Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

Computer Graphics
(MCA)

Gajendra Sharma
Assistant Professor
Department of IT
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur
2

Published by :
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges

Concept & Copyright :

Biyani Shikshan Samiti
Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,
Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : [email protected]
Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

Edition : 2012

While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or
omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the
publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to
anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.

Leaser Type Setted by :

Biyani College Printing Department
 3

Preface
I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of
the students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness
in understanding the fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-
explanatory and adopts the “Teach Yourself” style. It is based on question-
answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and understandable based
on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections,
omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the
readers for which the author shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay
Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and
main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation
throughout this endeavour. They played an active role in coordinating the various
stages of this endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various
educational institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of
the quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and
suggestions to the under mentioned address.

Gajendra Sharma
4

Syllabus
MCA
Computer Graphics

Introduction: Elements of graphics workstation. Video Display Devices. Raster Scan

Systems. Random Scan systems. Input devices. Graphics Software Coordinate
Representations, Fundamental Problems in Geometry.
Algorithms: Line drawing algorithms- DDA Algorithm. Bresenham‟s Line Algorithm. Frame
buffers. Circle and Eclipse generating algorithms. Midpoint Circle Algorithm. Sean-line
polygon fill algorithm. Inside-Outside tests. Sean- Line fill of curved Boundary Areas.
Boundary fill Algorithm. Flood fill Algorithm. Character generation. Attributes of lines,
curves, filling, characters. etc.
Graphics Primitives: Primitive Operations, The display file interpreter-Normalized Device
Coordinates. Display- File structure. Display – file algorithm. Display control and
Polygonspolygon representation.
Attributes of output primitives: Line attributes - Line type. Line width. Pen and Brush
options. Line Color. Color and gray scale levels. Color-tables. Gray scale. Area- Fill
Attributes- Fill styles. Pattern fill. Soft fill. Character Attributes. Text attributes.
Geometric Transformations: Matrices. Scaling Transformations. Sin and Cos Rotation.
Homogeneous Co-ordinates and Translation. Co-ordinate Translations. Rotation about an
arbitrary point. Inverse Transformations, Transformations Routines.
2-D Viewing- The viewing pipeline. Viewing co-ordinate, Reference Frame. Windows to
view ports . co-ordinate transformation 2-D Viewing functions. Clipping operations point
clipping.Line clipping. Cohen- Sutherland. Line Clipping. Polygon clipping. Sutherland
Hodge man clipping.
3-D concepts. Three dimensional Display Methods Parallel projection. Perspective projection.
Visible line and surface identification. Surface rendering. Three Dimensional Object
representations. Bezier curves and surfaces. B-Spline curves and surfaces.

Visibility , Image and object precision Z- buffer algorithm. Floating horizons. Computer
Animation: Design of Animation Sequences. General Computer Animation Functions-Raster
Animations. Key Frame Systems. Morphing Simulating Accelerations. Motion
Specifications. Kinematics and Dynamics.
 5

Chapter 1

Q1. Explain Video Display Devices.

Or
Explain how does the Cathode ray tube works with Detail.

Ans
The Primary output device in Computer Graphics is a Monitor which operates on
the standard cathode-ray tube(CRT) design and a few more technological
hardware have also come into the concept.
Computer graphics is a complex and diversified technology.

Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes

The following figure illustrates the basic operation of how does a CRT work. An
electron beam comes from the electron gun, passes through focus and deflection
systems that send the beam towards directed positions on the phosphor-coated
screen. The phosphor in return emits a small spot of light at each position where
ever the electron beam makes contact. As the light which is emitted by the
phosphor fades very easily, some mechanism is required for managing the picture
on the screen. One method to make the phosphor glowing is to keep on redrawing
the picture in a repeated manner by quickly projecting the electron beam over the
same points again and again.
6
The basic component of an electron gun in a CRT

The heated metal cathode and a control grid are the key components of an electron
gun in a CRT. Through the coil of wire, called the filament, inside the cylindrical
cathode structure, heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current which
makes electrons to be 'boiled off" the hot cathode surface. The free, negatively
charged electrons are then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high
positive voltage, in the vacuum inside the CRT envelope. The accelerating voltage
can be generated with a positively charged metal coating on the inside of the CRT
envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating anode can be used, as in
Figure. Most of the times the electron gun is meant to contain the accelerating
anode and focusing system within the same unit. Intensity of the electron beam is
maintained by keeping voltage levels on the control grid, which is a metallic
cylinder and that fits over the shape of the cathode. A high negative voltage
applied to the control grid shuts off the beam as it repels electrons and stops them
from passing through the small hole at the end of the control grid structure. A
smaller negative voltage on the control grid alltogetherly decreases the total
number of electrons passing through it. Since the amount of light emitted by the
phosphor coating depends on the number of electrons which strike the screen, the
brightness of a display can be controlled by changing the voltage on the control
grid. In the electron beam, electrons spread all over the screen as a result of
repulsion among them. To make the electron beam strike at one point, focusing
anode is present in the CRT. Hence our focusing mechanism makes the electron
beam to strike the phosphor screen at a small spot and focusing is following by
usage of magnetic and electric field. Magnetic deflected is carried out by using 2
pairs of magnetic coils within the CRT. One pair is on the top and down position
 7
and the other one pair is on the opposite sides of CRT as it is shown in the Figure
Magnetics field thus produced by each pair creates a transverse deflection force,
perpendicular to the way of magnetic field and to the direction in which the
electron bean is travelling. Moreover Horizontal deflection of electron bean is
accomplished by one pair of coils and vertical deflection is carried out by the
others.

Electric deflection is carried out by using two pairs of deflecting plates inside
CRT, the two pairs are mounted vertically and horizontally.

Horizontal deflecting plates provide vertical deflection to the electron beam and
vertical deflecting plates provide horizontal deflection to the electron beam.
Important terminologies in CRT are as follows:

Dot Pitch: It denotes the distance which marks separation between two phosphor
dots of the same color. A dot pitch equal to or less than .25mm is of use
comfortably, whereas we should avoid monitors with a dot pitch equal to or
greater than 0.28 mm.

Refresh rate: It denotes the number of images which are displayed every second,
or we can say that it is the number of times the images is remapped per second.
And It is also known as vertical scan rate and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).

Resolution : It denotes the number of pixels per surface unit and can be
abbreviated as DPI or dots per inches and is calculated both vertically and
8
horizontally. A resolution of 200dpi means that 200 columns and 200 rows of
pixels per square
Size : It is calculated by taking the dimension of the diagonal of the screen and is
expressed
Aspect Ratio : It is termed as the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points.

Q2. Explain Refresh and Raster scan Display System.

Ans
Our home television sets use Raster scan technologies. In this sort of Display
Mechanism, an electron beam scans every row of the screen display row by row
starting from top to the bottom. Each screen point represents the intensity value
either 0 or 1 and the intensity value is kept in refresh buffer or frame buffer. Thus,
each pixel value or screen point keeps on changing from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0
depending on its intensity value in refresh buffer. And this is the way the screen is
painted one row at a time. And this is shown in the Figure.

The range of the intensity depends upon the system capabilities. We can plot only
two different colors or intensities if it is a black and white system. In this case one
bit per pixel is enough, 1 for white intensity and bit value „0‟ for black intensity.
More bits can be used to display color and intensity for colors. So, bitmap is the
term used for frame buffer for black and white systems and Pixmap is the term
which is used for Frame buffer which stores multiple bits per pixel.
For raster system the refresh rate is generally 60 to 80 frames per second, it can be
higher for some systems. After it scans one row and it returns to the left of the
screen for scanning next row, it is called horizontal retrace. After it has refreshed
each scan line, it moves to the top left corner of the display and again starts the
refreshing process and this is called vertical retrace.
 9

Raster scan systems are much more capable than the random systems. As it stores
the intensity values for each screen position, it is capable of displaying the color
variations and shade which is not possible with random systems. But raster system
has lower resolution as compared to random system. This is because, random
system follows the line path to be drawn and line drawing commands are stored in
refresh buffer. For raster system, intensity values are stored for each screen

Q.3 Explain Random Scan Display

Ans The arrangement of a simple random scan system is shown in the
following figure. System stores and application program in the system
memory along with a graphics package. With the help of graphics
package the Graphics command in the application program are converted
into a display file stored in the system memory. And this file helps the
system to refresh the screen. When operated as a random-scan display
unit, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen
where a picture is to be drawn. Random-scan monitor draw a picture one
line at a time and for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or
stroke-writing of calligraphic displays).
10

The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a

random-scan system in any specified order Figure. A pen plotter in a
similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-copy device.

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to

be displayed. Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing
commands in an area of memory referred to as the refresh display file.
Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display list, display
program,

or simply the refresh buffer. To display a specified picture, the system

cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each
component line in turn. After all line drawing commands have been
processed, the system cycle back to the first line command in the list.
Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a
picture 30 to 60 times each second.

High-quality vector systems are capable of handling approximately

100,000 “short” lines at this refresh rate. When a small set of lines is to be
displayed, each refresh cycle is delayed to avoid refresh rates greater than
60 frames per second. Otherwise, faster refreshing of the set of lines could
burn out the phosphor. Random-scan systems are designed for line-
drawing applications and can-not display realistic shaded scenes.
 11

Since picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing instruction and

not as a set of intensity values for all screen points, vector displays
generally have higher resolution then raster system. Also, vector displays
produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam directly follows the
line path. A raster system, in contrast, produces jagged lines that are
plotted as discrete point sets.

Q4 Explain the differences between Raster Scan and Random Scan

Display?
Ans. :
Raster Scan Random Scan

Refresh Process for Raster Scan Refresh rate depends on number of

display occurs at the rate of 60 to lines to be displayed. Refresh cycle
80 frames per second. is displayed to avoid refresh rate
greater than 60 frames per second
for small set of lines.

This provides higher resolution. This provides lower resolution.

The electron beam is swept across The electron beam is projected0 only
the screen, one row at a time from to the parts of the screen where a
top to bottom. picture is to be drawn.

This display porous produces In this display it produces jagged

smooth line drawings as the CRT lines that are potted as discrete point
beam directly follows the line sets.
path.
12

illuminated spots are created as a Picture is drawn one line at a time.

pattern.

Q.5 Write short note on Color CRT Monitor. Explain Shadow Mask Method.

Ans.: A CRT monitor displays color picture by using a combination of phosphor

that emit different-colored light. By combining the emitted light from the
different phosphor, a range of colors can be generated. The two basic
techniques for producing color displays with a CRT are the beam-
penetration method and the shadow-mask method.
The beam-penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used
with random-scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and
green, are coated onto the inside of the CRT screen, and the displayed
color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor
layers. A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer. A beam
of very fast electron penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner
green layer. At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green
light are emitted to show two additional colors, orange and yellow. The
speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is
controlled by the beam-acceleration voltage. Beam penetration has been
an inexpensive way to produce color in random-scan monitor, but only
four colors are possible, and the quality of picture is not as good as with
other methods.
 13
Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan system
(including color TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors
than the beam penetration method. A shadow-mask CRT has three
phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a red
light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light. This
type ofCRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow-
mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen. Figure 2-10 illustrates
the delta-delta shadow-mask method, commonly used in color CRT
system. The three beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the
shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-
dot patterns. When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow
mask, they activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot on
the screen. The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that each
electron beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes
through the shadow mask. Another configuration for the three electron
guns is an in-line arrangement in which the three electron guns, and the
corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are aligned along
one scan line instead of in a triangular pattern. This in-line arrangement of
electron guns is easier to keep in alignment and is commonly used in
high-resolution color CRTs.

We obtain color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the

intensity levels of the three electron beams. By turning off the red and
green guns, we get only the color coming from the blue phosphor. Other
combinations of beam intensities produce a small light spot for each pixel
position, since our eyes tend to merge the three colors into one composite.
The color we see depends on the amount of excitation of the red, green,
and blue phosphors. A white (or gray) area is the result of activating all
three dots with equal intensity. Yellow is produced with the green and red
dots only, magenta is produced with the blue and red dots, any cyan
shows up when blue and green are activated equally. In some low-cost
systems, the electron beam can only be set to on or off, limiting displays to
eight colors. More sophisticated systems can set intermediate intensity
14
level for the electron beam, allowing several million different colors to be
generated.
Color graphics systems can be designed to be used with several types of
CRT display devices. Some inexpensive home-computer system and video
games are designed for use with a color TV set and an RF (radio-
frequency) modulator. The purpose of the RF modulator is to simulate the
signal from a broad-cast TV station. This means that the color and
intensity information of the picture must be combined and superimposed
on the broadcast-frequency carrier signal that the TV needs to have as
input. Then the circuitry in the TV takes this signal from the RF
modulator, extracts the picture information, and paints it on the screen. As
we might expect, this extra handling of the picture information by the RF
modulator and TV circuitry decreased the quality of displayed images.
 15

Chapter 2

Output Primitives

Q.1 Explain in details the Line Drawing Algorithms using DDA Algorithm.
Ans.: Straight Line Equation in the form of Slope intercept is as follows:
y=mx+b ------------1
where m represents the slope of the line and b as the y intercept which it
makes with the Y axis. The two end point of a line segment are denoted by
the positions (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as shown in the following diagram. Using
this Equation we can determine values for the slope m and y intercept b
using the following calculations.
y 2 - y1
M= ----2 y2
x 2 - x1

b = y1 – mx1 -----3 y1
Value of y is calculated
∆y – m . ∆x _ _ _ (4) x1 x2

Similarly we can obtain ∆ x interval Figure. (1) Line Path between

endpoint
y
∆x= position (x1, y1) & (x2, y2)
m
For lines with slope magnitude m >1, ∆y can be set proportional to a
small deflection voltage with the corresponding horizontal deflection
voltage set proportional to ∆x.

For lines with m = 1 ∆x = ∆y.

DDA Algorithm : Also Called as Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)
performs scan. It is a Scan conversion line algorithm. It is also called an
incremental algorithm, as it increments the value of x or y by 1 depending
on the slope value. It tries to decrease the computation burden and
increase the sped of computing. Conversion line Algorithm based on
calculating either ∆y or ∆x using equation (4) & (5).

We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and determine

corresponding integer values nearest. The line paths for the other
16
coordinate. Now consider first a line with positive slope, as shown in
Figure.(1). If the slope is less than one or equal to 1. We sample at unit x
intervals (∆x = 1) compute each successive y values as :
yk+1 = yk + m _ _ _ (6)
Value k takes integer values starting form 1, for the first point & gets
incremented by 1 until the final end point is reached.
For lines with positive slope greater than 1, we reverse the role of x and y.
That is we sample at unit y intervals (∆y = 1) and calculate each
succeeding x value as :
1
xk+1 = xk + _ _ _ (7)
m
Equation (6) and (7) are based on assumption that lines are to be
processed form left end point to the right end point.
If this processing is reversed the sign is changed
∆x = - 1 & ∆y = - 1
yk+1 = yk – m _ _ _ (8)
1
xk+1 = xk – _ _ _(9)
m
Equations (6) to (9) are used to calculate pixel position along a line with
negative slope.
When the start endpoint is at the right we set ∆x = -1 and obtain y position
from equation (7) similarly when Absolute value of Negative slope is
greater than 1, we use ∆y = -1 & eq.(9) or we use ∆y = 1 & eq.(7).

Q.2 Explain in details the Line Drawing Algorithms using Bresenham’s

Line Drawing Algorithm.
Ans
This is very efficient and faster line drawing algorithm. It scan converts
lines and uses only incremental integer calculations. Thus we can use this
algorithm for drawing circles and similar other curves also. An accurate
and efficient raster line generating Algorithm, developed by Bresenham,
scan concerts line using only incremental integer calculations that can be
adapted to display circles and other curves. The vertical axes show scan-
line position, & the horizontal axes identify pixel columns as shown in
Figure. (5) & (6) . This algorithm follows the closeness theory to
implement line plotting.

As we did for DDA algorithm, here also we start with I octant where slope
, m<1. Since m<1, we move in x-direction by sampling at unit x intervals.
 17
Thus we start plotting from initial, say(x0-y0) and take steps in success x-
columns an plot the point whose y-values is closest to the ideal line path.

13 Specified Line

12 Path 50 Specified Line

11 49 Path

10 48

10 11 12 13 50 51 52 53 53

Figure.5 Figure.6
We first consider the scan conversion process for lines with positive slope
less than 1 to illustrate Bresenham’s approach. Pixel position along a line
path are then determined by sampling at unit x intervals starting form left
and point (x0 , y0) of a given line, we step at each successive column (x
position) & plot the pixel whose scan line y is closest to the line path. Now
assuming we have to determine that the pixel at (xk , yk) is to be displayed,
we next need to divide which pixel to plot in column x k+1. Preference
would be at the position (xk+1 , yk) and (xk+1 , yk+1). At sampling position
xk+1, we label vertical pixel separations from the mathematical line path as
d1 and d2. Figure.(8).

The y coordinate on the mathematical line at pixel column position x k+1 is

calculated as :
y = m(xk + 1) +b _ _ _(10)
Then d1 = y – yk = m (xk + 1) +b - yk
d2 = (yk + 1) –y = yk + 1 – m (xk + 1) – b
The difference can be define between these two separations as
d1 - d2 = 2m (xk+1) - 2yk + 2b - 1 _ _ _ (11)
The deciding Parameter Pk for the Kth step in the line algorithm can be
obtained by making some rearrangements in eq.(11) so that it involves
sort of integer calculation. We accomplish this by substituting m = ∆y/∆x.
where ∆y & ∆x are the vertical & horizontal separation of the endpoint
positions & defining. The sign of Pk remains same as that of the sign of d1 -
d2.
Pk = ∆x (d1 – d2) = 2∆y. xk - 2∆x yk + c _ _ _ (12)
18

Since ∆x > 0 for our example Parameter C is constant & has the value 2∆y
+ ∆x (2b -1), which is independent of pixel position.
If the pixel position at yk is closer to line path than the pixel at yk+1 (that is
d1 < d2), then decision Parameter Pk is Negative. In that case we plot the
lower pixel otherwise we plot the upper pixel. Coordinate changes along
the line owner in unit steps in either the x or directions. Therefore we can
obtain the values of successive decision Parameter using incremental
integer calculations. At step k = 1, the decision Parameter is evaluated
form eq.(12) as :
Pk+1 = 2∆y . xk+1 - 2∆x . yk+1 + C

yk+1 • d2

y • d1

yk •

xk+1 Figure.8
Subtracting eq.(12) from the preceding equation we have
Pk+1 – Pk = 2∆y (xk+1 – xk) - 2∆x (yk+1 – yk)
But xk+1 = xk + 1
So that, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x (yk+1 – yk) _ _ _ (13)

The term yk+1 - yk either results into 0 or 1, depending on sign of

Parameter Pk.This recursive calculation of decision Parameter is
performed each integer x position, starting at left coordinate endpoint of
the line. The first parameter P0 is evaluated from equation (12) at starting
pixel position (x0, y0) and with m evaluated as ∆y/∆x.

P0 = 2∆y - ∆x _ _ _ (14)
The following lines express how does Bresenham’s Line Drawing
Algorithm work for m <1 :
Take input for two endpoints of a line & store the left end point in (x 0 , y0).
Load (x0 , y0) into frame buffer that is plot the first point. Calculate
 19
constants ∆x, ∆y, 2∆y and 2∆y - 2∆x and obtain the starting value for the
decision parameter as : P0 = 2∆y - ∆x. At each xk along the line starting at k
= 0, perform the following test if Pk < 0 the next point to plot is (xk+1 , yk)
and Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y otherwise the next point to plot is (xk+1 , yk+1) and Pk+1
= Pk +2∆y - 2∆x. Repeat step 4 ∆x times.

Q.3 Digitize the line with end points (20, 10) & (30, 18) using Bresenham’s
Line Drawing Algorithm.
y -y 18 - 10 8
Ans.: slope of line, m = 2 1 = = = 0.8
x 2 - x1 30 - 20 10
∆x = 10 , ∆y = 8
Initial decision parameter has the value
P0 = 2∆y - ∆x = 2x8 – 10 = 6
Since P0 > 0, so next point is (xk + 1, yk + 1) (21, 11)
Now k = 0, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P1 = P0 + 2∆y - 2∆x
= 6 + (-4)
= 2
Since P1 > 0, Next point is (22, 12)
Now k = 1, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P2 = 2 + (- 4)
= -2
Since P2 < 0, Next point is (23, 12)
Now k = 2 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y
P2 = - 2 + 16
= 14
Since P3 > 0, Next point is (24, 13)

Now k = 3 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x

P4 = 14 – 4
= 10
Since P4 > 0, Next point is (25, 14)
Now k = 4 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P5 = 10 – 4
= 6
Since P5 > 0, Next point is (26, 15)
Now k = 5 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P6 = 6–4
= 2
Since P6 > 0, Next point is (27, 16)
20
Now k = 6 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P7 = 2 + (- 4)
= -2
Since P7 < 0, Next point is (28, 16)

Now k = 7 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y

P8 = - 2 + 16
= 14
Since P8 > 0, Next point is (29, 17)
Now k = 8 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P9 = 14 – 4
= 10
Since P9 > 0, Next point is (30, 18)

K Pk (xk+1, yk+1)
0 6 (21, 11)
1 2 (22, 12)
2 -2 (23, 12)
3 14 (24, 13)
4 10 (25, 14)
5 6 (26, 15)
6 2 (27, 16)
7 -2 (28, 16)
8 14 (29, 17)
9 10 (30, 18)
Plot the graph with these following points.

Q.4 Explain how does the Mid Point Circle Algorithm work.
Ans.: The equation of a circle can be given as follows, where (xc,yc) represents
the centre coordinates.
(x – xc)2 + (y – yc)2 – r2 = 0
In the following way the calculation is made for the position of points
along the circlular path by moving in the x direction from (x c - r) to (xc + r)
and determining the corresponding y values as :

y = yc (x c - x)2 - r 2

As it requires heavy computation this method is not the best method to

calculate the circle point coordinates. Moreover spacing between the
 21
points is not uniform. Another method that can be used by calculating the
polar coordinates r and θ where
x = xc + r cos θ
y = yc + r sin θ

It requires heavy computation but this method results in equal spacing

between the points. The efficient method is incremental calculation of
decision parameter.

Mid Point Algorithm :

We assume that we are working in II octant of the circle .The concept
behind Mid point circle is that, a midpoint M lies between two points and
we have to decide if M lies between two points and we have to decide if M
lies inside or outside the circle. This would tell the next point to be plotted
along the circumference of the circle. We move in unit steps in the x-
direction and calculate the closed pixel position along the circle path at
each step.

For a given radius r & screen center position (xc, yc). We first set our
Algorithm to calculate the position of points along the coordinate position
(x0, y0). These calculated positions are then placed at this proper screen
position by adding xc to x and yc to y. For a circle from x = 0 to x = y in
first quadrant, the slope varies from 0 to 1.

We move in the positive x direction and determine the decision parameter

to find out the possible two y values along the circle path. And the Points
calculation in other 7 octants is done using the symmetry pattern.
y (x = y)
(y, x) (y, x)
(-x, y) (x, y)

45º
x (x = 0)
(-x, -y) (x, -y)

(-y, -x) (y, -y)

The following function is used for the implementation of this method :

fcircle( x, y) = x2 + y2 - r2 _ _ _ (1)
22
Any point (x, y) on the boundary of the circle with radius r satisfies the
equation of fcircle( x, y) = 0. The relative position of any point (x, y) can be
determined by checking the sign of circle function.

< 0 if (x, y) denotes it inside circle boundary.

fcircle( x, y) = 0 if (x, y) denotes it on circle boundary._ _ (2)
> 0 if (x, y) denotes it outside circle boundary.

yk

yk -1

xk xk+1 xk+2

Taking an assumption that we have just plotted a pixel at (xk, yk). We next
need to determine whether the pixel (xk+1, yk) or (xk+1, yk-1) is closer. Our
decision parameter is the circle function evaluated at the mid point
between these two pixels.
Pk = fcircle (xk + 1, yk - ½)
Or Pk = (xk + 1 )2 +(yk - ½)2 – r2 _ _ _ (3)
This denotes that If Pk < 0, Mid point is inside the circle boundary and the
pixel on the scan line yk is closer to the circle boundary. Otherwise, Mid
point is on or outside the circle boundary and the point on the scan line
yk - 1 is closer. Successive decision parameters are obtained by
incremental calculations. Again the next deciding parameter is calculate
the position at next sampling position by taking the next position.
xk+1 + 1 = xk + 2
Pk+1 = fcircle(xk+1 + 1, yk+1 - ½)
Or Pk+1 = [(xk + 1) + 1]2 + (yk+1 - ½)2 – r2
Or Pk+1 = Pk + 2(xk + 1) + (yk+12 – yk2) – (yk + 1 – yk) + 1 _ _ _ (4)
Successive increment for Pk is 2xk+1 +1(If Pk < 0) otherwise (2xk+1 +1 - 2yk+1)
where
2xk+1 = 2xk + 2 & 2yk+1 = 2yk – 2
Initial decision parameter P0 is obtained as (0, r) = (x0, y0)
 23
P0 = fcircle(x, y) = fcircle (1, r - ½) = 1 + (r - ½)2 – r2
5
Or P0 = -r
4
If r is a integer then P0 = 1 – r
Algorithm for this can be defined in the following steps for calculating
the Mid Point:
(1) Input radius r and circle center ( xc, yc) and obtain the first point on
circumference of a circle centered on origin (x0, y0) = (0, r)
5
(2) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as : P0 = -r
4
(3) At each xk position, starting at k = 0 if Pk < 0 the next point along
the circle is (xk+1, yk) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk+1 + 1, otherwise the next
point along the circle is (xk + 1, yk - 1) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk+1 + 1 –
2yk+1 where 2xk+1 = 2xk + 2 & 2yk+1 = 2yk – 2.
(1) Determine symmetry points in other seven octants.
(2) Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path
centered on (xc, yc) & plot coordinate values x = x + xc & y = y + yc.
(3) Repeat step (3) through (5) until x ≥ y.

Q.5 Demonstrate the Mid Point Circle Algorithm with circle radius, r = 10.
Ans.: P0 = 1 – r =1 - 10 = - 9
Now the initial point (x0, y0) = (0, 10) and initial calculating terms for
calculating decision parameter are
2x0 = 0 , 2y0 = 20 Since Pk < 0, Next point is (1, 10)
P1 = - 9 +3 = - 6 Now P1 < 0, Next point is (2, 10)
P2 = - 6 + 5 = - 1 Now P2 < 0, Next point is (3, 10)
P3 = -1+ 7 = 6 Now P3 > 0, Next point is (4, 9)
P4 = 6 + 9 - 18 = - 3 Now P4 < 0, Next point is (5, 9)
P5 = - 3 + 11 = 8 Now P5 > 0, Next point is (6, 8)
P6 = 8 +13 - 16 = 5 Now P6 > 0, Next point is (7, 7)

K (xk+1, yk+1) 2xk+1 2yk+1

0 (1, 10) 2 20
1 (2, 10) 4 20
24

2 (3, 10) 6 20
3 (4, 9) 8 18
4 (5, 9) 10 18
5 (6, 8) 12 16
6 (7, 7) 14 14
Plot the graph with these points.

Q.6 Give the properties of Ellipse & explain the Algorithm.

Ans.: Ellipse is an elongated form of circle or in other words, circle is an special
case of ellipse where the two radii of the circle are equal. cvcAn ellipse
explained as a set of points such that the sum of distances from two fixed
points (foci) is same for all points given a point P = (x, y), distances are d 1
& d2, equation is :
d1 + d2 = constant _ _ _ (1)
In terms of local coordinates
F1 = (x1, y1) & F2 (x2, y2)
Equation is :

(x - x1 )2 +(y - y1 )2 (x - x 2 )2 +(y - y 2 ) 2 0 _ _ _ (2)

This can also be written in the form :

Ax2 + By2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0 _ _ _ (3)
(More A, B, C, D, E, & F are evaluated in terms of focal coordinates &
major minor axis).
Major axis – which extends form 1 point to other through foci.
Minor axis – which spans the shouter dimension bisecting major axis at
ellipse center.
An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary orientation
is to input two foci & a point on ellipse boundary & evaluate constant in
equation (1) & so on.
Equation can be simplified if ellipse is in “standard position” with major
& minor axis oriented parallel to x and y axis.
y

ry
yc
rx

rx
 25
xc x
2 2
x - xc y - yc
+ =1 _ _ _(4)
rx ry
Now using polar coordinates r & θ
Parameter equations are :
x = xc + rx cos θ
y = yc + ry sin θ
Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm

Assuming that we are calculating points in the first quadrant. As it is quite

difficult to calculate points in first quadrant in one go, we need to divide it
in 2 regions or parts Here approach is similar to that used in circle rx and ry
and (xc, yc) obtain points (x, y) for ellipse centered on origin. Mid point
ellipse algorithms process the quadrants in 2 parts. Figure shows the
division of quadrant with rx < ry.

(-x, y) (x, y)

Region1
Slope = -1
ry
Region2
rx

(-x, -y) (x, -y)

Figure Figure

In region 2, we take unit steps in y-direction and magnitude of slope is

greater than 1. Region 1 & 2 can be processed in different ways: Region 1
is processed starting at (0, ry) we step clockwise along the path in unit
steps in x- direction & then unit steps in y- direction.

The function for Ellipse can be written as follows:

fellipse(x, y) = (0, ry)

fellipse(x, y) = ry2 x2 + rx2y2 - rx2ry2 _ _ _ (5)

And it has the following Attributes:
26
< 0 (x, y) is inside boundary.
fellipse = 0 (x, y) is on the boundary.
> 0 (x, y) is outside the boundary.
And this is how the ellipse function fellipse(x, y) serves as a decision
parameter in the mid point Algorithm. Starting at (0, r y) we step in x
direction until we reach boundary between Region 1 & 2 slope is
calculated at each step as :
dy -2r 2 x
= y2 - {from eq.(5)}
dx 2rx x
dy
At boundary = -1 So, 2ry2 x = 2rx2y
dx
We move out of Region 1 when 2ry2 x ≥ 2rx2y _ _ _ (7)
Figure (1) shows mid point between 2-candidate pixel at (xk+1), we have
selected pixel at (xk, yk) we need to determine the next pixel.

yk

•
yk-1 mid
point
xk xk+1 Figure.:1
P1k = fellipse( xk + 1, yk – ½) = ry2( xk + 1)2 + rx2 (yk - ½)2 – rx2ry2 _ _ _ (8)
Next symmetric point (xk+1 +1, yk+1 - ½)
P1k +1 = ry2 [(xk + 1) + 1]2 + r2x [(yk +1 – ½)2 (yk – ½)2] _ _ _ (9)
Where yk + 1 is either yk or yk -1 depending on sign of P1k
2ry2 xk+1 + ry2 if Pk < 0
Increments =
2ry2 xk+1 – 2rx2 yk+1 + ry2 if Pk ≥ 0
With initial position (0, ry) the two terms evaluate to
2ry2x = 0 , 2rx2y = 2rx2ry
Now when x & y are incremented the updated values are
2ry2 xk+1 = 2ry2 xk + 2ry2 , 2rx2 yk+1 = 2rx2 yk – 2rx2
And these values are compared at each step & we move out of Region 1
when condition (7) is satisfied initial decision parameter for region 1 is
calculated as :
 27
P10 = fellipse(x0, y0) = (1, ry – ½) = ry2 + rx2( ry - ½)2 – rx2 ry2
P10 = ry2 – rx2 ry + ¼ rx2 _ _ _ (10)
Over Region 2, we step in (-)ve y-direction & mid point selected is
between horizontal pixel positions
P2k = fellipse(x, y) = (xk + ½, yk – 1)
P2k = ry2(xk + ½)2 + rx2( yk – 1)2 – rx2ry2 _ _ _ (11)

yk

yk-1 •

xk xk+1
If P2k > 0 then we select pixel at xk +1
Initial decision parameter for region (2) is calculated by taking (x0, y0) as
last point in Region (1)
P2k + 1 = fellipse(xk+1 + ½, yk+1 –1) = ry2(xk+1 + ½)2 + rx2[(yk – 1) -1]2 – rx2ry2
P2k + 1 = P2k – 2rx2(yk – 1) + rx2 + ry2[(xk +1 + ½)2 – (xk + ½)2] _ _ _ (12)
At initial position (x0, y0)
P20 = fellipse(x0 +½, y0 – 1) = ry2( x0 + ½)2 + rx2(y0 – 1)2 – rx2ry2 _ _ _ (13)

Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm :

(1) Take Input of rx, ry and ellipse centre (xc, yc) obtain the first point
(x0, y0) = (0, ry)
(2) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as
P10 = ry2 – rx2ry + ¼ rx2
(3) At each xk position in region 1, starting at K = 0. If Pk < 0, then next
point along ellipse is (xk+1, yk) and P1k+1 = P1k + 2ry2xk+1 + ry2
otherwise next point along the circle is (xk +1, yk –1) and P1k+1 = P1k
+ 2ry2xk + 1 – 2rx2yk + 1 + ry2 with 2ry2xk+1 = 2ry2xk + 2ry2, 2rx2yk+1 =
2rx yk – 2rx and continue until 2ry2x ≥ 2rx2y.
2 2

(4) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region (2)
using last point (x0, y0) calculated in region 1 as P20 = ry2 (x0 +
½)2 + rx2 (y0 – 1)2 – rx2ry2.
(5) At each yk position in region (2), starting at k = 0 perform following
test : If P2k > 0 next point is (xk, yk – 1) and P2k+1 = P2k – 2rx2yk + 1 +
28
rx2 otherwise next point is ( xk + 1, yk – 1) and P2k+1 = P2k + 2ry2xk +
1 – 2rx2yk+1 + rx2.

(6) Determine the symmetry points in other three quadrants.

(7) More each calculated pixel position (x, y). Center on (xc, yc), plot
coordinate values x = x + xc & y = y + yc.
(8) Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2ry2x ≥ 2rx2y.

Illustrate the Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm by ellipse parameter rx = 8 ry = 6

Ans.: rx2 = 64, ry2 = 36
2rx2 = 128, 2ry2 = 72
1
P10 = 36 – (64 x 6) + x 64 = 36 – 384 + 16 = – 332
4
P10 < 0 Next point is (1, 6)
P11 = – 332 + 72 x 1 + 36 = – 332 + 108 = – 224
P11 < 0 Next point is (2, 6)
P12 = – 224 + 72 x 2 + 36 = – 224 + 144 + 36 = – 44
P12 < 0 Next point is (3, 6)
P13 = – 44 + 72 x 3 + 36 = – 44 + 216 + 36 = 208
P13 > 0 Next point is (4, 5)
P14 = 208 + 72 x 4 – 128 x 5 +36 = 208 + 288 – 640 + 36 = – 108
P14 < 0 Next point is (5, 5)
P15 = – 108 + 72 x 5 + 36 = 288
P15 > 0 Next point is (6, 4)
P16 = 288 + 72 x 6 – 128 x 4 + 36 = 244
P16 > 0 Next point is (7, 3)
P17 = 244 + 72 x 7 – 128 x 3 + 36 = 1168

K12 P1k (xk+1, yk+1) 2ry2xk+1 2rx2yk+1

1 – 332 (1, 6) 72 768

1 – 224 (2, 6) 144 768

2 – 44 (3, 6) 216 768

3 208 (4, 5) 288 640

4 – 108 (5, 5) 360 640

 29

5 288 (6, 4) 432 512

6 244 (7, 3) 504 384

Now we move to region 2 since 2rx2 > 2rx2y

Now For region the initial point is (x0, y0 = (7, 3) the initial decision
parameter is
P20 = f(7 + ½, 3 – 1) = 36 (7 + ½)2 + 64 (2)2 – 64 x 36 = 2025 + 256 – 2304 =– 23
The remaining positions are then calculated as :

K P1k (xk+1, yk+1) 2ry2xk+1 2rx2yk+1

0 – 23 (8, 2) 576 256
1 – 215 (8, 1) 576 128
2 – 279 (8, 0) - -
Now Plot these point on the graph.

Q.7 Explain Why is DDA Algorithm not good & efficient Algorithm?
Ans.: (1) DDA traces out the successive x & y values by simultaneously
increasing x & y by small steps proportional to their first derivative.
dy
In our example the x increment is 1 but y increment is = m.
dx
since the real values have limited Precision, the accumulation of
round off error in “m” causes the accumulative error. Build up
which drifts the pixel positions from the true line path in most
lines.
(2) Moreover the round off operations & floating point incrementation
is still time consuming.

Q.8 What do you understand by Area Filling? Discuss any one Algorithm.
Ans.: A standard out put primitive in general graphics package is a solid-color
or patterned polygon area. There are two basic approaches to area filling
on raster system :
(1) To fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan lines
that cross the area.
(2) Another is t start from a given interior position & point outward
from this point until we specify the boundary conditions.
30
Now scan line approach is typically used in general graphics package to
still polygons, circles, ellipses and simple curses.
Fill methods starting from an interior point are useful with more complex
boundaries and in interactive painting systems.
Boundary Fill Algorithm : Another approach to area filling is to start at a
point inside a region and paint the interior outward toward the boundary.
If the boundary is specified in a single color, the fill Algorithm precedes
outward pixel by pixel until the boundary color is encountered. This
method is called Boundary Fill Algorithm.
Boundary Fill Algorithm procedure accepts as input the coordinates of an
interior point (x, y), a fill color and a boundary color. Starting with (x, y),
neighboring boundary points are also tested. This process continues till all
the pixels up to the boundary color for the area is tested.

Diagram

1 Fill method applied to 4-connuted 2 Fill method applied to 8-

area. connuted area.
Recursive boundary fill Algorithm may not fill regions correctly if some
interior pixels are already displayed in the fill color. This occurs because
the Algorithm checks next point both for boundary color and for fill color.
The pixel positions are stored in form of a stack in the Algorithm.
Flood Fill Algorithm: Sometimes we want to fill in (or recolor) an area
that is not defined within a single color boundary suppose we take an area
which is bordered by several different color. We can paint such area by
replacing a specified interior color instead of searching for a boundary
color value. This approach is called flood fill Algorithm.
We start from interior paint (x, y) and reassign all pixel values that are
currently set to a given interior color with the desired fill color. If the area
we want to paint has move than one interior color, we can first reassign
pixel value so that all interior points have the same color.
 31

Chapter 3

Q1. Explain Translation in detail

Ans A translation is applied on an object by changing its position along a
straight line path from one coordinate location to another. A translation is
implemented to an object by moving it along a straight-line path from one
coordinate place to another. We render a two-dimensional point by adding
translation distances, f, and t,, to the original coordinate point (x, y) to
move the point to a new position ( x ' , y') (Figure. 5-1)
x' = x + tx, y' = y + ty,
The translat~ond istance pair (t,, t,) is called a translation vector or shift
vector.
We can express the translation equations 5-1 as a single matrix equation by
usng column vectors to represent coordinate positions and the translation
vector:

This allows us to write the two-dimensional translation equations in the matrix

form:
P`=P+T
At times matrix-transformation equations are articulated in terms of
coordinate row vectors in place of column vectors. In this case, we would
mark the matrix representations as P = [x y] and T = [tx, ty]. Since the
column-vector representation intended for a dot is typical mathematical
notation, and since a lot of graphics packages also use the column-vector
illustration, we will follow this rule. Translation is a rigid-body
transformation that moves objects with no deformation. That is, every dot
on the object is translated by the identical amount. A straight Line segment
is translated by applying the transformation equation 5-3 to each of the
line endpoints and redrawing the line amid the new endpoint positions.
Polygons are translated by adding the translation vector to the coordinate
position of each vertex and regenerating the polygon by means of the new
set of vertex coordinates and the present feature adjustments.. Figure 5-2
shows the application of a particular translation vector to move an object
starting one position to another. Similar techniques are used to transform
curved objects. To change the position of a circle or ellipse, we translate
the center coordinates and redraw the figure in the new location. We
translate other curves (for example, splines) by displacing the coordinate
positions defining the objects, then we restructure the curve paths using
the translated coordinate points.
32

Moving a polygon from the first position to the second one.

Q2. Explain Rotation in detail.

Ans 2-dimensional rotation is implemented on an object by moving it along a circular
path in the xy plane. To carry out a rotation, we specify a rotation angle 0 and the
position (x,y) of the rotation point (pivot point) about which the specified object is
to be rotated (Figure. 5-3). Positive values for the rotation angle represent anti
clockwise rotations about the pivot point, as in Figure. 5-3, and negative values
carry out object rotation in the clockwise direction. This transformation can also
be expressed in terms of rotation about a rotation axis which is vertical to the xy
plane and passes through the pivot point.
We first establish the transformation equations for rotation of a point position P
when the pivot point is at the coordinate origin. The angular and coordinate
associations of the original and transformed point positions are shown in Figure.
5-4. In this figure, r is the constant distance of the point from the origin, angle φ
is the original angular position of the point from the horizontal, and t3 is the
rotation angle. Using standard trigonometric identities, we can state the
transformed coordinates in terms of angles 0 and θ

The original coordinates of the point in polar coordinates are

Replacing expressions 5-5 into 5-4, we obtain the transformation equations for
rotating a point at position (x, y) through an angle 9 about the origin:

With the column-vector representations 5-2 for coordinate positions, we can write
the rotation equations in the matrix form:

where the rotation matrix is

 33

When coordinate positions are expressed as row vectors instead of column

vectors, the matrix product in rotation equation 5-7 is transposed so that the
transformed row coordinate vector [x' y'] is determined as

where PT = [x y], and the transpose RT of matrix R is obtained by interchanging

rows and columns. For a rotation matrix, the transpose is obtained by simply
changing the sign of the sine terms.

Rotation of a point about an arbitrary pivot position is illustrated in Figure. 5-5.

Using trigonometric associations in this figure, we can simplify Eqs. 5-6 to obtain
the transformation equations for carrying out rotation of a point about any
specified mutation position (xr,yr):

These general rotation equations differ from Eqs. 5-6 by the inclusion of additive
terms, as well as the multiplicative factors on the coordinate values. Thus, the
above matrix expression could be modified to include : pivot coordinates by
matrix addition of a column vector whose elements contain the additive
(translational) terms In Eqs. 5-9. There are better ways, however, to formulate
such matrix equations, and we discuss in Section 5-2 a more consistent scheme for
representing the transformation equations

As with translations, rotations are rigid-body transformations that move objects

without deformation. Every point on an object is rotated through the same anglc.
A straight line segment is rotated by applying the rotation equations 5-9 to each ot
tht' line endpoints and redrawing the line between the new endpoint positions.
Polygons are rotated by displacing each vertex through the specified rotation
angle and regenerating the polygon using the new vertices. Curved lines arc
rotatcd by repositioning the defining p ~ r ~atnsd redrawing the curves. A circle
k>r ,117 ellipse, for instance, can be rotated about a noncentral axis by movins the
center position through the arc that subtcncs thc sprcified rotation angle. An
ellipse can be rotated about its center coordinates by rotating the major and minor
axes
34

Chapter 4
Two Dimensional Concepts Clipping
Algorithm

Q.1 Explain Clipping. Also Explain How can a point be clipped?

Ans. : Clipping is defined as the identification of the objects of the view which
are outside the clipping region and which can be removed or clipped from
the viewing window. Any procedure that identifies those portion of a
picture that are either inside or outside of a specified region of space is
referred to as a clipping Algorithm or clipping.

The region against which the object needs to be clipped is known as clip
window. We will assume here that clip window is a rectangular window
but it might be a polygon shaped as well and can have boundaries in the
curved form as well. Hence the objects which are not inside and are
outside the rectangular clip window are hence discarded. The various
clipping algorithms which are involved in the process of clipping are as
follows:
Point Clipping
Line Clipping
Polygon clipping
Text Clipping
Curve Clipping

Here are a few examples of the application of the clipping concepts which
are as follows:
(1) Creating objects using solid-modeling procedures.
(2) Drawing and painting operations.
(3) Identifying visible surface in three dimensional views.
(4) Antialising line segments or object boundaries.
(5) Extracting parts of defined scene for viewing.
(6) Displaying multi window environment.
 35

Q2. Explain Point Clipping.

Ans Assuming that a point P(x,y) is to be displayed on the screen we need to
determine if this point lies within the clip window or not. Assuring that
clip window is a rectangle in standard Position, we save a point P = (x, y)
for display if following inequalities are satisfied. And we have to compare
the point coordinates with window coordinates.
xwmin ≤ x ≤ xwmax
ywmin ≤ y ≤ ywmax
then the point (x,y) lies within the view window and can be displayed,
otherwise it needs to be discarded. Where the edges of clip window
(xwmin, xwmax, ywmin, ywmax) can be either coordinate window boundaries
or view port boundaries. If any one of these inequalities is not satisfied the
point is clipped.
Application of Point Clipping: Point clipping can be applied to scenes
involving explosions or sea foam that are modeled with particles (points)
distributed in some region of the scene.

Q. 3 Explain Line Clipping? Also Explain Cohen Sutherland Method of Line

Clipping.
Ans. A line consists of a sequence of number of points arranged between the
two end points. Here we just have to consider only the endpoints for
clipping purpose, and we would not consider the points between the
endpoints. A line clipping procedure involves several parts First, we can
test a given line segment to determine whether it lies completely inside
the clipping window.
If the two endpoints of a line fall within the clip window, it is accepted.
And if in case one of the line end point falls inside and the other end point
goes out of the clip window, we need to make calculation of the
intersection of the line with the edges of the rectangular window. If it
does not, we try to determine whether it lies completely outside the
window.

Finally if we can not identify a line as completely inside or completely

outside we must perform intersection calculation with one or more
clipping boundaries. We process lines through inside-outside tests by
checking the line end points.
36

P9
P4 P2
P10
P1
P8
P5 P5 P6
P3 P7

A line with both end points outside any one of the clip boundaries
(line P3, P4 in Figure.) is outside the window.
A line with both end points inside all clipping boundaries such as
line form P1 to P2 is saved.
And all the other lines that cross one or more clipping boundaries
and may require calculation of multiple intersection point.
For a line segment with end points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) and one or
both end points outside clipping rectangle, the parametric
representation.Could be used to determine values of parameter u
for intersections with the clipping boundary coordinates.
x = x1 + u(x2 – x1)
y = y1 + u(y2 – y1), 0 ≤ u ≤ 1

If the value of u for an intersection with a rectangle boundary edge

is outside the range 0 to 1, the line does not enter the interior of the
window at that boundary. If the value of u is within the range from
0 to 1, the line segment does indeed cross into the clipping area.

Cohen - Sutherland line Clipping

This algorithm also reduces calculations by the identification of the
lines which can be trivially discarded or accepted. And this can be
done by making comparison with the endpoints with the window
coordinates (Xmin, Ymin) and (Xmax, Ymax). This is one of the
oldest and most popular line clipping procedures. Generally, the
method speeds up the processing of line segments by performing
initial test that reduces the number of intersections that must be
calculated.
 37
Every line end point in a picture is assigned a four digit binary
code called, a region code, that identifies the location of the points
relative to the boundaries of the clipping rectangle. For this
purpose we assign 4-digit binary code to each endpoint of the line.
As shown in the following diagram, we have extended the window
to get a plane of nine regions.

Xmin Xmax

1001 1000 1010

0000
0001 WINDOW 0010
W
0101 0100 0110

Code for inside the window region is 0000. Each regions is defined or
represented by 1 bit. First bit from left i.e., MSB is for the region above the
top edge. If this bit is 1, it means point is above the top edge or y>y max.
Each bit position in the region code is used to indicate one of the four
relative coordinate positions of the point with respect to the clip window:
to the left, right, top and bottom.
Second bit from left is for the region below the bottom
By numbering the bit position in the region code as 1 through 4 right to
left, the coordinate regions can be correlated with the bit positions as :
bit 1 : left ; bit 2 : right ; bit 3 : below ; bit 4 : above
A value of 1 in any bit position indicates that point is in that relative
position otherwise the bit position is set to 0.
Now here bit values in the region are determined by comparing
end point coordinate values (x, y) to the clip boundaries.
Bit 1 is set to 1 if x < xwmin
Bit 2 is set to 1 it xwmax < x

Now Bit 1 sign bit of x – xwmin

Bit 2 sign bit of xwmax – x
Bit 3 sign bit of y – ywmin
Bit 4 sing bit of ywmax – y
38
(1) Any lines that are completely inside the clip window have a region
code 0000 for both end points few points to be kept in mind while
checking.
(2) Any lines that have 1 in same bit position for both end points are
considered to be completely outside.
(3) Now here we use AND operation with both region codes and if
result is not 0000 then line is completely outside.
Now for lines that cannot be identified as completely inside or completely
outside the window by this test are checked by intersection with window
boundaries.
For eg. P2
P2’

P2’’

P1’
P3 P3’ P1
P4

We check P1 against left right we find it is below window. We find

intersection point P1’ and then discard line section P1 to P1’ & Now we
have P1 to P2. Now we take P2 we find it in left position outside window
then we take an intersection point P2’’. But we find it outside window then
we again calculate final intersection point P2’’. Now we discard line P2 to
P2’’. We finally get a line P2’’ to P1’ inside window similarly check for line
P3 to P4.
For end points (x1, y1) (x2, y2) y–coordinate with vertical boundary can be
calculated as
y = y1 + m(x – x1) where x is set to xwmin to xwmax

Q.4 Discuss the Cyrus Beck Algorithm for Clipping in a Polygon Window.
Ans. Cyrus Beck Technique : Cyrus Beck Technique can be used to clip a 2–D
line against a rectangle or 3–D line against an arbitrary convex polyhedron
in 3-d space.
Liang Barsky Later developed a more efficient parametric line clipping
Algorithm. Now here we follow Cyrus Beck development to introduce
 39
parametric clipping now in parametric representation of line Algorithm
has a parameter t representation of the line segment for the point at which
that segment intersects the infinite line on which the clip edge lies,
Because all clip edges are in general intersected by the line, four values of t
are calculated. Then a series of comparison are used to check which out of
four values of (t) correspond to actual intersection, only then are the (x, y)
values of two or one actual intersection calculated.
Advantage of this on Cohen Sutherland :
(1) It saves time because it avoids the repetitive looping needed to clip
to multiple clip rectangle edge.

(2) Calculation in 3D space move complicated than 1-D

E
PEi Ni • [P(t) – PEi] < 0
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] > 0 P1 Figure.1

Ni • [P(t) – PEi] = 0
P0 Ni

Cyrus Beck Algorithm is based on the following formulation the

intersection between 2-lines as in Figure.1 & shows a single edge Ei of
clip rectangle and that edge’s outward normal Ni (i.e. outward of clip
rectangle).
Either the edge or the line segment has to be extended in order to find
intersection point.
Now before this line is represented parametrically as :
P(t) = P0 + (P1 – P0 )t
Where t=0 at P0
t=1 at P1
Now pick an arbitrary point PEi on edge Ei Now consider three vectors
P(t) – PEi to three designated points on P0 to P1.
Now we will determine the endpoints of the line on the inside or outside
half plane of the edge.
40
Now we can determine in which region the points lie by looking at the dot
product Ni • [P(t) – PEi].
Negative if point is inside half plane
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] Zero if point is on the line containing the edge
Positive if point lies outside half plane.
Now solve for value of t at the intersection P0P1 with edge.
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] = 0
Substitute for value P(t)
Ni • [P0 + (P1 – P0) t – PEi] = 0
Now distribute the product
Ni • [P0 – PEi] + Ni [P1 – P0] t = 0
Let D = (P1 – P0) be the from P0 to P1 and solve for t
Ni • [P0 - PEi]
t= _ _ _ (1)
- Ni • D
This gives a valid value of t only if denominator of the expression is non-
zero.
Note : Cyrus Beck use inward Normal Ni, but we prefer to use outward
normal for consistency with plane normal in 3d which is outward. Our
formulation differs only in testing of a sign.
(1) For this condition of denominator to be non-zero. We check the
following :
Ni ≠ 0 (i. e Normal should not be Zero)
D ≠ 0 (i.e P1 ≠ P0)
Now hence Ni • D ≠ 0 (i.e. edge Ei and line between P0 to P1 are not
parallel. If they were parallel then there cannot be any intersection
point.
Now eq.(1) can be used to find the intersection between the line &
the edge.
Now similarly determine normal & an arbitrary PEi say an end of
edge for each clip edge and then find four arbitrary points for the
“t”.
(2) Next step after finding out the four values for “t” is to find out
which value corresponds to internal intersection of line segment.
(i) Now 1st only value of t outside interval [0, 1] can be
discarded since it lies outside P0P1.
(ii) Next is to determine whether the intersection lies on the clip
boundary.
 41
P1 (t = 1)
PE P1 (t = 1) P1 (t = 1)
PL Line 1 PL PL
P0 PE Line 2 PL
(t = 0) P0 (t = 0) Line 3
PE PE
P0 (t = 0) Figure.2

Now simply sort the remaining values of t choose the intermediate

value of t for intersection points as shown in Figure.(2) for case of
line 1.
Now the question arises how line 1 is different from line 2 & line 3.
In line 2 no portion of the line lies on the clip boundary and so the
intermediate value of t correspond to points not on the clip
boundary.
In line 3 we have to see which points are on the clip boundary.
Now here intersections are classified as :
PE Potential entering
PL Potential leaving
(i) Now if moving from P0 to P1 and the line causes to cross a
particular edge t enter the edge inside half plane the
intersection is PE.
(ii) Now if it causes to leave the inside plane then it is denoted
as PL.
Formally it can be checked by calculating angle between P0, P1 and
Ni.
Ni • D < 0 PE (angle is greater than 90o)
Ni • D > 0 PL (angle is less than 90o)
(3) Final steps are to select a pair (PE, PL) that defines the clipped line.
Now we suggest that PE intersection with largest t value which we
call tE and the PL intersection with smallest t value tL. Now the
intersection line segment is then defined by range ( tE, tL). But this
was in case of an infinite line. But we want the range for P0 to P1
line. Now we set this as :
t = 0 is a upper bound for tE
t = 1 is a upper bound for tL
42
But if tE > tL
Now this is case for line 2, no portion of P0P1 is in clip rectangle so
whole line is discarded. Now tE and tL that corresponds to actual
intersection is used to find value of x & y coordinates.
Table 1 : For Calculation of Parametric Values.
Normal Ni.( P0 PEi )
Clip edge i PEi P0 – PEi t
Ni Ni.D
( x0 xmin)
Left : x = xmin (– 1, 0) (xmin, y) (x0 – xmin, y0 – y)
( x x0 )
( x0 xmax)
right : x = xmax (1, 0) (xmax, y) (x0 – xmax, y0 – y)
( x1 x0 )
bottom : y = ( y0 ymin )
(0, – 1) (x, ymin) (x0 – x, y0 – ymin)
ymin ( y1 y0 )
( y0 ymax)
top : y = ymax (0, 1) (x, ymax) (x0 – x, y0 – ymax)
( y1 y0 )

□□□
 43

Chapter 5

Three dimensional concepts

Q.1 What are Bezier Curves and Surfaces. Write the properties of Bezier
Curves.
Ans.: This spline approximation method was developed by French Engineer
Pierre Bezier for use in the design of Renault automobile bodies Bezier
splines have a number of properties that make them highly useful and
convenient for curves and surface design. They are easy to implement.
Bezier splines are widely available in CAD systems.
Bezier Curves : A Bezier curve can be fitted to any number of control
points. The number of control point to be approximated and their relative
position determine the degree of Bezier polynomial. As with interpolation
splines, a Bezier curve can be specified with boundary conditions, with
characterizing matrix or with blending functions.
Suppose we have (n + 1) control point positions: Pk – (xk, yk, zk,) with K
varying from 0 to n. These coordinate points can be blended to produce
the following position vector P(u), which describes the path of an
approximating Bezier Polynomial function between P0 & Pn.
n
P (u) = ∑ Pk BEZ k,n (u) 0≤u≤1 _ _ _ (1)
K=0

The Bezier blending functions BEZk,n (u) are the Bernstein polynomial.
BEZk,n(u) = C (n, k) uk (1 – u) n-k _ _ _ (2)
Where C(n,k) are the binomial coefficients
n
C( n ,k ) _ _ _ (3)
kn k
Equivalently we can define Bezier blending function with recursive
calculation :
BEZ k,n (u) = (1 – u) BEZ k,n-1 (u) + u BEZ k-1,n-1 (u) n > k ≥ 1 _ _ _ (4)
Three parametric equations for individual curve coordinates :
n n n
x(u) = ∑ xk BEZ k,n (u) y(u) = ∑ yk BEZ k,n (u) z(u) = ∑ zk BEZ k,n (u)
K=0 K=0 K=0
44
A Bezier Curve is a polynomial of degree one less than the number of
control points used.
Three points generates Parabola.
Four points generates Cubic Curve.

(a) (b)

Bezier Curves generated from three or four control points. Dashed lines
connect the control point positions.
Properties of Bezier Curve :
(1) It always passes through the first and last control points. That is
boundary condition at two ends of the curve are :
For two end points P (0) = P0
P (1) = Pn _ _ _ (6)
Now value for the first derivative of a Bezier Curve at the end
points can be calculated from control point coordinates as :
P’(0) = - nP0 +nP1 First derivative for the

P’(1) = - nPn-1 + nPn first & last 2 end points _ _ _ (7)

Slope of the curve at the beginning of curve is calculated by
joining the beginning 2- points.
Slope of the curve at the end of curve is calculated by joining the 2 –
end points.
Similarly second derivative of Bezier Curve at the end point are : -
P’’(0) = n (n – 1) [(P2 – P1) – (P1 – P0)]
P’’(1) = n (n – 1) [ (Pn–2 – Pn–1) – (Pn–1 – Pn)] _ _ _ (8)
(2) Another property of Bezier Curve is, it lies within the convex hull.
Therefore this follows the properties of Bezier blending function.
That is they are all positive & their sum is always 1.
n
∑ BEZ k,n (u) = 1 _ _ _ (9)
 45
K=0

So that any curve position is simply weighted sum of the control

points positions.
The convex hull also ensures that polynomial smoothly follows the
control points without erratic oscillations.
Bezier Surfaces : Two sets of orthogonal Bezier Curves can be used
to design an object surface by specifying by an input mesh of
control points.
Blending function are :
m n
P(u, v) = ∑ ∑ Pj,k BEZj,m (v) BEZk,n (u) _ _ _ (10)
j = 0 k=0
With Pj,k specifying location of (m + 1) by (n + 1) control points.
Bezier surfaces have same properties as Bezier Curves. Zero order
continuity is obtained by matching control points at the boundary.
First order continuity is obtained by choosing control points along
a straight line across the boundary & by maintaining a constant
ratio of collinear line segments for each set of specified control
points across section boundaries.

NOTE : In context to Cubic Bezier Curve. Derive Bezier Matrix.

1 0 -3 1
3 -6 3 0
-3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0
Write the same answer as the above one.

Q.2 What are B-Spline Line, Curves and Surfaces? Write the properties of B-
Spline Curves?
Ans.: These are most widely used class of approximating splines B-splines have
two advantage over Bezier splines.
(1) The degree of a B – spline polynomial can be set independently of
the number of control points (with certain limitations).
(2) B – spline allow local control over the shape of a spline curve or
surface.
The trade of off is that B – splines are move complex than Bezier splines.
B – spline Curves : Blending function for B – spline curve is :
n
46
P (u) = ∑ Pk Bk,d (u) umin ≤ u ≤ umax
K=0 2 ≤ d ≤ n+1
Where the Pk are an input set of (n + 1) control points. There are several
differences between this B-spline formulation and that for Bezier splines.
The range of parameter u now depends on how we choose the B – spline
parameters. And the B – spline blending functions Bk,d are polynomials of
degree d – 1, where parameter d can be chosen to be any integer. Value in
the range from 2 up to the number of control points , n + 1, Local control
for B – splines is achieved by defining the blending functions over
subintervals of the total range of u.
Blending function for B – spline curves are defined by Cox – de Boor
recursion formulas :
1 if uk ≤ u ≤ uk+1
Bk,d (u) =
0 otherwise
u uk uk d u
Bk,d u Bk, d 1 u Bk=1,d 1 u
uk d 1 uk uk d uk 1
Where each blending function is defined over d subintervals of the total
range of u. values for umin and umax then depends on the number of control
points we select, we can increase the number of values in the knot vector
to aid in curve design.

Properties of B – spline Curve :

(1) The polynomial curve has degree (d – 1) and Cd–2 continuity over
the range of u.
(2) For (n + 1) control points, the curve is described with (n + 1)
blending function.
(3) Each blending function Bk,d is defined over d subintervals of the
total range of u, starting at knot value uk.
(4) The range of parameter u is divided into (n + d) subintervals by the
(n + d + 1) values specified in knot vector.
(5) With knot values labeled as { u0 , u1 , - - - , un+d} the resulting B –
spline over is defined only in the interval from knot value ud-1 up
to the knot value un +1.
(6) Each section of the spline curve (between two successive knot
values) is influenced by d – control points.
(7) Any one control points can affect the shape of almost d curve
section.
 47
For any vale of u in the interval from knot value ud-1 to un-1 the sum over
all basis function is 1.
n
∑ Bk,d (u) = 1
K=0

We need to specify the knot values to obtain the blending function using
recurrence relation.
Classification of B – splines according to the knot vectors :
Uniform, Periodic B – splines : When spacing between knot values is
constant. The resulting curve is called a uniform B – spline.
For e.g. : { - 1.5, -1.0, -0.5, 0.0}
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0 1 2 3

Periodic B - spline blending functions for n = d = 3 and a uniform, integer

knot vector.
Uniform B – splines have periodic blending functions shifted version of
previous function :
Bk,d (u) = Bk+1, d (u + ∆u) = Bk+2, d (u + 2∆u)
Cubic Periodic B – spline : Periodic splines are particularly useful for
generating certain closed Curves. If any three consecutive control points
are identical, the curve passes through that coordinate position.
The boundary condition for periodic cubic B – spline with four
consecutive control points labeled P0, P1, P2, P3 are.
1
P(0) = (P0 + 4P1 + P2)
6
1
P(1) = (P1 + 4P2 + P3)
6
1
P’(0) = (P2 – P0)
2
1
P’(1) = (P3 – P1)
2
48
Matrix formulation for periodic cubic polynomial is :-
P0

P (u) = [u3 u2 u 1] . MB . P1
P2
P3

where B – spline Matrix is

1 0 -3 1
MB = 1 3 -6 3 0
6 -3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0

Open Uniform B – spline : This class of B – spline is a cross between

uniform B – spline and non uniform B – spline. For open uniform B –
spline or simply open B – spline, the Knot spacing is uniform except at the
ends where Knot values are repeated d – times.
For eg.: [0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3] for d = 2 and n = 3
[0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2] for d = 4 and n = 4

Non uniform B – splines : With non uniform B – spline, we can choose

multiple Knot values and unequal spacing between the Knot values.
For eg.: [0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4]
[0, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6]
Non uniform B – spline provides increased flexibility in controlling a
curve shape.
We can obtain the blending function for a non uniform B – spline using
methods similar to those discussed for uniform and open B – spline.

B – spline Surfaces : Cartesian product of B – spline blending function in

the form
n1 n2
P(u, v) = ∑ ∑ P K1, K2 B K1, d1 (u) B K2, d2 (v)
K1=0 K2=0
Where vector values for Pk1, k2 specify position of the (n1 +1) by (n2 + 1)
control points.
 49
Q. 3 What is Hermite Interpolation?
Ans. A hermite spline is an interpolating piecewise cubic polynomial with a
specified tangent at each control point. Hermite splines can be adjusted
locally because each curve section is only dependent on its end point
constraints. If P(u) represents a parametric cubic point function for the
curve section between control points Pk and Pk+1.
Boundary conditions that define this Hermite curve section are :

P(0) = Pk
P(1) = Pk+1 _ _ _ (1)
P’(0) = DPk
P’(1) = DPk+1
With DPk and DPk+1 specifying values for the parametric derivatives
(slope of the curve) at control points Pk and Pk+1 respectively.
Vector equivalent equation :
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d 0≤u≤1 _ _ _ (2)
Where x component of P is x(u) = axu3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx and similarly for y
and z components. The Matrix is
a
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] b _ _ _ (3)
c
d
Derivative of the point function as :
a
P’(u) = [3u2 2u 1 0] b _ _ _ (4)
C PK
d P(u) = [x(u), y(u), z(u)]

PK+1
Figure.(1) Parametric point function P(u) for a Hermite curve section
between control point Pk and Pk+1.

Now we express the hermite boundary condition in matrix form.

50
Pk 0 0 0 1 a
Pk+1 = 1 1 1 1 b _ _ _ (5)
DPk 0 0 1 0 c
DPk+1 3 2 1 0 d

Solving this equation for the polynomial coefficients : -

a 0 0 0 1 -1 Pk Pk
b = 1 1 1 1 Pk+1 =MH Pk+1 _ _ _ (6)
c 0 0 1 0 DPk DPk
d 3 2 1 0 DPk+1 DPk+1

Where MH, the Hermite Matrix is the inverse of the boundary constraint
Matrix.

Equation (3) can thus be written in terms of boundary condition as :

Pk
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] MH Pk+1
DPk
DPk+1

Now we obtain the blending function by carrying out Matrix

Multiplication :
P(u) = Pk (2u3 – 3u2 + 1) + Pk+1 (-2u3 +3u2) + DPk (u3 – 2u2 + u) + DPk+1 (u3 – u2)
= Pk H0 (u) + Pk+1 H1 (u) +DPk H2 (u) +DPk+1 H3 (u)
Hk(u) are refered to as blending function for K = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Q.4 Differentiate between Hermite Curve and B - spline Curve?

Ans.:
S.No. Hermite Curve B – spline Curve
1. This spline is interpolation This is a class of
spline with a specified tangent approximating spline.
at each control point.
2. It does not require any input It requires many I/P values
 51
values for curve slope or other like Knot vector, range of
geometric information, in Parameter u etc.
addition to control point
coordinates.

Q.5 Explain Zero Order, First Order, and Second Order Continuity in Curve
Blending?
Ans.: To ensure a smooth transition form one section of a piecewise curve to the
next. We can suppose various continuity conditions, at the connection
point. Each section of a spline is described with a set of parametric
coordinate function of the form :
x = x (u), y = y (u), z = z (u), u1 ≤ u ≤ u2 _ _ _ (1)

P2 P2

P3
P0 P3 P0
Convex Hall
P1 P1
Figure.(1) convex hull shapes for two sets of control points.
Parametric Continuity : We set parametric continuity by matching the
parametric derivative of adjoining section at their common boundary.
Zero – Order Parametric Continuity : Described as C0 continuity means
simply that curves meet. That is the values of x, y, z evaluated at u 2 for
first curve section is equal to values of x, y, z evaluated at u 1 for the next
curve section.
First – Order Parametric Continuity : Refered as C1 continuity means that
the first Parametric derivatives (tangent lines) of the coordinate functions
in eq.(1) for two successive curve sections are equal at their joining point.
Second - Order Parametric Continuity : Described as C2 continuity
means that both first and second parametric derivatives of the two curve
sections are the same at the intersection.
With second order continuity, the rates of change of the tangent vector for
connecting sections are equal at their intersection. Thus the tangent line
transitions smoothly from one section of the curve to the Next like in
Figure.(2).
52

Figure.(2) : Showing second order continuity.

With First order continuity, the change of tangent vectors for two sections
can be quite different, so that the general shape of the two adjacent section
can change abruptly.
Applications :
(1) First order continuity is often sufficient for digitizing drawings and
some design applications.
(2) Second order continuity is useful for setting up animation paths for
camera motion and for many precision CAD Requirements.
Geometric Continuity Conditions : An alternate method for joining two
successive curve sections is to specify conditions for geometric continuity.
In this case, we only require parametric derivatives of the two sections to
be proportional to each other at their common boundaries instead of
equal to each other.
Zero Order Continuity : Described as G0 continuity, is same as zero order
parametric continuity. That is two curve section must have the same
coordinate position at the boundary point.
First Order Geometric Continuity: - Described as G1 continuity means
those parametric first derivatives are proportional at the intersection of
two successive sections.
Suppose if we denote the parametric position on the curve as P(u) the
direction of the tangent vector P’(u), but not necessarily its magnitude will
be same of two successive curve sections at their joining point under G 1
Continuity.
Second Order Geometric Continuity : Described as G2 continuity means
that both the first and second parametric derivative of the two curve
sections are proportional at their boundary under G2 continuity, curative
of two curve section will match at the joining position.
A curve generated with geometric continuity conditions is similar to one
generated with parametric continuity but with slight difference in curve
shape.
 53

Chapter 6

Computer Animations
Q1. Explain the Animation Sequence or rules for Animation
Ans
Animation sequence in general is designed in the following steps.

1. Storyboard layout
2. Object definitions.
3. Key-frame specifications
4. Generation of in-between frames.

This approach of carrying out animations is applied to any other applications as

well, although some applications are exceptional cases and do not follow this
sequence.

For frame-by-frame animation, every frame of the display or scene is generated

separately and stored. Later, the frame recording can be done and they might be
displayed consecutively in terms of movie.

The outline of the action is storyboard. This explains the motion sequence. The
storyboard consists of a set of rough structures or it could be a list of the basic
ideas for the motion.
For each participant in the action, an object definition is given. Objects are
described in terms of basic shapes the examples of which are splines or polygons.
The related movement associated with the objects are specified along with the
shapes.

A key frame in animation can be defined as a detailed drawing of the scene at a

certain time in the animation sequence. Each object is positioned according to the
time for that frame, within each key frame. Some key frames are selected at
54
extreme positions and the others are placed so that the time interval between two
consecutive key frames is not large. Greater number of key frames are specified
for smooth motions than for slow and varying motion.

And the intermediate frames between the key frames are In-betweens. And the
Media that we use determines the number of In-betweens which are required to
display the animation. A Film needs 24 frames per second, and graphics terminals
are refreshed at the rate of 30 to 60 frames per second. Depending on the speed
specified for the motion, some key frames are duplicated. For a one minutes film
sequence with no duplication, we would require 288 key frames. We place the key
frames a bit distant if the motion is not too complicated.

A number of other tasks may be carried out depending upon the application
requirement for example synchronization of a sound track.

Q2. Explain the General Computer-Animation Functions

Ans In the development of an animation sequence some steps well suit to computer
solution and these operations include camera motions, object manipulations and
rendering and the generation of in-betweens. Animation packages provide special
functions for carrying out the animation and processing individual objects.

Animation package also provides function to store and manage the object
database. And the shapes of the objects and the parameters which are associated to
them are stored and updated in the database. Other functions are implemented and
carry out motion generation and object rendering.

Q3 Explain Raster Animation

Ans Raster systems have the capabilities of generating real time animation in limited
applications using raster operations. A simple method to carry out translation in
the xy plain is to transfer a rectangular block of pixel values from one location to
another. For the rotation of a block of pixels, we need to determine percentage of
area covered has to be done for that pixel that overlaps the rotated block. Raster
operation sequence can be executed to carry out real time animation of either 2 D
 55
or 3 D. objects as long as the plane (projection). In this case no viewing or visible
surface algorithms need to be involked.

Using coor-table transformations we can animate objects along two dimensional

motion paths. The object here at successive positions is predefined along with the
motion path. And the color table entries are updated with the successive blocks of
pixel values. We set the pixels at the first position of the object to “on” values, and
we set the pixels at the other object positions to the background color. The
animation is attained by varying the color table values so that the object is “on” at
successively along the animation path.

Q4 Explain Key-Frame Systems

Ans We generate each set of in-betweens from the specification of two (or more) key
frames. Here, motion paths can be defined with a kinematic description in terms
of set of spline curves or the motion paths.
For more complex scenes, frames can be separated into individual components or
objects cols cells. We can interpolate the positions of individual objects for any
given animation paths. Shapes of complex objects may change over time
examples of which are clothes, evolving shapes, exploding or disintegrating
objects and this also includes transformation of one object into another.
56

Multiple Choice Questions

1) The smallest addressable screen element. Is called?

A. Pixel
B. Graph
C. voltage level
D. color information

2) Pixel on the graphics display represents?

A. mathematical point
B. a region which theoretically can contain an infinite number of points
C. voltage values
D. picture

3) The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing picture or

graphics object is known as?
A. rasterization
B. animation
C. both a and b
D. representation

4) The relationship among the data and objects which are stored in the database
called application database, and referred by the?
A. Application programs
B. application model
C. graphics display
D. both a and b

5) Selective or part erasing of screen is not possible in?

A. raster scan display
B. vector scan display
C. DVST
D. both a and b

6) Display processor is also called a?

A. graphics controller
B. display coprocessor
C. both a and b
D. out put device for graphics
 57
7) Graphics software acts as a very powerful tool to create?
A. Images
B. animated pictures
C. both a and b
D. system interface

8) The purpose of display processor is __from the graphics routine task?

A. to free the CPU
B. To free the secondary memory
C. to free the main memory
D. Both a & c

9) random-scan monitors typically offer __color choices?

A. Only a few
B. wide range
C. just 1 or 2
D. moderate range of

10) RGB system needs __of storage for the frame buffer?
A. 100 megabytes
B. 10 megabytes
C. 3 megabytes
D. 2 Gb

11) The SRGP package provides the __to wide the variety of display devices?
A. interface
B. connection
C. link
D. way

12) Length of shift register in bits is equal to __?

A. one word
B. A single scan lines
C. number of scan lines
D. One bit

13) Display controller is not required for __?

A. display system with only frame buffer
B. Display system with display controller
C. both a and b
D. display system with color
58
14) The basic principle of Bresenham`s line algorithm is__?
A. to select the optimum raster locations to represent a straight line
B. to select either Δx or Δy, whichever is larger, is chosen as one raster unit
C. we find on which side of the line the midpoint lies
D. both a and b

15) The midpoint circle drawing algorithm also uses the __of the circle to generate?
A. two-way symmetry
B. four-way symmetry
C. eight-way symmetry
D. both a & b

16) a polygon in which the line segment joining any 2 points within the polygon lies
completely inside the polygon is called__?
A. convex polygon
B. concave polygon
C. both a and b
D. both a and b

17) A polygon in which the line segment joining any 2 points within the polygon may
not lie completely inside the polygon is called __?
A. convex polygon
B. concave polygon
C. both a and b
D. Hexagon

18) Rectangular patterns are sometimes referred as__?

A. tiling patterns
B. Filling patterns
C. coloring patterns
D. both a and b

19) Replicating pixels is one of the methods of__?

A. Thick primitives
B. Thin primitives
C. stylish primitives
D. both a and b

20) Line produced by moving pen is __ at the end points than the line produced by
the pixel replication?
A. thin
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B. straight
C. thicker
D. both a and b

21) The process of selecting and viewing the picture with different views is called__?
A. Windowing
B. clipping
C. projecting
D. both a and b

22) The process which divides each element of the picture into its visible and
invisible portions, allowing the invisible portion to be discarded is called__?
A. clipping
B. Windowing
C. both a and b
D. Projecting

23) The region against which an object is to be clipped is called__?

A. clip window or clipping window
B. Drawing window
C. image window
D. both b and c

24) The region code 0000 represents the__?

A. viewing window
B. left clipping window
C. right clipping window
D. bottom clipping window

25) A method used to test lines for total clipping is equivalent to the__?
A. logical XOR operator
B. logical OR operator
C. logical AND operator
D. both a and b

26) A process of changing the position of an object in a straight line path from one
coordinate location to another is called__?
A. Translation
B. rotation
C. motion
D. both b and c
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27) Data hazards occur when__?
A. Greater performance loss
B. Pipeline changes the order of read/write accesses to operands
C. some functional unit is not fully pipelined
D. machine size is limited

28) A two dimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a?

A. circular path in the x-y plane
B. straight path in the x-y plane
C. diagonals path in the x-y plane
D. upward in the x-y plane

29) A scaling transformation changes the__of an object?

A. size
B. location
C. shape
D. both a and b

30) In two dimensional viewing we have?

A. 3D window and 2D viewport
B. 3D window and 3D viewport
C. 2D window and 2D viewport
D. 2D window and 2D viewport

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A B A A C B C A A C A C A A C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B A A C A A A A C A C A A A
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Glossary

2D Graphics
Displayed representation of a scene or an object along two axes of reference: height and width (x
and y).

3D Graphics
Displayed representation of a scene or an object that appears to have three axes of reference:
height, width, and depth (x, y, and z).

3D Pipeline
The process of 3D graphics can be divided into three-stages: tessellation, geometry, and
rendering. In the tessellation stage, a described model of an object is created, and the object is
then converted to a set of polygons. The geometry stage includes transformation, lighting, and
setup. The rendering stage, which is critical for 3D image quality, creates a two dimensional
display from the polygons created in the geometry stage.

Anti-aliasing
Anti-aliasing is sub pixel interpolation, a technique that makes edges appear to have better
resolution.

Bitmap
A Bitmap is a pixel by pixel image.

Blending
Blending is the combining of two or more objects by adding them on a pixel-by-pixel basis.

Depth Cueing
Depth cueing is the lowering of intensity as objects move away from the viewpoint.

Dithering
Dithering is a technique for archiving 24-bit quality in 8 or 16-bit frame buffers. Dithering uses
two colors to create the appearance of a third, giving a smooth appearance to an otherwise abrupt
transition.

Flat Shading
The flat shading method is also called constant shading. For rendering, it assigns a uniform color
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throughout an entire polygon. This shading results in the lowest quality, an object surface with a
faceted appearance and a visible underlying geometry that looks 'blocky'.

Hidden Surface Removal

Hidden Surface Removal or visible surface determination entails displaying only those surfaces
that are visible to a viewer because objects are a collection of surfaces or solids.

Interpolation
Interpolation is a mathematical way of regenerating missing or needed information. For example,
an image needs to be scaled up by a factor of two, from 100 pixels to 200 pixels. The missing
pixels are generated by interpolating between the two pixels that are on either side of the pixel
that needs to be generated. After all of the 'missing' pixels have been interpolated, 200 pixels exist
where only 100 existed before, and the image is twice as big as it used to be.

Lighting
There are many techniques for creating realistic graphical effects to simulate a real-life 3-D object
on a 2-D display. One technique is lighting. Lighting creates a real-world environment by means
of rendering the different grades of darkness and brightness of an object's appearance to make the
object look solid.

Line Buffer
A line buffer is a memory buffer used to hold one line of video. If the horizontal resolution of the
screen is 640 pixels and RGB is used as the color space, the line buffer would have to be 640
locations long by 3 bytes wide. This amounts to one location for each pixel and each color plane.
Line buffers are typically used in filtering algorithms.

Projection
The process of reducing three dimensions to two dimensions for display is called Projection. It is
the mapping of the visible part of a three dimensional object onto a two dimension screen.

Rasterization
Translating an image into pixels.

Rendering
The process of creating life-like images on a screen using mathematical models and formulas to
add shading, color, and lamination to a 2D or 3D wireframe.

Transformation
Change of coordinates; a series of mathematical operations that act on output primitives and
geometric attributes to convert them from modeling coordinates to device coordinates.

Z-buffer
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A part of off-screen memory that holds the distance from the viewpoint for each pixel, the Z-
value. When objects are rendered into a 2D frame buffer, the rendering engine must remove
hidden surfaces.

Z-buffering
A process of removing hidden surfaces using the depth value stored in the Z-buffer. Before
bringing in a new frame, the rendering engine clears the buffer, setting all Z-values to 'infinity'.
When rendering objects, the engine assigns a Z-value to each pixel: the closer the pixel to the
viewer, the smaller the Z value. When a new pixel is rendered, its depth is compared with the
stored depth in the Z-buffer. The new pixel is written into the frame buffer only if its depth value
is less than the stored one.

Z-sorting
A process of removing hidden surfaces by sorting polygons in back-to-front order prior to
rendering. Thus, when the polygons are rendered, the forward-most surfaces are rendered last.
The rendering results are correct unless objects are close to or intersect each other. The advantage
is not requiring memory for storing depth values. The disadvantage is the cost in more CPU
cycles and limitations when objects penetrate each other.

Filtering

This is a broad word which can mean the removal of coffee grinds from the coffee.
However, within the narrow usage of this book, a filtering operation is the same as a
convolution operation (see "convolution"). Anti-aliasing is usually done by filtering.

flat projection

A method of projecting a 3D scene onto a 2D image such that the resulting object sizes
are not dependent on their position. Flat projection can be useful when a constant scale is
needed throughout an image, such as in some mechanical drawings.

Frame

One complete video image. When interlacing is used, a frame is composed of two fields,
each containing only half the scan lines.

GIF

A file format for storing images. GIF stands for Graphics Interchange format, and is
owned by Compuserve, Inc.

key frame

A selected frame of an animation at which all the scene state is defined. In the key frame
animation method, the scene state at key frames is interpolated to create the scene state at
the in-between frames.
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key frame animation

An animation control method that works by specifying the complete scene state at
selected, or key, frames. The scene state for the remaining frames is interpolated from the
state at the key frames.

Raster Scan

The name for the pattern the electron beam sweeps out on a CRT face. The image is made
of closely spaced scan lines, or horizontal sweeps.

Refresh Rate

The rate at which parts of the image on a CRT are re-painted, or refreshed. The horizontal
refresh rate is the rate at which individual scan lines are drawn. The vertical refresh rate is
the rate at which fields are drawn in interlaced mode, or whole frames are drawn in non-
interlaced mode.

Refresh Rate, Horizontal

The rate at which scan lines are drawn when the image on a CRT is re-drawn, or
refreshed.

Refresh Rate, Vertical

The rate at which fields are re-drawn on a CRT when in interlaced mode, or the rate at
which the whole image is re-drawn when in non-interlaced mode.

Scan Line

One line in a raster scan. Also used to mean one horizontal row of pixels.
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Bibliography
1. J. Foley, A. Van Dam, S. Feiner, J. Hughes: Computer Graphics- Principles and
Practice, Pearson
2. Hearn and Baker: Computer Graphics, PHI.