Estuarin
Estuarin
Estuarin
77, 757–771
Research Article
DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2007.073
BYONGCHEON YANG,1 ROBERT W. DALRYMPLE,2 MURRAY K. GINGRAS,1 SEUNGSOO CHUN,3 AND HEEJUN LEE4
1
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, 1-26 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
2
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada
3
Faculty of Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Chonnam National University, Kwangju 500-757, Korea
4
Marine Geology Laboratory, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Ansan, P.O. Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Korea
e-mail: tidalite@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT: Integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic studies from the open-mouthed, Gomso Bay estuary on the western
Korean coast have revealed that both tides and waves play an important role in estuarine sedimentation. Because of up-estuary
decrease in wave energy, physical structures pass up-estuary from wave-dominated planar lamination and hummocky cross-
stratification to tide-dominated heterolithic stratification. The infaunal distribution is sensitive to physiological stresses, and
traces increase in size from the inner bay to the outer bay. The mappable trends in sedimentary facies and ichnofacies appear to
be oblique to the estuarine margin in the outer and middle bays because of wave refraction, whereas facies belts in the inner bay
are parallel to the estuary margin, reflecting tide-dominated conditions.
Although useful estuarine facies models have been constructed from a growing number of modern and ancient studies, the
estuarine classification schemes based on tidal range and geomorphic elements are apparently in conflict. Modern examples
from Willapa Bay and this study confirm that the facies-belt model should be considered to be the most useful in applying the
estuarine classification, and estuary morphology is related directly to the tidal prism rather than tidal range. In this context, the
study results can be used to make interpretations of the geometry of coastlines and clastic reservoirs in ancient examples.
INTRODUCTION the strong tidal currents. As a result, sedimentation within the estuary
appears to be influenced by the combination of tides and waves. The
Coastal zones are inherently complex because of the interplay of many
sedimentological and biological aspects of this embayment have been
processes, resulting in substantial variability in coastal-zone morphology
investigated extensively over the past 20 years (e.g., Korea Ocean
and deposits (e.g., Davis 1985; Reading and Collinson 1996; Harris et al.
Research and Development Institute 1994; Kim et al. 1999). Despite this
2002). To simplify their complexity, coastal environments have generally
work, there is no system-scale study that considers the interrelationship of
been classified on the basis of the single major process into distinct river-,
the various parts of the entire estuary. The main purpose of this study is
tide-, and wave-dominated categories (e.g., Boyd et al. 1992; Harris et al.
to describe the up-estuary variation in sedimentary facies and ichnocoe-
2002). However, the greater part of the world coast is mixed-energy, in
noses using an extensive set of cancores and sedimentation-rate data.
that both wave and tidal processes operate with sub-equal intensity (e.g.,
Because organisms have limited tolerance for physiologically stressful
Short 1991; Yang et al. 2005). The morphology and facies, therefore, environments (Gingras et al. 2002b; Buatois et al. 2005), we believe that
differ to some degree from the simplified end-member models (e.g., Fan et integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic studies provide a valuable tool
al. 2004; Yang et al. 2005). The existence of coastal settings that are for reconstructing estuarine deposits.
intergradational between shorefaces and tidal flats has been highlighted
recently by Yang et al. (2005). Here, we show that a similar concept can
GEOLOGIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTINGS
be usefully applied to estuaries.
The current facies models for estuaries (Dalrymple et al. 1992) focus The Gomso Bay estuary is a funnel-shaped, coastal embayment that
exclusively on end-member (wave- or tide-dominated) cases (Fig. 1) and can be considered to be a piedmont-type estuary because of its
do not represent mixed-energy estuaries effectively. Although many mountainous catchment area (ca. 300 km2). The bedrock around the
geologists acknowledge the existence of mixed-energy estuaries, the actual Gomso Bay estuary is composed mainly of Cretaceous volcanics, Jurassic
characteristics of such estuaries are largely unknown because there have granite, and Precambrian crystalline schist (National Geography Institute
been very few detailed studies of such systems (e.g., Clifton 1983; Allen 1981). The estuary, which opens westward to the Yellow Sea with no
and Posamentier 1994). protection except for a low-relief ‘‘incipient barrier’’ (Fig. 3), is about
The Gomso Bay estuary, located on the western coast of Korea 25 km long and 8 km wide at its mouth. The incipient barrier differs from
(Fig. 2A, B), is characterized by the absence of a coastal barrier and, a classic coastal barrier in that it is completely submerged at high tides
consequently, has an open-mouthed morphology (Fig. 2C). Thus, open- and exposed during low tides, when its seaward face becomes an
sea waves can enter the estuary relatively freely and are superimposed on extension of the beach-swash zone. It is ca. 1 km wide and 1 m high
relative to the adjacent areas, and has a smoothly curved planform typhoons that enter the Yellow Sea once a year on average, leaving severe
reflecting the refraction of the incident waves (Fig. 3). impacts on the western coast of Korea (e.g., Yang et al. 2005). In
Over 80% (70 km2 out of 85 km2) of the estuary is occupied by contrast, strong, northerly winds dominate during the winter, generating
extensive intertidal flats, which are best developed on the southern flank. significant wave heights of up to 4 m in the vicinity of Gomso Bay (Kim
A pronounced tidal channel with water depths up to 20 m runs parallel to et al. 2003).
the northern coast (Fig. 2C). It connects directly with the Kangsun
stream at the estuary head, while a southern branch links to the Chujin DATA COLLECTION
stream (Fig. 3). Both streams supply meager amounts of terrigenous
sediment, due to upstream dams. In the subtidal zone at the bay entrance, To describe estuarine sedimentology and ichnology, three sampling
a seaward-extending, arcuate morphology that we interpret to be an ebb- transects were established across the intertidal flat on the southern flank,
tidal delta is developed (Fig. 2C). along which metal stakes were installed at 100 m intervals to allow
The region surrounding Gomso Bay receives 1100–1300 mm of persistent sampling over the study period (Fig. 2C). Along the survey
precipitation annually; rainfall is pronouncedly monsoonal, with most lines, the surface sediment at each station was sampled seasonally from
(ca. 750 mm) falling in the June–August summer season (Korea the topmost 1 cm using a spatula. Additionally, samples were also
Meteorological Administration 1998). During this season, short-term collected at 123 locations (‘‘x’’ marks in Fig. 2C) throughout the
dramatic lowering of salinity is associated with local flooding when daily intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. Grain-size analyses were conducted
precipitation reaches up to 150 mm. At other times of the year, the after organic matter and calcium carbonate were removed. The dried sand
salinity variability is negligible due to low river discharge, ranging from fraction was analyzed using a sieve interval of 0.5 w, and the mud fraction
32–35% at the baymouth to 28–30% at the bayhead. was analyzed using a Sedigraph 5100. Topography along the survey lines
The tides are semidiurnal with diurnal and fortnight inequalities of ca. was measured using a level (Sokkia B21) during a succession of field
70 cm, a mean range of 4.33 m, and an average spring-tide range of 6 m surveys conducted in 2000 and 2001, in order to characterize the seasonal
(Fig. 4). Peak strengths of the ebb and flood currents in the main channel variation in tidal-flat elevation and the patterns of erosion and
are 1.5 m/s and 1.2 m/s, respectively, while maximum velocities of 0.6 m/s deposition. Cancores (30 cm deep 3 18 cm wide 3 6 cm thick), also
(ebb) and 0.5 m/s (flood) have been observed on the tidal flat near the known as boxcores, were collected at a 300 m interval along the survey
baymouth (National Geography Institute 1981). The wind regime in this lines (Fig. 2C) on a seasonal basis, and epoxy relief peels were prepared to
area is controlled by the monsoonal climate. Weak, southerly winds are document the physical and biological structures. In addition, muddy
dominant during the summer, generally maintaining calm seas and low sediments were X-radiographed because of the difficulty of making peels
wave energy (significant wave height , 1 m) except during the infrequent due to the limited penetration of the epoxy.
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 759
The degree of bioturbation within facies is characterized using In the summer, the surface mud layer, which progressively thins
a bioturbation index (BI) that ranges from 0 to 6; in this scheme, landward from 15 cm to 5 cm thick, grades landward into the high-tide
BI 5 0 is non-bioturbated and BI 5 6 indicates complete bioturbation beach sands (Fig. 7A). The interlaminated sand and mud within this layer
(Taylor and Goldring 1993). We assign the following values: BI 0 5 0% locally shows an upward-fining trend, caused by an upward decrease in
bioturbation, BI 1 5 1–4%, BI 2 5 5–30%, BI 3 5 31–60%, BI the thickness and number of sand layers (e.g., Fig. 7B). This overall trend
4 5 61–90%, BI 5 5 91–99%, and BI 6 5 100%, where the percentages may be punctuated by one to three, smaller-scale fining-upward
are percentages of the area of each peel or radiograph. successions that are bounded by sharp-based sandier intervals.
In the winter deposits, planar lamination and gently inclined to curved
ESTUARINE CONFIGURATION lamination (Fig. 7C, E, F), which we interpret to be hummocky cross-
stratification (HCS) (Yang et al. 2006), predominates in the lower and
The Gomso Bay estuary comprises three major depositional environ- middle flats but decreases in abundance landward with an increase in the
ments, the outer, middle, and inner bays (Fig. 3), based on the surface abundance of ripple cross-lamination. Individual sets of HCS vary from 5
sediments, sedimentation dynamics, sedimentary facies, and ichnocoe- to 25 cm thick (Fig. 7C, E, F). The ripple cross-lamination commonly
noses. Each of these areas is, in turn, characterized by a typical zonation shows offshoot geometry and/or chevron upbuilding of ripple crests with
of the intertidal region, from the upper flats near the high-tide line to the some landward dipping cross-lamination (e.g., Fig. 7E, F). In many peels,
lower flats adjacent to the main channel. two types of structural successions, which are described by Yang et al. (in
press), can be discerned. Type 1 successions, which predominate, begin
The Outer Bay with an erosional surface that is locally overlain by mud pebbles, shell
fragments, and/or planar lamination, followed by HCS, and topped by
Morphology and Sediments.—The outer bay is primarily characterized ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 7C, E). The HCS is characterized by
by a broad, open-coast tidal flat (sensu lato; Yang et al. 2005) with a slope a curved-erosional base and grades upward into flat lamination (cf. Dott
gradient of 0.0015. Its topographic profile is concave-up and generally and Bourgeois 1982) (Fig. 7E, F). In contrast, Type 2 successions begin
featureless (Fig. 5), with only minor topographic undulations interpreted with ripple cross-lamination that is underlain locally by a thin mud layer.
here as wave-formed swash bars that lie parallel to the local coastline and The ripples are overlain erosionally by planar lamination or HCS (e.g.,
are breached by shallow, shore-normal runoff channels (Fig. 3). These Fig. 7E), which is, in turn, topped by ripple cross-lamination. For a more
intertidal swash bars generally have a wavelength of 100–300 m and detailed description, the reader is referred to Yang et al. (in press).
a height of 0.3–0.5 m (Fig. 5). They migrate only during storms and The outer-bay deposits are dominated by a mixed-ethology suite of
eventually either weld onto the beach that occurs at the high-tide level or, traces (Table 1; Fig. 7). The modal burrow diameter generally decreases
in more sheltered areas, stall on the upper mud flat to form a chenier (Lee both landwards and headwards: in shore-normal transects, the modal
et al. 1994). The incipient barrier (Fig. 3) is substantially larger and more diameter of burrows on the upper flat is 4 mm, but 8 mm on the lower
continuous than these swash bars, but, like them, is composed of well to flat. Planolites and fugichnia are the dominant traces in the upper flats
moderately sorted fine to medium sands with moderate amounts of shell (70–80%, BI 4). Biogenic mottling due to sediment grazers is also
fragments. common (Fig. 7A, D). Small Skolithos and Planolites attributed to
Topographic profiling over the course of a two-year period shows threadworms are present but typically are not preserved. The middle flat
seasonal changes in surface elevation (Fig. 5). The lower flat generally is more sparsely burrowed (20–30%, BI 2; Fig. 7B, E) and is dominated
experiences erosion during the winter and deposition during the summer, by larger Planolites, the modal diameter of which is 6 mm. Skolithos and
whereas the upper flat near the high-tide shoreline experiences de- fugichnia are also present. Razor-clam traces (Siphonichnus) are
position during the winter. Summer deposition on the lower flat sporadically observed. These traces are superimposed on decimeter-scale
generally consists of muddy sediments that are removed during the wave-ripple-laminated sand. The lower flat ranges from almost unbur-
winter. Mud accumulates at an average rate of ca. 4 mm/month in rowed (BI 0 and 1) to highly bioturbated (BI 5; e.g., Fig. 7F). These
response to low wave energy, and benthic-organic processes (e.g., deposits are dominated by larger Planolites, the modal diameter of which
microbial mats) and intense solar insolation that stabilize the fine-grained is 8 mm. Skolithos and fugichnia are locally common. Traces are
sediment due to dewatering (cf. Anderson and Howell 1984; Yang et al. superimposed on wave-ripple-laminated sand and hummocky cross-
2005). Winter deposition on the upper flat occurs as a result of the stratified sand.
landward migration of the swash bars and their attachment to the high-
tide beach.
Because the surficial mud layer that accumulates during the summer is The Middle Bay
ephemeral (cf. Yang et al. 2005), the winter sediment distribution is
representative of the preserved deposits. At this time, the tidal-flat Morphology and Sediments.—The middle bay is mainly characterized
sediments typically coarsen toward the high-tide shoreline, from fine to by a broad intertidal flat with a slope of ca. 0.0013, where a sparse
very fine sands across much of the flat, to medium-grained, shelly sand in network of broad tidal creeks has been developed. The morphology of
the high-tide beach or the chenier. Overall, grain-size contours are, these creeks is more or less straight to gently sinuous (Fig. 3). Swash bars
however, oblique (i.e., diagonal) to the coastline (Fig. 6A), with coarser are not present. Sediments are composed of muddy sand and sandy mud
sediments occurring on the crest of the incipient barrier. Sand content with a small amount of shell fragments. Mean grain size varies from 5.5 to
parallels the trend of mean grain size, increasing inward and upward from 4 w, showing an obliquely seaward-coarsening trend (Fig. 6A). Sand
, 50% on the outermost flats to . 90% at the high-tide shoreline and on content ranges from 25% on the upper flat to 60% on the lower flat
parts of the incipient barrier (Fig. 6B). Sorting appears to be in good (Fig. 6B). Sediment sorting ranges from poorly sorted in mud and sandy
agreement with grain size, ranging from well sorted in sand to moderately mud to moderately sorted in muddy sand.
sorted in muddy sand.
Physical and Biological Characteristics.—A seasonal variation in
Physical and Biological Characteristics.—The cancore peels show sedimentary facies occurs but is not as conspicuous as that in the outer
a remarkable seasonal variation between muddy, heterolithic stratifica- bay (Fig. 8A–F); the winter deposits consist of somewhat coarser
tion in the summer and sand in the winter (Fig. 7). sediments and are less bioturbated (Fig. 8D–F). In the lower flat, the
760 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 761
FIG. 3.— Satellite image of the Gomso Bay estuary (http://earth.google.com) showing the three-fold zonation of the extensive tidal flats along its southern flank.
Extensive reclamation has occurred here because of the progradational nature of these flats. An arcuate incipient barrier runs diagonally across the outer part of the bay
at the boundary between the outer and middle tidal flats. It is slightly raised (ca. 1 m) and coarser grained than the surrounding flats.
FIG. 2.—A) Regional map of the China and Korean coasts around the Yellow Sea (inset). B) Map showing the western coast of Korea where extensive tidal flats (gray)
are developed because of the large tidal range and abundant sediment. The dotted box indicates study area (the Gomso Bay estuary). Arrow indicates the Wido tide
station (cf. Fig. 4). C) Detailed map of the Gomso Bay estuary showing bathymetry (datum based on mean sea level), sampling stations, and survey lines. A broad tidal
flat has developed along the southern flank. Limited amounts of terrestrial sediment are supplied to the estuary through the two small streams (Chujin and Kangsun). The
arcuate bathymetric feature at the bay entrance (gray-filled area) may represent an ebb-tidal delta. Ticks on survey lines have a spacing of 100 m. MD, HJ, and SU denote
the Mandole, Hajeon, and Sunwoon survey lines, respectively.
762 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
cancore peels are dominated by ripple cross-lamination with small and have a sharp erosional base. It is either erosionally overlain by HCS
amounts of planar lamination (Fig. 8C, F). HCS is present locally but is or gradationally overlain by ripple cross-lamination.
uncommon. Ripple cross-lamination commonly shows bipolar dips The sandier deposits in the lower flat grade landward into the mixed
(Fig. 8F). Individual sets of planar lamination exceed 2 cm in thickness deposits of the middle flat, which consist of alternating fine-grained units,
FIG. 7.— Selected cancore peels from the outer bay (the high-tide shoreline is to the right in all peels). In the summer cores, a surficial mud layer is widespread,
overlying less bioturbated sand that was deposited during winter. In the winter cores, planar lamination and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) decrease toward the
high-tide shoreline with an increase of ripple cross-lamination, implying progressive decrease in the depositional energy regime. Note that in Figure 7E, a falling-tide
succession (Type 1) bounded on top by thin mud layer (dotted line) is gradationally overlain by a rising-tide succession (Type 2). The top of the Type 2 succession ends
with pervasive bioturbation (arrows), indicating the end of the storm and a return to fair-weather conditions. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized
by general burrow mottling due to abundant small fugichnia (fu), Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) shows larger traces including fugichnia
(fu), bivalve equilibrichnia (beq), Planolites (Pl), Psilonichnus (Ps), and Skolithos (Sk). Funnel-shaped traces are attributed to Lingulichnus (Li). The lower flat (C and F) is
dominated by larger fugichnia (fu) and general Planolites mottling.
764 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
TABLE 1.—The main ichnogenera identified in the cancores. The estuary is characterized by a mixed-ethology suite of traces (i.e., mixed horizontal-burrow
and vertical-burrow elements).
dominated by heterolithic stratification, and coarse-grained units, net accumulation is not significant (Fig. 9), perhaps because of
dominated by planar lamination and ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 8B, compaction due to self-weight and desiccation caused by insolation
E). The coarse-grained units have an erosional surface that is overlain by (Anderson and Howell 1984).
a set of shell-rich, planar lamination. It grades upward into ripple cross-
lamination, topped by homogeneous mud (Fig. 8E). Ripple cross- Physical and Biological Characteristics.—The most common sedimen-
lamination commonly shows an offshoot geometry and/or chevron tary structure is heterolithic stratification with minor ripple cross-
upbuilding of ripple crests (e.g., Fig. 8E); however, the ripples have lamination (Fig. 11 A–F); most structures, however, are obliterated by
a round crest and slight asymmetry, which we interpret to be combined- intense bioturbation (Fig. 12). Seasonal changes in the degree of
flow ripple cross-lamination (Yang et al. 2006). In contrast, fine-grained bioturbation are conspicuous: intensely bioturbated in the summer and
units are made up of interlaminated sand and mud, the laminar sets of more laminated in the winter (Fig. 11E, F). The interlaminated sand and
which locally show a rhythmite stacking pattern (e.g., Fig. 8B, E). The mud contains two types of structural succession: (1) an upward-thinning
mixed deposits pass, in turn, landward into the muddier deposits of the succession and (2) a rhythmic tidal-bundle succession (e.g., Dalrymple
upper flat, which are homogeneous with indistinct laminae during all 1992). The former begins with an erosional surface, and individual lamina
seasons (Fig. 8A, D). Scattered shells and gravel are present. sets show a pronounced upward decrease in sand content (see the
The middle-bay deposits show an increase in trace size toward the main uppermost part of Fig. 11C, F). Conversely, the second structural pattern
channel and are dominated by a mixed-ethology suite of traces (Table 1; has no obvious scour surface at its base and individual lamina sets show
Fig. 8). The upper flat shows only Planolites- and Skolithos-like traces a systematic thickness variation (see the bottom of Fig. 11C). The two
(Fig. 8A, D) that have a modal diameter of 2 mm, but biogenic types of a succession are interpreted later in the paper.
reworking has obliterated most of the physical lamination (BI 5). The
The modal diameter of visible traces—1 mm in the upper flat vs. 3 mm
middle flat is generally characterized by a high degree of bioturbation
in the lower flat—is smaller than in the seaward parts of the estuary.
(about 85%, BI 4) and is dominated by bivalve equilibrichnia (Fig. 8B, E).
Traces within the inner bay are dominantly produced by thread worms
Worm burrows (Planolites and Skolithos) that have a modal diameter of
(Capitellid polychaetes) and small bivalves (Cyclina sinensis). The upper
3 mm are also common. The lower flat is more sparsely burrowed (10–
flat is highly burrowed by thread worms (80–95%, BI 4–5; Fig. 11 A, D),
20%, BI 2; Fig. 8C, F) and is dominated by larger Planolites, the modal
which have produced small Skolithos and rare Planolites. Fugichnia are
diameter of which is 6 mm. Skolithos and fugichnia are also common.
also present. Conspicuous but rare Thalassinoides that were constructed
by arthropods are also present. A vertical burrow with a funnel-shaped
The Inner Bay
aperture denoted as Monocraterion is shown in Figure 11A. The middle
flat is about 40% bioturbated (BI 3) and contains common bivalve traces
Morphology and Sediments.—The inner bay appears morphologically
(Fig. 11B, E). Cylindrichnus-like traces are probably the basal portion of
to be similar to the middle bay with the exception of the relatively dense
a larger structure (Lingulichnus) (Figs. 11B, 12). Worm burrows (i.e.,
network of tidal creeks (Fig. 3). The topographic profile is convex
Planolites and Skolithos) are 1–3 mm in diameter. The lower flat is
upward, with an extremely gentle gradient of ca. 0.001 on the mudflat
approximately 50% bioturbated (BI 3) and is dominated by bivalve-
surface and a steeper slope along the margin of the main channel (Fig. 9).
produced equilibrichnia and various worm-generated structures (Sko-
Sediments are composed mainly of muddy sand and sandy mud with no
coarser material except for mud pebbles, shell fragments, and slump lithos and Planolites) (Fig. 11C, F). Here, worm burrows have a modal
blocks in the bottoms of tidal creeks (e.g., Fig. 10). Mean grain size varies diameter of 3 mm, but bivalve burrows are about the same size as those
from 6.5 to 4.5 w, showing a seaward (i.e., channelward) coarsening trend; observed in the upper flats.
sand content decreases landward from 60% to 20% (Fig. 6B). Overall, the
grain-size contours are oriented parallel to the high-tide coastline UP-ESTUARY VARIATION OF DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES
(Fig. 6A). Sediment sorting varies from poorly sorted in mud and sandy Wave-Dominated Outer Bay
mud to moderately sorted in muddy sand.
Seasonal profiling (Fig. 9) shows that there is little elevation change Swash bars, a concave-up incipient beach face, a seaward-fining grain-
during the summer, except for channel-related erosion (Fig. 10). This size trend and widespread presence of HCS imply that depositional
erosion is likely caused by the intense rainfall, which enhances softening conditions are wave-dominated, as are commonly observed in other open-
of the surficial mud (cf. Green and Houk 1980). As a result, substantial coast tidal-flat settings (Short 1991; Yang et al. 2005). Unlike typical tidal
amounts of mud are flushed from the bay, as evidenced by the turbid flats (Klein 1985; Dalrymple 1992), the diagonal distribution of grain size
plumes that have been observed along the China and Korean coasts to the estuarine margin (Fig. 6A) can be attributed to the influence of
during flooding season (Ren et al. 1985). During the winter, deposition of winter waves that approach from the northwest (e.g., Fig. 13A). Such
mud predominates, with an average aggradation rate of ca. 3 mm/month a wave-dominated interpretation is also supported by the scarcity of
(Fig. 9). This sediment is probably derived from contemporaneous bioturbation.
erosion in the outer bay and shallow subtidal zone by waves and then The mud deposit during the summer superficially resembles a tidal
carried landward by waves and flood tides. Over the measurement period, rhythmite but is interpreted here to be a storm deposit for the reasons
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 765
FIG. 8.—Selected cancore peels from the middle bay (the high-tide shoreline is to the right in all peels). The progressive passage from sandier deposits in the lower flat
through mixed sand and mud in the middle flat to muddier sediments in the upper flat is well developed due to the landward decrease in hydraulic energy. The surficial
layer is pervasively bioturbated in the summer cores but well laminated in the winter cores. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized by general burrow
mottling due to abundant small Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) is dominated by larger traces including Siphonichnus (Si or beq), Lockeia
(Lo), Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The lower flat (C and F) is dominated by larger Skolithos and bivalve equilibrichnia or fugichnia (fu).
given by Yang et al. (2005) and Yang et al. (in press). The winter deposits, energy due to frictional dissipation across the shallowly submerged tidal
including planar lamination and HCS passing up into ripple cross flats (e.g., Yang et al. 2006). Despite the fact that the sedimentary and
lamination, are also interpreted as storm deposits (Fig. 13B) (cf. Dott and morphologic features of the outer bay indicate that this area is strongly
Bourgeois 1982). The decrease in the proportion of planar lamination and wave-dominated, evidence of tidal influence is provided by the presence
HCS toward the high-tide level reflects a progressive decrease in wave of the Type 1 and Type 2 storm-bed successions, which have been
766 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
interpreted as ‘‘tidally modulated storm deposits’’ by Yang et al. (in press). observed oblique trend in grain size (Fig. 6A) is believed to reflect
They form because storms last more than a single tidal cycle with wave a significant wave influence in the middle bay (Fig. 13A). Textural
energy changing over each tidal cycle because of changes in water depth variations between coarser sediments in the winter and finer sediments in
(e.g., Fig. 13B) (see Yang et al. in press for more detail). the summer are likely due to a seasonal variation in wave energy (Yang et
The increase in burrow diameter from 4 mm in the upper flat to 8 mm al. 2005). This phenomenon is also reflected in the seasonal change in the
in the lower flat is passively related to the duration of tidal inundation degree of bioturbation, from lesser in the winter deposits to intense in the
(Gingras et al. 1999; Gingras et al. 2002a). The upper flats are dominated summer deposits.
by sediment-grazing traces, suggesting that the food resources are The presence of the sandy and muddy storm deposits suggests that
abundant. The bioturbated texture in the middle flats is similar to that wave action remains a significant depositional process. However, the
observed in the lower flats of the middle bay in response to similar presence of rhythmic lamination implies a tidal dominance during a non-
substrate character and energy level in these two areas. In other words, storm period (cf. Klein 1985; Dalrymple 1992), something that is also
ichnological trends are generally not shoreline parallel (e.g., Fig. 13A, C). evidenced by the presence of bipolar (herringbone) dips of ripple cross-
The lower degrees of bioturbation relative to more headward areas are lamination. Structureless units in the upper-flat deposits are likely due to
a result of the more intense and frequent wave-generated reworking of the intense bioturbation under low-energy conditions, but scattered shells
sandy substrate (e.g., Fig. 13A). and gravel are indicative of sporadic action of storm waves.
The increase in worm-burrow diameter from 3 mm in the upper flat to
Mixed-Energy Middle Bay 6 mm in the lower flat is related to the duration of tidal inundation. Apart
from trace size, the upper tidal flats of both the inner and middle estuary
The tributary network of tidal creeks and a seaward-coarsening trend are ichnologically similar. The middle tidal flat of the middle bay is
are common features observed in tide-dominated tidal flats (Dalrymple ichnologically similar to the lower tidal flat of the inner bay in that: (1)
1992). A gentle slope gradient (ca. 0.0013) is also comparable with other traces of bivalves and deposit-feeding worms are abundant; and (2)
tide-dominated Korean coasts (e.g., Wells et al. 1990). However, the bivalve upward-adjustment traces indicate that the animals were
FIG. 11.—Selected cancore peels from the inner bay (landward is to the right in all peels). Preservation potential of laminae decreases landward with an increase in the
degree of bioturbation, with winter deposits being less bioturbated. Dotted line (C) indicates scour surface that is overlain by a thinning-upward succession, at the base of
which very thin rippled sand (arrows) grades upward into interlaminated sand and mud (see text for more detailed description). Unlike the outer and middle bays,
significant accumulation occurs during the winter rather than the summer, implying that much of the laminated sand and mud might have been deposited under storm
conditions. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized by general burrow mottling due to abundant small to moderately sized Siphonichnus, Planolites (Pl),
and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) is dominated by larger traces, including bivalve equilibrichnia (beq), moderately sized Planolites (Pl), Siphonichnus,
Psilonichnu (Ps), and Skolithos (Sk). Traces produced by lingulid brachiopods are also noted (Li). The lower flat (C and F) is characterized by bivalve-produced
equilibrichnia (beq) and larger Skolithos, Planolites, and sediment admixing due to the activities of sand-swimming organisms (i.e., cryptic bioturbation).
768 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
1968), which can be related to the fine sediment grain size and the
inefficiency of tidal pumping. The observed trend may also be in part
attributed to salinity stress, inasmuch as nearshore tidal flats character-
istically suffer fresh-water influx from local groundwater discharge and
precipitation (Gingras et al. 1999). The presence of lingulid (Figs. 11B,
12) and bivalve burrows channelwards (into the middle intertidal flats)
reflects animal response to increased food in suspension and an
abundance of food accumulating at the sediment–water interface,
probably during slack tide (see other examples in Gingras et al. 1999
and Pearson and Gingras 2006). The secondary importance of worm
traces (particularly Planolites) in this zone shows that much of the food
resource is harvested at the sediment–water interface, reducing the
tendency for infaunal grazing.
DISCUSSION
Ichnology
The ichnological data indicate that: (1) infaunal traces increase in size
from the upper to the lower flats; (2) traces increase in size from the inner
estuary to the outer estuary; (3) interface deposit feeding is dominant in
the sheltered parts of the estuary, whereas sediment grazing is dominant
in wave-agitated parts of the estuary; and (4) mappable ichnological
trends and sedimentary-facies zonation cut diagonally across the tidal
flats and are thereby not shoreline parallel.
Regarding trace size, our observations are consistent with those
published in several studies (summarized in Gingras et al. 1999) and were
to a degree expected. Although such trends have not been tested in the
rock record, we believe that these trends may be preserved in marginal-
marine strata. In fact this relationship was alluded to in Gingras et al.
(2002b), but no systematic dataset was available to support that
FIG. 12.— X-ray image of a lingulid brachiopod in life position. The reworked hypothesis. However, this dataset presents one of the first actualistic
zone (dashed lines) around the brachiopod shows the extent of reworking present studies that effectively demonstrate that ichnological trends are not
in the trace (Lingulichnus: ‘‘Li’’). General burrow mottling is also noted. This is necessarily shoreline parallel. Herein, the primary control on ichnocoe-
mostly due to the activities of a worm that produced Planolites. nosis development is the local hydrodynamic conditions and—perhaps
more fundamentally—sediment grain size (e.g., Fig. 6A).
responding to sporadically high sedimentation rates. The similarity of the
middle tidal flat here to the lower flat of the inner estuary suggests that Mixed-Energy Estuaries in an Environmental Continuum
the ichnocoenoses continue to cut diagonally across the tidal flats in
response to the distribution of energy levels (e.g., Fig. 13A, C). Considering the end-member estuarine facies models (e.g., Dalrymple
et al. 1992), both tide-dominated and wave-dominated estuaries are
characterized by tide-dominated sedimentation within them. Even in
Tide-Dominated Inner Bay wave-dominated estuaries, the presence of a coastal barrier (Fig. 1)
implies that storm sedimentation is not significant within the estuary
The dendritic network of tidal creeks and a channelward-coarsening because the barrier provides protection from wave action; only internally
trend indicate that the inner bay is a tide-dominated setting, which is generated waves are present behind the barrier (Dalrymple et al. 1992). As
strengthened by the presence of rhythmic lamina successions and the with the published concepts (e.g., tidal range and morphologic elements)
coast-parallel grain-size contours (e.g., Figs. 6, 13A). The finer sediments for the classification of estuaries, the open-mouthed nature of the Gomso
indicate low-energy depositional conditions, which are also evidenced by Bay estuary confirms the idea that the absence of a prominent coastal
intense bioturbation (Figs. 11, 12). However, the sharp-based thinning- barrier indicates a strong influence of tidal energy due to the large tidal
upward lamina successions may represent storm sedimentation (Fig. 13B) range and morphologic constriction (e.g., Fig. 13A) (e.g., Dalrymple et al.
(cf. Fan et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2005). During winter-storm conditions, 1992), whereas the presence of abundant (sandy and muddy) storm
open-sea waves give rise to the development of highly turbid conditions in deposits within the estuary suggests a strong influence of waves on
the coastal zone due to strong bottom agitation. These suspended estuarine sedimentation (e.g., Fig. 13B). Thus, the presence of the large
sediments are likely to be transported into the inner bay by flood tides tidal range is indirectly responsible for significant wave influence within
where rapid settling occurs due to the sheltered location; such rapid the estuary, a result that is not intuitive. In addition, such conditions are
accumulation is supported by the topographic measurements (Fig. 9). inconsistent with the ideas embodied in the end-member estuarine model
Thus, the lamination–bioturbation pattern preserved in the cancore peels (i.e., tide-dominated within estuaries), and are considered to be one of the
probably reflects the seasonal variation in wave energy, even in this unique features of mixed-energy estuaries.
sheltered headward location. The wide-open baymouth allows open-sea waves to enter the estuary,
The increase in worm-burrow diameter from 1 mm in the upper flat to where wave refraction occurs, because wave speed is depth-related. In
3 mm in the lower flat is probably related to the duration of tidal addition, the increasing attenuation of the waves as they travel across the
inundation. However, the thread-worm burrows in the upper flat are also shallowly submerged tidal flat results in the progressive decrease in wave
consistent with lower degrees of sediment oxygenation (Mangum et al. energy both headward and toward the estuary margins. As a result, an
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 769
up-estuary variation in the nature of storm deposits is to be expected Significant differences exist with respect to the orientation of the main
(Fig. 13B); mixed-energy estuaries are characterized by abundant storm facies belts within the environmental continuum of estuarine systems
deposits, unlike estuaries at either end of the spectrum. Such storm- (e.g., Fig. 14). In wave-dominated estuaries, much of the tidal energy is
deposit variation is superficially similar to that observed in the shoreface– dissipated rapidly by friction in the narrow tidal inlet, resulting in flood-
shelf environment, where the similarity is heightened by the fact that tidal-delta deposits that grade bayward into muddier, central-basin
thickly amalgamated, proximal (sand) tempestites are followed by distal sediments, succeeded, in turn, by bayhead-delta deposits (Fig. 14A)
(mud) tempestites, in the deeper waters of the shelf mud facies (e.g., (Dalrymple et al. 1992). As a result, overall the facies belts tend to be
Aigner and Reineck 1982). Thus, this similarity might lead to erroneous transverse to the estuary axis (Fig. 14A), as is supported by the
paleo-environmental interpretation, but many other features in the ichnocoenoses reported from Kouchibouguac Bay, Canada (Gingras et
deposits of Gomso Bay, including the many tidal structures (i.e., tidal- al. 2002b). In contrast, tidal energy in tide-dominated estuaries is derived
channel deposits, herringbone cross-lamination, tidal rhythmites, etc.), primarily from a deep, central channel, and decreases toward the
would aid in the distinction between an estuary such as this and the shelf– estuarine margin due to frictional retardation on the shallow tidal flats.
shoreface. Thus, sedimentary facies have a longitudinal orientation (i.e., parallel to
770 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
the estuarine margin) (Fig. 14B), which is approximately consistent with used to make more precise interpretations of the geometry of coastlines
the ichnocoenoses as seen, for example, in the Bay of Fundy (Gingras et and reservoirs.
al. 2002b). On the other hand, the facies distribution in Gomso Bay is
significantly different from either of these situations, showing a diagonal CONCLUSIONS
trend in the outer and middle bays and a longitudinal trend in the inner
bay (Fig. 14C). Because the several criteria (e.g., tidal range and The macrotidal Gomso Bay estuary, on the western Korean coast,
geomorphic elements) that underpin estuary classification schemes are suffers pronounced seasonal variations due to the monsoonal wind
apparently in conflict, the estuary-scale pattern of facies variation regime. Depositional conditions are therefore strongly seasonally
attributed to the change in physical-energy distribution should be influenced. Sedimentation during the summer is characterized by long
considered in the estuarine classification, and is believed to be a reliable intervals of comparatively quiescent conditions that permit mud to be
means of classifying estuaries (Fig. 14). deposited within the estuary. Mud accumulation is punctuated in-
For example, the macrotidal Gironde estuary (Allen and Posamentier frequently by summer typhoons, when higher wave conditions and heavy
1994), which is widely considered in the geologic literature to be a mixed- rainfall can remove significant amounts of muddy sediment from the
energy estuary, is in reality a wave-dominated estuary because the facies estuary. In contrast, estuarine sedimentation during the winter is
variation shows the transverse trend due to the presence of a well- frequently influenced by storm waves, such that some of the mud eroded
developed coastal barrier and narrow tidal inlet (e.g., Fig. 14A). In the by these waves is transported into the head of the estuary, where net
same way, many other previously proposed mixed-energy estuaries, accumulation is most pronounced in winter.
including Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay, should be considered as The presence of only an incipient baymouth coastal barrier that is
wave-dominated estuaries, because their facies variation also shows the submerged at high tide allows open-sea waves to enter the bay, where the
transverse trend. By contrast, the mesotidal Willapa Bay is characterized shallowly submerged tidal flat causes a progressive decrease in wave
by the presence of a coastal barrier, but the middle part of the estuarine energy both laterally toward the bay margin and towards the bayhead.
system appears to be influenced by significant amounts of open-sea waves Thus, there is an up-estuary passage from the wave-dominated outer bay,
that enter through the relatively wide inlet (ca. 9 km), with the degree of characterized by sandy storm deposits containing hummocky cross-
wave influence depending strongly on the distance from the inlet. The stratification and planar lamination, to the tide-dominated inner bay,
northern estuary close to the inlet is mixed-energy, and the facies dominated by heterolithic stratification. Due to refraction of the
distribution shows an inward transition from a diagonal trend to incoming waves, the facies belts attributed to the distribution of physical
a longitudinal trend, as is observed in Gomso Bay, whereas the southern energy show an up-estuary transition from shoreline (bay-margin)
estuary (sheltered distal areas from the inlet) is wave-dominated with oblique in the outer and middle bays to axis and bay-margin parallel in
a transverse facies trend (Gingras et al. 2002a). Therefore, the inlet width, the inner bay. Ichnological trends representing the behavioral response of
controlled by the tidal prism (e.g., O’Brien and Dean 1972), seems to be organisms to the environmental stresses are also consistent with the up-
an important factor to determine the facies inside the estuary. In other estuary variation of sedimentary facies, showing that traces increase in
words, estuarine morphology is not related directly to tidal range, as is size from the inner estuary to the outer estuary. Traces also increase in
commonly done in previous studies. size from the uppermost tidal flats to the lowermost tidal flats as a result
The new facies-belt models shown in Figure 14 will contribute to the of the increasing duration of submergence. Interface deposit feeding is
more exact interpretation of ancient estuarine deposits that commonly dominant in the sheltered parts of the bay, whereas sediment grazing is
form hydrocarbon reservoirs (Dalrymple et al. 1992). The correct dominant in the wave-dominated outer bay.
identification of where a specific ancient example falls in the spectrum Based on the integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic study in the
of estuarine environments is important because of the architectural and mixed-energy Gomso Bay estuary, supplemented by an examination of
facies differences that exist between the various settings. Thus, other estuaries that experience significant wave and tidal action, we
establishment of the facies trends in ancient estuarine examples can be suggest that estuarine morphology is related directly to the tidal prism—
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 771
from which the inlet width is determined—rather than tidal range as is GINGRAS, M.K., RASANEN, M., AND RANZI, A., 2002a, The significance of bioturbated
inclined heterolithic stratification in the southern part of the Miocene Solimoes
commonly done in current models. In addition, our findings suggest that Formation, Rio Acre, Amazonia Brazil: Palaios, v. 17, p. 591–601.
the facies-belt trends within an estuary are an important tool by which GINGRAS, M.K., HUBBARD, S., AND PEMBERTON, S.G., 2002b, Trace fossils are the most
estuaries can be classified, and can be used to differentiate wave- useful indicator of palaeogeographic location in ancient bays and estuaries [abstract]:
Geological Society of Australia, v. 68, p. 65–66.
dominated and tide-dominated end-member estuarine systems from true GREEN, T., AND HOUK, D., 1980, The resuspension of underwater sediment by rain:
mixed-energy systems. Such distinctions have important implications for Sedimentology, v. 27, p. 607–610.
the interpretation of coastal and petroleum-reservoir geometry. HARRIS, P.T., HEAP, A.P., BRYCE, S.M., PORTER-SMITH, R., RYAN, D.A., AND HEGGIE,
D.T., 2002, Classification of Australian clastic depositional environments based upon
a quantitative analysis of wave, tidal, and river power: Journal of Sedimentary
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Research, v. 72, p. 858–870.
KIM, Y.H., LEE, H.J., CHUN, S.S., HAN, S.J., AND CHOUGH, S.K., 1999, Holocene
This work was funded by grants from the Natural Science and Engineering transgressive stratigraphy of a macrotidal flat in the southeastern Yellow Sea: Gomso
Research Council of Canada (#7553-01; RWD) and the Korea Research Bay: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 69, p. 328–337.
KIM, M.J., CHU, Y.S., AND LEE, H.J., 2003, Transport characteristics of fine-grained
Foundation (KRF-2006-C00452). This study was also partially supported sediment on the southwestern coast of Korea (abstract): Korean Society of
through the project ‘‘Projection and Management of Coastal Topographic Oceanography, Proceedings of the Spring Meeting, p. 240.
Changes’’ (PM37907) by the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries of KLEIN, G., 1985, Intertidal flats and intertidal sand bodies, in Davis, R.A, JR., ed.,
Korea. Boxcore collection was collaborated with Son, C.S. (Senckenberg Coastal Sedimentary Environments, Second Edition: New York, Springer-Verlag, p.
Institute). We thank Y.S. Baek, J.K. Kim (Chonnam National University), 187–224.
and K.S. Jang (Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) for Korea Meteorological Administration, 1998, Automatic weather station data, Annual
their assistance in the field and laboratory. We appreciate the constructive Report, 09200-73320-26-13, 724 p.
comments by M. Gibling, A. Archer, G. Hampson, and C.P. North. We also Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, 1994, Quaternary sea-level changes
and their implication in the evolution of coastal depositional environments (III):
thank Dr. J.B. Southard and M. Lester for technical review and editorial Seoul, Korea, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Report BSPG
assistance. 00223-732-5, 315 p.
LEE, H.J., CHUN, S.S., CHANG, J.H., AND HAN, S.J., 1994, Landward migration of
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