Coordination

Coordination
Structure of the neurone.
Three types of neurons carry out the functions of the nervous system.
 Sensory neurons collect information about stimuli such as light or touch. They usually signal an interneuron.
 Interneurons (relay neurones), which are located in the brain and spinal cord, are go-betweens that receive signals
from and send signals to other neurons. They may signal another interneuron or a motor neuron.
 Motor neurons control muscles and glands. Muscles and glands are called effectors because their response to the
motor neurone’s signal produces the final effect.
The dendrites conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body.
The axon conducts electrical impulses away from the neurons cell body. The axon terminals send nerve signals to
different parts of the body as they contain synapses where neurotransmitters are unconfined for communication purposes
with other neurons.
The myelin sheath acts as an insulating cover for the axon of the neuron and increase the speed at which impulses transmit
along the axon.
Synapse
A synapse is the gap between two neurons or between a neuron and muscle cell or gland cell (effector).
Other names – chemical synapse, synaptic cleft synaptic gap
 neuromuscular junction (nerve-muscle junction) - a synapse between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle cells.
Neurotransmitters
The axon terminal stores chemical molecules called neurotransmitters inside synaptic vesicles. The arrival of a nerve
impulse will cause the release of the neurotransmitter into the synapse. These molecules diffuse across a synapse, a
narrow gap between a neuron’s output zone and the input zone of a neighboring cell. After passing the impulse the
neurotransmitter is are then either reabsorbed or broken down by enzymes.
The path of an impulse through a neurone
The nervous system
The two main divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal
cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of all nervous tissue outside the CNS.
 Spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the brain into the vertebral column. The spinal cord is the main route of communication
between the brain and the body. Sensory information enters the spinal cord via the dorsal root and is transferred to an
upward tract heading toward the brain. Motor impulses generated in the brain are passed through the downward tracts of
the spinal cord to the nerves of the body.
Sensory information that demands immediate attention may initiate a reflex. Reflexes are extremely quick responses to
sensory stimuli, running through the spinal cord from the dorsal root immediately to the ventral root and bypassing the
brain. Examples of this are the knee jerk reflex and the withdrawal reflex.
Q: Describe the reflex arc that occurs when withdrawing a finger from a hot object.
Q: Describe the knee jerk reflex.

 The brain (basic plan and functional areas)
(Cerebrum)
 Cerebrum – interprets information from your sensory organs and generates responses
 Cerebellum - the part of the brain that coordinates your movements. It helps you maintain your posture and balance,
and it automatically adjusts your body to help you move smoothly. For example, when you brush your teeth, your
cerebellum gets information about where your arm is positioned compared with the rest of your body. Your
cerebellum plans how much your arm would need to move in order to brush your teeth. It sends this information to the
motor cortex in your cerebrum, which signals your arm to move.
 The pituitary gland, located in front of the mid-brain, is responsible for secreting hormones that either regulate the
activities of organs or of other glands. e.g. growth hormones.
 The hypothalamus, located above the pituitary gland connects the nervous and endocrine systems and is responsible
for homeostasis, body temperature, sleep cycle and some motor control.
The ear
Hearing
 The ear collects vibrations—sound waves—from the air, amplifies them, and converts them into nerve impulses that
are interpreted in the brain as sounds.
 Hair cells are specialized cells in the inner ear that contain receptors that detect vibrations. Hair cells produce action
potentials when they are bent.
 Sound waves enter the body through the outer ear. The pinna, the part of the ear you can see, collects sound and
funnels it into the auditory canal.
 Sound waves in the auditory canal hit the eardrum, or tympanic membrane, causing it to vibrate like the head of a
drum. The vibrations are amplified by three small bones in the middle ear—the malleus, the incus, and the stapes.
 The amplified vibrations are transferred to the cochlea. The cochlea is a structure of fluid-filled canals in the inner ear
where hair cells are located. The fluid in the cochlea moves in response to vibrations. This movement causes the hair
cells to bend. When the hair cells bend, an impulse is produced. The impulse is carried by the auditory nerve to the
brain, where it is perceived as a sound.
 When the hair cells closest to the oval window are stimulated, the brain perceives high frequency sounds (pitch) while
stimulation of hair cells closer to the round window in the cochlea are recognized as low pitch sound.
 Loud sounds produce high amplitude sound waves which results in more nerve impulses per second travelling in the
sensory neurones.
 The auditory (Eustachian) tube relieves pressure in the middle ear. It creates a connection from the middle ear to the
pharynx; maintains the pressure in the middle ear at atmospheric pressure.
 Prolonged exposure to high noise levels can cause permanent hearing loss by damaging hair cells.
Balance
 The ear also has organs that regulate balance. Balance is controlled by an organ in the inner ear called the semicircular
canals. When your head moves, fluid inside the semicircular canals moves. The movement bends the hair cells in the
canals. As the cells bend, they generate impulses that are transmitted to the brain.
Drugs and the nervous system
A drug is a substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.

Some drugs are beneficial (medicine) while others are harmful.
Types of Drugs
1. Stimulants
These types of drugs speed up the activity of the CNS and increases alertness and energy level.
e.g –caffeine, nicotine, cocaine
2. Depressants
Thes drugs slow down activity of the CNS and induces drowsiness.
e.g – painkillers, sedatives, alcohol
Effects of alcohol on the nervous system and liver
Alcohol is a widely used legal drug. When drunk excessively leads to personal and social consequences.
Damage to the CNS include;

(i) Difficulty keeping balance/cannot walking straight
(ii) Blurred vision
(iii)Slurred speech
(iv) Slowed reaction times
(v) Long term use will lead to memory impairment and blackouts (lost time due to unconsciousness)
Damage to the liver

(i) Excessive accumulation of fat in the liver enlarging it (fatty liver)
(ii) Inflammation of the liver (alcoholic hepatitis)
(iii)Normal liver tissue permanently replaced by non-living tissue (cirrhosis)
(iv) Could lead to liver cancer

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Structure of the neurone.

The dendrites conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body.

Other names – chemical synapse, synaptic cleft synaptic gap

The nervous system

Q: Describe the knee jerk reflex.

A drug is a substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.

Effects of alcohol on the nervous system and liver

Damage to the CNS include;

Damage to the liver

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