Flow of Water in Soil Permeability and Seepage
Flow of Water in Soil Permeability and Seepage
Flow of Water in Soil Permeability and Seepage
Permeability and Seepage
Water flows through the voids in a soil which are
i t
interconnected. This flow may be called
t d Thi fl b ll d
seepage, since the velocities are very small.
Water flows from a higher energy to a lower
energy and behaves according to the
energy and behaves according to the
principles of fluid mechanics.
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An Energy Equation from Fluid Mechanics
An Energy Equation for Water Flow in Soils
The velocities of water flowing through the voids in a soil are
very small, and the velocity head in the previous equation
may be neglected.
Therefore, for flow of water in soil the equation is:
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Calculation of Heads
Basic Principles
• Total Head = Pressure Head + Elevation Head
• The pressure head is zero at a water surface.
• The head loss in the water is assumed to be zero.
• All head loss occurs in the soil.
Elevation, pressure and total head
Pore pressure at a given point (e.g. point A in the diagram)
can be measured by the height of water in a standpipe
p
located at that point.
The height of the water column is the pressure head (hw)
hw = u
γw
or
hw = P
γw
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• The elevation head (hz) of a point is its height above
the datum line.
• The height above the datum of the water level in
g
the standpipe is the total head (h).
h = hz + hw
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Energy Loss Equation
Darcy's law
• The rate of flow of water q (volume/time) through
cross‐sectional area A is found to be proportional
to hydraulic gradient i according to Darcy's
to yd au c g ad e t acco d g to a cy s law: a :
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Darcy's law
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Darcy's law
v = q = k.i i = Dh
A ds
d
• The
The value of the coefficient of permeability k depends on the
value of the coefficient of permeability k depends on the
average size of the pores and is related to the distribution of
particle sizes, particle shape and soil structure.
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6
Coefficient of Permeability
The notation for coefficient of permeability is k.
• It is sometimes called hydraulic conductivity.
Typical Values
yp
k k
Laboratory Tests to Determine Coefficient of
Permeabilty
• C
Constant Head Permeability Test
d bili
(Granular soils)
• Falling Head Permeability Test
(
(Fine grained soils)
g )
Both of these tests will be conducted as laboratory
exercises.
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7
Constant head test
Recommended for coarse‐grained soils.
Steady total head drop h is measured across gauge
Steady total head drop h is measured across gauge
length L, as water flows through a sample of cross‐
section area A.
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Constant head test
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8
Falling head test
Recommended for fine‐grained soils.
Total head h in standpipe of area a is allowed to fall;
heads h1 and h2 are measured at times t1 and t2.
Hydraulic gradient Dh/L varies with time.
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Falling head test
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9
Two‐Dimensional Flow
Seepage and Flow Nets
• In the previous section the seepage problems
discussed were all lab models consisting of one‐
dimensional flow.
In field construction, structures used for water barriers
generally involve two‐ or three‐dimensional seepage
flow, such as:
(1) Cofferdam cells (sheet pile wall) and Concrete
dams
(2) Earth dams and levees.
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The purposes of studying the seepage conditions under
or within these structures are:
• to estimate the rate of flow (reservoirs for
keeping water cut‐off ability)
keeping water cut‐off ability)
• to estimate seepage force (uplift force)
(erosion)
• to estimate pore pressure distribution for
effective stress analysis
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10
Two‐Dimensional Flow
Laplace's Equation of Continuity
A. Anisotropic Soil
B. Isotropic Soil
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From Darcy’s law:
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Solutions to Laplace's Equation
p g
• Computer solutions using finite element or
finite difference techniques.
• Graphical solutions known as flow nets.
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Solutions to Laplace's equation for two‐
dimensional seepage can be presented as flow
nets.
Two orthogonal sets of curves form a flow net:
• flow lines
• equipotentials
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Flow Lines and Equipotential Lines
• A flow line is the path a water particle would
follow in moving from upstream to downstream.
• An equipotential line is a line along which the total
head, h, is a constant value. It is similar to a
contour line, except that total head is constant,
rather than elevation.
• A flow net is a combination of flow lines and
equipotential lines that satisfy Laplace's equation
and the boundary conditions.
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Flow Lines and Equipotential Lines
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• If standpipe piezometers were inserted into the
ground with their tips on a single equipotential then
the water would rise to the same level in each
standpipe. (The pore pressures would be different
b
because of their different elevations.)
f th i diff t l ti )
• There can be no flow along an equipotential,
because there is no hydraulic gradient, so there can
be no component of flow across a flow line. The flow
lines define channels along which the volume flow
lines define channels along which the volume flow
rate is constant.
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Flow Net Construction
Constructing a flow net
In the example, water is flowing under a sheet pile wall
th t i d i
that is driven partially through a permeable isotropic
ti ll th h bl i t i
soil.
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Rules for Flow Net Construction
• Establish the flow boundary conditions. For this
example, acd and fg are boundary flow lines.
• Flow lines and equipotential lines must always
intersect at right angles.
• The fields should be "square". By this we mean that
the length and width of a field should be equal. Fields
are the spaces in a flow net formed by the
are the spaces in a flow net formed by the
intersecting flow lines and equipotential lines. The
sides of the fields are commonly curved, so the term
"square" is a stretch of the normal definition.
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Construction of the Flow Net
• The flow net for this example follows.
• Equipotential
Equipotential lines are red and dashed, while flow
lines are red and dashed while flow
lines are green and solid.
• The length and width of one of the fields is shown.
• The
The length in the direction of flow is L, while the
length in the direction of flow is L, while the
width is b. To be "square" ( L= b ).
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Calculation of total flow
• For a complete problem, the flownet has been drawn with
the overall head drop h divided into Nd equal intervals:
Δh = h / Nd
h: total head
Δh: loss of head for each drop
Nd: number of equipotential drops
with Nf flow channels.
Then the total flow rate per unit width is
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Flow Rate
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Flow Net Calculations
A. Example
p
• The flow net from the previous section will be
used for the calculations.
• The coefficient of permeability for the soil
is 0.04 ft/s
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For the example:
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C. Heads and Water Pressures
We will calculate the water pressure at point A in the flow net.
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or
Pressure head @ point A = (21+20) - 4.5(17/6)= 28.25 ft
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Gradient calculation
• Gradients are different for each field in a flow net. Head losses
across each field will be the same, but the flow length depends
on the size of the field. Small fields will have a small flow length
and a large gradient
and a large gradient.
• Flow length may be measured directly from the flow net, since it
is drawn to scale.
• Following is a gradient calculation for the field with
" L 11' " printed inside
" L = 11' " printed inside.
• The length, L, was determined by direct measurement and
multiplication by the scale factor.
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critical hydraulic gradient (ic)
• The hydraulic gradient at which effective
stresses becomes zero; with upward seepage,
t b ith d
sand may become quicksand.
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Quick condition and piping
• If the flow is upward then the water pressure tends
to lift the soil element. If the upward water pressure
lif h il l f h d
is high enough the effective stresses in the soil
disappear, no frictional strength can be mobilised
and the soil behaves as a fluid.
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Critical hydraulic gradient
• The quick condition occurs at a critical upward
hydraulic gradient ic, when the seepage force
j b l
just balances the buoyant weight of an
h b i h f
element of soil.
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