective mosques.
PLANNING OF SAHAJAHANABAD
 The city was planned according to Hindu planning principles of shilpashastra from vastushastra.
 The site was placed on a high land as in the Shastra and was karmukha or bow shaped, for this ensured its
prosperity.
 The arm of the archer was Chandni Chowk.
 The string was Yamuna River.
  The junction of the two main axes is the most auspicious point in the whole region and was therefore the red
fort.
THE CITY FORM‐ MORPHOLOGY ELEMENTS:-
 The urban infrastructure was laid out in a geometric pattern.
 Shows traces of both Persian and Hindu traditions of town planning and architecture with the Persian influence
largely accounting for the formalism and symmetry of the palaces gardens and boulevards
STREETS
 The streets in Mughal capital were usually narrow and crooked.
 However, the major streets in the new capital were designed as wide and straight.
 The Fort was visible from any place on the street. This perspective view marked a new concept of town planning
for the Mughal capital.
 Chandni Chowk is 1.4km in length and jogged right at the Fatehpuri Begum Mosque.
 It was built as the central axis of the city.
CITY WALLS
 The layout o the city walls was based on a geometrical planning; i.e. to say, a polygonal plan with gateways.
 The four main gates were Delhi Darwaza on south, the Ajmeri Darwaza on the south-west, the Lahori Darwaza on
the west and the Kashmiri Darwaza on the north.
 These important gates were positioned according to the basic network of the city, being laced on the cardinal
points.
 The graphic representation of the city was indicated geometric planning and the geometric placement of the
main gates.
Colonial
 Planning and architecture was used in Indian port cities to express power and authority, by examining the two largest Indian
port cities; Bombay and Madras throughout the colonial period.
 The earliest planning activity on the shorelines of India can be seen in the defence work carried out in the 17th century.
 Of all the early architectural activities in the port cities, defence was undoubtedly of paramount importance surrounded as the
cities were by the hostile local powers on the one hand and by European rivals on the other
 As Port towns became more established, they encapsulated the sheer essence of the British Empire, by creating spaces of
imported knowledge, technology and economic investment, while exporting goods to British consumers and expanding trade
networks into the hinterland
 As a reflection of imperial thought in regards to the role of British planners and architects in the development of India’s port
cities, it is clear that infrastructure networks were pivotal in providing a healthy economic foundation in which trade and
commerce could thrive.
 Installations and services that signalled power, scale and value of city – or harbour – output. To make these water stations
productive, states, cities and businesses invested in docks, quays, canals, railroads and locks
 Although there were initial problems with the relative success of port building in Madras there were several successful
attempts at creating the basis for an enclosed dock by 1910, featuring various expansions after this period.
 As in Bombay there was also simultaneous network infrastructure built, “linking Madras docks directly to Bombay and Calcutta
by 1856.”
 The ports infrastructure was so successful that from 1881 to 1910 registered port cargo grew from 0.5 million tonnes 1 million
tonnes
 Commercial planning was not the only factor in the British expression of power, as “it was always essential to make visible
Britain’s imperial position as ruler, for these structures were charged with the explicit purpose of representing empire itself
 British colonial planning took a different approach come the turn of the 20th century, where it can be argued that the
articulation of British power was exercised to an intrusive extent.
 This took the form of slum clearance, in addition to road widening and social housing blocks for labourers.
 the most common town planning activity falls under Road improvements, slum clearance and housing, examples of which are
Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Lagos and Singapore
 Organized efforts for town planning started during British period in late 19th century.
 During 1890 s city of Bombay was hit by a series of epidemics like cholera, malaria & plague due to existing unhygienic
congested living conditions.
 1898, The Bombay Improvement Act was passed recognizing the connection between disease transmissions and overcrowding
 Bombay improvement trust was created in 1898 with the goal of improving the city.
 In 1911 Calcutta improvement Act was passed & Calcutta improvement trust was created
 The Municipal Act of 1920 created municipal bodies to provide municipal services & civic amenities to towns.
Modern
 A prosperous town is normally situated along a sea or river coast.
 India was the centre – piece of the British Empire on account of – limit less material resources, insatiable
markets, and enormous man power resource.
 These attributes funded Britain industrialisation making India- the Jewel in the Crown.
  Both the architectural style for British buildings in India and town planning ideas were imported from British.
THE FIRST HILL STATIONS:-
 As in the case of cantonments, hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development.
 The founding and settling of hill stations was initially connected with the needs of the British army.
 Shimla (present-day Shimla) was founded during the course of the Gurkha War (1815-16); the Anglo-Maratha
War of 1818 led to British interest in Mount Abu; and Darjeeling was wrested from the rulers of Sikkim sin 1835.
 Hill stations became strategic places for billeting troops, guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against
enemy rulers.
 The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage, particularly since the British
associated hot weather with epidemics.
 Cholera and malaria were particularly feared and attempts were made to protect the army from these diseases.
 The overwhelming presence of the army made these stations a new kind of cantonment in the hills.
 These hill stations were also developed as sanitariums, i.e., places where soldiers could be sent for rest and
recovery from illnesses.
 Hill stations were important for the colonial economy.
 With the setting up of tea and coffee plantations in the adjoining areas, an influx of immigrant labour from the
plains began.
 This meant that hill stations no longer remained exclusive racial enclaves for Europeans in India.

Development of new towns and cities

Chandigarh
CHANDIGARH
• Since Punjab was divided into two p j parts, the capital was left in Pakistan therefore Punjab in India required new capital
• The first masterplan for the new capital was assigned to American engineer and planner Albert Mayer, who was a friend of
Clarence Stein of Radburn fame in New Jersey.
• He worked on the masterplan with his closest assistant, Matthew Nowicki, until the latter died in a plane crash in 1950. His
duties were to take the form of architectural control.
• The master plan which albert Mayer produced for Chandigarh assumes a fan‐shaped outline, spreading gently to fill the site
between the two river beds.
• At the head of the plan was the Capitol, the seat of the state government, and the City Centre was located in the heart of the
city.
• Two linear parklands could also be noticed running continuously from the northeast head of the plain to its southwestern tip. A
curving network of main roads surrounded the neighbourhood units called Super blocks.
• First phase of the city was to be developed on the north‐eastern side to accommodate 1, 50,000 residents and the second
phase on the Southwestern side for another 350,000 people.
• The neighbourhood units were to contain schools and local shopping centres.
• The flatness of the site allowed almost complete freedom in creating street layout and it is of interest to note that the overall
pattern deliberately avoids a geometric grid in favour of a loosely curving system.
• The death of nowicki necessitated the selection of a new architect for Chandigarh. When Mayer resigned, the Indian authorities
put together a new, European planning team.
• The two appointed administrators, verma and thapar, decided on the renowned Swiss architect, le Corbusier, whose name was
suggested by the British architect’s Maxwell fry and his wife Jane drew.
• As the most economical and readily available material for building at Chandigarh was locally made brick.
• The flat roof was employed throughout in Chandigarh housing because of its usefulness as a sleeping area
• 70% of the building would be private in all the sectors.
• Residential plots ranging in dimensions from 75 sq. Yards to 5000 sq. yards.
• Le‐Corbusier was responsible for the general outlines of the master plan and the creation of the monumental buildlings,while
pierre jeanneret,maxwell fry and jane drew were charged with the task of developing the neighbourhood sectors with their
schools, shopping bazaars, and the tracts of government housing.
• In the program presented to the architects, 13 categories of houses were specified, each corresponding to a level of
government employment.
• Small windows openings have been consistently employed
• The city of Chandigarh e c y o a d ga was the culmination of Le Corbusier’s life.
• This city is like the man. It is not gentle. It is hard and assertive.
• It is not practical; it is riddled with mistakes made not in error but in arrogance.
• It is disliked by small minds, but not by big ones. It is unforgettable. The man who adored the Mediterranean has here found
fulfilment, in the scorching heat of India.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
• It was bound by two seasonal choes, or rivulets, the patiali Rao and the Sukhna in the northwest and the south east
respectively. It extends in the northeast right up to the foothills of the shivaliks.
• The region experiences extremes in the climate. The temperature could rise to 45 degrees in summer and drop to freezing
point in winter.
 • The direction of the prevalent winds is southeast to the northwest in summer and northwest to the southeast in winter.
THE BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY
• the head was the Capitol,
• the City Centre was the heart and
• The institutional area and the university was limbs.
INDUSTRY
• Despite his bias against p g industry, Le Corbusier was persuaded to set aside 235 hectares for non‐Polluting, light industry on
the extreme south eastern side near the railway line as far away from the Educational Sector and Capitol as possible. Of this,
136 hectares were to be developed during the first phase.
• In the event of the city expanding southward, Le Corbusier suggested the creation of an additional industrial area in the
southern part of the city where a second railway station could be established
SECTOR
• Le Corbusier and his team replaced superblocks with a geometric matrix of generic neighbourhood units,”sectors”.
• The new city plan represented a general city that could, like a roman military settlement, be placed on any flat piece of land. Le
Corbusier claimed that “the first phase of existence is to occupy space” and the new plan allowed for such an expansion.
• However, the city was planned to house a number of 1, 50,000 inhabitants in its first phase, realized between 1951‐66, and 500
000 in its” final stage”.
• The bus stops are provided each time at 200 meters from the circus so as to serve the four pedestrian entrances into a sector.
• Thus, the transit traffic takes place out of the sectors: the sectors being surrounded by four wall‐bound car roads without
openings (the V3s).
• And this (a novelty in town‐planning and decisive) was applied at Chandigarh: no house (or building) door opens on the
thoroughfare of rapid traffic.
OPEN SPACES
• Some 800 hectares of green open space are spread over the approximately 114 square kilometres of the Capital Project area.
• Major open areas include the Leisure Valley, Sukhna Lake, Rock Garden and many other special gardens.
• In addition, the sectors are vertically integrated by green space oriented in the direction of the mountains.
LANDSCAPING
• Landscaping proceeded p g p side by side with the construction of the city from the very inception. Three spaces were
identified for special plantation: the roadsides, spaces around important buildings, parks and special features such as Sukhna
Lake.
• Le Corbusier’s contribution to landscaping was of categorising tree forms. He made a simple analysis of the functional needs
and aesthetic suitability for the various areas, devoting special attention to specific roads.
• Prominent flowering p g trees are gulmohar (Delonix regia), amaltas (Cassia fistula), kachnar (Bauhinea variegata), pink cassia
(Cassia Javanica) and silver oak (Grevillea robusta).
• Among the conspicuous non‐flowering trees one finds kusum (Schleicheta trijuga) and pilkhan (Ficus infectoria) along V3
roadsides.
• These trees, noted for their vast, thick spreading canopies form great vaulting shelters over many of the city’s roads.
• In all, more than 100 different tree species have been planted in (Fieus religosa) Chandigarh.
HOUSING
• Lower category residential g y buildings are governed by a mechanism known as “frame control” to control their facades.
• This fixes the building line and height and the use of building materials.
• Certain standard sizes of doors and windows are specified and all the gates and boundary walls must conform to standard
design.
• This particularly applies to houses built on small plots of 250 square metres or less.
THE CAPITOL COMPLEX
• The area of the greatest symbolic significance in Chandigarh was the capitol complex , which in its final form was based on the
design of a great cross axis
• The most important group of p g p the buildings constituting the capitol right, the parliament – left and in the background, the
secretariat
• In the foreground, the pool of the palace of justice
• The artificial hills in the front of the secretariat have not been created and laid out in accordance with Corbusier’s conceptions
• Although the scene is harmonies in effect, there are still missing the buildings that belong here, such as , for instance, the
towers of shadows
Navi Mumbai.
 The Navi Mumbai project area spread over approx. 343.7 sq.kms and contained 95 villages of Thane and Raigad Districts.
 To act as counter-magnet to Mumbai, the new city would have to provide the new inhabitants with all facilities, amenities,
jobs, etc. that shall equal if not better Greater Mumbai.
 The Navi Mumbai project began in 1971 with the formation of City and Industrial Development Corporation
(CIDCO).
 The project was envisaged to be developed on a self-financing basis using land as a resource and to accommodate 2 million
people and 750,000 jobs.
The Board recommended establishment of Navi Mumbai at this place due to following
 Existing industrial sites in the Thana-Belapur area and Taloja.
 The imminent complete ion of the Thana Creek Bridge and
 The proposal of the Bombay Port Trust to establish a new port at Nhava Sheva.
 The Navi Mumbai project area spread over approx. 343.7 sq.kms and contained 95 villages of Thane and Raigad Districts.
 To act as counter-magnet to Mumbai, the new city would have to provide the new inhabitants with all facilities, amenities,
jobs, etc. that shall equal if not better Greater Mumbai.
 The Navi Mumbai project began in 1971 with the formation of City and Industrial Development Corporation
(CIDCO).
 The project was envisaged to be developed on a self-financing basis using land as a resource and to accommodate 2 million
people and 750,000 jobs.
 CIDCO prepared the Draft Development Plan for Navi Mumbai which was approved by the State Government in August 1979
and came into force with effect from March 1980.
 In the Development plan, land-use zoning and development regulations are used as tools for environment control.
 A development (structure plan) plan model is favoured with broad land use zones indicating the uses permitted within each
zone.
 Polycentric nodal pattern of development was adopted, to avoid a Mumbai like situation of activity concentration caused by a
mono-centric development model.
The Navi Mumbai project area is spread over approx.343.7 Sq.Kms. Navi Mumbai lies on mainland on eastern shore of Thane creek. The
length of the city is almost same as that of Mumbai. Navi Mumbai is one of the largest planed cities in the world. The city limit s stretch
from Airoli near Thane in North to Uran in South. The Navi Mumbai project area includes Panvel and Uran towns, gaothans of 95 villages in
Thane and Raigad districts, Private Land, MIDC area, MESB area, Defence lands, and Salt Panes, forest and government land. Except
government land and salt panes other lands were small and of irregular shapes, therefore, land assembling was a difficult task. Inherent
value of the land was very low because of its physical condition, quality and total lack of infrastructure in the area.
The Planning Philosophy
 For any development absolute control and ownership of land is the most essential and basic requirement, as land is the main
resource for development.
 The first step is to identify all the land that needed to be acquired for development of Navi Mumbai. By February 1970, the
government notified for acquis it ion of private owned land covering eighty six villages and measuring 159.54 km² within the
present limits of Navi Mumbai under Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act (MR & TP Act), 1966.
 Land belonging to nine other villages, measuring 28.70 km², was additionally designated in August 1973 for inclusion in the
project area.
 The entire private land was to be acquired by the government and placed at the disposal of development authority Considering
the massive scale of this project the government felt need of establishment of separate authority which could focus on
development of notified area and speed up the development process, thus CIDCO was established and immediately appointed
as New Town Development Authority for the project.
Polycentric Approach for development
 The success of Navi Mumbai lies in the approach adopted while it’s planning. Considering the massive scale of Navi Mumbai
project and to avoid a Mumbai like situation of activity concentration caused by a mono-centric development model, the
planners adopted polycentric nodal pattern of development.
 The polycentric approach based on principle of decentralization. It avoids concentration of population, and activities in a
particular area rather it works like ‘bunch of grapes’ and focused on decentralization and balance distribution of residential
areas, job centres, wholesale markets, non-polluting industries and population density and other activities indifferent nodes /
areas of the city. Each node should be self-contained in respect of physical as well as social infrastructure; however all these
nodes should be well connected with each other through efficient transportation and communication network. Well known
examples of polycentric cities are Ruhar area in Germany, Stoke-on-Trent in the UK.
 Today the Ruhar area is a large city that grew from dozen smaller cities, the Stoke – on - Trent is federation of six smaller
towns. As a result these cities have no single centre, but several.
 Other examples are Ranstad in Netherlands or Greater Boston in United States.
Contributions to modern town planning thoughts
Patrick Geddes
1. GEDDISIAN TRIAD – Patrick Geddes
 Father of modern town planning
 First to link sociological concepts into town planning
 “Survey before plan” i.e. diagnosis before treatment
Planning concepts
 Rural development, Urban Planning and City Design are not the same and adopting a common planning process is disastrous
 Conurbation-waves of population inflow to large cities, followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and then the wave of
backflow.
 The whole process resulting in amorphous sprawl, waste, and unnecessary obsolescence.
The sequence of planning is to be:
 Regional survey
 Rural development
 Town planning
  City design
2. Patrick Geddes – Outlook Tower
 Took over ‘Short’s Observatory’ in 1892.
 Spectacular views the surrounding city region.
 A tool for regional analysis, index museum and the ‘world’s first sociological laboratory’.
 It represents the essence of Geddes’s thought ‐ his holism, visual thinking, and commitment to understanding the city in the
region.
 Now the tower is home to the Patrick Geddes Centre for Planning Studies, where an archive and exhibition are housed.
3. NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT
 The neighbourhood is the planning unit for a town.
 evolved due to the advent of industrial revolution and degradation of the city environment caused due to high congestion,
heavy traffic movement through the city, insecurity to school going children, distant location of shopping and recreation
activities; etc.
PRINCIPLES OF NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT
 Unit of Urban Planning
 Street System
 Facilities
 Population
 Sector
 Size and Density
 Neighbourhood
 Walkways
 Protective Strips
Ebenezer Howard
GARDEN CITY – Sir Ebenezer Howard
 Garden City most potent planning model in Western urban planning
 Created by Ebenezer Howard in 1898 to solve urban and rural problems
 Source of many key planning ideas during 20th century
THE CONCEPT
 ‘Garden City’ – an impressive diagram of THE THREE MAGNETS namely the town magnet, country magnet with their
advantages and disadvantages and the third magnet with attractive features of both town and country life.
 Naturally people preferred the third one namely Garden City
Core garden city principles
 Strong community
 Ordered development
 Environmental quality
These were to be achieved by:
 Unified ownership of land to prevent individual land speculation and maximise community benefit
 Careful planning to provide generous living and working space while maintaining natural qualities
 Social mix and good community facilities
 Limits to growth of each garden city
 Local participation in decisions about development
Affordability
 Howard wanted garden city for all incomes
 Most originally for those of modest incomes
 Their attractiveness as living environments has often made them become more popular with better off people
C A.Doxiadis
 Doxiadis was a Greek architect and town planner known as the father of Ekistics.
 He graduated in architectural engineering from the Technical University of Athens in 1935.In 1937 he was appointed Chief
Town Planning Officer for the Greater Athens Area.
 One of his best-known town planning works is Islamabad
Ekistics
• Doxiadis proposed ekistics as a science of human settlement and outlined its scope, aims, intellectual framework and
relevance.
• Ekistics concerns the science of human settlements including regional, city, community planning and dwelling design.
• The term 'ekistics' was coined by Constantinos Doxiadis in 1942, ultimately derived from the noun οἶκος meaning house, home
or habitat.
• The study involves every kind of human settlement, with particular attention to geography, ecology,
human psychology, anthropology, culture, politics, and occasionally aesthetics.
• As a scientific mode of study, ekistics currently relies on statistics and description
• The goal of ekistics is to develop a methodology and models to study any kind of human settlements, of any size, location,
population, in order to draw general conclusions in each case.
 • Ekistics studies how human settlements (polis) are inhabited by humans and provides a conceptual framework for better
understanding of human settlements
• The foundation of concept is in nature, which contains ecological systems, within which humans form social networks (society)
and build shells which are the physical structures providing comfortable living conditions and networks the systems which
facilitate functioning of these settlements.
Five ekistic elements

• The whole range of human settlements is a system of 5 elements: nature, anthropos (man), society, shells( buildings), and
networks.
The five principles of Ekistics
• According to Doxiadis “In shaping his settlements, man has always acted in obedience to five principles”.
• Maximization of man’s potential contacts with the elements of nature (such as water and trees), with other people, and with
the works of man (such as buildings and roads).
• Minimization of the effort required for the achievement of man's actual and potential contacts. He always gives his structures
the shape, or selects the route, that requires the minimum effort.
• Optimization of man's protective space, which means the selection of such a distance from other persons, animals, or objects
that he can keep his contacts with them (first principle) without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort.
Ekistics logarithmic scale- ELS
• Doxiadis introduced a Logarithmic scale that is composed of 15 ekistics units for explaining different scales of human
settlements.
• The scale division is such that the basic or the elementary unit of the scale is the man himself.
• The units then combine and the collection of those units according to the population size develops into a hierarchy of the units.
• Doxiadis’book Action for human settlements (p. 186, 1976) explains the ideal future ekistics units which were calculated by him
till the year 2100.
According to Doxiadis
• study of human settlements should be comprehensive and should have an interdisciplinary scope related to 5 ekistics
elements.
• Any study of human settlements shall refer to ekistics units of scale from man to ecumenopolis, the 15 levels in ekistics
logarithmic scale.
• Time dimension must be integrated in analysis and design of human settlements from past to present to distant future.
• The city must be treated as a dynamic settlement for which the concept of Dynapolis allows for growth & change.

Lewis Mumford
He was an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of technology, and literary critic, who analysed the effect
of technology and urbanisation on human societies throughout history.
• Mumford taught at a number of prestigious universities & served as the architectural critic for The New Yorker magazine for
over 30 years.
• A lifelong opponent of large-scale public works, much of his writings concern the effect of buildings on the human condition
and the environment.
• His 1961 book, ‘The City in History’, received the National Book Award.
• Lewis Mumford is recognized as one of the greatest Urbanists of the 20th Century.
• A key idea, introduced in Technics and Civilization (1934) was that technology was twofold:
• Polytechnic, which enlists many different modes of technology, providing a complex framework to solve human problems.
• Monotechnic, which is technology only for its own sake, which oppresses humanity as it moves along its own trajectory.
• Mumford commonly criticized modern America's transportation networks as being "monotechnic" in their reliance on cars.
• Automobiles become obstacles for other modes of transportation, such as walking , bicycle and public transit, because the
roads they use consume so much space and are such a danger to people.
Three epochs of civilization
• Discussed in ‘Technics & civilisation’ is Mumford's division of human civilization into three distinct epochs (following concepts
originated by Patrick Geddes):
1. Eotechnic (the middle ages)
2. Paleotechnic (the time of the industrial revolution) and
3. Neotechnic (later, present-day)
 • One of the better-known studies of Mumford is of the way the Mechanical clock was developed by monks in the Middle ages
as the key invention of the whole Industrial Revolution contrary to the common view of the steam engine holding the prime
position.
Urban civilization
• The city in History won the 1962 U.S. National Book Award for Non- fiction.
• In this influential book Mumford explored the development of urban civilizations.
• Harshly critical of urban sprawl, Mumford argues that the structure of modern cities is partially responsible for many social
problems seen in western society.
• Mumford argues that urban planning should emphasize an organic relationship between people and their living spaces
• Mumford uses the example of the medieval city as the basis for the "ideal city," and claims that the modern city is too close to
the Roman city (the sprawling megalopolis) which ended in collapse; if the modern city carries on in the same vein, Mumford
argues, then it will meet the same fate as the Roman city.
• The suburb served as an asylum for the preservation of illusion. Here domesticity could prosper, oblivious of the pervasive
regimentation beyond. This was not merely a child-centered environment; it was based on a childish view of the world, in
which reality was sacrificed to the pleasure principle.
• Mumford also had an influence on the American environmental movement. His work contains "some of the earliest and finest
thinking on Bio-regionalism, anti-nuclearism, biodiversity, alternate energy paths, ecological urban planning and appropriate
technology.
•

Le Corbusier
LE CORBUSIER’S CONTRIBUTION TO TOWN PLANNING
 CIAM
 LA VILLE CONTEMPORAINE (CONCENTRIC CITY) – PLAN VOISIN
 LINEAR INDUSTRIAL CITY
 LA VILLE RADIUSE (RADIANT CITY)
 CHANDIGARH
CIAM 1928
The organization was hugely influential. It was not only engaged in formalizing the architectural principles of the Modern Movement, but
also saw architecture as an economic and political tool that could be used to improve the world through the design of buildings and
through urban planning.
It affirmed that town planning is the organization of functions of collective life – this applies to both rural and urban settlements
Four functions of any settlement
• dwelling
• work
• recreation
• Transportation, which connects the first three with one another.

• Le Corbusier organized in CIAM, Assembly of Constructors for an Architectural Renewal (ASCORAL) which systematically studied
the problems of construction, architecture and city planning.

• It resulted in the publication of ‘The Three Human Establishments’. The examination of working conditions in a mechanistic
society led to the recognition of the utility and necessity of three unit establishments indispensable for human activity :
• The Farming unit – the cooperative village : a unit for agricultural production
• The linear industrial city
• The radio concentric city ‐ same as Radiant city (Ville Radieuse) for the exchange of goods and services.(modifications of la ville
contemporaine)
LA VILLE CONTEMPORAINE(CONCENTRIC CITY) 1922
City for 3 million people was proposed by Le Corbusier in 1922, which was based on four principles:
• Decongestion of the centre of the cities
• Augmentation of the density
• Enlargement of the means of circulation
• Increase in the number of parks and open spaces
THREE ZONES
• CENTRAL CITY
• PROTECTED GREEN BELT
• FACTORIES & SATELLITE TOWNS
CENTRAL CITY
• Rectangle containing two cross axial highways
• At its heart was a six‐level transport interchange – centre for motor, rail lines (underground and main‐line railways) and roof of
which is airfield
• 24 cruciform skyscrapers ‐ 60 storeyed office building with density 1200 ppa and covers 5% of the ground
• Surrounding skyscrapers was apartment district – 8 storey buildings arranged in zigzag rows with broad open spaces with
density of 120 ppa
 • The buildings in the central area were raised on stilts (pilotis) so as to leave panoramas of unbroken greenery at ground level
• The general impression was more of a city in a park than of a parkland in the city
• The city espoused space, speed, mass production and efficient organisation, but also offered combination of natural and urban
environments
PLAN VOISIN 1925
• Le Corbusier reworked certain elements of the Ville Contemporaine & applied to a section of Paris
• 18 double cruciform 60 – storey skyscrapers, placed in an orthogonal street grid and park‐like green space
• three clusters of luxury apartments
• Heavy traffic would proceed at basement level
• lighter traffic at ground level
• fast traffic should flow along limited‐access arterial roads that supplied rapid and unobstructed cross‐city movement
• Pedestrianised streets, wholly separate from vehicular traffic and placed at a raised level.
• The number of existing streets would be diminished by two‐thirds due to the new arrangements of housing, leisure facilities
and workplaces, with same‐level crossing points eliminated wherever possible.

Clarence Stein.
 Walking distance radius is one mile.
 In the figure A, elementary school is the centre of the unit and within a one half mile radius of all residents in the
neighbourhood, local shopping centres located near the school.
 Residential streets are suggested as CUL‐DE‐SACS to eliminate through traffic and park space flows into the neighbourhood
RADBURN’s planning
 1929 Radburn Created
 25000 people
 149 acres
 430 single houses
 90 row houses
Factors that influenced
 Rapid Industrialisation after World War I
 Migration of Rural to Cities
 Dramatic growth of Cities
 Housing Shortage
 The need to provide housing and protect from motorised traffic
 SEPARATION of pedestrian and vehicular traffic
 SUPER BLOCK large block surrounded by main roads
 houses grouped around small CUL ‐DE SACS accessed from main road, Living, Bedroom faced gardens & parks, service areas to
ACCESS ROADS
 remaining land ‐ PARK AREAS
 WALKWAYS ‐ designed such that pedestrians can reach social places without crossing automobile street
FINANCIAL PLANNING
 Parks without additional cost from Residents
 Savings from minimising roads ‐ requires less road area
 25% less area gave 12‐ 15% of total park area

Module II
Need for Town Planning: Impact of Urbanisation on cities, Urban Environmental Problems- Land Use, Traffic and Road
Network, Urban Land use- CBD, Urban Nodes, fringe areas and suburbs, Urban Rural Continuum. Contemporary urban
problems- growth and changes, overcrowding, slums, sporadic growth and conurbation. Need for sustainable city planning.

Town Planning:
PLAN:
 Means ‘a physical representation of something like a map’ it also means’ a method to do something.
PLANNING:
 Means the process of making a plan to achieve or do something.
 It is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal.
 The process of setting goals, developing strategies, and outlining tasks and schedules to accomplish the goals.
Town planning
 The physical, social & economic planning of an urban area.
 It is a process concerned with use of land & design of urban environment.
 Is the integration of land use & transportation planning to improve the social, economic & built environment of communities.
 Known by different names such as city planning, urban planning, Town & Country planning or Urban & Regional planning.
  Spatial planning scale ranges from preparation of Regional plans, metropolitan plans, urban plans, zonal plans, area
development plans.
PLANNING PROCESS
1. IDENTIFICATION & DEFINITION OF PROBLEM
2. DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES
3. DATA COLLECTION- Studies & Surveys
4. DATA ANALYSIS
5. FORECASTING
6. DESIGN
7. FIXING THE PRIORITIES
8. IMPLEMENTATION
9. REVIEW, EVALUATION & FEEDBACK
Need for Town Planning
 Defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and lanes.
 development of slums and squatter settlements;
 Haphazard location of industries;
 Heavy traffic congestion during the working hours of the day;
 Inadequate open spaces for parks and playgrounds resulting in unhealthy living conditions;
 Lack of essential amenities like electricity, water supply and drainage;
 Noisy atmosphere disturbing the peace of city dwellers;
 Uncontrolled development of the town
 Unhealthy living conditions; etc
HEALTH: to create a healthy & safe living environment for all, through land use regulations, zoning controls, infrastructural improvement.
CONVINIENCE: providing social, economic, cultural & recreational amenities for improving the socio-economic conditions.
AESTHETICS: to preserve or create a character or aesthetics of the town through building regulations, character guidelines etc.

Impact of Urbanisation on cities

The level and growth of urbanization differ considerably by region (see Figure 1). Among developing countries, Latin American countries
have the highest proportion of their population living in urban areas. But East and South Asia are likely to have the fastest growth rates in
the next 30 years. Almost all of future world population growth will be in towns and cities. Both the increase in and the redistribution of
the earth's population are likely to affect the natural systems of the earth and the interactions between the urban environments and
populations.
Health Effects of Environmental Degradation
The urban environment is an important factor in determining the quality of life in urban areas and the impact of the urban area on the
broader environment. Some urban environmental problems include inadequate water and sanitation, lack of rubbish disposal, and
industrial pollution.18 Unfortunately, reducing the problems and ameliorating their effects on the urban population are expensive.

The health implications of these environmental problems include respiratory infections and other infectious and parasitic diseases. Capital
costs for building improved environmental infrastructure — for example, investments in a cleaner public transportation system such as a
subway — and for building more hospitals and clinics are higher in cities, where wages exceed those paid in rural areas. And urban land
prices are much higher because of the competition for space. But not all urban areas have the same kinds of environmental conditions or
health problems. Some research suggests that indicators of health problems, such as rates of infant mortality, are higher in cities that are
growing rapidly than in those where growth is slower.

Urban Environmental Problems

Urban populations interact with their environment. Urban people change their environment through their consumption of food, energy,
water, and land. And in turn, the polluted urban environment affects the health and quality of life of the urban population.

People who live in urban areas have very different consumption patterns than residents in rural areas.10 For example, urban populations
consume much more food, energy, and durable goods than rural populations. In China during the 1970s, the urban populations consumed
more than twice as much pork as the rural populations who were raising the pigs.11 With economic development, the difference in
consumption declined as the rural populations ate better diets. But even a decade later, urban populations had 60 percent more pork in
their diets than rural populations. The increasing consumption of meat is a sign of growing affluence in Beijing; in India where many urban
residents are vegetarians, greater prosperity is seen in higher consumption of milk.
Urban populations not only consume more food, but they also consume more durable goods. In the early 1990s, Chinese households in
urban areas were two times more likely to have a TV, eight times more likely to have a washing machine, and 25 times more likely to have
a refrigerator than rural households.12 This increased consumption is a function of urban labor markets, wages, and household structure.

Energy consumption for electricity, transportation, cooking, and heating is much higher in urban areas than in rural villages. For example,
urban populations have many more cars than rural populations per capita. Almost all of the cars in the world in the 1930s were in the
United States. Today we have a car for every two people in the United States. If that became the norm, in 2050 there would be 5.3 billion
cars in the world, all using energy.13

In China the per capita consumption of coal in towns and cities is over three times the consumption in rural areas.14 Comparisons of
changes in world energy consumption per capita and GNP show that the two are positively correlated but may not change at the same
rate.15 As countries move from using non-commercial forms of energy to commercial forms, the relative price of energy increases.
Economies, therefore, often become more efficient as they develop because of advances in technology and changes in consumption
behavior. The urbanization of the world's populations, however, will increase aggregate energy use, despite efficiencies and new
technologies. And the increased consumption of energy is likely to have deleterious environmental effects.

Urban consumption of energy helps create heat islands that can change local weather patterns and weather downwind from the heat
islands. The heat island phenomenon is created because cities radiate heat back into the atmosphere at a rate 15 percent to 30 percent
less than rural areas. The combination of the increased energy consumption and difference in albedo (radiation) means that cities are
warmer than rural areas (0.6 to 1.3 C).16 And these heat islands become traps for atmospheric pollutants. Cloudiness and fog occur with
greater frequency. Precipitation is 5 percent to 10 percent higher in cities; thunderstorms and hailstorms are much more frequent, but
snow days in cities are less common.

Urbanization also affects the broader regional environments. Regions downwind from large industrial complexes also see increases in the
amount of precipitation, air pollution, and the number of days with thunderstorms.17 Urban areas affect not only the weather patterns,
but also the runoff patterns for water. Urban areas generally generate more rain, but they reduce the infiltration of water and lower the
water tables. This means that runoff occurs more rapidly with greater peak flows. Flood volumes increase, as do floods and water
pollution downstream.

Many of the effects of urban areas on the environment are not necessarily linear. Bigger urban areas do not always create more
environmental problems. And small urban areas can cause large problems. Much of what determines the extent of the environmental
impacts is how the urban populations behave — their consumption and living patterns — not just how large they are.
Land Use and Traffic
Road Network
Urban road system
• Results into free flow of traffic with safety
• The urban roads play an important role in development of town
• They attract many evils such as heavy traffic congestion, ribbon development ...etc.
• The efficiency of an urban area is greatly influenced by the urban infrastructure of roads together with public services.
Objects of urban roads
• To facilitate communication of men and materials between the various centres of the town
• To provide space for laying the public utility services like water mains, drainage pipes, electric cable, telephone lines, etc.
Requirements of a good city road
• It should accommodate amenities such as shady avenues, parking places, enough lighting, etc.
• It should afford safety to the vehicles and pedestrians by provision of measures such as footpaths, traffic signs, etc.
• It should be cheap and durable
• It should have good alignment and visibility
• It should possess easy gradients and smooth curves
• It should possess well designed junctions
• It should remain in dry condition
• Its overall performance should be such that congestion of traffic is brought down to the minimum possible extent
• Its wearing surface should be impervious and impermeable to the rain water
Classification of urban roads
• Arterial roads: The road which connects the town to a state highway or a national high way is termed as an a arterial road.it
passes within the city limit and carries great masses of traffic between different parts of the town. Arterial roads include ring
roads, by-pass roads.etc.they allow free movement of fast traffic.
• Sub-arterial roads (secondary or major roads); within city limits and they connect important town centres.
• Local roads(minor roads); They collect traffic from various parts of the town and lead it to another minor road or major roads
 • Streets
• pathways
Urban Land use
Concepts related to Land use:
Reversible uses: cases when the inherent feature and characteristics of the land have not been considerably altered such that soil horizon,
landform and structure remain intact so that the land can be reverted to its former use.
Multiple land uses: combining different land uses, whether reversible or irreversible, in an orderly and desirable pattern because:
• Land is finite and supply is fine.
• Demand is ever increasing.
• Competition is there.
• Land can indeed have more than one use and uses can be combined in different ways.
 Compatible and incompatible land uses: A related concept of multiple uses of land is the compatibility of uses. Some land uses
are innately incompatible while others are completely compatible.
 Comprehensive land use planning: A document embodying specific proposals for guiding, regulating growth and development
of a city or municipality.
• Commercial Land Use
• Residential Land Use
• Industrial Land Use
• Institutional Land Use
• Recreation Land Use
• Transport Land Use
Three key theories
 Burgess – Concentric Zone
 Hoyt – Sector Model
 Harris and Ullman – Multiple Nuclei

Burgess – Concentric Zone

• By Earnest W Burger in 1926
• Urban land use may be classified as a series of concentric zones
• Core: Central business district
• 2nd Zone: Transition zone with varying and changing uses. This will be crowded, multi occupied zone (slums)
• 3rd Zone: Residential zone for workers and other moved from the transition zone, better access to employment and central city
activities
• 4th Zone: Residential zone for white collar and middle class families
• 5th Zone: suburban sections
• Concentric zone method is a direct way of describing the influence of broad and general tendencies at work in the structure of
urban land use
• All the zones should have evolved separately and without planning, they result from the competition of different socio-
economic group for land
• This competition results in variation in the cost of land and therefore causes segregation within a city
• The model assumes uniformly flat and available land and ignores the importance of transport routes, but relies on the theory
that city growth results from distinct waves of in-migrants
Timeframe
 1920’s
 Housing segregated according to income
 Lack of transport infrastructure
Assumptions
 Older buildings in city centre
 Newer buildings at edge of city
 Land values highest in city centre
 Strong economic and ethnic segregation
 Low income groups lack transport and live close to city centre.
Hoyt – Sector Model
 By Homer Hoyt in 1939
 An axial development pattern
 Growth takes place along main transportation routes from CBD outwards forming roughly a star shaped community
 The city should be considered as a circle with various sectors radiating out from the centre of the circle
 Similar types of land uses originating near the city centre moved out towards the periphery but largely in the same direction
and in the same grouping
 In each city according to the theory the direction and pattern of future growth trend to be a combination of factors such as
lines of travel, availability of land and water bodies
 High quality area run along roads and also reflect the incidence of higher ground
 Industrial sectors develop along canals and railways away from high quality housing
 The sectors undergo growth and change over time but according to the model the outward change occurs only within sectors.
 Middle rental areas tend to join the high rent area on one or more sides but low rent areas occupy completely different sectors
quite often at the opposite end of the city apart from where they are clustered at the city centre itself.
 Areas which tend to develop initially as low rent areas tend to remain such as urban growth takes place and there is a similar
tendency for middle quality residential areas.
 Hoyt’s study of 142 cities of USA concluded that despite differences between individual cities
 The zones in this hypothetical structure are as follows:
Zone 1 CBD or city centre
Zone 2 wholesale or light manufacturing
Zone 3 low class residential areas
Zone 4 medium class residential zone
Zone 5 high class residential zone.

 Sectors radiating out from the CBD along transport routes

Timeframe
 Late 1930’s
 Income and status divided society
 Housing areas reflect social segregation
Assumptions
 Settlement develops along transport routes
 Towns radiate out from the CBD
 Low-income and industrial areas lie next to each other
 Wealthy people choose the best sites
Harris and Ullman – Multiple Nuclei
 Model town growth proposed by C D Harris and E L Ullman
 Based on fact that many towns and nearly all large cities grow about many nuclei rather than around a single CBD
 The city will have several nuclei which stimulate different arrangements of land uses, quite distinct from the concept of the city
as having a single focus of activity
 This concept helps in interpreting the changing urban community within a metropolitan and regional c0ntext
 The formulation of separate nuclei often reflects a combination of factors such as location of specified areas (zoning), reasons
for location, nonconforming uses, extensive space requirements and others
 According to this model, a city contains more than one centre around which activities revolve, some activities are attracted to
particular nodes while others try to avoid them
  Incompatible land use activities will avoid clustering in the same area, explaining why heavy industries and high income housing
rarely exist
 The excessive simplicity of concentric ring and sector models of the city was addressed by Harris and Ullman in 1945, who
observed that most large cities do not grow around a single CBD but are formed by the progressive integration of a number of
separate nuclei.
 Sometimes these other nuclei were distant centres, established in an earlier rapid urbanization phase which persist as centres
as city growth fills in the space between them.
 Sometimes nuclei emerge as new centres as the city expands. The number of nuclei and their functions will vary from city to
city; generally speaking, the larger the city, the more nuclei it will contain.
 The origins of a nucleus may vary considerable; a village cluster, a dock area or railway facility, an industrial estate, a suburban
shopping centre or commercial district, a beach or other leisure facility.
 Once developed each nucleus provides a focus for a hierarchical pattern of land use and rent gradient around it.
Zone 1 CBD or city centre
Zone 2 wholesale or light manufacturing
Zone 3 low class residential areas
Zone 4 medium class residential zone
Zone 5 high class residential zone.
Zone 6 heavy manufacturing area
Zone 7 OBD or outlying Business district (Commercial district)
Zone 8 Residential suburb
Zone 9 industrial suburb

 1945
 As an urban area grows, it develops around a number of different business centres or nuclei
Assumptions
 Modern cities more complex than suggested by other theorists
 Each nucleus acts as a growth point
 Growth occurs outwards from each nucleus, until they all merge into one large urban area

CBD- central business district

• Is a commercial land use
• E.g. Hong Kong: Central, Tsim Sha Tsui
• High land rent
• Good accessibility
• High-rise building
• A central business district (CBD, also called a central activities district) is the commercial and often geographic heart of a city
• A concentration of retail and office buildings
• A higher-than-usual urban density as well as often having the tallest buildings in a city
• The shape and type of a CBD or downtown almost always closely reflect the city's history
• Usually have very small resident populations
Main characteristics of a CBD
Urban Nodes
Circular towns
• Geographical possibility of spreading in all directions
• Relatively level site
• Inner and outer ring roads linked together by radiating roads from the centre
• Residential areas located around the core between ring and radial roads
• As town grows new rings develop
Star shaped towns
• Similar to circular towns but with Green wedges of agricultural field, forest etc. to control the growth
• These green wedges alternate with commercial and residential localities served by transportation facilities
Linear towns
• Geographical features dictate the form
• Not very convenient to live as distance to reach town centre where major amenities are located is too long
• Additional provision of sub centres required to balance amenities
Superblock towns
• Consists of no of blocks or sectors
• Approximately 1.2 km long and 0.8 km wide
• Accommodate populations ~ 15,000 to 25,000
• There are usually 3-4 neighbourhood units in each block
• A sector is self-contained with schools, shops, clinics, social centres etc.

• The agglomeration of activity area around one or more (adjacent) road junctions which act as commercial centre of a local body
is termed here as a node.
• The node need not be confined fully within a local body area and in most of the cases its service area goes beyond the
boundary of the local body within which it locates.
• In certain cases the nodes may be located at the meeting point of the boundary of one or two local bodies.
• This means that the nodes have an entity independent of the local body area and necessitates a separate study other than the
settlement study.
• The hierarchy of the nodes is determined by the extent of activity taking place there.
• The number and type of shops , the number of people using the node, the business turn over , the extent of traffic activity
taking place there all determines the extent of activity taking place there and hence the hierarchy of nodes.
• But extensive survey and study are required to assess all these factors.
• Whereas it can be seen that the extent of development in a node is directly proportional to the hierarchy of the roads meeting
at a node.
• Here an attempt is made to determine the hierarchy of the nodes based on the hierarchy of roads meeting at the node.
The concept
• The hierarchy of the activity nodes is the sum of the hierarchy value of all the junctions containing the node.
• The hierarchy of a junction is directly proportional to the hierarchy and the number of the roads meeting at the junction
Fringe areas
FRINGE is defined as relation to the city and exists in agriculture hinterland (area around or beyond a major town) where land use is
changing.
URBAN FRINGE is an area that situates between urban and rural system. It’s the most sensitive, dynamic and swiftly changing area during
the urbanization process
Rural urban fringe
 The area where the country side meets the city
 Very edge of the city beyond the suburbs
 Business/retail parks, out of town shopping centres and housing developments
 Advantage of cheap land & room for expansion
 Availability of parking space
 Little pollution
 Better accessibility

Suburbs
 A suburb is an area of a town or city, a little away from the main part, where there are fewer big buildings and
mainly houses, schools and shops.
 These are called suburbs or 'the suburbs'. Sometimes, the suburbs cover a very large area. The suburbs are part of
the metropolitan area and may be legally part of the main city, or not.
• By end of 19th century increasing congestion increased chaos in cities
• High land cost in urban areas
• Skyscrapers
• Building higher for more light was creating only deeper shadows
• Problem of under privileged increased, social welfare had to be expanded, and more of income tax had to be directed to charity
• Movement to suburbs was motivated by growing search for a desirable environment. As density in central areas increased
people searched for opportunities to forsake centres for suburbs
• A protest was uprising against the dull environment of the industrial metropolis.
• by end of 19th century decentralisation was in process
• Outskirt communities developed like dependent or satellite communities.
• Only rich could now afford low-density single family housing in the healthy environment of rural areas
• In North America, the grid-iron system offered the most convenient pattern. It helped in further sub-division and real estate
business
• Suburbs were not planned in those days, they simply grew at edges of growing metropolis.
• Some street, walls, sewers, water and gas distribution were provided, but as they were annexed to metropolitan municipalities,
they found extension of adequate services very costly.
• Hence, legislation was enacted to require sub-division to make certain improvements as a condition to approval of
development.
• These suburban expansions were encouraged by growing urban population, but they did not draw off the excess population
from city centres.

 A suburb is a residential area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within
commuting distance of a city
 Some suburbs have a degree of administrative autonomy, and most have lower population densities than inner city
neighbourhoods.
 Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led
to an increase in commuting
Reasons for Growth of the Suburbs
 Better public transport and increased car ownership meant people could separate work from where they live.
 Building societies provided mortgages making it easier to buy homes
 People were better off and looking for a better living environment.
SUBURBANIZATION
  Movement of upper and middle-class people from core areas to surrounding outskirts.
 The process began in the mid-nineteenth century but became a mass phenomenon in the late-twentieth century.
Urban Rural Continuum.
• Rural- urban continuum, the merging of town and country, a term used in recognition of the fact that in general there is rarely,
either physically or socially, a sharp division, a clearly marked boundary between the two, with one part of the population
wholly urban, the other wholly rural.
• Continuum means continuity.
• By rural-urban continuum is meant: continuity from village to the city”.
• One end of this continuous scale is the village, the other is the city.
• Both these social formations are in ceaseless interaction.
• That is the reason why the villagers show the profound impact of the city life on them & certain cultural traits from villages are
developed in cities.
• The continuum also shows that the development is from the village to the city.
• Overtime, villages are transformed into towns & cities.
• Robert Redfield has made an important contribution to develop the folk, rural & urban continuum.
• He has constructed a continuum from small rural village to large cities.
• More urban means that population is more secular, more individualistic & with a greater division of labour.
• The spread of modern industrial traits has decreased.
• Considerably the differences between the 2 is not visible.
• Thus invisible rural & urban cultural boundaries have made it difficult to draw a line of distinction.
• Hence, the marginal areas show amalgamation & continuation of cultural traits of both the societies.
• In India, during last 3 decades the development of transport & road communication has connected the remote tribal areas,
villages &b urban centres rapidly with a very short period of time.
• New occupations, transportation, educational institutions, have attracted the people of rural areas.
Causes of rural-urban continuum:
• Migration has been thought to be the biggest factor contributing to rural-urban continuum & thus formation of such
settlements.
• The cities are the biggest service providers in an area.
• Hence these act like nuclei & pull unemployed people towards the city.
• Houses come up only on major traffic corridors.
• This is because surface transport provided by public transport services of the city is cheap & affordable.
• Politics too has a role to play in the process of diminishing rural urban difference of characteristics.
• Vole bank in any part of the world is very essential.
• In order to sustain a large vote-bank, local political leaders with the help of some local goons, arrange utility services for the
area from nowhere else but the city.
• This catalyses the process of erasing the clear demarcation of urban & rural areas.
• The development of extensive road networks around major cities & cheap means of transport (buses, motorcycles, bicycles)
allows people to live in the rural areas & to commutate on a daily basis to the city for work.
• As a result, increasing number of people find temporary or permanent urban employment in the urban areas, while living or at
least being registered to live in a rural area.

Contemporary urban problems

• Shortage in housing, water supply
• Drainage & sewerage system
• Storm water drainage
• Solid waste management
• Traffic delays & congestion
• Flooding
• Industrial pollution
• Air pollution
• Lack of signage
• Absence of recreation spaces

Growth and changes

STAGES OF GROWTH
In 1950’s during a study of villages lying in the RUF of Delhi, they had found a particular pattern of stages trough which a village
community passes as the village gets transformed into an urban one.
The rural urban fringe developed as FOUR aspects
 Spatial interaction with city.
 Social dimensions.
 Physical aspects.
 Economic aspects.
1. RURAL STAGE
  Agriculture is the main occupation of the people who live in villages.
 Land less labourers form a large group and work as an agricultural labourers.
 Interaction between the city and village is minimum.
 Movement is restricted only to jobs in urban areas and trips for sale of agricultural produce.
 Such villages lack almost all the facilities available in the city.
2. THE STAGE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE CHANGE
 The city offers a market for products like milk, vegetables and e. t. c. And villagers are in a position to supply.
 Few farmers notice it and take advantage of this opportunity.
 The village in this manner becomes vegetable farm and milk shed of the city.
The three FACTORS which are responsible for development is:
 Increase in city population leads to the demand for products like milk, and vegetables.
 Improvement in transportation facilities. As a result, village become more accessible than before.
 In this case, people’s awareness and direct contact with the city increases over a period of time.
3. STAGE OF OCCUPATIONAL CHANGE
 The village population responds to the employment opportunity in the city.
 Some village families have started business like repair shops, tea shops, grocery in city.
 The mobility of village population increases and number of scooters, bikes, cars and city buses increases.
 Houses are rebuilt with better furnished and well equipped in the villages.
4. STAGE OF URBAN LAND USE GROWTH
 A few plots of land from villagers are purchased by real estate agents from the city.
 They develop into a residential colonies within a short time and they convert village lands into city life.
 Lands near main road which connects the village to city are first developed.
 EXAMPLE: some of the villages in fringe zone around delhi are in “urbanizable limits”.
 Farmers are not allowed to sell their lands to private land developers.
 Instead they sell them to Delhi development authority (DDA).
 So that Government can develop those lands with master plan.
5. URBAN VILLAGE STAGE
 Now the fringe village is converted into urban uses.
 No agricultural lands around the village.
 Migration starts.
 All around the village site, we have a number of urban residential localities.

Overcrowding, slums,
Sporadic growth
The expansive and rapid spreading outwards of a metropolitan area (and its suburb) to outskirts and low-density rural lands.
Characterized by:
 single-use zoning
 reliance on automobiles
 homogeneity in design
 low-density land use
Facilitators of Urban Sprawl
 Automobiles
 Governmental single-use zoning laws
 Accessible mortgages
 Housing subsidies
Urban Sprawl (sporadic growth)
• Urban sprawl is basically another word for urbanization.
• It refers to the migration of a population from populated towns and cities to low density residential development over more
and more rural land.
• The end result is the spreading of a city and its suburbs over more and more rural land.
• In other words, urban sprawl is defined as low density residential and commercial development on undeveloped land.
Causes of Urban Sprawl
• Lower Land Rates: Lower cost land and houses in the outer suburbs of the cities, because the centres of urban development
have really made people want to stop settling in these areas and want to venture further out.
• Improved Infrastructure: There is increased spending on certain types of infrastructures, including roads and electricity. This is
something that hasn’t always been available, and there are still some areas that don’t have these luxuries. That doesn’t mean
that they aren’t working on it.
• Rise in Standard of Living: There are also increases in standards of living and average family incomes, which means that people
have the ability to pay more to travel and commute longer distances to work and back home.
 • Lack of Urban Planning; People love to find areas that are less trafficked and more calm, which leads them to sprawl out to
other sections of the town.
• Lower House Tax Rates
• Rise in Population Growth
• Consumer Preferences: People in high income groups have stronger preferences towards larger homes, more bedrooms, bigger
balconies and bigger lawns.
Effects of Urban Sprawl
• Increase in Public Expenditure
• Increased Traffic
• Health Issues:
• Environmental Issues
• Impact on Social Lives: When people move further out, they also have an impact on their social lives.
Effects of Urban Sprawls Economically
 Taxes are risen (bad for the people good for the government)
 The cost for transport is higher
 Higher cost for providing infrastructure
 More people are buying vehicles
Effects of Urban Sprawls Socially
 Providing homes for immigrant
 Students who need housing
 Overcrowded schools
 Spatial diversities between the upper or middle class
Effects of Urban Sprawls Environmentally
 Take away rural areas so less trees and more urban/suburban areas
 More cars which pollutes the air. This also affects people’s health.
 The air in rural areas are known to be much cleaner because there is less polluted air than in the urban areas.
Conurbation.

• The term "conurbation" was coined in 1915 by Patrick Geddes in his book Cities In Evolution.
• Internationally, the term "urban agglomeration" is often used to convey a similar meaning to "conurbation".
• A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth
and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially developed area.
• In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urban agglomeration, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create
a single urban labour market or travel to work area.
• The term is used in North America, a metropolitan area can be defined by the Census Bureau or it may consist of a central city
and its suburbs, while a conurbation consists of adjacent metropolitan areas that are connected with one another by
urbanization.
Examples of Conurbation
NEW YORK
• The expansive concept of the New York metropolitan area (the Tri-State Region) centred on New York City, including 30
counties spread between New York State, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, with an estimated population of
21,961,994 in 2007.
• Approximately one-fifteenth of all U.S. residents live in the Greater New York City area.
• This conurbation is the result of several central cities whose urban areas have merged.
INDIA
• Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is a metropolitan area consisting of the metropolis of Mumbai and its satellite towns.
Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations and fifteen smaller municipal councils.
• The region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,998,395, it is among the top ten most populated urban
agglomeration in the world.
 • It is linked with Mumbai through the Mumbai Suburban Railway system and a large network of roads.
Need for sustainable city planning.
 The term sustainable development goes beyond the boundaries of science and business development and trade to include
human development, values and differences in cultures.
 Unlike traditional community development approaches, sustainability strategies emphasize:
 The whole community (instead of just disadvantaged neighbourhoods)
 Ecosystem protection
 Meaningful and broad-based citizen participation and
 Economic self-reliance
The Sustainable Cities Program:
 A joint UN-HABITAT/UNEP facility established in early 1990s for building capacities in urban environmental planning and
management.
 It contributes to promoting urban environmental governance processes as a basis for achieving sustainable urban growth and
development.
 Chennai is the only city participating in SCP in South Asia and is funded by UNDP.
In these terms sustainable planning
 Links knowledge and action: connectedness
 Improves the humanized and natural environments
 Holds out for useful interconnections
 Focuses on the future
 Honours cycles: seasons, life patterns, highs and lows
 Designs artfully and redesigns thoughtfully
 Balances socio-economic-environmental outcomes
 Engages in a participatory style of decision-making
 Works for diversity and variety of outcome
 ‘Works around’ rather than ‘pushing through’.
 Sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources,
the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with
future as well as present needs.
 We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward. Painful choices have to be made.
 Thus, in the final analysis, sustainable development must rest on political will.’
Key features of sustainable cities
• Resources and services in the city are accessible to all.
• Public transport is seen as a viable alternative to cars.
• Public transport is safe and reliable.
• Walking and cycling is safe.
• Areas of open space are safe, accessible and enjoyable.
• Wherever possible, renewable resources are used instead of non-renewable resources.
• Waste is seen as a resource and is recycled wherever possible.
• New homes are energy efficient.
• There is access to affordable housing.
• Community links are strong and communities work together to deal with issues such as crime and security.
• Cultural and social amenities are accessible to all.
• Inward investment is made to the CBD.

Module III
Urban Development Planning system and process: Understanding planning as a multi-level comprehensive process of
development through local, urban, rural, regional and national planning- Perspective Plan, Development Plan, Annual Plan,
Plan Schemes and Projects. Introduction to surveying and analytical techniques including household survey, local area
surveys, land-use surveys, landscape survey, transportation surveys and service survey.

Urban Development Planning system and process:

Considering the above, the recommended urban development planning system consists of a set of four inter-related plans as follows:
1. Perspective plan
2. Development plan
3. Annual plan
4. Plans of Projects/Schemes
 Urban Planning comes before Urban Design.
 Planners have the responsibility of identifying the issues and then they "plan" for it.
 Planners are analysts, they collect data, they interpret data, they detect problems, and they suggest solutions.
 Urban Planners work on a larger scale and mostly work on statistics that are less deterministic and more probabilistic.
 Urban planners deal with financial planning, economic planning, transportation planning etc.
 A single spatial plan can lead to many urban design proposals
  An urban designer has the problem statement defined for them and they design a solution
 Urban design solutions are on a micro scale, and therefore greater precision of details are expected from an Urban Designer.
 An urban designer would take the policy recommendations and create design recommendations at a neighbourhood, open
space, or street-scale.
Understanding planning as a multi-level comprehensive process of development through
Local, urban, rural, regional and national planning
Perspective Plan
 A Perspective plan is a written document, supported by illustrations and maps, containing spatio -economic development
policies, strategies and general programs of the local authority.
 This plan presents to the state government and people the intentions of the local authority regarding development of the
urban centre in the next 20-25 years.
 The scope of this plan covers social, economic and spatial development goals, policies, and priorities relating to all those urban
activities that have spatial implications or in other words that require land for their location and desired functioning.
 It also covers long term policies regarding development of infrastructure and resource mobilization that are necessary to
promote these urban activities.
 The basic purpose of a perspective plan is to provide a policy framework for further detailing and it serves as a guide for urban
local authority in preparation of the development plan.
 A Perspective plan should generally be for a period of 20 years and the plan period of 20-25 years should be so adjusted that it
coincides with the term of the National/State five year plans.
 The Perspective plan is a document on the spatio-economic development policies, strategies and programmes towards the
intended development of the State.
 The foundation of the long-term policies regarding development of infrastructure and resource mobilisation for the next 20-25
years.
 The purpose of a perspective plan is to provide overall framework for further detailing; and it serves as a guide for urban local
authorities and regional development authorities in preparation of the regional and development plans.
It is a cyclic process consisting of
 Identification of goals & objectives
 Assessment of issues, potentials, & priorities
 Evolution of alternative plans & their evaluation
 Selection of most appropriate concept for development
 Preparation of plan based on selected concept
 Implementation of plan
 Feedback & review

Local area plan

 Local area plans are to be prepared to achieve development or re-development of land; conservation of buildings, physical
features; providing improvements in the physical layout, making infrastructure and amenities available and managing the area
to enhance health and safety of the occupants to support economic development as well as to enhance the quality of living,
environment, and preparation of area specific regulatory parameters for the area covered.
 The plan shall identify allotment or reservation of land for roads and public purposes of all kinds, for sale by the ULB, for
construction, for reclamation etc.
Urban plan
 These plans may also emerge to serve the purpose of urban planning needs under the Capital or State grants, funding schemes/
programmes with an aim to:
1. Encourage reforms and fast track planned development of cities, peri-urban areas, outgrowths, urban corridors, and others,
 2. Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal access to the urban poor,
3. Special focus on urban renewal programme,
4. Supplement to budget documents on ULBs,
5. Sustainability, Environmental and heritage protection,
6. Theme based development
Rural PLAN
A clear distinction exists between the rural and urban areas elsewhere in India. One can visually feel the difference of urban and rural
area. A rural area mainly consists of vast areas of agricultural land with hamlets distributed sporadically whereas an urban area will have
multistore buildings, high road density, high volume of vehicular traffic etc. But here in Kerala, one cannot clearly distinguish a rural area
from an urban area. All over Kerala, it is like a large number of small and medium towns distributed in the village background. It is very
difficult to demarcate the end or beginning of a town and a village. One can say that here exists an urban rural continuum.

The character of an area can be termed as rural,

1. If the pucca rural land use share is more than 50% it is a rural area.
2. If the rural land use (taking into account, both pucca rural land use and the classification of mixed land use) share is greater
than or equal to 50 % of the total area, then it can be termed as a rural area.
The character of an area can be termed as Semi rural,
1. If the mixed land use area is classified as semi-rural area and the sum of rural land use share and semi-rural mixed land use land
use is greater than or equal to 50% of the total area.
2. If the pucca rural land use share is at least 1/3rd of the total area and the mixed land use is not urban or semi urban, then also
the area can be termed as semi-rural area (this condition is included after practical verification).
Regional plan
 Regional plan is to be a comprehensive plan at an appropriate scale for the integration of urban nodes with the semi-urban and
rural areas.
 The plan shall encompass characteristics of the region on the understanding of the flow of people, goods, knowledge and
money.
 The requirements of the region will be addressed by the regional plan to bring out policies for development and bringing in
harmony between the different types of human settlements
 Regional Plan will have higher magnitude (in terms of its geographical area coverage) and would encompass planning of larger
area.
 An area with certain characteristics, often mere size, by virtue of which it is adopted as a suitable unit for some particular
purpose of business and administration.
 It is also an area which is homogeneous in respect of some particular set of associated conditions, whether of the land or of the
people, such as industry, farming, distribution of population, commerce, or the general sphere of influence of a city.
 A region in general terms is envisaged as a natural unit, in contrast to the artificial unit created for administrative purposes.
National planning
 In India land is a state subject & hence scope of planning at national level is limited to providing advice to sate govts. And
formulation of policies, programmes, guidelines & legislation.
 Plans are basically formalised in the Five Year Plans which are economic and social in nature and contents
 E.g.: policies like NH&HP, programmes like JNNURM,
 URDPFI guidelines, model laws like Model urban and regional planning and development law.
According to URDPFI guidelines 2014, the planning systems in India can be broadly categorized as the following based on:
1. Hierarchy
2. Spatial extents
3. Scale of planning
4. Details provided in the plan
5. Function and their specialty

Development Plan/MASTER PLAN

 A MASTER PLAN or a DEVELOPMENT PLAN is thus a blue print of various proposals that are intended to improve the existing
conditions and to control the future growth of the town in a co-ordinated manner.
 Such a plan must be realistic, ideal to be aimed at, preserving the individuality of the town.
Objects of Master Plan
 It serves an overall picture and program for the future development of the town
 Its purpose is to place various functions the town has to perform in such physical relation to each other as to minimize the
chances of mutual conflict. It helps to bring harmony and understanding between the different groups of people.
 It stimulates wider interest in community problems and brings a well-coordinated development.
 It provides for intelligent and economic spending of public funds as per the fixed program for general welfare of the
community.
Need of Master Plan
 The period of industrial revolution (1760 – 1820) marks an important epoch in history of growth of all cities. Between the two
world wars and especially after Second World War, many towns and cities grew haphazardly without proper planning. And the
over grown cities became a mess and a muddle with all evils.
 The industries were located at heart of cities without any consideration of transport and other utility services. The migration of
rural population has caused housing shortage and increased congestion. The rapid development of transport has been found to
be inadequate for the growing needs of the automobiles. It has caused over-crowding and congestion on the roads resulting in
road accidents. Industries have encroached upon the residential areas causing shortage of open and recreational areas.
 In order to eradicate the evils of ill-planned cities, there is a need of a comprehensive master plan for the general welfare of the
citizens in respect of health, convenience and comfort.
Data to be collected
 General data collection for a master plan apart from land survey, topographical survey and especially the civic survey is as
follows:
1. Meteorological data regarding the direction, intensity of wind, temperature and rainfall.
2. Geological data regarding soil condition
3. Mineral resources
4. Places of historical, cultural and scientific importance
5. Population – present and its future growth
6. Economic conditions
7. Trade and communication
8. Water supply and drainage arrangement
9. Expansion, development of environments
Political position of the place with regard to its neighboring area.
MASTER PLAN/DEVELOPMENT PLAN
“It is a comprehensive plan for a local planning area, covering the whole area or a part of it or a joint planning area, providing long-term
policies, programmes & detailed proposals for spatial development of such an area indicating the manner in which use of land &
development therein shall be carried out.” - KERALA TOWN & COUNTRY PLANNING ACT 2016

 Development plan is a statutory plan prepared within the framework of the approved perspective plan, approved and adopted
by the local authority and its proposals are precise and definite with an implementation strategy and evaluation criteria.
 The objective of a development plan is to provide further necessary details and intended actions in the form of strategies and
physical proposals for various policies given in the perspective plan depending upon the economic and social needs and
aspiration of the people, available resources and priorities.
 The approved development plan allows the local authority to implement the development of the land area with the help of
schemes and projects.
 Development plan ‘notifies the property owners the manner in which their properties will be affected’
 The time frame of the existing Development Plans is for a period of 20 years by most of the urban development authorities/ULB
 These plans should be in phases of 5 years to coincide with the State Five Year plans
 Both Development plans and Master plans have the same functions and impose similar controls. Hence, the two are to be
understood as similar plans with variation in the use of nomenclatures by State Governments.
Annual Plan
  The purpose of Annual plan, to be prepared by the local authority every year, is to identify the new schemes/projects, which
the authority will undertake for implementation during the year taking in to account the physical performance of the preceding
year, the priorities, the policies and the proposals contained in the approved development plan.
 This plan also provides the resource requirements during the year and the source of funds including those mobilised by the
local authority, grants, aids and project funds of the state and central governments.
 It is thus an important document for resource mobilization as on its basis the plan funds will be allocated by the funding body.
 This plan therefore serves as an important link with the budgetary process.
 The annual plan provides a built in system of continuous annual review of the performance, actions and initiatives of local
authority in implementing development plan.
 An Annual Plan would contain the details of the new and ongoing projects that the local authority intends to implement during
each financial year for necessary financial resource mobilisation.
 The annual plan is to be prepared by the local authority every year to identify the new projects, which the authority will
undertake for implementation during the year, taking into account the physical and fiscal performance of the preceding year,
the priorities, the policies and proposals contained in the approved Regional Plan, Development Plan or Local Area Plan.
 It is an important document for the resource mobilisation as on the basis of this, the plan funds are to be allocated by the
funding body.
 This plan, therefore, serves as an important link with the budgetary process.
Annual plan should contain:
 The physical target set;
 The status at the end of the annual plan and the level of physical performance by percentage of target achieved;
 The allocations made;
 The money spent and level of fiscal performance by percentage of money spent.
Plan Schemes and Projects
Definition:
Conceived within the framework of approved Development plan or Annual plan, these are detailed working layouts with all supporting
infrastructure and documents including cost of development, source of finance and recovery instruments for their execution by a public or
private agency.
 Conceived within the framework of the perspective plan, development plan or any of the plans in the planning system, projects
are the working layouts with all supporting infrastructure and documents including cost, source of fund and recovery providing
all necessary details for execution including finance, development, administrative and management.
 These projects could be for any area, old or new; any activity or land use like residential, commercial, industrial, recreational,
educational or health related; or infrastructure development, separately or in an integrated manner
Inter-relationships among various plans
 A Perspective Plan is formulation of development strategy generally at the State level or at the regional level
 This is detailed further in Regional Plan or Sub Regional Plan as the case may be and in Development Plan.
 Regional Plans are to be prepared at district and metropolitan region level, and where economic regions are formulated.
 The Development Plan shall provide policies and development proposals, which are detailed in the local area plan to a greater
scale.
 City Development Plan, Comprehensive Mobility Plan, City Sanitation Plan, Slum Redevelopment Plan, Disaster Management
Plan are to be formulated- areas which require special plan within the framework of the development plan
 Project reports and Annual plans are necessary requirements of the planning system.
 These can be prepared for implementation of plans following any of the above mentioned stages.
Introduction to surveying and analytical techniques including household survey, local area
surveys, land-use surveys, landscape survey, transportation surveys and service survey.
TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. REGIONAL SURVEYS
 PHYSICAL FACTORS like topography, physically difficult land, geology, landscape etc.
 PHYSICAL ECONOMIC FACTORS like agricultural value of the land, mineral resources and water gathering lands, areas with
public services, transportation linkages etc.
 SOCIAL ECONOMIC FACTORS like areas of influence of towns and villages, employment, population changes etc
2. TOWN SURVEYS
 done at much small scale and apart from the above data collected from the regional surveys it also includes
 LANDUSE SURVEYS, DENSITY SURVEYS, SURVEYS FOR THE AGE AND CONDITION OF THE BUILDINGS, TRAFFIC SURVEYS, OTHER
SOCIAL SURVEYS
SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
 SELF SURVEYS - mailing questionnaires to the persons to be surveyed
 INTERVIEWS - by asking questions to the people to be surveyed
 DIRECT INSPECTION - when the surveyor himself inspects the situations concerned
 OBSERVERS PARTICIPATION - when the observer himself participate in acquiring the data required
SCALES FOR STRUCTURING QUESTIONNAIRE
 NOMINAL where there is no ordering, like asking of sex, age, employment in any particular service etc.
 ORDINAL where there is a specific order of choices like asking of priorities, housing conditions, climate etc.
  INTERVAL where an interval of time is given importance like time taken to shift from LIG housing to MIG housing, time interval
to change from two wheelers to four wheelers etc. this provides an yardstick of measurements
SELECTION OF SAMPLES
 For varied expected responses - larger sample size is required.
 Larger the total population, smaller the percentage of the population are required to be surveyed.
TYPES OF SAMPLES
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING - selecting samples at random without any criteria to select the samples
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING -selection of the Kth element y along a particular street, where k can be any number
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING - making of a homogenous listing of the different sects of the population and collecting a certain
percentage at random from each sect
 CLUSTERED SAMPLING - when samples are selected from clusters and not from a homogeneous listing
Household survey
Social Survey
 Population
1. Trends in population growth for last 40 to 50 years
2. Characteristics of present population
3. Future growth of population considering rural migration, development of new industries
4. Demographic survey ie, classification of population by sex, literacy of different age groups
5. Distribution and density of population in the town
 Housing
1. Housing condition
2. Density of accommodation
3. Height of the buildings
4. Materials used for construction
5. Tenancy status; rented or owned
 Community facilities
1. Education – schools, colleges, institutions and libraries
2. Health – hospitals, dispensaries, clinics
3. Recreational – parks, playfields, clubs, theatres, stadiums, boating, etc.
4. Others – museums, historical and religious buildings
Local area surveys,
Socio economic survey
 The type of survey conducted at local level for re-development scheme, slum improvement scheme and Master Plan is
different from town survey.
 Here house to house survey is conducted for this purpose which is the foundation stone of planning structure.
 It is from this survey that the town planner can make a correct diagnosis of various ills from which the town is suffering and
prescribe the correct remedies for their cure.
 It is therefore like the diagnostic approach enumerated by Patrick Geddes.
 It covers a vast field, hence a mere list would be sufficient to know its wide scope.
Physical features
 Geological structure: showing the arrangement of underlying rocks and their formation
 Contours showing variations of ground surface
 Rainfall and wind charts
 Rivers, flood ranges, tides
Communications
 Roads with traffic details, widths, tree planting
 Railways
 Waterways, canals, rivers
 Airways, indicating aerodrome sites
 Accessibility by different ways and time and distances.
Traffic problems
 Type of roads
 Traffic congestion; its causes
 Remedies for traffic congestion
 Traffic control.

Land-use surveys
LAND USE – by land use is meant the use of land or plot specified in town. These are classified as:
1. Residential – for living purposes like houses, hostels, lodging, etc
2. Commercial – workshops, mills, factories
3. Public and semi-public – govt & semi govt. offices, schools, colleges, libraries, hospitals, museums, assembly halls, shrines,
historical monuments, etc.
Landscape survey
Physical survey
 Open Spaces – parks, playgrounds, stadiums, race-course etc.
Landscape survey
1. Types of country
2. Landscape features
3. Soils and vegetation
4. Disfigurement
Transportation surveys
 Transportation –
1. Road, their widths, tree planting, medians
2. Railways – level crossings, goods yards
3. Airports and seaports
4. Waterways and canals
 Agriculture – cultivated land, nurseries, orchards, etc.
 Water sheets – rivers, lakes, tank
 Vacant – barren land
 Other uses – refuse disposal areas, cemeteries, grave-yards, area under defence, etc.
Service survey
 Water supply – industrial purpose, domestic purpose, source of supply, capacity per capita consumption
 Drainage and sewerage system – disposal system
 Electricity – source, supply
 Telephone
 Fire protection
 Street lighting

Module IV
Need for town planning legislation: Different town planning acts- Role of development authorities- Role of town planning
departments, Role of local bodies in the implementation of town plan. Land Acquisition Act. 74th Amendment Act. Coastal
Regulation Zones and its relevance. SEZ, JNNURM. Land use Plan Tools for land use control -Zoning regulations, building
byelaws, Subdivision regulations, Plot reconstitution, Betterment Tax.

Need for town planning legislation:

 During the last few decades there is phenomenal growth in the population in cities and towns.
 There is also migration of rural population.
 As a result we see today overcrowding, congestion, deterioration and haphazard development in most of our cities and towns.
 The work involved in planning due to this enormous growth and extensions of towns, is so complex that some of the
municipalities found it difficult or are unable to carry on these works effectively.
 The foremost problems these urban areas are facing are the shortage of housing, resulting in squatting on public lands,
encroachment, un-controlled settlement, increased densities in built-up areas, limited road network, shortage of public utilities
and community facilities etc.
 As we see today, the city authorities and planners are surrounded by a multitude of problems.
 In order to tackle these problems, there is necessity of planning laws and special legislation.
Need for town planning regulation
• Absence on control of land use and unplanned development will lead to deterioration and the community will have to face
conditions of slums, hazardous developments, improper work home relationship, inadequate utilities and services resulting in
unhygienic environmental conditions
• Delays or negligence to regulate these unplanned growth results in higher expenditure in the future in corrective measures in
terms of urban renewal and slum clearance
Different town planning acts
From among the existing legislations which are used for clearance, development and control of urban land, the more important are:
Town and country planning Act
 Municipal Act
 Development Authority Act
 Improvement Trust Act
 Slum Clearance Act
 Land Acquisition Act
 Urban Land Ceiling Act
 Rent Control Act
 Periphery Control Act
  Water and Air Pollution Act
 Regulations

 Under the constitution, the State Governments are the competent authorities for enacting legislation relating to Town and
Country Planning Act.
 Hence Central Govt. has not enacted any legislation on these subjects so far except the Model Town Planning Act.
 But the Land Acquisition Act, Urban Land Ceiling Act etc. have been enacted by the Central Government.
Role of development authorities
 preparation and implementation of land re-adjustment or land pooling or land banking schemes for the purpose of
implementation of projects in the Development Authority area
 promoting planned development is envisaged in the Plans for the Development Authority area
 co-ordination of implementation of Plans under this Act in the Development Authority area
Role of town planning departments
 Top prepare development schemes for urban local bodies and urbanised grama panchayats
 To prepare master plan for urban local bodies
 To prepare development schemes for transportation, parking, recreation and sustainable human habitat
 To prepare development schemes for availing fund from central govt
 The Act has a provision of preparation of Master Plan for all Village Panchayats and Municipalities of Kerala and thus it will
check the so called development of ‘rurban’, ‘periurban’ ‘suburban’ ‘urban fringe’, etc.
 When a Planning Unit exceeded the limit of the Local Government (LSG) area, there is provision of Joint Planning Committee
similar to DPC/MPC in this Act.
 The Act also provides for the constitution of Development Authority but not entrusted with any planning functions. Its function
is limited to land re-adjustment, land pooling, land banking, Transfer of Development Rights, Accommodation Reservation, etc
and a special purpose vehicle for implementing high end projects.
Role of local bodies in the implementation of town plan
 The role of Department of Town and Country Planning is limited to technical assistance to the DPC/LSGI with respect to spatial
planning only.
 Constitution the District Planning Committee has “to consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and the Municipalities
in the district and to prepare a draft development plan for the district as a whole.
 Constitution the Metropolitan Planning Committee to prepare development plan for a metropolitan region
 Village Panchayat/Municipality (of Kerala) is considered as the basic planning unit of Kerala in this Act.
State town & country planning board
 Constitution of state town & country planning board as the apex authority for spatial planning in the state. This has the
following functions:
 Advise the govt. regarding matters related to policy formulation, development of rural and urban land in the state.
 Advise DPC & MPC regarding matters related to spatial planning.
 Co-ordinate, monitor & evaluate various spatial planning & development activities under different govt. departments, quasi-
govt. agencies and LSGs.
 Preparation, publication & sanctioning of state perspective plan
Department of Town and Country Planning
 The Department with chief town planner as the head of the department has the following functions:
 Advise & render technical assistance to govt. in matters related to spatial planning& implementation of relevant central & state
programmes
 Advise & render technical assistance to state town & country planning board, DPC, MPC, Development authorities, joint
planning committees, & LSGs in executing their functions related to spatial planning.
 Advise & render technical assistance in scrutinizing various plans prepared
 Prepare & get prepared Master plans & DTP schemes in the event of default by any planning agency or if directed by govt.
 Provide required research input /studies for preparation of policies, strategies, norms, standards & bye- laws, rules, guidelines
for govt.
 Provide man power training facilities related to spatial planning.
 Perform any other functions related to spatial planning as directed by govt.
District Planning Committee
 Prepare development plan for a district as a whole which shall comprise of long term perspective plan and short term
execution plans.
 To be done in consultation with LSGs, all govt. departments with technical help from dept. of town & country planning.
 Formulate goals, objectives, policies & priorities related to rural & urban areas of district
 Advise Government and Local Self Government Institutions on identification of probable location of major investment inputs
which are likely to have substantial impact on the development scenario of the Districvstate.
Metropolitan Planning Committee
 Formulate development goals, objectives, policies and priorities in matters relating to planning, development and use of rural
and urban land in the metropolitan area
 District Planning Committees will not have jurisdiction over such Metropolitan Area.
 Prepare or get prepared, a long term Perspective Plan & 5 year Execution Plans, for the Metropolitan Area,
  Consult non-governmental institutions, organizations, and professional bodies, if deemed necessary, in the preparation of
Perspective Plan and Execution Plan for the Metropolitan Area
 co-ordinate planning and development activities among the Government Departments, Quasi-Government agencies within the
metropolitan area
 formulate policies and identify projects for integrated development of metropolitan area level infrastructure and facilitate
their implementation through public, private or joint sector participation
 monitor continuously the physical achievements of the investments made by the various Local Self Government Institutions
and Quasi-Government agencies within the metropolitan are
 Sort-out matters relating to sharing of physical and natural resources within the Metropolitan Area.
Panchayat/Municipality
 Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Town Panchayat or Village Panchayat shall have the following additional functions:
 Prepare or get prepared for the Local Planning Area or part there of a master plan and execution plans
 Implement all or any of the provisions contained in the Plans under this Act by formulating and executing Projects, Land Pooling
Schernes, Detailed Town Planning Schemes or otherwise
 Promote, regulate and control land use and developmental activities in the Local Planning Area as per the Plans under this Act
 set-up special function agencies, if necessary for specific functions such as plan preparation, implementation of projects and
guide, direct and assist such agencies on matters pertaining to their respective functions; and
Land Acquisition Act
Compulsory acquisition of land needed for purposes of Regional Plan, Development plan or town planning scheme, etc.:-
 Any land required, reserved or designated in a Regional plan, Development plan or town planning scheme for a public purpose
or purposes including plans for any area of comprehensive development or for any new town shall be deemed to be land
needed for a public purpose within the meaning of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (I of 1894). 126.
 Acquisition of land required for public purposes specified in plans:- (1) When after the publication of a draft Regional Plan, a
Development or any other plan or town planning scheme, any land is required or reserved for any of the public purposes
specified in any plan or scheme under this Act at any time the Planning Authority, Development Authority, or as the case may
be, 1[any Appropriate Authority may, except as otherwise provided in section 113A] 2[acquire the land,-
(a) By an agreement by paying an amount agreed to, or
(b) In lieu of any such amount, by granting the land-owner or the lessee, subject, however, to the lessee paying the lessor or depositing
with the Planning Authority, Development Authority or Appropriate Authority, as the case may be, for payment to the lessor, an amount
equivalent to the value of the lessor's interest to be determined by any of the said Authorities concerned on the basis of the principles laid
down in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, Floor Space Index (FSI) or Transferable Development Rights (TDR) against the area of land
surrendered free of cost and free from all encumbrances, and also further additional Floor Space Index or Transferable Development
Rights against the development or construction of the amenity on the surrendered land at his cost, as the Final Development Control
Regulations prepared in this behalf provide, or
(c) By making an application to the State Government for acquiring such land under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894,

74th Amendment Act

 The devolution of administration and financial powers to ULBs is made possible through the 73rd and 74th Constitution
Amendment Act by the Government of India.
 The broad areas covered include a brief outline about the need for devolution and functions of ULBs under this act.
Introduction:
 Three-tier system of governance is the common system in many of the countries.
 In that, the lower tier-be urban or rural-is the most important one as it is in close touch with the people.
 The assumption is that local govt., households and firms are better able than centralized bodies to respond flexibly to economic
opportunities and to understand local needs and how to provide.

Though in India, we have had decentralized system of political setup, the new lease of life is given to local bodies after the enactment of
74th CAA in 1992.
The Govt. of India in 1992 took note of the recommendations of the V. K. Rao committee (1985) and L. M. Singhvi committee (1986) and
the result was a decision to amend the Constitution of India in 1992 by introducing the 73rd and 74th amendments which paved the way
for the present decentralized planning and administration at the grass root level of rural and urban local bodies respectively.

In 1992 -73 rd. & 74 Th constitutional amendment act was promulgated-provision for decentralized planning process, more function &
including spatial planning to LSGs like panchayat, municipality & Municipal Corporation
73 rd. & 74 Th CAA, 1992 was a major landmark
 3 tier system of panchayat raj,
 Constitutional status to municipalities,
 Formulation of DPCs &
 Spatial planning responsibility to local bodies.
Coastal Regulation Zones and its relevance (CRZ)
The following activities have been declared prohibited under the CRZ notifications:
 Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries with some exception,
 Manufacture or handling oil storage or disposal of hazardous substance, with some exception,
  Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehousing except hatchery and natural fish drying in permitted
areas
 Land reclamation, bunding or disturbing the natural course of seawater with some exception,
 Setting up and expansion of units or mechanism for disposal of wastes and effluents
 Discharge of untreated waste and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other human settlements.
 Dumping of city or town wastes including construction debris, industrial solid waste,
 Port and harbour projects in high eroding stretches of the coast, except those projects classified as strategic and defence
 Reclamation for commercial purposes such as shopping and housing complexes, hotels and entertainment activities.
 Mining of sand, rocks and other sub‐strata materials.
 Drawl of groundwater and construction related thereto, within 200mts of HTL with some exception

 Coastal Regulation Zone, abbreviated to CRZ, refers to the coastal stretches of India and the water area up to its territorial
water limit, excluding the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep and the marine areas surrounding these islands
up to its territorial limit where the setting up and expansion of any industry, operations or processes and manufacture or
handling or storage or disposal of hazardous substances as specified in the Hazardous Substances (Handling, Management and
Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2009 is prohibited.
 Coastal regulation zone is the boundary from the high tide line upto 500m towards the land-ward side and the land between
the low tide line and high tide line.
In the case of rivers, creeks and backwaters, the distance from the high tide level shall apply to both sides and this distance shall not be
less than 100 meters or the width of the creek, river or backwater whichever is less.( Ministry of Environment and Forests Notification
 Category - I (CRZ I): Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important such as national parks , marine parks , sanctuaries ,
reserve forests , wildlife habitats , mangroves, corals/coral reefs , areas close to breeding and spawning grounds of fish and
other marine life, areas of outstanding natural beauty. historically important and heritage areas, area rich in genetic diversity,
areas likely to be inundated due to rise in sea level consequent upon global warming and such other areas as notified by
government from time to time .
 Category - II (CRZ II): Area that have already been developed up to or close to the shoreline. For this purpose, developed area is
referred to as area within the municipal limits or other legally designated urban areas which is already substantially build up
and which has been provided with drainage and approach roads and other infrastructure facilities such as water supply and
sewerage lines.
 Category - III (CRZ III): Area that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either I or II. These will
include coastal zone in the rural areas developed or undeveloped and also areas within municipal limits or in other legally
designated urban areas which are not substantially built up.
CRZ-1 these are ecologically sensitive areas these are essential in maintaining ecosystem of the coast. They lie between low and high tide
line. Exploration of natural gas and extraction of salt are permitted
CRZ-2 these areas form up to the shore line of the coast. Authorised structures are not allowed to construct in this zone
CRZ-3 rural and urban localities which fall outside the 1 and 2. Only certain activities related to agriculture even some public facilities are
allowed in this zone
CRZ-4 this lies in aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are permitted in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in
this zone.
SEZ
The Act provides for drastic simplification of procedures and for single window clearance on matters relating to central as well as state
governments for generating additional economic activity; promoting exports of goods and services, investment for domestic and foreign
sources; creating employment opportunities; and developing infrastructure facilities. Single Window SEZ approval mechanism is provided
through a 19 member inter-ministerial SEZ Board of Approval (BoA)**. The Board of Approval is the apex body. The powers & function of
BoA is granting of approvals, rejecting or modifying proposals submitted for establishment of Special Economic Zones and provision of
infrastructure. Once approved the Central Government notifies the area of the SEZ and units are allowed to be set up in the SEZ. Each SEZ
is headed by a Development Commissioner.
The first SEZ creation proposal came from Gujarat State to set up SEZ in Kandla. Subsequently, the proposal came from other states of
India.
As many as 439 SEZs have been approved in principle out of which 198 have been notified till 8 March, 2008.The highest approval were
accorded to state of Maharashtra followed by Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Most of these are located in coastal areas where
transportation and other supporting infrastructure facilities are available for export processing.
As can be seen from the details of the 439 SEZs in India, the smaller ones costitutes major proportion of SEZs. 19 SEZs have area more than
1000 hectares and covering more than half of the total area under SEZs. Only 26 SEZs have area between 200 and 500 hectares.

Impact on Regional Development

The distribution of medium and large SEZs (50 hectares and above) by major districts shows that nearly three-quarters of all approved
SEZs are located in four States - Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. These states are all relatively well developed
States with high industrial capacity. These are also highly urbanized. Obviously, investment is channelized to areas of high levels of
industry and investment which further propels these states to showcase their ‘success’ further.

Issues for Discussion

About 50 to 70 new cities or satellite cities will come up in and around the medium and large size SEZs and the population of these new
cities will range between 5-10 lakhs. These raises two very important issues for urban development authorities in India: (a) urban
management; and (b) regional planning.
(a) Urban Management
SEZs management is delegated to the Development Commissioners and the participation of local as well as State Government will be
marginal. Key challenges in the SEZs programme thus will be decentralisation and delegation of powers to local and State Governments
and ensuring their participation in the management of the entities. These are essential actions needed for long term success of SEZs. A
representative of MOUD is only a member of the Board of Approvals. MOUD needs to explore if the composition of Board of Approvals
and Approval Committee could be utilized more effectively to ensure participation of local authorities in the SEZ management.
b) Need for Regional Planning
Development of SEZs needs to be integrated with existing Master Plans and Regional Plans. There is need to develop regional/sub regional
plan around the SEZ areas. Here, State Town and Country Planning/Urban Development Authority should play a key role. In this context,
MOUD could issue a set of guidelines for state governments.
JNNURM- Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
Mission Statement:
 The aim is to encourage reforms and fast track planned development of identified cities.
 Focus is to be on efficiency in urban infrastructure and service delivery mechanisms, community participation, and
accountability of ULBs/ Parastatal agencies towards citizens.
Objectives of the Mission
 The objectives of the JNNURM are to ensure that the following are achieved in the urban sector.
 Focussed attention to integrated development of infrastructure services in cities covered under the Mission.
 Establishment of linkages between asset-creation and asset-management through a slew of reforms for long-term project
sustainability.
 Ensuring adequate funds to meet the deficiencies in urban infrastructural services.
 Planned development of identified cities including peri-urban areas, outgrowths and urban corridors leading to dispersed
urbanisation.
 Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal access to the urban poor.
 Special focus on urban renewal programme for the old city areas to reduce congestion; and
 Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply
and sanitation, and ensuring delivery of other existing universal services of the government for education, health and social
security.
Scope of the Mission
 Sub-Mission for Urban Infrastructure and Governance
 Sub-Mission for Basic Services to the Urban Poor
Strategy of the Mission
 Preparing City Development Plan
 Preparing Projects
 Release and Leveraging of Funds
 Incorporating Private Sector Efficiencies:
Duration of the Mission
 The duration of the Mission would be seven years beginning from the year 2005-06. Evaluation of the experience of
implementation of the Mission would be undertaken before the commencement of Eleventh Five Year Plan and if necessary,
the program calibrated suitably.
Expected Outcomes of the JNNURM
 Modern and transparent budgeting, accounting, financial management systems, designed and adopted for all urban service and
governance functions
 City-wide framework for planning and governance will be established and become operational
 All urban residents will be able to obtain access to a basic level of urban services
 Financially self-sustaining agencies for urban governance and service delivery will be established, through reforms to major
revenue instruments
 Local services and governance will be conducted in a manner that is transparent and accountable to citizens
 E-governance applications will be introduced in core functions of ULBs/Parastatal resulting in reduced cost and time of service
delivery processes.
Land use Plan Tools for land use control
 It is the plan/map showing the existing/proposed land use pattern of an urban area. It is an essential part of the master plan
document.
 Most cities classify their land use into the following categories
Residential
 It includes detached, semidetached and row houses, group housing, apartments etc.
Commercial
 This includes all retail and wholesale shops , business offices
 hotels ,theatre and places of commercial entertainment, wholesale markets of vegetable, fruits, cloths, steel etc
 Go downs, stores and warehouses.
 Repair and servicing shops
  Petrol pumps
 The process through which development carried out by many agencies, both public and private is checked in the benefit of
whole society. It is a development control tool.
Industrial
 All manufacturing industries
 Public and semi-public use
 Educational institutions, hospitals, religious buildings, historical monuments,
 Police stations and fire stations.
 Public utilities- which includes water pumping stations, reservoirs, sewage treatment plants, dumping grounds, telephone
exchange
 Burial and cremation grounds.
Recreational use (parks and play fields)
 National parks, district parks, tot lots, public grounds and other open spaces used for public recreation.
Transportation
 All kinds of roads and streets
 Railway, truck terminals, bus terminals, taxi stand , air port and sea ports.
Others
 Include land under forests, water bodies, marshy land etc.
It is essential to avoid various problems related to the development of town such as:
 Sporadic growth of private properties
 Sprawl of slums
 Congestion in major transportation lines
 Congested residential and industrial zones
 Non availability of land for development.
Land use/Development control regulations (DCR)
 On the publication of Master Plan or Detailed Town Planning Scheme under this Act, on the Official Gazette intimating the fact
of sanction of the Plan by the Government,
 no person shall use or cause to use any land or carry-out development in any land, or change the use of land otherwise than in
conformity with the Master Plans and Detailed Town Planning Schemes
 Several tools & techniques are adopted by implementing agencies to enforce the proposals in the plan
Land Pooling/plot reconstitution
 Land pooling as a concept was first introduced in India under the Bombay Town Planning Act, 1915 in the erstwhile Bombay
Presidency.
 Few decades later it became the basis of the Town Planning Scheme in Gujarat.
 States, such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala have used this instrument as a viable
alternative to land acquisition.
 The concept involves amassing small rural land parcels into a large parcel, provide it with infrastructure and return
approximately 60 per cent of the redeveloped land to the owners after the development is complete and appropriating the
costs of infrastructure and public spaces.
 A subdivision plan is developed for a unified planning of the area. Provision of infrastructure and services is financed by the sale
of some of the plots within the area, often for commercial activities.
 The original landowners are provided plots within the reshaped area which, although smaller in size, now have access to
infrastructure and services.
 Method to Transform irregularly shaped cadastral parcels to appropriate plots to be used in more economical manner through
Co-operative public participation
Aims and Objectives of Land use control
 Guides development or the use of land and preserves other sites against the intrusion of undesirable development.
 Prevents the misuse of land so that it will not injuriously affect the interests of the community.
 Regulates the non-use or misuse of land.
 It sets certain trends in the framework of the development process, which indirectly help in improving the total environment.
 It provides for a quantitative and qualitative measure of demand in a changing pattern of land use.
 It helps to secure coordinated development.

TOOLS FOR LAND USE CONTROL

1. ZONING REGULATIONS
2. BUILDING BYELAWS
3. SUBDIVISION REGULATIONS
Zoning regulations
Deals with the uses of land and/or buildings
 Helps to control density and thereby prevents over-crowding
 At times zoning orders may be issued for a specific purpose e.g.: airport zoning where in the height of structures and trees in
the vicinity of airport may be regulated
 While building by laws and rule division regulation impose uniform standards over all parts in a municipal area, the zoning law
prescribes different standards of development control for different localities in a manner appropriate to them.
  For instance the front setback for buildings could be more in a new developing suburb than with in the old build up
area of the city.
 The master plan may show an area for low destiny residential use while the zoning law will allow shops or a school
with in that area and also specify appropriate standard for it.
 Zoning is defined as the creation by law, of the sections or zones such as residential, commercial, industrial, recreational etc. in
which the regulations prevent the misuse of land and buildings and limit their height and densities of population in different
zones.
Zoning is classified as:
1. Use zoning
 Main principle is to divide city into different sections or zones and utilize each of the zone for the right purpose and in correct
location w.r.t. others so as to avoid encroachment of one zone upon another.
Different use zones are:
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Civic
Institutional
Recreational
2. Height zoning
Helps to control the height and volume of the building.
3. Density zoning
Building byelaws
 Regulate the construction aspects of building
 The importance of enforcing building byelaws is evident from the fact that unless prevented by law, the house owners will
construct residences without necessary amenities and proper health conditions.
 Their main focus will be on profit gained. Thus affluent people will prey upon poor people in the absence of byelaws.
 The byelaws are generally uniform in character, covering the entire city. It is the corporation or the municipality which forms
the building byelaws as per the Corporation Act or Municipality Act.
 These byelaws are generally passed by the corporation or municipal council and then finally approved by the government,
which then becomes a regulation to be enforced on all buildings, whether constructed by the government, local bodies or
private persons, agencies etc.
 To unify the building regulations throughout the country, the Bureau of Indian Standards has published National Building Code
(NBC)
 It is a single document in which, like a network, the information contained in various Indian Standards is woven into a pattern
of continuity and cogency with the interdependent requirements of sections carefully analysed and fitted in to make the whole
document a clear continuous volume
Building regulations are one of the major methods used:
• To control land development and to check unauthorised constructions
• To limit or define the way the new structures are to be built
• To specify the type of materials to be used
• To provide open spaces, air breeze and afford safety against fire, noise, smoke, etc.
Subdivision regulations
 Due to increasing demand for plots for erection of houses, factories and other structures, the owners of agricultural and vacant
lands outside the built up areas of cities subdivide their lands into plots and streets and sell them.
 Subdivision regulations give local authorities powers to exercise control over this land subdivision.
 In India, powers for control over land subdivision are available under the Municipal Act.
Subdivision regulations includes the details with regard to
 Road widths
 Minimum plot sizes
 Payment of security deposit etc.
 The basic philosophy underlying subdivision control is that the owner of the land who subdivides it as house sites and streets
should bear the responsibility for forming the streets in the prescribed manner and for setting apart the required public sites
for the community facilities.
 The local body should not incur expenditure in this regard from its general funds. It should not be responsible for their
maintenance.
 There is an obligation normally under the Municipal Act requiring that if any owner of land utilizes or sells sites for building, he
should lay down streets giving access to the sites.
 He is required to prepare a proper layout plan showing plots and streets to the local authority and obtain its approval before he
sells of plots.
 If the land in question falls within the limits of a planning scheme notified under the Town Planning Act, then the Municipal
Council will take into consideration the scheme proposals and scheme bylaws while scrutinizing the layout application.
 It is also necessary that subdivision layout plan should be within the broad framework laid down by the master plan with regard
to land use, density and road proposals.
There are four basic subdivision designs in use now.
• Grid – streets are generally laid in cardinal directions and fairly uniform rectangular lots
• Curvilinear – curved streets adapted in the terrain of various lot sizes and shapes facing on loop and cul-de-sac streets
• Cluster – lots clustered around loop and cul-de-sac streets separated by open space
• Coving – curving streets with large front yards abutting the street.
Most popular and traditional method of land subdivision is grid pattern
Land division regulation is intended to accomplish the following purposes:
• Ensure that it will harmoniously fit into the existing land use pattern and thereby an attractive and efficient environment
results
• Ensure that sound standards for the development of land are met
• Provide a basis for clear and accurate property boundary line records
• Ensure the stability of community, minimizing the cost of public facilities and services
Plot reconstitution
 Plot reconstitution is a regulatory arrangement imposed on landowners that is designed to facilitate the development of land
but which requires the owners to contribute land and cash.
 Land remains in separate ownership and partial cost recovery is achieved through betterment tax.
 Plot reconstitution technique/town planning scheme was introduced to India by the Bombay town planning act, 1915 and has
been widely used in states of Gujarat and Maharashtra, selectively used in Kerala and Punjab, and occasionally used in Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
General Objective
 To convert rural land to a planned layout of public roads, public facility sites and reshaped land parcels.
Project Focus
 To acquire land required for public roads and facilities.
 To establish a planned layout
 To implement compensation and betterment schemes
Plan
 Planned layout for the zoned urban land uses
• Roads constructed within the project and utility network after the
Network
infrastructu
project.
re

• Partial cost recovery mainly by collection of 50% of betterment

Project cost from each landowner less the compensation for land taken
recovery

• Annual budget of local government or urban development

authority. The betterment collected is not paid into a project fund
Project
funding or account

• Project preparation is divided between local government, state

Project government and tribunal and implementation is divided between
Manageme local government and public utility.
nt

•No consultation with landowners but individual

Landowner negotiations and right of appeal
participation

•Uneven sharing of project net benefits, mainly on

Sharing of land area basis
project cost

•Preparation of project takes upto 10 years and

Project implementation depends on funds available.
duration

•The land parcels remain under separate

Land ownerships.
ownership

Betterment Tax.
Similarly some owners of the property will be benefited by the proposed town planning schemes. The share of increase in values of the
properties of such owners to be paid to the planning authority is known as betterment tax
 Betterment levies are a form of tax or a fee levied on land that has gained in value because of public infrastructure
investments. They are considered the most direct form of value capture
 For instance, if building roads, metros or airports with public money leads to an appreciation in land prices in the vicinity of
these projects, then landowners enjoy a windfall gain.
 Most States mandate levy of betterment tax at the time of granting development permission under the respective Town
Planning Laws.
 The procedure for arriving at the amount for betterment tax is as follows:
 The value of the property before the notification of tow planning scheme is worked out
 The value of the property on the completion of the town planning scheme is estimated.
  Difference between the two will be the unearned increase in value of the property due to the scheme.
 And the betterment tax will be finalized – the owner and the planning authority share this. ie, the owner has to surrender 50%
of increase in value of his property in the form of betterment.
The important provision in town planning act regarding betterment are as follows:
• The list of properties put to Betterment shall be published with notification and the same notices are given to the respective
owners and their objections, if any, are invited
• The maximum Betterment contribution shall be 50% of the increase in the value of the property resulting from the execution of
the development scheme.
• The value of the Betterment will be fixed only after the scheme is completed.
• In case of dispute, the owners of the property can refer to the court or tribunal whose decision will be final.