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Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185

2nd International Conference on Sustainable Energy Engineering and Application, ICSEEA 2014

The potential of nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) seed oil

as biodiesel feedstock: effect of seed moisture content
and particle size on oil yield
Muhammad Fadhlullaha,*, Sri Nanan B. Widiyantoa, Elvi Restiawatya
a
Bioengineering Department, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology, Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

Abstract

Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) is one of the most potential plants for biodiesel feedstock because of its high oil
content. Mechanical extraction using screw press is one method to get oil from nyamplung seed. Result of the extraction is
affected by the seed’s condition, such as moisture content and particle size. The paper presents experimental results that estimate
the vegetable oil production potential of C. inophyllum. The results show the effect of C. inophyllum seed moisture content and
particle size on oil yield, andthe characteristics of C. inophyllum oil.The seed moisture contents used in this experiment are 0%,
1.2%, and 20%, whereas the average seed particle size used are 0.81, 2.90, and 8.60 mm. The C. inophyllum fruits were obtained
from Cipatujah Sub-district, Tasikmalaya Regency. The methods used include fruit and seed preparation, seed moisture content
and particle size conditioning, mechanical extraction, oil characteristics analysis, and C. inophyllum oil production potential
calculation. The optimum seed moisture content to obtain high oil yield is 1.2% which yields 33.39%oil, while the optimum seed
particle size to obtain high oil yield is 8.60 mm which yields 33.46% oil. The bigger the particle size will affect on higher oil
yield. From this research, it can be concluded that the trees in Cipatujahhave potential to produce C. inophyllum oil up to 5.13
L/tree/year. C. inophyllum oil yield is effected by seed moisture content and particle size, and it has characteristics that support its
utilization as biodiesel feedstock.

© 2015
© 2015TheTheAuthors.
Authors.Published
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Elsevier Ltd. B.V.
Elsevier This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of Scientific Committee of ICSEEA 2014.
Peer-review under responsibility of Scientific Committee of ICSEEA 2014
Keywords:Calophyllum inophyllum L. seed; biodiesel feedstock; mechanical extraction; moisture content; particle size; oil yield

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-856-2005930

E-mail address: [email protected]

1876-6102 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of Scientific Committee of ICSEEA 2014
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.03.246
178 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185

1. Introduction

Here the decrease of fossil fuel deposit and negative impacts of its utilization on environment has increased the
alternative fuel development, including biodiesel. Biodiesel is a renewable, environment friendly, and non-toxic fuel.
It does not contain sulphurous and aromatic compounds[1].
Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) is one of many plants in Indonesia which has big potential to become
biodiesel feedstock because of its high seed oil content[2]. The seed oil content in C. inophyllum is in range of 40-
75% (dry weight basis)[3,4,5], higher than Jatropha seed oil content (40-60%) and rubber seed oil content (40-50%)[3].
The productivity of C. inophyllum seed is also high. It can reach 20 tonnes seed/hectare, higher than rubber seed
productivity (2 tonnes seed/hectare) and Jatropha seed productivity (5 tonnes seed/hectare)[6]. Besides, C.
inophyllum is a non-edible plant, so its utilization as biodiesel feedstock will not intercept with food provision[7].
Despite of its high seed oil content, the yield and quality of C. inophyllum oil are effected by its extraction
method. The common oil extraction method used in industry, especially home industry, is mechanical extraction. It
has more economical benefits than the other oil extraction methods. The oil yield from mechanical extraction can be
effected by the seed condition, such as seed moisture content and particle size[8]. The optimum seed moisture
content and particle size can be applied in the society, so they can increase the C. inophyllum oil yield. Therefore, it
is important to study the C. inophyllum seed moisture content and particle size conditioning which can optimize C.
inophyllum oil yield. The objectives of this paper are to estimate C. inophyllum oil production potential, to
investigate the effect of C. inophyllum seed moisture content and particle size on oil yield, and to analyze the
characteristics of C. inophyllum oil.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Nyamplung (Calophylluminophyllum) fruit sample

Nyamplung (C. inophyllum) fruits Fig. 1 were obtained from CipatujahSud-district, Tasikmalaya Regency on
March 2014. The source of the fruits was 30-40 years old C. inophyllumtrees[9]. The fruits obtained had yellowish
brown skin colour and were collected from the ground, which indicated that they were physiologically matured[10].
The fruits had 1-3 cm diameter.

Fig.1. C. inophyllum fruits

2.2. Analysis of C. inophyllum physiological condition

C. inophyllum physiological condition analysis was carried out by using literature data, including tree’s age,
geographical, temperature, light, and soil condition.
 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185 179

2.3. C. inophyllum seed moisture content and particle size conditioning for extraction unit feed

C. inophyllum fruits were sun dried for 4-6 hours[11], weighed using analitycal or common balance, and then
manually peeled. The C. inophyllum seeds obtained were then weighed to calculate the seed yield [12].
Effect of seed moisture content was investigated using C. inophyllum seeds which have dried using oven at
65°C[13]. Seed moisture content variations used in this paper, which were 20%, 1.2%, and 0%, were obtained from
3, 8, and 14 days of drying. The seeds were then milled to reach 0-20 mm particle size using OM-AGC 15 milling
machine at Bioengineering Laboratory, Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Jatinangor.
Effect of seed particle size was investigated using C. inophyllum seeds which have dried using oven at 65°C for
21 days (seed moisture content 0%). The variations of average seed particle size, which were 8.60, 2.90, and 0.81
mm, were obtained from milling and sieving process.

2.4. C. inophyllum oil mechanical extraction

Mechanical extraction was carried out using Piteba simple screw press at Bioengineering Laboratory, Bandung
Institute of Technology (ITB), Jatinangor. The amount of C. inophyllum seeds as feed for extraction process was
100-400 gram. C. inophyllum oil obtained then separated from the waste using centrifuge at 4000 rpm for 30
minutes[14]. After that, calculation of oil yield and process efficiency was carried out[15].

2.5. Analysis of C. inophyllum oil’s characteristics

Analysis of C. inophyllum oil characteristics included density test[16], viscosity test[17], oil water content
test[14], burning test, and calorie test. The characteristics of C. inophyllum oil then compared to the characteristics
of virgin coconut oil (VCO) which was also tested.

2.6. Calculation of C. inophyllum oil production potential

Estimation of C. inophyllum oil production potential was calculated using Equation 1.

‫݈݅݋ܻݔ ݕݎ݀ ݉ݔ ݏ݀݁݁ݏܻݔ ݏݐ݅ݑݎ݂ܥ‬

ܸ݁݃݁‫݈ܽ݅ݐ݊݁ݐ݋݌݊݋݅ݐܿݑ݀݋ݎ݌݈݅݋݈ܾ݁ܽݐ‬ሺ‫ܮ‬Ȁ‫݁݁ݎݐ‬Ȁ‫ݎܽ݁ݕ‬ሻ  ൌ  (1)
݉ ‫݈݅݋ ߩݔ ݐ݁ݓ‬

The area needed for C. inophyllum plantation was calculated using Equation 2.

‫ܧ‬
݈ܲܽ݊‫ܽ݁ݎܽ݊݋݅ݐܽݐ‬ሺ݄݁ܿ‫݁ݎܽݐ‬ሻ  ൌ  (2)
‫ݔ ݈݅݋ܥݔ ݈݅݋ ߩݔ ݈݅݋ܪ‬ȭ ‫ ݏ݁݁ݎݐ‬Ȁ݄ ݁ܿ‫݁ݎܽݐ‬

In Equation 1, Cfruits is C. inophyllum fruits production capacity (kg/tree/year), Y seeds is C inophyllum seeds
yield (%), mdry is C. inophyllum seeds mass after drying (kg), mwet is C. inophyllum seeds mass before drying (kg),
Yoil is oil yield (%), and ρoil is oil density (kg/L). In Equation 2, E is energy consumption (kJ/year), H oil is oil calorie
value (kJ/kg), ρoil is oil density (kg/L), Coil is oil production capacity (L/tree/year), and Σtrees/hectare is amount of trees
that can be planted in 1 hectare area (tree/hectare).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Effect of C. inophyllum oil seed moisture content on oil yield

From Fig. 2, extraction process with seed moisture content of 1.2% yields the highest oil, 33.39% (dry weight
basis) with the highest extraction efficiency, 58.07%. It is followed by the extraction with seed moisture content of
0% that yields 28.87% (dry weight basis) oil, with extraction efficiency of 50.21%. Extraction with seed moisture
content of 20% yields the lowest oil, 15.56% (dry weight basis), with the lowest extraction efficiency, 27.05%. The
180 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185

result shows that C. inophyllum oil yield effected by C. inophyllum seed moisture content. It also shows that
extraction of C. inophyllum seed with lower moisture content tends to yield higher oil. This is similar with the result
of Orhevba et al. (2013)[18] and Farsie and Singh (1985) in Orhevba et al. (2013)[18], by using neem seed and
sunflower seed respectively. It is inferred that this phenomena caused by the drying process. Drying can stimulate
the activity of membrane and cell wall hydrolyzing enzymes, and also gives heat to the seed that can denaturalyze
the protein structure inside C. inophyllum seed cell membrane. Hydrolyzing and denaturalyzing process can break
the cell wall and membrane structure, so the possibility of oil to be extracted gets higher [15].

Fig.2. The effect of C. inophyllum seed moisture content on oil yield.

Fig. 2 also shows that the oil yield tends to increase from extraction with C. inophyllum seed moisture content of
0% to 1.2%, but it decreases when the seed moisture content is 20%. This can be resulted because there is a possible
optimum seed moisture content range to be used in extraction process. According to Ferchau (2010), Owolafare et
al. (2003), and Ogunsina et al. (2008) in Orhevba et al. (2013)[18], the optimum seed moisture content for extraction
with screw press is 7-8%.
As a comparison, another research data about C. inophyllum oil extraction using screw press is also used.
According to Jahirul et al. (2013)[12],C. inophyllum oil extraction using screw press yields 26% (dry weight basis)
oil. The result is different with this paper’s result. This can be resulted by two factors, which are different fruit
sources and process condition. The C. inophyllum fruits used in this paper were collected from Cipatujah, Indonesia,
while Jahirul et al. (2013)[12] used fruits from northern Australia. Both fruit sources certainly have different
environment condition. Different environment condition, such as climate, temperature, and rainfall, can effect the oil
production inside C. inophyllum seed[15]. Then, the configuration of screw press that was used in this paper and by
Jahirul et al. (2013)[12] is also different. Different configuration, such as pressing pressure, compression ratio, and
pressing rate, can also effect oil yield from the seed[12].
Table 1 shows the characteristics of C. inophyllum oil obtained from extraction with seed moisture content
conditioning. The oil characteristic tests were carried out to validate that C. inophyllum oil obtained in this paper is
indeed a vegetable oil. Besides, it also used to analyze C. inophyllum oil potential as biodiesel feedstock.
 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185 181

Table 1. The characteristics of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning and virgin coconut oil
Characteristics C. inophyllum oil Commercial Virgin
Coconut Oil
Seed moisture Seed moisture Seed moisture Literature
(VicoBagoes)
content 0% content 1.2% content 20% [3,5,11]
Density at 27°C (g/mL) 0.907 0.910 0.927 0.906-0.944 0.896
Viscosity at 27°C (cP) 56 60 108 28.27-56.7 22
Water content of oil (%) 0.4 0.33 0.4 0.25-0.41 0.97
Fire colour Reddish orange Reddish orange Reddish orange NA Orange
Smoke colour Black Black Black NA White
Calorie value (J/g) 37,206.60 37,340.06 37,482.41 32,500-39,200 36,777.90

Density of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning lies inside the range of literature
value, which is 0.906-0.944 g/mL[3,5,11]. Density of C. inophyllum oil also lies above virgin coconut oil’s density
value. This shows that C. inophyllum oil is heavier than virgin coconut oil. C. inophyllum oil has not been further
processed, so it probably still contains polluter, such as resin.
Viscosity of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning, with the exception of seed
moisture content of 20%, lies inside the range of literature value, which is 28.27-56.7 cP[3,5,11]. It is predicted that
seed with moisture content of 20% still contains relatively high resin, so it produces oil with high viscosity value.
According to Hathurusingha (2012)[15], C. inophyllum seed contains resin up to 20% (wet weight basis). Seed with
moisture content of 1.2% and 0% probably has relatively low resin content, because the drying process has made the
resin discharge from the seed, and then it sticks to the drying container wall. The viscosity value of C. inophyllum
oil also higher than virgin coconut oil. It likely happens because C. inophyllum oil has not been further processed, so
it still contains polluter and make it more viscous.
The viscosity of C. inophyllum oil is categorized as relatively high, because the viscosity value of vegetable oil
that accepted to become biodiesel is in range of 1.63-5.16 cP[15]. The utilization of high viscosity oil as diesel
machine fuel will result bad atomization process. It will generate carbon deposit and sticky oil ring inside the
machine, and also make the lubricant oil harder because of high viscosity oil contamination. Therefore, the the C.
inophyllum oil should be further processed to lower its viscosity before it is used as biodiesel feedstock. One of the
process that can lower the viscosity of C. inophyllum oil is transesterification[1].
Water content of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning lies inside the literature
value range, which is 0.25-0.41%[3]. Water content of C. inophyllum oil is lower than virgin coconut oil. Low water
content will decrease the possibility of oil oxidation, so the quality of oil will be preserved. Low water content will
also lower the oil’s corrosivity to metal, and lower the possibility of oil’s contamination by microorganism, which
can degrade the oil[15]. Besides, it can also lower the emission caused by water burning[3].
Fire colour of the burning of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning is reddish
orange. As comparison, fire colour of virgin coconut oil burning is orange. Fire colour represents the qualitative
energy value of burning[19]. By observing on fire colour, it is presumed that C. inophyllum oil has lower energy
value than virgin coconut oil. This estimation shows that C. inophyllum oil has lower performance than virgin
coconut oil if it will be further processed as biodiesel feedstock. But, the validation of the real energy value should
be done by using calorie test.
Smoke colour of the burning of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning is black. This
shows that the oil contains polluter. If C. inophyllum oil will be used as biodiesel feedstock, it should be further
processed to remove the polluter content from the oil. On the other side, virgin coconut oil burning produces white
smoke. This probably done because virgin coconut used is a vegetable oil that has been further processed, so it
contains low polluter.
The calorie value of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning lies inside the literature
calorie value range, which is 32,500-39,200 J/g[5,11]. As comparison, virgin coconut oil’s calor value is 36,777.90
g/L, kerosene’s is 37,620 J/g[20], and cooking oil’s is 36,882.35 J/g. C. inophyllum oil calorie value is in the range
182 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185

of virgin coconut oil, kerosene, and cooking oil calory value. This result shows that C. inophyllum oil can be
considered as biodiesel feedstock.
As an overall, C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning can be used as biodiesel
feedstock. However, the seed with moisture content of 1.2% is more considerable to be used than the other two
variations, because it produces the highest oil yield. Furthermore, to use it as biodiesel feedstock, the oil should also
be further processed to lower its viscosity value.

3.2. Effect of C. inophyllum oil seed particle size on oil yield

Fig.3. The effect of C. inophyllum seed particle size on oil yield.

Fig. 3 shows that C. inophyllum seed extraction with seed particle size of 8.60 mm yields the highest oil, 33.46%
(dry weight basis), and highest extraction efficiency, 58.19%. It is followed by C. inophyllum seed extraction with
seed particle size of 2.90 mm that yields 25.95% (dry weight basis) oil, with extraction efficiency of 45.13%. The C.
inophyllum seed extraction with seed particle size of 0.81 mm yield the lowest oil, 21.88% (dry weight basis), with
the lowest extraction efficiency, 38.05%. This result shows that oil yield is effected by C. inophyllum seed particle
size. The oil yield tends to increase with the decrease of C. inophyllum seed particle size used. Shahidi (2005) in
Arlene and Ariono (2013)[14] has studied that vegetable oil yield can be increased by decreasing the seed size. The
seed size decreasing process can break the seed cell wall, and also help the heat comes inside the cell easier to help
breaking the cell wall. This will increase the possibility to extract the oil. Also, according to Shahidi (2005)[21] seed
size decreasing process can wider the contact area between screw press and the seed. This process can also increase
the possibility to extract the oil. Increasing the oil yield by decreasing the seed particle size has been proven by using
soy and cotton seed. The result from Fig. 3 has inverse tendency with the result from Arlene and Ariono (2013)[14].
It is presumed that decreasing seed size will not always increase the oil yield, because there is a seed size range limit
which will optimize the oil yield. This result can also be happened because the design of the screw press does not
suitable with seed particle size variations used. This shows that the screw press design can also effect the extraction
performance[13].
Table 2 shows the characteristics of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning with
comparison to commercial virgin coconut oil.
 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185 183

Table 2. The characteristics of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning and virgin coconut oil
Characteristics C. inophyllum oil Commercial Virgin
Coconut Oil
Seed particle Seed particle Seed particle Literature
(VicoBagoes)
size 0.81 mm size 2.90 mm size 8.60 mm [3,5,11]
Density at 27°C (g/mL) 0.915 0.913 0.916 0.906-0.944 0.896
Viscosity at 27°C (cP) 38 53 58 28.27-56.7 22
Water content of oil (%) 0.39 0.4 0.8 0.25-0.41 0.97
Fire colour Reddish orange Reddish orange Reddish orange NA Orange
Smoke colour Black Black Black NA White
Calorie value (J/g) 38,001.04 37,592.26 36,575.00 32,500-39,200 36,777.90

The density of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning lies within the literature density
value[3,5,11]. It also higher than virgin coconut oil density. This phenomena has been discussed in the previous
section.
The viscosity of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning lies inside the literature viscosity
value [3,5,11], with exception of the oil obtained from seed with particle size of 8.60 mm. It is also higher than the
viscosity of virgin coconut oil. This has been discussed in the previous section.
The water content of C. inophyllumobtained from seed particle size conditioning, with exception of seed with
particle size of 8.60 mm, lies inside the literature value [3]. But, all of them are lower than virgin coconut oil water
content. The explanation of this has been discussed in the previous section.
The burning of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning generate reddish orange fire and
black smoke. This result and its explanation are relatively similar with the result and explanation of C. inophyllum
oil obtained from seed moisture content conditioning.
The calorie value of C. inophyllum oil obtained from seed particle size conditioning lies inside the literature
calorie value range [5,11]. This result and its explanation has been also discussed in the previous section.
It can be said that the seed with particle size of 8.60 mm is more considerable to be chosen as biodiesel feedstock,
because it produces the highest oil yield. However, the oil must be further processed to gain less viscous oil.

3.3. Estimation of C. inophyllum oil production potential as biodiesel feedstock

Cipatujah Sub-district was chosen as basis of calculation because it was where the C. inophyllum fruit sample
used in this experiment obtained from. Furthermore, Cipatujah is also the habitat of C. inophyllum and has
environment condition that supports its growth and oil production. According to Hamdan (2010)[22], the area of
Cipatujah Sub-district is 24,465.45 hectares.
C. inophyllum fruit production capacity data used in this calculation is 60 kg/tree/year [3]. This data is based on
C. inophyllum trees that live in Batukaras, Pangandaran Regency. The fruit production capacity of C. inophyllum
trees that live in Cipatujah is assumed to be similar with C. inophyllum trees that live in Pangandaran, because
Cipatujah and Pangandaran are still in the same area of East Priangan. The other data used in estimation calculation
are obtained from this research and provided at Table 3.
This paper results that have been discussed in the previous section can be used as a reference for Cipatujah
people. In this case, they can use C. inophyllum seed moisture content and seed particle size that can optimize the oil
production. If the process condition in this research used by Cipatujah people to extract the C. inophyllum oil, it is
estimated that the trees in Cipatujah have potential to produce C. inophyllum oil up to 5.13 L/tree/year (Fig. 4). This
data can be used for the next research and development about C. inophyllum oil production. As an example is for the
development of C. inophyllum plantation to fulfill the Cipatujah energy demand.
184 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185

Table 3. Seed yield, dry and wet seed mass ratio, oil yield, and C. inophyllum oil density data
Data Seed moisture content conditioning Seed particle size conditioning
0% 1.2% 20% 0.81 mm 2.90 mm 8.60 mm
Seed yield (%) 37.82 36.64
Dry seed mass and wet seed mass ratio (g/g) 0.6 0.62 0.8 0.59 0.59 0.59
Oil yield (% dry weight basis) 28.99 33.5 15.62 21.97 26.05 33.73
C. inophyllum oil density (kg/L) 0.907 0.91 0.927 0.915 0.913 0.916

Fig.4. Estimation of C. inophyllum oil production in Cipatujah Sub-district

If it is assumed that Cipatujah consumed 64.5 millions MJ/year fuel[23], and there are 400 trees that can be
planted inside one hectare of area[3], the area needed to make C. inophyllum plantation is around 920.6 hectares.
Based on Cipatujah’s area, the development of C. inophyllum plantation is feasible to be done. However, further
study about its management should be carried out, so it will not give negative impacts on the society and
environment.
As discussed before, C. inophyllum oil has characteristics that supports its utilization as biodiesel feedstock.
Biodiesel can be used as fuel in Cipatujah people daily activity, such as in farming and fishery. It also can be used as
the fuel for local electricity generator. Besides of biodiesel, people of Cipatujah can also make C. inophyllum oil as
biokerosene feedstock. Biokerosene can be used as fuel for cooking activity, or as a fuel for lighting equipment.
The development of C. inophyllum as biofuel feedstock is also supported by its own added value. C. inophyllum
tree has been generally used as coast revitalization plant, windbreak plant, and shield against abrasion. Moreover, all
of C. inophyllum parts have value. For instance, its wood can be utilized as material for boat construction and high
value carving. It also contains numerous chemicals that can be used as cosmetic and pharmaceutical products[3].
The utilization of biofuel that obtained from local natural resources, like C. inophyllum in Cipatujah, hopefully
will create energy independent society without dependency on fossil based fuel. It also hopefully will decrease the
negative impacts that resulted from fossil based fuel utilization.
 Muhammad Fadhlullah et al. / Energy Procedia 68 (2015) 177 – 185 185

4. Conclusion

Drawing from the experimental results presented in this paper, it is concluded that C. inophyllum seed is highly
potential for vegetable oil production. Cipatujah Sub-district could produce C. inophyllum oil up to 5.13 L/tree/year.
Our results show that the extraction of C. inophyllum seed with moisture content of 1.2% yields the highest oil yield
of 33.39% (dry weight basis), whereas extraction of C. inophyllumseed with particle size of 8.60 mm yields the
highest oil yield of 33.46% (dry weight basis). C. inophyllum oil obtained under the experimental conditions has
characteristics that supports its utilization as biodiesel feedstock. These results can also serve as a practical reference
to local farmers and bio-oil producers. To better help the local communities, a further research could be carried out
to investigate the effects of wider climate conditions of the Cipatujah region on the production of C. inophyllum oil.

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