Short Notes on Engineering Hydrology

Precipitation & General aspects of Hydrology

Index of Wetness

• index of wetness =

• % Rain deficiency = 100 - % index of wetness

Aridity index

Where, A.I = Aridity index

PET = Potential Evapo- transpiration

AET = Actual Evapotranspiration

a. AI ≤ 0 → Nonarid
b. 1 ≤ A.I ≤ 25 → Mild Arid
c. 26 ≤ A.I ≤ 50 → Moderate arid
d. A.I > 50 → Severe Arid

Optimum Number of rain Gauge: (N)

where, Cv = Coefficient of variation,

∈ = Allowable % Error,

σ Standard deviation of the data, n = Number of stations,

mean of rainfall value

Estimation of missing rainfall data

where, N1,N2,…Nx..Nn are normal annual percipitation of 1,2,…x…n respectively.

P1,P2…Pn are rainfall at station 1,2,…. N respectively.

And Px is the rainfall of station x.

Case: A minimum number of three stations closed to station ‘x’

If any of N1, N2, N3…

Nn > 10% of Nx

Mean rainfall Data

To convert the point rainfall values at various into an average value over a
catchment the following three methods ar in use

(i) Arithmetic Avg Method: when the rainfall measured at various stations in a
catchment area is taken as the arithmetic mean of the station values.

Where, P1,P2…Pn are rainfall values

Of stations 1,2…n respectively.

In practice this method is used very rerely.

(ii) Thiessen Polygon Method: In this method, the rainfall recorded at each
station is given a weightage on the basis of an area closest to the station.

Where, P1,P2…Pn are the rainfall data of areas A1,A2…An. The thiessen-polygon
method of calculating the average percipitation over an area is superior to the
arithmetic average method.

(iii) Isohyetal Method: An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall

magnitude. The recorded values for which areal average P is to be detarmined are
then maked on the plot at appropirate stations.Neighbouring stations outside the
catchment are also considered.
 Infiltration, Run off and Hydrographs

Infiltration

Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface.

• Horton’s Equation: Horton expressed the decay of infiltration capacity with

time as an exponential decay given by

Where,

fct = infiltration capacity at any time t from start of the rainfall

fco = initial infiltration capacity at t = 0

fct = final steady state value

td = Duration of rainfall

kh = constant depending on soil.

Infiltration indices

In hydrological calculations involving floods it is found convenient to use a constant

value of filtration rate for the duration of the storm. The defined average infiltration
rate is called infiltration index and two types of indices are in common use
(i) W-index: In an attempt to refine the φ-index the initial losses are separated
from the total abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate, called W-index,
is defined as

Where, P = Total storm precipitation (cm)

R = Total storm runoff (cm)

Ia = initial losses (cm)

te = Duration of rainfall excess

W-index = Avg. rate of infiltration (cm/hr)

(ii) φ-index: The φ index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volumes is
equal to the runoff volume. The φ index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with
the edge of the resulting run- off volume.

Where, R = Runoff in cm from a 24- h rainfall of intensity I cm/day

Runoff

Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area
through a surface channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a
given unit of time.
Direct Runoff: it is that part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately
after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the
surface of the stream. In the case of snow-melt, the resulting flow entering the
stream is also a direct runoff, sometimes terms such as direct storm runoff are used
to designate direct runoff.

Base Flow: The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater flow
is called base flow.

(i) Direct runoff = surface runoff + Prompt interflow

(ii) Direct runoff = Total runoff- Base flow

(iii) Form Factor where, A = Area of the catchment l Axial length of basin.

(iv) Compactness coefficient

re = Radius of equivalent circle whose Area is equal to area of catchment (A)

(v) Elevation of the water shed, (z)

Where, A1, A2 … Area between successive contours.

Z1, z2 … mean elevation between two successive contours.

Method to compute Runoff

(i) By Runoff coefficient

Q = KP where, p = precipitation

K = Runoff coefficient

Q = Runoff

(ii) By infiltration Capacity Curve

(iii) By Rational Formula

Where, k = Runoff coefficient

PC = Critical design rainfall intensity in cm/hr

A = Area of catchment in hectare

Qp = Peak discharge in m3/sec.

(iv) Direction runoff depath

Where,

A = Area in KM2

T = Time in hour

Oi = ordinate of ith element i.e. discharge in m3/sec.

Hydrograph

A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically is called a

hydrograph.

Unit Hydrograph

This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many
refinements since then.

A unit hydrograph is defined as they hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one
unit depath (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a
uniform rate for a specified duration (D hours).

Time invariance: The first basic assumption is that the direct-runoff response to a
given effective rainfall in a catchment is time invariant. This implies that the DRH for
a given ER in a catchment is always the same irrespective of when it occurs.

Linear Response: The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is assumed to

be linear. This is the most important assumptions of the unit-hydrograph theory.
Linear response means that if an input X1(t) cause an output y1(t) an output x2(t)
causes an output y2(t) then an input x1(t) + x2(t) gives an output y1(t) + y2(t).
Consequently if x2(t) = rx1(t), then y2(t) = r1y1(t) thus, if the rainfall excess in a
duration D is r times the unit depth, the resulting DRH will have ordinates bearing
ratio r to those of the corresponding D-h unit hydrograph.

Where, Base period of T hr U.H

tB = Base period of D hr U.H

Also, T>D

T = n.D where ‘n’ is an integer.

 Floods, Flood Routing and Flood Control

A flood an unusually high stage in a river, normally the level at which the river
overflow its banks and inundates the adjoining area .The design of bridges, culvert
waterways and spillways for dams and estimation of score at a hydraulic structure
are some examples wherein flood-peak values are required. To estimate the
magnitude of a flood peak the following alternative methods are available:

1. Rational method
2. Empirical method
3. unit-hydrograph technique
4. Flood- frequency studies

Rational Method

If tp ≥ tc

Where, Qp = Peak discharge in m3/sec

PC = Critical design rainfall in cm/hr

A = Area catchment in hectares

K = Coefficient of runoff.

tD = Duration of rainfall

tC = Time of concentration

Empirical Formulae

(a) Dickens Formula (1865)

Where, Qp = Flood peak discharge in m3/sec

A = Catchment area in km2.

CD = Dickens constant, 6 ≤ CD ≤ 30.

(b) Ryve’s formula (1884)

Where,
CH = Ryve’s constant

= 8.8 for constant area within 80 km from the cost.

= 8.5 if distance of area is 80 km to 160 km from the cost.

= 10.2 if area is Hilley and away from the cost.

(c) inglis Formula (1930)

Where, A = Catchment area in Km2.

QP = Peak discharge in m3/sec.

Flood Frequency Studies

(i) Recurrence interval or return Period:

where, P = Probability of occurrence

(ii) Probability if non-occurrence: q = 1-P

(iii) Probability of an event occurring r times in ‘n’ successive years:

(iv) Reliability: (probability of non-occurrence /Assurance) = qn

(v) Risk = 1-qn → Risk = 1(1-P)n

(vi) Safety Factory =

(vii) Safety Margin = design value of hydrological parameter – Estimated value of

hydrological parameter

Gumbel’s Method

The extreme value distribution was introduction by Gumbel (1941) and is commonly
known as Gumbel’s distribution. it is one of the most widely used probability
distribution functions for extreme values in hydrologic and meteorologic studies for
prediction of flood peaks, maximum rainfall, maximum wind speed.
Gunbel defined a flood as the largest of the 365 daily flows and the annual series of
flood flows constitute a series of largest values of flows.

Based on probability distribution.

Where, XT = Peak value of hydrologic data

K = Frequency factor

yT = Reduced variate

T = Recurrence interval in year

yn = Reduced mean = 0.577

Sn = Reduced standard deviation.

Sn = 1.2825 for N → ∞

Confidence Limit

Since the value of the variate for a given return period, xT determined by Gumbel’s
method can have errors due to the limited sample data used. An estimate of the
confidence limits of the estimates is desirable the confidence interval indicates the
limits about the calculated value between which the true value can be said to lie with
specific probability based on sampling errors only.

For a confidence probability c, the confidence interval of the variate xT is bounded by

value x1 and x2 given by

Where, f(c) is a function of confidence probability ‘C’.

Se = Probability error

Where, N = Sample size

B = factor

σ = Standard deviation

Flood Routing

Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph at a section of a

river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more upstream sections. The
hydrologic analysis of problems such a flood forecasting. Flood protection Reservoir
design and spillway design invariable includes flood routing.

Prism Storage: it is the volume that would exist if the uniform flow occurred at the
downstream depth. i.e., the volume formed by an imaginary plane parallel to the
channel bottom drawn at the outflow section water surface.

Wedge Storage: it is the wedge like volume formed between the actual water
surface profile and the top surface of the prism storage.

Flood Routing
Muskingum Method

S = Sp + Sw

Where, S = Total storage in the channel.

Sp = Prism storage

= if (Q) = function of outflow discharge.

Sw = Wedge storage

= f(I) = function of inflow discharge.

Where, X = Weighting factor

M = Constant = 0.6 for rectangular channels

= 1.0 for nature channels

K = storage time constant

Method of Channel Routing

Muskingum Method: Hydrologic channel Routing

where, ΔS → Change in storage in time Δt

Δt → Time interval at which observations are taken. (Routing interval)

Avg. in flow rate over the period Δt

Average outflow rate over time period Δt.

Where, C0, C1 and C2, are Muskingum constant

 • for best result, 2Kx < Δt < k

Synthetic Hydrograph

Synder’s Method: Synder (1938), based on a study of a large number of

catchment in the Appalachian Highlands of eastern United states developed a set of
empirical equations for synthetic unit hydrograph in those areas. These equations
are in use in the USA. And with some modifications in many other countries, and
constitute what is known as Synder’s synthetic unit hydrograph.

Where, tp = Time interval between mid-point of unit rainfall excess and peak of unity
hydrograph in hour

L = Length of main stream

LCa = The distance along the main stream from the basin outlet to a point on the
stream which is nearest to the centroid of basis (in KM)
Ct = Regional constant 0.3 < Ct 0.6

S = Basin slope.

N = Constant = 0.38.

tr = Standard duration of U.H in hour

Where, Cp = Regional constant = 0.3 to 0.92.

A = Area of catchment in km2.

QPS = Peak discharge in m3/s.

where, tR = standard rainfall duration.

Basin lag for non-standard U.H.

for a large catchment.

Where, tB = Base time of synthetic U.H

for small catchment.

W50 = width of U.H in hour at 50% peak discharge.

W75 = Width of U.H in hours at 75% peak discharge.

 where, QP = Peak discharge in m3/sec.

A = Area in km2.

Well hydraulics and Aquifiers

Aquifer

An aquifer is an saturated geological formation, underground layer of water-bearing

permeable and porous or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which
groundwater can be extracted using a water well.

Some Fundamental definitions:

1) Aquiclude

• These are the geological formations which, are highly porous but non-
permeable. Hence water cannot be extracted from these types of geological
formations.
e.g. Clay

2) Aquitard

• These are the geological formations, which are porous but possess very less
permeability. Hence water does not readily flow out of these formations, but
instead water seeps out.
e.g. Sandy Clay

3) Aquifuge

• These are geological formations, which are neither porous nor permeable.
e.g. Granite

Type of aquifer

1. Un-Confined aquifer
2. Perched aquifer
3. Confined aquifer

1) Un-confined aquifer

• Boundary of Un-confined aquifer extended from water table (water surface

which is under atmospheric pressure) to impermeable bed strata.
• Not subjected to any confining pressure and Water in Un-confined aquifer is
under atmospheric pressure.
• Un-confined aquifer are recharged by directly rainfall over the surface and
water body.
• This aquifer is also called non-artesian aquifer.
 Figure Various type of Un-confined aquifer

2) Perched aquifer

• Perched aquifer is small water body which is situated in unsaturated zone of

soil above the main ground water table or main unconfined aquifer, separated
by impervious strata.

3) Confined aquifer

• Confined aquifer bounded between two impermeable or very less permeable

soil strata or rocks.
• In confined aquifer, water is under pressure or artesian
pressure (pressure above the atmospheric pressure) because in that case
water is sandwiches between to impermeable layer or rock.
• This is also called artesian aquifer.

Figure Confined aquifer

 Some important terminology used in well hydraulics

1) Cone of depression

• Cone of depression represent the water table during the drawdown of water
with the help of well through homogeneous and isotropic aquifer.
• In un-confined aquifer cone of depression represent the drawdown water
table but in confined aquifer it represent the pressure drop (change in
piezometric head) around the well.
• Drop in water table from previous static water table is termed as drawdown
depth or simply drawdown.

Figure 3-d view of cone of depression

Figure Cone of depression in confined aquifer

2) Radius of influence

• It is the maximum distance up to the effect of drawdown is detected.

• In other word, radius of influence represent the radial extent of cone of
depression. And areal extent represent by area of influence.

Note:

• When we start drawdown from well, initially the drawdown surface not
constant and changes with time (due to unsteady flow). After sufficient time
equilibrium state is reached and flow become steady.
• After attaining equilibrium state there is no change in drawdown surface,
drawdown surface become constant with respect to time.
• And after stopping pumping, accumulation of water in influence zone started
and this phenomenon termed as recuperation or recovery of well.

Different way of extracting water

1) Infiltration Galleries: These are horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow

depth of the 3-5 m along the bank of river in water bearing strata.
Derivations:

Discharge through element

qx = ax*vx

= (h*L)*k*ix (by Darcy’s law V= k*ix)

= h*L*K* dh/dx

Total Discharge

Q= ∫qx

= ∫h*L*k*dh/dx

Q*R = k*L* [H2- h02]

Q = kL(H-h0)(H+h0)/(2R)

2) Infiltration Well
 • These are discontinuous structure constructed along bank of river in which
water is collected through seepage from bottom.
• All such wells are connected through a common well known as Jack well from
which water is pumped to treatment plant.

3) Artesian Spring

• Artesian spring have potential sources of raw water, while non-artesian spring
are not potential sources. Because in summer water table may get depleted.

4) Well

These are generally of two types

1. Open Wells
a. Shallow well
b. Tube well
2. Tube Wells
a. Screen type
b. Cavity type

1) Open Wells

• In shallow well water is drawn from top most water bearing strata, which is
liable to be contaminated.
• Large quantity of water cannot be extracted from shallow well as with
increase in discharge, velocity of flow through well increase and if this
velocity exceeds critical velocity (velocity at which medium particles starts
moving with flowing water settling velocity) leads to destabilisation of well
lining and finally resulting in piping. This process is known as “Piping”.
Sinking of well is consequences of piping.
• This problem does not occur in deep well, as with increase in discharge,
when velocity through well increase resulting in the movement of medium
particles from bottom of the well leading to increase area of flow from
bottom. This process is known as cavity formation.
 • Due to this increase area of flow velocity through the well again decrease
which finally results in no movement of medium particles along with the
water.
• In case of deep wells, destabilisation of well lining does not take place
even after piping occurs as well lining is being supported by impervious
layers.

Open Well Yield

Recuperating test

• Also known as equilibrium pumping test.

• This test is performed to get approximate yield from open well.
• In this test pumping is done up to working head (one third of critical
depression head) for subsoil. Say S1 Critical depression head- depression
head at which loosening (quick sand phenomenon) of sand surrounding the
well start.
• After that pumping is stopped and allowed to rise the water level in well or
allow to recover the water head in well. And recuperation depth and
corresponding time is noted for calculation of yield from well. Say
recuperation depth = S, and corresponding time = T
Derivation Part-1

Let water level rises in well from s1 to s2 in T time

According to Darcy’s law

“For laminar flow through saturated soil mass, the discharge per unit time
is proportional to the hydraulic gradient”.

Q = K.i.A ---------- (1)

i = Hydraulic gradient = s/L ----------- (2)

(Head s is lost in a length L of seepage path)

If ds is the water level rises in well in dt time than

Q dt = –A ds

Negative sign indicate the decrease in depression head with time during the
recuperation of well.

From equation 1, 2 and 3

Integrating them
Where a constant C and it is the specific yield of well. Dimension C is T-1.

So equation 4 become

Derivation Part-2

The yield of the well is

Q = CAH

Assumption: entire flow in well is from the bottom of well (impervious steining of
masonry)

Where Q = safe yield of the well

A = area of cross section of the well

H = safe working depression head

C = specific yield of the well

Specific yield:-

Specific yield soil is defined as discharge per unit area under a unit depression head
(drawdown).

Steady flow into a well

Case-1: Well in Confined Aquifer. (Theim’s theory)

Assumptions:

• Medium is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic

• Flow of water in the vicinity of well is radial horizontal and laminar.
• The loss of head is directly proportional to tangent of hydraulic gradient
(dh/dx) instead of (ds/dx) .
In this figure

rw = radius of well, b = thickness of confined aquifer

sw = Drawdown

hw = Piezometric head at pumping well

H = original piezometric head or piezometric head before staring pumping

hr, sr = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r from centre of
well

h1, s1 = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r1 from centre of
well

h2, s2 = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r1 from centre of
well

According to Darcy’s low

Velocity of flow at radial distance r

Here is hydraulic gradient (dh is head loss over dr radial distance)

Discharge from well Q = Vr x A {A = cylindrical surface area through which water
enter into well}

A= 2πrb

By integrating it

if H is the original piezometric head, hw = piezometric head at well,

R = Radius of influence, = 3000Sw√K, K= Permeability of Soil,

rw = radius of well

Above equation represent the discharge from pumping well for steady flow condition.

s1= H-h1; s2= H-h2 -------- (6) (see above figure)

And T= Kb ------- (7)

Note: T is Transmissibility and it defined as flow capacity or discharge of aquifer
per unit width under unit hydraulic gradient. T has the dimension of [L2/ T ] .

From equation 5, 6 and 7

Note: above equation is valid only for steady state flow condition and for well
having complete penetration in aquifer

Case-1: well in unconfined aquifer.

In this figure

rw = radius of well

sw = Drawdown

hw = Piezometric head at pumping well

H = original piezometric head or piezometric head before staring pumping

hr, sr = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r from centre of
well

h1, s1 = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r1 from centre of
well

h2, s2 = piezometric head and draw down of water table at distance r1 from centre of
well
Transmissibility T= Kb ------- (13)

s1 = H-h1; s2 = H-h2

Put the value of s1 and s2 in equation (9)

Note: above all equation of Q is valid only for steady state flow condition and for
well having complete penetration in aquifer

Well losses and specific capacity

Head loss (drawdown) due to flow through soil pours, screen and in the well.

1) Drawdown (sw) in a pumping well has three component like

1) Formation loss- head loss due to flow through porous media. (swL)

2) Head Loss due to turbulent flow near screen. (swt)

3) Head loss due to flow through screen and casing. (swc)

• Formation loss swL ∝ discharge Q

• swt ∝ Q2
• swc ∝ Q2

So
 Figure well loss in confined aquifer

Specific capacity

• Discharge per unit drawdown known as specific capacity of well.

• Specific capacity indicates the performance of well.

So specific capacity (if well losses are ignored)

Example: (from engineering hydrology by k. subramanya)

Given

1) Radius of pumping well rw = 15 cm

2) Aquifer depth = 40 m

3) Steady state discharge = 500 lpm =

4) Drawdown at two observation well

1. 25 m away from pumping well

r1 = 25 m

s1 = 3.5 m it means h1 = (40.0 – 3.5) = 36.5 m

2. 75 m away from pumping well

r2 = 75 m

s2 = 2 m it means h1 = (40.0 – 2) = 38 m

5) It is given that, the well is fully penetrated in aquifer.

Find

1. Transmissivity (T)
2. Drawdown at pumping well (sw)

Solution:

1) Discharge from well

Put the known value in formula

K = 7.823 x 10-5 m/s

We know that Transmissivity T = K x H

T = {7.823 x 10-5 m/s} {40 m}

T = 3.13 x 10-3 m2/s

2)

Put respective numerical values in above formula

By solving that expression

hw = 28.49 m and from that hw, sw = 40-28.49 = 11.51 m