1.INTRODUCTION OF B.S.N.L.

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is World's 7th largest
Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range of telecom services in
India: Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service,
MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Presently it is one of the largest &
leading public sector unit in India. 
BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country and now focusing on
improving it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT
applications in villages and wining customer's confidence. Today, it has about 47.3
million line basic telephone capacity, 4 million WLL capacity, 48.11 Million GSM
Capacity, more than 37382 fixed exchanges, 44966 BTS, 3140 Node B ( 3G BTS), 287
Satellite Stations, 480196 Rkm of OFC Cable, 63730 Rkm of Microwave Network
connecting 602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 5.5 Lakhs villages.
BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and planned initiatives to
bridge the Rural-Urban Digital Divide ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in
the country to beat its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook & corner
of country and operates across India except Delhi & Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible
areas of Siachen glacier and North-eastern region of the country. BSNL serves its
customers with its wide bouquet of telecom services.
BSNL is numero uno operator of India in all services in its license area. The company
offers vide ranging & most transparent tariff schemes designed to suite every customer.
BSNL cellular service, CellOne, has more than 49.09 million cellular customers,
garnering 16.98 percent of all mobile users in its area of operation as its subscribers. In
basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with 35.1 million Basic Phone
subscribers i.e. 85 per cent share of the subscriber base and 92 percent share in revenue
terms. 
BSNL has more than 2.5 million WLL subscribers and 2.5 million Internet Customers
who access Internet through various modes viz. Dial-up, Leased Line, DIAS, Account
Less Internet(CLI). BSNL has been adjudged as the NUMBER ONE ISP in the country. 
BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure
that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone

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and Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0.6 million DataOne broadband
customers. 
The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and
Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO
9000 certified Telecom Training Institute. Scaling new heights of success, the present
turnover of BSNL is more than Rs.351,820 million (US $ 8 billion) with net profit to the
tune of Rs.99,390 million (US $ 2.26 billion) for last financial year. The infrastructure
asset on telephone alone is worth about Rs.630,000 million (US $ 14.37 billion).  BSNL
plans to expand its customer base from present 47 millions lines to 125 million lines by
December 2007 and infrastructure investment plan to the tune of Rs. 733 crores (US$
16.67million). The turnover, nationwide coverage, reach, comprehensive range of
telecom services and the desire to excel has made BSNL the No. 1 Telecom Company of
India.

2.OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:

2.1OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION HISTORY:
The use of visible optical carrier waves or light for communication has been
common for many years. Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors and,
more recently signaling lamps have provided successful, if limited, information transfer.
Moreover as early as 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech
using a light beam. The photo phone proposed by Bell just for years after the invention of
the telephone modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a
distance of 200m. However, although some investigation of the optical communication
continued in the early part of the 20 th century its use was limited to mobile, low capacity
communication links. This was due to both the lack of suitable light sources and the
problem that light transmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and
severely affected by disturbances such as rain, snow, fog dust and atmospheric
turbulence.
A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s
with the invention of the laser. This device provided a coherent light source, together
with the possibility of the modulation at high frequency. The proposals for optical

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communication via optical fibers fabricated from glass to avoid degradation of the optical
signal by the atmosphere were made almost simultaneously in 1966 by Kao and Hock
ham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as a replacement for coaxial cable system,
initially the optical fibers exhibited very high attenuation and were therefore not
comparable with the coaxial cable they were to replace. There were also problems
involved in jointing the fiber cables in a satisfactory manner to achieve low loss and to
enable the process to be performed relatively easily and repeatedly in the field. In coaxial
system the channel capacity is 300 to 10800 and the disadvantages of the coaxial system
are digging, electrical disturbance, in winter cable contracts and breaks mutual induction.
The coaxial cable loss is 0.3db per every km.
• In microwave system if we double the distance the loss will be increased by 6db.
• For the shorter distance the loss is higher.
• In ofc system Optical wire is small size, light weight, high strength and flexibility. It’s
transmission benefits includes wide band width, low loss and low cost.
• They are suitable for both analog and digital transmission.
• It is not suffered by digging, electrical interference etc. problems.
2.2 THE GENERAL SYSTEM
An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of
communication system. A block diagram of a general communication system in fig.1 The
function of which is to convey the signal from the information source over the
transmission medium to the destination. In electrical communication, the information
source provides an electrical signal, usually derived from a message signal which is not
electrical, to a transmitter comprising electrical and electronic components which
converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over the transmission medium.
The transmission medium can consists of a pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link
through free space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver where it is
transformed into original electrical information signal before being passed to the
destination.
For optical fiber communication system shown in fig b. information source
provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage which drives
an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.

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 Figure 1. Optical Fiber Communication System
The optical source which providesthe electrical, optical conversion may be either
a semiconductor laser or light emittingdiode (LED). The transmission medium consist of
an optical fiber and the receiver consist of an optical detector which drives a further
electrical stage hence provide demodulation of optical carrier. Photodiodes and in some
instances, photransistor and photoconductors are utilized for the detection of the optical
signal and the opticalelectrical conversion. The optical carrier may be modulated either
an analog or digital information signal. In the system shown in fig b. analog modulation
involves the variation of the light emitted from the optical source in a continuous manner.
With digital modulation, however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained
(on/off pulses). Although often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an optical
fiber communication system is less efficient, requiring a far higher s/n ratio at than digital
modulation. Also, the linearity needed for analog modulation is not always provided by
semiconductor optical sources, especially at high modulation frequencies.For this
reasons, analog optical fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter
distances and lower bandwidths than digital links.

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2.3 GENERAL IDEA OF OFC
The idea of fiber optics is use to light, instead of current or voltage, as the energy
which carries the signal, with the light as a carrier that is turned on and off, with binary
amplitude modulation. The problem is to direct the light from the transmitter to the
receiver. The solution is to use a hair-thin fiber of glass as a light pipe. If a light source is
put at one end, any light that enters the fiber stay in that fiber end travels through the
fiber to the other end. The light does not pass out of the walls of fiber as it travels. This is
because of a property called total internal reflection. If a light wave is traveling through a
material with a high refractive index compared to an adjacent material, and it hits the
interface between them at certain low angles, the light does not cross the boundary but
completely reflects back at the receiving end of fiber, a light detector senses the light.
Thus, the Communication medium is the fiber, and the energy used is light energy.

Figure 2. General Idea of Optical Fibre Cable

2.4 BASIC FEATURES OF FIBER OPTICS
The fiber optics has become a preferred medium due to its some important
features like:
1. The bandwidth of the fiber and light beam is extremely wide. It is possible to handle
signals which turn on and off at gigabit per second rates (1 gigabit,=1000 Mbitts).
2. The fiber itself is very thin and not expensive. The thinness means that it is easy to
handle, and many fibers can be put in the trenches or narrow conduits.
3. The light signal is absolutely immune to electrical noise from any sources. Even if
there are sources of electrical noise directly touching the cable, the electric fields of

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 the noise source cannot affect the light beam in the fiber.
4. The signal in the cable is secure from unauthorized listeners. It is relatively hard to
tap into the cable without being noticed, and the entire light signal is confined within
the fiber. No light escapes to the outside where someone else could see it.
5. Since there is no electricity or electrical energy in the fiber, it can be run in hazardous
atmospheres where the danger of explosion from spark may exist. Also, the fiber
itself is immune to many types of poisonous gases, chemicals, and water.
2.5 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF AN OPTICAL FIBER
1. Optical fibers may be produced with good stable transmission characteristics in long
lengths at a minimum cost and with maximum reproducibility.
2. A range of optical fiber types with regard to size, refractive indices and index
profiles,operating wavelengths, materials etc. be available in order to fulfill many
different system applications.
3. The fibers may be converted into practical cables which can be handled in a similar
manner to conventional electrical transmission cables without problems associated
with the degradation of their characteristics or damage.
4. The fibers and fiber cables may be terminated and connected together without
excessive [practical difficulties and in ways which limit the effect of this process on
the fiber transmission characteristics to keep them within acceptable operating levels.
It is important that these jointing techniques may be applied with ease in the field
location where cable connection takes place.
2.6 OPTICAL FIBER CABLES
When optical fibers are to be installed in a working environment their mechanical
properties are of prime importance. In this respect the unprotected optical fiber has
several disadvantages with regard to its strength and durability. Bare glass fibers are
brittle and have small cross sectional areas which make them very susceptible to damage
when employing normal transmission line handling procedures. It is therefore necessary
to cover the fibers to improve their tensile strength and to protect them against external
influences.

2.6.1 FUNCTIONS OF OPTICAL CABLES

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 The functions of the optical cable may be summarized into four main areas.
These are as follows:-
1. FIBER PROTECTION. The major function of the optical cable is to protect against
fiber damage and breakage both during installation and throughout the life of the fiber.
2. STABILITY OF THE FIBER TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS. The
cabled fiber must have good stable transmission characteristics which are comparable
with the uncabled fiber. Increases in optical attenuation due to cabling are quite usual and
must be minimized within the cable design.
3. CABLE STRENGTH. Optical cables must have similar mechanical properties to
electrical transmission cables in order that they may be handled in the same manner.
These mechanical properties include tension, torsion, compression, bending, squeezing
and vibration. Hence the cable strength may be improved by incorporating a suitable
strength member and by giving the cable a properly designed thick outer sheath.
4. IDENTIFICATION AND JOINTING OF THE FIBERS WITHIN THE CABLE.
This is especially important for cables including a large number of optical fibers. If the
fibers are arranged in a suitable geometry it may be possible to use multiple jointing
techniques rather than jointing each fiber individually.
2.7 JOINT OF FIBER
Optical fiber links, in common line communication system, have a requirement
for both jointing and termination of the transmission medium. The large number of
intermediate fiber connections or joints is dependent upon the link length, the continuous
length of the fiber cable that may be produced by the preparation methods and the length
of the fiber cable that may be practically installed as a continuous section on the link. It is
therefore apparent that fiber to fiber connection with low loss and minimum distortion
(i.e. modal noise) remains an important aspect of optical fiber communication system.
Before optical fibers splicing and joining are done certain preparations are made
with fiber or fiber cables as case may be to achieve best results at the end surface. First of
all the protective plastic that covers the glass cladding is stripped from each fiber end,
which is then cleaved with a special tool, producing a smooth and flat end.
1. FIBER SPLICES: these are semipermanent or permanent joints which find major use
in most optical fiber telecommunication system (analogous to electrical soldered joints).

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2. DEMOUNTABLE FIBER CONNECTORS OR SIMPLE CONNECTORS: these
are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and uncoupling of fibers
(analogous to electrical plugs and sockets).
The above fiber to fiber joints are designed ideally to couple all the light
propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber. By contrast fiber couplers are branching
devices that split all the light from main fiber into two or more fibers or, alternatively,
couple a proportion of the light propagating in the main fiber into main fiber.
2.7.1 FIBER SPLICES
A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field or
factory isknown as a fiber splice. Fiber splicing is frequently used to establish long haul
optical fiber links where smaller fiber lengths need to be joined, and there is no
requirement for repeated connection and disconnection. Splices may be divided into two
broad categories depending upon the splicing technique utilized. These are fusion
splicing or welding and mechanical splicing.
Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heating(e.g. by a flame or
an electric are ) at the interface between two butted, prealigned fiber ends causing them to
soften and fuse. Mechanical splicing, in which the fibers are held in alignment by some
mechanical means, may be achieved by various methods including the use of tubes
around the fiber ends (groove splices).
A requirement with fibers intended for splicing is that they have smooth and square end
faces. In general this end preparation may be achieved using a suitable tool which cleaves
the fiber as illustrated.
2.7.2 FUSION SPLICES
The fusion splicing – of single fibers involves the heating of the two prepared
fiber ends to their fusing point with the application of sufficient axial pressure between
the two optical fibers. It is therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer
coating) fiber ends are adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good
continuity of the transmission medium at the junction point. Hence the fiber are usually
positioned and clamped with the aid of an inspection microscope.
Flame heating sources such as micro plasma torches (argon and hydrogen) and
oxhydricmicroburners (oxygen, hydrogen and alcohol vapour) have been utilized with

8
some success. However, the most widely used heating source is an electric arc. This
technique offers advantages of consistent, easily controlled heat with adaptability for use
under field conditions. A schematic diagram of the basic two fibers are welded together.
Shows a development of the basic are fusion process which involves the rounding of the
fiber ends with a low energy discharge before pressing the fibers together and fusing with
a stronger arc. This technique, known as perfusion, removes the requirement for fiber end
preparation which has a distinct advantage in the field environment.
A possible drawback with fusion splicing is that the heat necessary to fuse the
fibers mayweaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice. It has been found that even with
careful handling; the tensile strength of the fused fiber may be as low as 30 % of that of
the uncoated fiber before fusion
2.8EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENT FOR SPLICING
1) Optical fiber fusion splicer specification ( spicer machine )
• AC input – 100 to 240v, frequency – 50/60Hz
• DC input 12v/aA
2) Fiber cutter
• It converts irregular shaped fiber end into smooth & flat end.
3) Chemicals used in OFC joint
• Haxene : To remove jelly from the fiber
• Acetone : for cleaning the OFC
• Iso Propenot: For smoothness of optical glass.
4) Sleeve: - To enclose fiber joint.
5) Tool Kit
6) Joint kit.
• Joint encloser
• Buffer
• Adhesive tap.
7) Generator /12V Battery
8) Cotton clothes for fiber cleaning.

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2.9 OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTROMETRY (OTDR)
A measurement technique which is far more sophisticated and which finds wide
application in both the laboratory and the field is the of optical time domain reflectometry
(OTDR). This technique is often called the backscatter measurement method. It provides
measurement of the attenuation on an optical link down its entire length giving
information on the length dependence of the link loss.
OTDR also allows splice and connector losses to be evaluated as well as the
rotation of any faults on the link. It relies upon the measurement and analysis of the
fraction of light which is reflected back within the fiber’s numerical aperture due to
Rayleigh scattering.

Figure 3. A block schematic of the backscatter measurement method

A light pulse is launched into the fiber in the forward direction from an injection
laser using either a directional coupler or a system of external lenses with a beam splitter
(usually only in the laboratory). The backscattered light is detected using an avalanche

10
photodiode receiver which drives an integrator in order to improve the received signal to
noise ratio by giving an arithmetic average over a number of measurements taken at one
point within the fiber. This provides location – dependent attenuation values which give
an overall picture of the optical loss down the link.

2.10 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATON

1.ENORMOUS POTENTIAL BANDWIDTH: - The optical carrier frequency in the
range 1013 to1016Hz (generally in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or 105 GHz) yields a far
grater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic cable systems. (i.e. coaxial cable
bandwidth up to around 500 MHz) or even millimetre wave radio systems (i.e. systems
currently operating with modulation bandwidths of 700 MHz ). At present, the bandwidth
available to fiber systems is not fully utilized but modulation at severalgigahertz over a
hundred kilometers and hundreds of megahertz over three hundred kilometers without
intervening electronics (repeaters) is possible. Therefore, the information – carrying
capacity of optical fiber systems has proved far superior to the best copper cable systems.
By comparison the losses in wideband coaxial cable systems restrict the transmission
distance to only a few kilometers at bandwidths over one hundred megahertz. Although
the usable fiber bandwidth will be extended further towards the optical carrier frequency,
it is clear that this parameter is limited by the use of a signal optical carrier signal. Hence
a much enhanced bandwidth utilization for an optical fiber can be achieved by
transmitting several optical signals, each at different centre wavelengths, in parallel on
the same fiber. This wavelength division multiplexed operation, particularly with dense
packing of the optical wavelengths ( or, essentially, fine frequency spacing ), offers the
potential for a fiber information carrying capacity which is many orders of magnitude in
excess of that obtained using copper cables or a wideband radio system.
2.SMALL SIZE AND WEIGHT: - Optical fibers have very small diameters which are
often no grater than the diameter of a human hair. Hence, even when such fibers are
covered with protective coatings they are far smaller and much lighter than
corresponding copper cables. This is a tremendous boon towards the alleviation of duct
congestion in cities, as well as allowing for an expansion of signal transmission within
mobiles such as aircraft, satellites and even ships.

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3.ELECTRICAL ISOLATION: - Optical fibers which are fabricated from glass, or
sometimes a plastic polymer, are electrical insulators and therefore, unlike their metallic
counterparts, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems. Furthermore, this
property makes optical fiber transmission ideally suited for communication in electrically
hazardous environments as the fibers create no arching or spark hazard at abrasions or
short circuits.
4.IMMUNITY TO INTERFERENCE AND CROSSTALK :- Optical fibers form a
dielectric waveguide and are therefore free from electromagnetic
interference(EMI),radiofrequency interference (RFI), or switching transients giving
electromagnetic pulses (EMP). Hence the operation of an optical fiber communication
system is unaffected by transmission through an electrically noisy environment and the
fiber cable requires no shielding from EMI. The fiber cable is also not susceptible to
lightning strikes if used overhead rather than underground. Moreover, it is fairly easy to
ensure that there is no optical interference between fibers and hence, unlike
communication using electrical conductors, crosstalk is negligible, even when many
fibers are cabled together.
5. SIGNAL SECURITY: - The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly
and therefore they provide a high degree of signal security. Unlike the situation with
copper cables, a transmitted optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a
noninvasive manner (i.e. without drawing optical power from the fiber). Therefore, in
theory, any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optically may be detected.
This feature is obviously attractive for military, banking and general data transmission
(i.e. computer network) application.
6. LOW TRANSMISSION LOSS :- The development of optical fibers over the last
twenty years has resulted in the production of optical fiber cables which exhibit very low
attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with the best copper conductors. Fibers
have been fabricated with losses as low as 0.2 dB km-1 and this feature has become a
major advantage of optical fiber communications. It facilitates the implementation of
communication links with extremely wide repeater spacing ( long transmission distances
without intermediate electronics), thus reducing both system cost and complexity.
Together with the already proven modulation bandwidth capability of fiber cable this

12
property provides a totally compelling case for the adoption of optical fiber
communication in the majority of long-haul telecommunication applications
7. RUGGEDNESS AND FLEXIBILITY :- Although protective coatings are essential,
optical fibers may be manufactured with very high tensile strengths. Perhaps surprisingly
for a glassy substance, the fibers may also be bent to quite small radii or twisted without
damage. Furthermore cable structures have been developed which have proved flexible,
compact and extremely rugged. Taking the size and weight advantage into account, these
optical fiber cables are generally superior in terms of storage, transportation, handling
and installation to corresponding copper cables, whilst exhibiting at least comparable
strength and durability.
8. SYSTEM RELIABILITY AND EASE OF MAINTENANCE :- These features
primarily stem from the low loss property of optical fiber cables which reduces the
requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal
strength. Hence with fewer repeaters, system furthermore, the reliability of the optical
components is no longer a problem with predicted lifetimes of 20 to 30 years now quite
common. Both these factors also tend to reduce maintenance time and costs.
9. POTENTIAL LOW COST :- The glass which generally provides the optical fiber
transmission medium is made from sand – not a scarce resource. So, in comparison with
copper conductors, optical fibers offer the potential for low cost line communication.
Although over recent years this potential has largely been realized in the costs of the
optical fiber transmission medium which for bulk purchases is now becoming
competitive with copper wires (i.e. twisted pairs), it has not yet been achieved in all the
other component areas associated with optical fiber communication. For example, the
costs of high performance semiconductor lasers and detector photodiodes are still
relatively high, as well as some of those concerned with the connection technology
(demountable connectors, couplers, etc. ).
2.11 DRAWBACKS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
The use of fibers for optical communication does have some drawbacks in
practice. Hence to provide a balance picture these disadvantages must be considered.
They are
1. The fragility of the bare fibers;

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2. The small size of fibers and cables which creates some difficulties with splicing and
forming connectors;
3. Some problems involved with forming low loss T- couplers;
4. Some doubts in relations to the long term reliability of optical fibers in the presence
of moisture;
5. An independent electrical power feed is required for any electronic repeaters;
6. New equipment and field practice are required;
7. Testing procedures tend to be more complex.

3. PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used
in telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport
equipment such as fibre opticand microwave radio systems. The term plesiochronous is
derived from Greek plesio, meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that
PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly, but not quite
perfectly, synchronised.
PDH is typically being replaced by Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) or
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) equipment in most telecommunications
networks.
PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same
rate, but allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By analogy, any
two watches are nominally running at the same rate, clocking up 60 seconds every
minute. However, there is no link between watches to guarantee they run at exactly the
same rate, and it is highly likely that one is running slightly faster than the other.
incorporation of optical fibers within the metallic earth of overhead electric power lines.
The European and American versions of the PDH system differ slightly in the some
technical details, but the principles are the same. The European E-carrier system is
described below.
The basic data transfer rate is a data stream of 2048 kbit/s. For speech
transmission, this is broken down into thirty 64 kbit/s channels plus two 64 kbit/s
channels used for signalling and synchronisation. Alternatively, the whole 2 Mbit/s may
be used for non speech purposes, for example, data transmission. The exact data rate of

14
the 2 Mbit/s data stream is controlled by a clock in the equipment generating the data.
The exact rate is allowed to vary some percentage (±50 ppm) on either side of an exact
2.048 Mbit/s. This means that different 2 Mbit/s data streams can be (probably are)
running at slightly different rates to one another.
In order to move multiple 2 Mbit/s data streams from one place to another, they
are combined together, or "multiplexed" in groups of four. This is done by taking 1 bit
from stream #1, followed by 1 bit from stream #2, then #3, then #4.
The transmitting multiplexer also adds additional bits in order to allow the far end
receiving multiplexer to decode which bits belong to which 2-Meg data stream, and so
correctly reconstitute the original data streams. These additional bits are called
"justification" or "stuffing" bits. Because each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams is not
necessarily running at the same rate, some compensation has to be made. The
transmitting multiplexer combines the four data streams assuming that they are running at
their maximum allowed rate. This means that occasionally, (unless the 2 Mbit/s really is
running at the maximum rate) the multiplexer will look for the next bit but it will not
have arrived. In this case, the multiplexer signals to the receiving multiplexer that a bit is
"missing". This allows the receiving multiplexer to correctly reconstruct the original data
for each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams, and at the correct, different, plesiochronous
rates.
The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8,448 kbit/s (about
8 Mbit/s). Similar techniques are used to combine four × 8 Mbit/s together, plus bit
stuffing, giving 34 Mbit/s. Four × 34 Mbit/s, gives 140. Four × 140 gives 565.
565 Mbit/s is the rate typically used to transmit data over a fibre optic system for long
distance transport. Recently, telecommunications companies have been replacing their
PDH equipment with SDH equipment capable of much higher transmission rates.

4. SDH (SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HERARCHY)

4.1 INTRODUCTION
It is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing method.
The name of hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method which is

15
synchronous by nature. The evolution of this system will assist in improving the economy
of operability and reliability of a digital network.
4.2HISTORY
In February 1988, an agreement was reached at CCITT study group XVIII in Seoul, on
set of recommendations, for a SDH representing a single world wide standard for
transporting the digital signal.The three different country standards of PDH developed
over a time period. The aim of these standards was to simplify interconnection between
network operators by allowing inter-connection of equipment from different vendors to
the extent that compatibility could be achieved. It was achieved by SDH in 1990.
4.3 DEFINITION
It is a standardized architecture for use in digital transmission network. It is based
on a synchronous multiplexing structure, which has several advantages. The FIBCOM
FOCUS AC1 product family is part of the FIBCOM product range for access and
regional telecom transmission network based on the standards and recommendations on
SDH from EISI and ITU , under technical collaboration from TELLABS Denmark A/S ,
Denmark. The FIBCOM FOCUS AC1 is a product family where STM-1 AND STM-4
Add/Drop multiplexers provides a cost efficient solution especially in small nodes where
the requirement is to add /drop a limited number of and Terminal Multiplexers (TM) are
implemented on a single module giving VC-4 ,VC-3and VC-12 connectivity .This
2Mbits/signals.The number of tributary signals can be increased to full capacity by
adding additional tributary modules.The possible protection schemes in the network
includes SNC protection of VC-4 ,VC-3 and VC-12 signals.Management of the from a
network management system.
4.4 MERITS OF SDH
1. Simplified multiplexing/demultiplexing techniques.
2. Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to
multiplex/demultiplex the entire high speed signal.
3. Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance & provisioning
capabilities .
4. Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.
5. Capable of transporting future broadband channel bit rates.

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6. Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator environment .
4.5 S.D.H. EVOLUTION
S.D.H. evolution is possible because of the following factors :
1)FIBER OPTIC BANDWIDTH : The bandwidth in Optical Fibre can be increased and
there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.
2)INTELLEGENCE : The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.
3)CUSTOMER SERVICE NEEDS :The requirement of the customer with respect to
different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional
equipment.
4.6 DIFFERENCE FROM PDH
Synchronous networking differs from PDH in that the exact rates that are used to
transport the data are tightly synchronized across the entire network, using atomic clocks.
Thissynchronization system allows entire inter-country networks to operate
synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required between elements in
the network.
Both SONET and SDH can be used to encapsulate earlier digital transmission
standards, such as the PDH standard, or used directly to support either asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) or so-called packet over SONET/SDH (POS) networking. As such,
it is inaccurate to think of SDH or SONET as communications protocols in and of
themselves, but rather as generic and all-purpose transport containers for moving both
voice and data. The basic format of an SDH signal allows it to carry many different
services in its virtual container (VC) because it is bandwidth-flexible.
4.7 ADVANTAGE
SDH supports the following services :
• Low/High speed data.
• Voice
• Interconnection of LAN
• Computer links
• Broadband ISDN transport
4.8 PRINCIPLE

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SDH defines a no. of “Containers”, each corresponding to an existing plesiochronous
rate. Each container has a “Path Overhead which provides network management
capability.
• Virtual Container = Container + POH
• All equipment is syncronised to a national clock.
• According to recommendation G-709, different combinations of VCs which
can be accommodated in the “payload” of an STM-1 frame.
• When STM-1 payload is full, more network management capability is
added to form the “Section Overhead”.
• SOH remains with payload for the fibre section between synchronous
multiplexers.
4.9 BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. STM(SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE)
This is the information structure used to support information pay load and over
head information field organized in a block frame structure which repeats every 125
micro seconds.
2. CONTAINER :
The first entry point of the PDH signal is the container in which the signal is
prepared so that it can enter into the next stage i.e. virtual container. In container- 1 the
signal speed is increased from 32 bytes to 34 bytes in the case of 2Mbps.
3. VIRTUAL CONTAINER :
In virtual container the path over head {POH) fields are organized in a block
frame structure either 125 micro seconds or 500 micro seconds. The POH information
consists of only 1 byte in VC-1 for 125 micro seconds frame. In VC-3 and VC-4, POH is
1 column of 9 bytes. The types of virtual container identified are orders VCs VC-1 and
VC-2 and higher order VC-3 and VC-4.
4. TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU) :
A tributary unit is a information structure which provides adaption between the
lower order path layer and the higher order path layer . It consists of a information pay
load.
5. TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP :

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 One or more tributaries are contained in tributary unit group. A TUG-2 consist of
homogenous assembly of identical TU-1s or TU-2. TUG-3 consists of a homogenous
assembly of TUG-2s or TU-3.
6.NETWORK NODE INTRFACE(NNI):
The interface at a network node which is used to interconnect with another
network node.
7.ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT(AU) :
It is the information structure which provides adaptation between the higher order
path layer and the multiplex section layer.
8.ADMINISTRATIVE GROUP : It is a group of same type AU.
4.10 SDH SYSTEM
It may functionally be subdivided into four parts :
1. Mechanical system
2. Transport System
3. Management System
4. Power System
1. MECHANICAL SYSTEM: This part covers the mechanical parts.
These mechanical parts are :
• RACK : It is a rectangular box of size :
600mm x 2200mm & 600mm x 1600mm
• SUBRACK : It is a mechanical frame that can be mounted in a rack. It holds the
moduls of the system. Upto three mother board groups can be mounted in this subrack.
One NE uses one, two or all three motherboard groups in the subrack. The connections
between motherboard groups are made by cables. Upto three NEs can placed in the
subrack.Empty positions in the subrack are to be covered by a coverplate. Each
motherboard section has a width which is 1/3 of the total width.
• MODULE : It is a physical unit that can be plugged into a subrack and pulled out
again.
• RCF(RACK CONNECTION FIELD) : It provides the connection of power,
protection against surge voltages with secondary power fuses or ckt breakers are
available for rack. The RCF also includes rack alarm output and LEDs.

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• SRCF(SUB RACK CONNECTION FIELD) : For wide subracks with rear cable
access as RCF.
• CABLES: Optical signals are connected on the modules in both rear and front access
systems.
2. POWER SYSTEM
Secondary Supply From Station : Dual DC supply with positive
terminal to ground. One supply can be used as protection supply for other one.
Nominal Voltage : -48V
Operating Range : -36V TO -75V
Tertiary Supply( Internal System) :
Out Put From Power Supply Module +5V & -5V
Operation Life : 15yrs
4.11 INSTALLING OPTICAL MODULES :
1. Use of adjustements or performance of procedures other than those specified here in
may result in hazards radiation exposure.
2. Keep connectors and bare fibre ends at least 25cm away from eyes.
To completely eleminate the possibility of eye damage, the far end optical module must
be turned off.
3. Never use microscopes or magnifying glasses in connection with laser beam (from
fibre ends or connection).
4. To avoid damage to sensitive ckts, use an antistatic bracelet.
4.12 THE BASIC UNIT OF TRANSMISSION
The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module
level - 1), which operates at 155.52 Mbit/s.
4.13 FRAMING
In packet-oriented data transmission such as Ethernet, a packet frame usually
consists of a header and a payload. The header is transmitted first, followed by the
payload (and possibly a trailer, such as a CRC). In synchronous optical networking, this
is modified slightly. The header is termed the overhead and instead of being transmitted
before the payload, is interleaved with it during transmission. Part of the overhead is

20
transmitted, then part of the payload, then the next part of the overhead, then the next part
of the payload, until the entire frame has been transmitted. The STM-1 frame is 2430
octets in size. In the case of anSTM-1, 9 octets of overhead are transmitted, followed by
261 octets of payload. This is repeated nine times over until 2,430 octets have been
transmitted, also taking 125 microseconds. For SDH, this is normally represented by the
frame being displayed graphically as a block: of 270 columns and 9 rows for STM1.
This representation aligns all the overhead columns, so the overhead appears as a
contiguous block, as does the payload.
The internal structure of the overhead and payload within the frame differs
slightly between SONET and SDH, and different terms are used in the standards to
describe these structures. Their standards are extremely similar in implementation
making it easy to interoperate between SDH and SONET at particular bandwidths.
It is worth noting that the choice of a 125-microsecond interval is not an arbitrary one. If
one octet is extracted from the bitstream every 125 microseconds, this produces a data
rate of 8 bits per 125 microseconds - or 64 kbit/s, the basic digital signaling rate for
telecommunication systems world wide.
4.13.1 A STM-1 FRAME:
The first 9 columns contain the overhead and the pointers.forsimplicity, the frame is
shown as a rectangular structure of 270 columns and 9 rows but, in practice, the protocol
does not transmit the bytes in this order.

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 Figure 5.Basic Frame
For the sake of simplicity, the frame is shown as a rectangular structure of 270
columns and 9 rows. The first 3 rows and 9 columns contain Regenerator Section
Overhead (RSOH) and the last 5 rows and 9 columns contain Multiplex Section
Overhead (MSOH). The 4th row from the top contains pointerThe STM-1 (Synchronous
Transport Module level - 1) frame is the basic transmission format for SDH or the
fundamental frame or the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1
frame is transmitted in exactly 125 microseconds, therefore there are 8000 frames per
second on a fiber-optic circuit designated OC-3 (optical carrier three). The STM-1 frame
consists of overhead and pointers plus information payload. The first 9 columns of each
Figure 6. Basic STM Frame

frame make up the Section Overhead and Administrative Unit Pointers, and the last 261
columns make up the Information Payload. The pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes) identify
Administrative Units (AU) within the information payload.
Carried within the Information Payload, which has its own frame structure of 9
rows and 261 columns, are Administrative Units identified within the information
payload by pointers. Within the Administrative Unit is one or more Virtual Containers
(VC). VC contain Path Overhead and VC payload. The first column is for Path Overhead;

22
it’s followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other containers.
Administrative units can have any phase alignment within the STM frame, and this
alignment is indicated by the Pointer in row four. The Section overhead of an STM-1
signal (SOH) is divided into two parts:
The Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH) and the Multiplex Section Overhead
(MSOH). The overheads contain information from the system itself, which is used for a
wide range of management functions, such as monitoring transmission quality, detecting
failures, managing alarms, data communication channels, service channels, etc.
The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion, byte-by-byte, row-
by-row.
STM–1 frame contains
 1 octet = 8 bit
 Total content : 9 x 270 octets = 2430 octets
 overhead : 8 rows x 9 octets
 pointers : 1 row x 9 octets
 payload : 9 rows x 261 octets
 Period : 125 μsec
 Bitrate : 155.520 Mbit/s (2430 octets x 8 bits x 8000 frame/s )
payload capacity : 150.336 Mbit/s (2349 x 8 bits x 8000 frame/s)
The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the left to right and top to
bottom.
4.13.2 FRAMING STRUCTURE
The frame consists of two parts, the transport overhead and the path virtual envelope.
1.TRANSPORT OVERHEAD
The transport overhead is used for signaling and measuring transmission error rates, and
is composed as follows:
 Section overhead - called RSOH (Regenerator Section Overhead) in SDH
terminology: 27 octets containing information about the frame structure required
by the terminal equipment.

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  Line overhead - called MSOH (Multiplex Section Overhead) in SDH: 45 octets
containing information about alarms, maintenance and error correction as may be
required within the network.
 Pointer – It points to the location of the J1 byte in the payload.
2.PATH VIRTUAL ENVELOPE : Data transmitted from end to end is referred to as
path data. It is composed of two components:
1.Payload overhead (POH): 9 octets used for end to end signaling and error measurement.
2.Payload: user data (2340 octets for STM-1)
Higher speed circuits are formed by successively aggregating multiples of slower
circuits, their speed always being immediately apparent from their designation. For
example, STM-4.
The highest rate that is commonly deployed is the STM-64 circuit, which
SDH level Payload operates at rate of just under 10 Gbit/s.
Line Rate
and Frame bandwidth Speeds beyond 10 Gbit/s are
(kbit/s)
Format (kbit/s) technically viable and are under
STM-0 50,112 51,840 evaluation.
STM-1 150,336 155,520 [Few vendors are offering
STM-4 601,344 622,080 STM-256 rates now, with speeds of
– 1,202,688 1,244,160 nearly 40Gbit/s]. Where fiber
STM-16 2,405,376 2,488,320 exhaustion is a concern, multiple SDH

STM-64 9,621,504 9,953,280 signals can be transported over

STM-256 38,486,016 39,813,120 multiple wavelengths over a single

STM-1024 153,944,064 159,252,240 fiber pair by means of Wavelength

division multiplexing, including dense
wave division multiplexing (DWDM) and Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
DWDM circuits are the basis for all modern transatlantic cable systems and other long-
haul circuits.
4.14 SDH DATA RATES:
In the above table, Payload bandwidth is the line rate less the bandwidth of the
line and section overheads. User throughput must also deduct path overhead from this,
but path overhead bandwidth is variable based on the types of cross-connects built across

24
the optical system. Note that the data rate progression starts at 155Mb/s and increases by
multiples of 4.
The next logical rate of 160 Gb/s STM-1024 has not yet been standardised, due to
the cost of high-rate transceivers and the ability to more cheaply multiplex wavelengths
at 10 and 40 Gb/s.
4.15 EQUIPMENT:
With recent advances in SDH chipsets, the traditional categories of NEs are
breaking down. Nevertheless, as Network architectures have remained relatively
constant, even newer equipment (including "Multiservice Provisioning Platforms") can
be examined in light of the architectures they will support. Thus, there is value in viewing
new (as well as traditional) equipment in terms of the older categories.
4.15.1 REGENERATOR
Traditional regenerators terminate the section overhead, but not the line or path.
Regenerators extend long haul routes in a way similar to most regenerators, by converting
an optical signal that has already traveled a long distance into electrical format and then
retransmitting a regenerated high-power signal.
Since the late 1990s, regenerators have been largely replaced by Optical
Amplifiers. Also, some of the functionality of regenerators has been absorbed by the
transponders of Wavelength Division Multiplexing systems.
4.15.2ADD-DROP MULTIPLEXER
Add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) are the most common type of NEs. Traditional
ADMs were designed to support one of the Network Architectures, though new
generation systems can often support several architectures, sometimes simultaneously.
ADMs traditionally have a "high speed side" (where the full line rate signal is supported),
and a "low speed side", which can consist of electrical as well as optical interfaces. The
low speed side takes in low speed signals which are multiplexed by the NE and sent out
from the high speed side, or vice verca.
4.16 SYNCHRONIZATION
Clock sources used by Synchronization in telecommunications networks are rated
by quality, commonly called a 'stratum' level. Typically, a network element uses the

25
highest quality stratum available to it, which can be determined by monitoring the
Synchronization Status Messages(SSM) of selected clock sources.
As for Synchronization sources available to an NE, these are:
 Local External Timing. This is generated by an atomic Caesium clock or a
satellite-derived clock by a device in the same central office as the NE. The
interface is often a DS1, with Sync Status Messages supplied by the clock and
placed into the DS1 overhead.
TIMING LOOPS
A timing loop occurs when NEs in a network are each deriving their timing from
other NEs, without any of them being a "master" timing source. This network loop will
eventually see its own timing "float away" from any external networks, causing
mysterious bit errors and ultimately, in the worst cases, massive loss of traffic. The
source of these kinds of errors can be hard to diagnose. In general, a network that has
been properly configured should never find itself in a timing loop, but some classes of
silent failures could nevertheless cause this issue.

5. DWDM TECHNOLOGY
5.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF DWDM TECHNOLOGY
The emergence of DWDM is one of the most recent and important phenomena in
the development of fiber optic transmission technology. In the following discussion we
briefly trace the stages of fiber optic technology and the place of DWDM in that
development. We then examine the functions and components of a DWDM system,
including the enabling technologies, and conclude with a high-level description of the
operation of a DWDM system.
5.2 EVOLUTION OF FIBER OPTIC TRANSMISSION
The reality of fiber optic transmission had been experimentally proven in the nineteenth
century, but the technology began to advance rapidly in the second half of the twentieth
century with the invention of the fiberscope, which found applications in industry and
medicine, such as in laparoscopic surgery.

26
Light has an information-carrying capacity 10,000 times greater than the highest radio
frequencies. Additional advantages of fiber over copper include the ability to carry
signals over long distances, low error rates, immunity to electrical interference, security,
and light weight.
Further developments in fiber optics are closely tied to the use of the specific
regions on the optical spectrum where optical attenuation is low. These regions, called
windows, lie between areas of high absorption. The earliest systems were developed to
operate around 850 nm, the first window in silica-based optical fiber. A second window
(S band), at 1310 nm, soon proved to be superior because of its lower attenuation,
followed by a third window (C band) at 1550 nm with an even lower optical loss. Today,
a fourth window (L band) near 1625 nm is under development and early deployment.
These four windows are shown relative to the electromagnetic spectrum in figure 7.

Figure 7. Wavelength Regions

5.3 DEVELOPMENT OF DWDM TECHNOLOGY

Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths in the
1310 nm and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes called wideband
WDM. Figure 8-shows an example of this simple form of WDM. Notice that one of the
fiber pair is used to transmit and one is used to receive. This is the most efficient
arrangement and the one most found in DWDM systems.

27
 Figure 8. WDM with Two Channels
As Figure 9 shows, the progression of the technology can be seen as an increase
in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the
wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in
their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management
capabilities.

Figure 9. Evolution of DWDM

Increases in channel density resulting from DWDM technology have had a dramatic
impact on the carrying capacity of fiber. In 1995, when the first 10 Gbps systems were
demonstrated, the rate of increase in capacity went from a linear multiple of four every
four years to four every year (see Figure 4).

28
 Figure 10. Growth in Fiber Capacity
5.4 DWDM SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
At its core, DWDM involves a small number of physical-layer functions. These
are depicted in figure 11, which shows a DWDM schematic for four channels. Each
optical channel occupies its own wavelength.

Figure 11. DWDM Functional Schematic

The system performs the following main functions:
• Generating the signal—The source, a solid-state laser, must provide stable light
within a specific, narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog
signal.
• Combining the signals—Modern DWDM systems employ multiplexers to combine
the signals. There is some inherent loss associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing.

29
This loss is dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated with optical
amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once without electrical conversion.
• Transmitting the signals—The effects of crosstalk and optical signal degradation or
loss must be reckoned with in fiber optic transmission. These effects can be minimized
by controlling variables such as channel spacings, wavelength tolerance, and laser power
levels. Over a transmission link, the signal may need to be optically amplified.
• Separating the received signals—At the receiving end, the multiplexed signals must
be separated out. Although this task would appear to be simply the opposite of combining
the signals, it is actually more technically difficult.
• Receiving the signals—The demultiplexed signal is received by a photodetector.
In addition to these functions, a DWDM system must also be equipped with client-side
interfaces to receive the input signal. This function is performed by transponders On the
DWDM side are interfaces to the optical fiber that links DWDM systems.
5.5 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
Optical networking, unlike SONET/SDH, does not rely on electrical data
processing. As such, its development is more closely tied to optics than to electronics.
5.6 COMPONENTS AND OPERATION
DWDM is a core technology in an optical transport network. The essential
components of DWDM can be classified by their place in the system as follows:
• On the transmit side, lasers with precise, stable wavelengths
• On the link, optical fiber that exhibits low loss and transmission performance in the
relevant wavelength spectra, in addition to flat-gain optical amplifiers to boost the signal
on longer spans
• On the receive side, photodetectors and optical demultiplexers using thin film filters
or diffractive elements
• Optical add/drop multiplexers and optical cross-connect components
5.7 OPTICAL FIBERS
The following discussion of DWDM components and technologies includes a
refresher on optical fibers, with emphasis on their application for DWDM.
5.7.1 FIBER WORKING
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:
30
• Beams pass from a more dense to a less dense material. The difference between the
optical density of a given material and a vacuum is the material's refractive index.
• The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of
incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.
The principle of total internal reflection within a fiber core is illustrated in Figure 12.The core
has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that surface at less
than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the critical angle
requirement and is refracted.

Figure 12. Principle of Total Internal Reflection

5.7.1.1MULTIMODE AND SINGLE-MODE FIBER

There are two general categories of optical fiber in use today, multimode fiber and
single-mode fiber. Multimode, the first type of fiber to be commercialized, has a larger
core than single-mode fiber. It gets its name from the fact that numerous modes, or light
rays, can be carried simultaneously through the waveguide. Figure13  shows an example
of light transmitted in the first type of multimode fiber, called step-index.

31
 Figure 13. Reflected Light in Step-Index Multimode Fiber

The second general type of fiber, single-mode, has a much smaller core that
allows only one mode of light at a time through the core (see Figure14 ). As a result, the
fidelity of the signal is better retained over longer distances, and modal dispersion is
greatly reduced. These factors attribute to a higher bandwidth capacity than multimode
fibers are capable of. For its large information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss,
single-mode fibers are preferred for longer distance and higher bandwidth applications,
including DWDM.

Figure 14. Reflected Light in Single-Mode Fiber

As optical fiber use became more common and the needs for greater bandwidth
and distance increased, a third window, near 1550 nm, was exploited for single-mode

32
transmission. The third window, or C band, offered two advantages: it had much lower
attenuation, and its operating frequency was the same as that of the new erbium-doped
fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). However, its dispersion characteristics were severely limiting.
This was overcome to a certain extent by using narrower linewidth and higher power
lasers. But because the third window had lower attenuation than the 1310-nm window,
manufacturers came up with the dispersion-shifted fiber design, which moved the zero-
dispersion point to the 1550-nm region. Although this solution now meant that the lowest
optical attenuation and the zero-dispersion points coincided in the 1550-nm window, it
turned out that there are destructive nonlinearities in optical fiber near the zero-dispersion
point for which there is no effective compensation. Because of this limitation, these fibers
are not suitable for DWDM applications.
5.8 TRANSMISSION CHALLENGES
Transmission of light in optical fiber presents several challenges that must be
dealt with. These fall into the following three broad categories:
• Attenuation—decay of signal strength, or loss of light power, as the signal propagates
through the fiber
• Chromatic dispersion—spreading of light pulses as they travel down the fiber
• Nonlinearities—cumulative effects from the interaction of light with the material
through which it travels, resulting in changes in the lightwave and interactions between
lightwaves
Each of these effects has several causes, not all of which affect DWDM. The discussion
in the following sections addresses those causes that are relevant to DWDM.
5.8.1 ATTENUATION
Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by intrinsic factors, primarily scattering and
absorption, and by extrinsic factors, including stress from the manufacturing process, the
environment, and physical bending..
The primary factors affecting attenuation in optical fibers are the length of the fiber and
the wavelength of the light. Figure15  shows the loss in decibels per kilometer (dB/km)
by wavelength from Rayleigh scattering, intrinsic absorption, and total attenuation from
all causes. Attenuation in fiber is compensated primarily through the use of optical
amplifier.

33
 Figure 15.Total Attenuation Curve
5.8.2DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulses as they travel down optical fiber. Dispersion
results in distortion of the signal (see figure 16), which limits the bandwidth of the fiber.

Figure 16. Principle of Dispersion

Two general types of dispersion affect DWDM systems. One of these effects,
chromatic dispersion, is linear while the other, polarization mode dispersion (PMD), is
nonlinear.
5.9 MULTIPLEXERS AND DEMULTIPLEXERS

34
 Because DWDM systems send signals from several sources over a single fiber,
they must include some means to combine the incoming signals. This is done with a
multiplexer, which takes optical wavelengths from multiple fibers and converges them
into one beam. At the receiving end the system must be able to separate out the
components of the light so that they can be discreetly detected. Demultiplexers perform
this function by separating the received beam into its wavelength components and
coupling them to individual fibers. Demultiplexing must be done before the light is
detected, because photodetectors are inherently broadband devices that cannot selectively
detect a single wavelength.
In a unidirectional system (see Figure 17), there is a multiplexer at the sending
end and a demultiplexer at the receiving end. Two system would be required at each end
for bidirectional communication, and two separate fibers would be needed.

Figure17. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in a Unidirectional System

In a bidirectional system, there is a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end (see

Figure 18) and communication is over a single fiber pair.

Figure 18.Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in a Bidirectional System

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 Multiplexers and demultiplexers can be either passive or active in design. Passive
designs are based on prisms, diffraction gratings, or filters, while active designs combine
passive devices with tunable filters. The primary challenges in these devices is to
minimize cross-talk and maximize channel separation. Cross-talk is a measure of how
well the channels are separated, while channel separation refers to the ability to
distinguish each wavelength.

36