7 Symmetrical Faults 345-KV SF6 circuit breaker installation at Goshen Substation, Idako Falls, Idaho, USA. This circuit breaker has a continuous current rating of 200A and an interrupting current rating of 40KkA (Courtesy of PacifiCorp) system overvoltages caused by lightning or switching surges, to insulation con- tamination (salt spray or pollution), or to other mechanical causes. The re~ sulting short circuit or “fault” current is determined by the internal voltages of the synchronous machines and by the system impedances between the machine voltages and the fault, Short-circuit currents may be several orders of magnitude larger than normal operating currents and, if allowed to persist, may cause thermal damage to equipment. Windings and busbars may also suffer mechanical damage due to high S hort circuits occur in power systems when equipment insulation fails due to 15 sont pry ene may bsp oe Book eC) Eta ews ond a sy oped ect os ot maila6 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults magnetic forces during faults. It is therefore necessary to remove faulted sections of a power system from service as soon as possible, Standard EHV protective equipment is designed to clear faults within 3 cycles (50 ms at 60 Hz). Lower voltage protective equipment operates more slowly (for example, 5 to 20 cycles) Section 7.1 begins by reviewing series R-L circuit transients followed in Section 7.2 by a description of three-phase short-circuit currents at unloaded syn- chronous machines, analyzing both the ac component, including subtransient, transient, and steady-state currents, and the de component of fault current. These results are extended in Sections 7.3 and 7.4 to power system three-phase short circuits by means of the superposition principle. We observe that the bus imped- ance matrix is the key to calculating fault currents, Section 7.5 discusses circuit breaker and fuse selection, Balanced three-phase power systems are assumed throughout this chapter, working in per unit. CASE STUDY The following case study investigates the short-circuit behavior of wind power plants (WPPs) [11]. Conventional power plants including fossilfueled, nuclear, and hydro plants consist of single or several synchronous generat- ing units, wherein for each unit the rotational speed is fixed and the mag- netic flux is controlled via exciter windings; the magnetic flux and the rotor rotate synchronously. A WPP consists of several wind turbine generators (WTGs}, presently available in sizes between 1 and 5 MW, which are dis- persed over a wide geographical area. There are four main types of WTGs: Type 1—fixed-speed turbine with a squirrel-cage induction generator; Type 2—variable-speed turbine with a wound-rotor induction genera- tor that has a variable resistor in series with the rotor winding; Type 3— variable-speed turbine with a doubly fed induction generator; and Type 4-—-variable-speed turbine with a permanent-magnet synchronous genera- tor and ac-de-ac power-lectronic converter. The short-circuit current char acteristics for both symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults are examined for each of the four types of WTGs. Short-Circuit Modeling of a Wind Power Plant E, Muljadi V. Gevorgian Fellow, IEEE Member, IEEE National Renewable Energy Laboratory Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaIntroduction Energy and environmental issues have become one of the biggest challenges facing the world, In response to energy needs and environmental concerns, renewable energy technologies are considered the future technologies of choice [1, 2]. Renewable energy is har- vested from nature, and it is clean and free. However, itis widely accepted that renewable energy is not a panacea that comes without challenges. With the federal government's aggressive goal of achieving 20% wind energy penetration by 2030, it is necessary to understand the challenges that must be overcome when using renewable energy. In the years to come, there will be more and more wind power plants (WPPs) connected to the grid. With the goal of 20% wind penetration by 2030, the WPP’s operation should be well planned. The power system switch- gear and power system protection for WPPs should be carefully designed to be compatible with the operation of conventional synchronous genera- tors connected to the same grid. ‘This paper attempts to illustrate the behav- ior of short-circuit current (SCC) con- tributions for different types of WTGs. Conventional Power Plants versus Wind Power Plants ‘A conventional power plant con- sists of a single or several large (c.g., 100 MW) generators. The prime mover of the generator can be steam, Short-Cirenit Modeling of a Wind Power Plant ‘by E, Muljadi and V. Gevorgian, Conference Paper NRELICP-5500-50632, Power & Energy Society General Meeting, July 4-29, 2011, Detroit MI. pi, 1-10. Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Case Study ‘gas, or a combustion engine. The gen- erator is controllable and is adjustable up toa maximum limit and down to minimum limit. The power output is dispatched according to the load fore- cast, influenced by human operation, and is based on optimum operation (ie,, scheduled operation). The power plant is usually located relatively close to the load center. The typical conventional gener- ator used is a synchronous generator. The rotational speed is fixed—no slip; and the flux is controlled via exciter windings, The magnetic flux and the rotor rotate synchronously. A WPP consists of many (hun- dreds) of wind turbine generators (WIGs). Currently, available WIG sizes are between 1 MW and 5 MW. The prime mover of the WIG is wind, and it is free, natural, and pollution- free. The controllability of the WPP is typically curtailment (pilling the wind). The energy production of a WPP depends on the wind variability, and its dispatch capability is based on wind forecasting. It is influenced more by nature (wind) than human factors, with the goal set on maximizing energy production from renewable resources (ie, unscheduled operation). Large- seale WPPs ate located in high-wind resource regions, and these may be far from the load center. Because a WPP covers a very large area, there are power output di- versities found in a typical WPP. Each WIG in a WPP will be located at dif- ferent electrical distances from the substation (diversity in line imped- ance). Each turbine may be driven by different instantaneous wind speeds. he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa a7a8 Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults ‘Thus, the operating condition of each turbine may be slightly different from others within the WPP. Operation of Wind Turbine Generators ‘The generator at each turbine should be protected individually and inde- pendently because of the electrical di- versity of the WPP. In practice, this is an advantage of a WPP compared to a conventional power plant, During a disturbance, the electrical characteris- tics at each terminal of the turbine is different from the other turbines, and only the most affected WTGs will be disconnected from the grid, For general faults (distance faults at the transmission point), only 5%~15% of the turbines are disconnected from the grid [3]. This is partially because ‘WPPs are required to have zero voltage ride-through capability. Thus, the loss of generation is not as severe as in a power plant with large generators. At the turbine level, the WIG generates at low voltage levels (480 V to 690 V). For the Type 1 and Type 2 WIGs, it is typically compensated by switched capacitor banks to gen- erate at a unity power factor. Type 3 and Type 4 generators are operated to generate a constant voltage at a designated bus, or may be operated at constant power factor or constant reactive power. The generator is con- nected to a pad-mounted transformer to step up the voltage to 34.5 KV. Collector System The collector system consists of miles of line feeders connecting the high side of the pad-mounted trans- former to the substation. Usually, wind (urbines are divided into groups of turbines connected in a daisy-chain fashion using underground cables. These groupings are then connected to the substation by either underground cables or overhead lines at 34.5 kV. Since it is not practical to model hun- dreds of tur bines in a power flow cal- culation or in a dynamic simulation, itis common to find the equivalent of the turbines as either a single equiva- lent turbine representation or multiple turbine representation [4, 5] Short Circuit Behavior under Symmetrical Faults A utility-sized wind turbine is larger than non-grid wind turbine applica- tions In the early days, the turbines were sized from 10 KW to 100 KW. Nowadays, wind turbines are sized above 1000 kW (I MW). RL Circuits Short-circuit faults can occur in vari- ‘ous locations of the power system in a number of different ways including line-to-ground and line-to-line faults. For simplicity purposes, we'll con- sider a symmetrical three-phase fault since it is the easiest to analyze. A simple equivalent diagram of a power system under such fault conditions is shown in Figure I(a). ‘The fault in Figure 1(a) is rep- resented by a shorting switch, Im- mediately after the fault, the SCC contribution from the generator can be found using the following equation: a) Where u, is the instantaneous voltage on the generator terminals, and he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study a9 Generator 10 0005 0005 (b) ac component {c) de component -10, -10, 20 T r r y y 002 004 006 008 01 0.12 (6) Fault current Figure 1 Symmetrical Three-Phase Fault Rand L. are line resistance and indue- Where Vis peak generator volt- tance, Solving equation (1) for current age, Z = VR" + X*is line impedance, and a is the voltage phase. The solu- pan (or ane atl 2 }) tion (2) has two components; the first Z component is stationary and varies a ¥ sinusoidally with time as shown in = | in(a = atan &)] (2) Figure 1(b). It represents the steady Zz R SCC driven by the voltage source E,. Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa20 Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults ‘The second component decays expo- nentially [as shown in Figure 1(c)] with atime constant equal to. Itrepresents the de component of the current and the natural response of the circuit without the excitation provided by F, ‘The steady-state symmetrical fault rms value of the SCC 1, from the generator can be calculated from the first component of equation (2) and is shown in VANE VRae Obviously, the steady-state fault current depends on the impedance of the line, The closer the fault occurrence location to generator terminals, the larger the SCC contributed to the fault. The peak magnitude of the transient component in equation (2) depends on line impedance as well, but it also depends on impedance angle ¢ = stants) at the point of the fault, The de term does not exist if @ = 0, and will have its maximum ini- tial value of $ wherea—g = +2 The worst case scenario for the SCC peak value (including the de component) for the circuit presented in Figure I(a) is shown in equation (3) So, depending on the time when the fault occurs, the circuit character- istics and the transient current wave- form will be different. This means that in three-phase systems, the phase transient currents will have different peaks due to a 120° shift in voltages. In large power systems with many generators and transmission lines, the actual fault current at any location in the grid will be the sum of collee- tive contributions from all generators, @B) making the above described analysis extremely complicated. So, some sort of simplification is needed for the fault current calculation in such a case. SCC from a Type 1 WTG ‘The first generation of utility-sized WIGs is a fixed-speed turbine with a. squirrel-cage induction generator (SCIG) and is called a Type 1 gener- ator in wind-related applications. The SCIG generates electricity when it is driven above synchronous speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the operating speed of the induction generator is measured by its slip (in per unit or in percent). A nega- tive slip indicates that the wind turbine ‘operates in generating mode. Nor- mal operating slips for an induction generator are between 0% and —1%. The simplified single-phase equivalent circuit of a squirrel-cage induction machine is shown in Figure 2 [6]. Figure 2 Equivalent circuit of a Type 1 generator ‘The circuit in Figure 2is referred to the stator where Ry and R, are sta- tor and rotor resistances, L,, and L,, are stator and rotor leakage inductan~ ces, Ly is magnetizing reactance, and 5 is rotor slip. The example single- line connection diagram of a Type 1 generator is shown in Figure 3. In the case of a voltage fault, the inertia of the wind rotor drives the generator afier the voltage drops at the generator he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaFigure 3 Type 1 WTG terminals. The rotor flux may not change instantaneously right after the voltage drop due to a fault. Therefore, voltage is produced at the generator terminals causing fault current flow into the fault until the rotor flux de- cays to zero. This process takes a few electrical cycles. The fault current produced by an induction generator must be considered when selecting the rating for circuit breakers and fuses. The fault current is limited by genera- tor impedance (and can be calculated from parameters in Figure 2) and im- pedance of the system from the short circuit to the generator terminals The initial value of fault cur- rent fed in by the induction genera~ tor is close to the locked rotor-inrush current. Assuming a three-phase symmetrical fault, an analytical solu- tion can be found to estimate the current contribution of the generator. ‘The SCC of an induction generator can be calculated as [7] Vs Zs i) [ee sin(a) = (= oetsiniot + >| @ where a is the voltage phase angle for a given phase, o is the faouoo -O,a-+6 Case Study Lee Figure 4 Stator and rotor transient inductances leakage factor, Z;=Xj= ol’ is stator transient reactance, and T; and T;, are stator and rotor time con- stants representing the damping of the de component in stator and rotor windings, The transient stator and rotor inductances Ly, and L} can be determined from the circuits shown in Figure 4. Ly = Ly + iets . Lp =L,+ Intie T= = © a 8) aa Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCopyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults 0 02 04 08 (a) ac component 08. Equation (4) is different from equation (2). The first distinction is that there is no voltage source driv- ing the fault current as in equa- tion (2). The fault current is driven by the decaying fiux trapped in the rotor winding as represented by the right portion of the equation (4). The second distinction is the rotor time constant T; governs the dy- namic of the decaying rotor flux [ac component of the SCC as shown in Figure 5(a)] and the decaying de com- ponent of the fault current [refer to Figure 5(b)] is governed by the sta- tor time constant T;. The larger the leakage inductances (9), the smaller is the fault current amplitude. The third distinction is that the fault cur- rent dies out after the flux driving the fault current depleted to zero, Note, the de and ac transient components of the SCC flowing out of the stator windings induce fault currents in the rotor winding and vice versa until the magnetic flux is depleted. The current calculated from equation (4) is shown in Figure 6 using parameters for a typical 2-MW induction generator when the pre- fault voltage is 0.7 pu. As can be seen from Figure 6, the current reaches the maximum value at 7 (first half a 02 04 06 (0) de component 08. Figure 5 The two components of the SCC for a Type 1 WTG period). Therefore, it may be a good approximation to calculate the max- imum (peak) current by substituting 1 = T/2 into equation (4). The result- ing equation for peak current will be Vis Z% a [= +0 = 9% | (9) Tt was demonstrated experi- mentally in [8] that equation (9) gives satisfactory accuracy for peak current assessment, ‘The resulting current is shown in Figure 7. A detailed dy- namic model of a Type | WTG is sim- ulated in PSCAD™. A symmetrical three-phase fault is simulated and the resulting SCC is compared to the sim- ulation result of the simplified repre- sentation as described in equation (4), It is shown in Figure 7 that the two traces are very closely matched. From equation (4), it is shown that the operating slip does not influ- ence the short-circuit transient behav- ior. To check the influence of the slip, we performed symmetrical three-phase faults on a Type 1 WTG for two differ- ent slips using the detailed model. As shown in Figure 8, the prefault current and the postfault current for the two different operating slips are very dis- tinct, Similarly, the frequencies of the he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study CURRENT (P.U) TIME (502) Shor cieait current ‘de component Figure 6 SCC from a Type 1 WTG | ‘CURRENT (PU) Na VV +o 305 oo om TIME (502), [a PSCAD model Using Equation (4) Figure 7 SCC comparison between the output of the detailed model and the output of the simplified model simulated for a Type 1 WIG PHASE A CURRENTS aes = sence ota ‘ Ge io OSC TIME (sec) Figure 8 SCC comparison for two different slips Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa428 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults SCC during the fault are not the same for two different operating slips. How- ever, the peak values of the SCC of the induction generator operating at two different slips are very closely matched. SCC from a Type 2 WTG ‘The variable slip generator is essen- tially a wound-rotor induction gener- ator with a variable resistor connected in series to the rotor winding (Type 2 generator). This external resistor is controlled by a high-frequency switch. Below rated power, the resistor con- trol is inactive, so the system operates as a conventional induction generator. Above rated power, the resistor con- ‘rol allows the slip to vary, so variable speed operation is possible for a speed range of about 10% [9]. If the blade pitch angle is kept constant at zero de- grees, the rotor speed, and thus the slip, will vary with wind speed. However, operation at higher slips generate a lot of loss because of the rotor resistance. “Thus, the heat loss can be excessive. On the other hand, if the blade pitch angle is controlled to keep the rotor speeds within a small deviation from the rated slip, the losses in rotor resistance can be minimized. An equivalent electrical diagram of a variable-slip induction generator is shown in Figure 9, with a variable external resistor Ry: The connection diagram exam- ple for this type of generator is shown in Figure 10, In case of three-phase symmetrical fault, the same equations as for a Type 1 generator are applied. The only difference is for rotor time constant that needs to account for ad- ditional external resistance, The modified rotor time constant can be calculated by adding the effect of the external resistor Ry, (refer to Table 2, p. 429), where R,. is the value of external resistance that happens to be in the circuit atthe time of the fault The effect of such additional resistance on SCC is shown in Figure 11. So, add- ing the external resistors doubles the ‘overall rotor resistance. The modified equation for SCC, maximum current, and the rotor transient time constant can then be derived using the values shown in Table 1 (see p. 428). ‘The maximum current occurs at AT, the time after a fault when cur- rent reaches its first peak. In this case, this additional resistance decreases the overall ac component in current, but does not much affect the first peak value of the current since the increase in resistance is relatively small. The same conclusion can be made by ana- lyzing equations (4) and (9), where the additional external resistance has an effect on a second term that represents Figure 9 Equivalent circuit for a Type 2 generator Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study Inston ester [azar HO f &) T ture nnane bp “Ttrmer Figure 10 Connection diagram for a Type 2WTG Ee Be { a: WARY TIME (oe) — Rotor resistance only the ac component of the current. As shown in Tables | and 2, the impact. of the external rotor resistance on the SCC is two-fold: it reduces the SCC ‘magnitude, and it shortens the rotor time constant (decay time of the SCC), SCC from a Type 3 WTG A Type 3 WTG is implemented by a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). It is a variable-speed WIG where the rotor speed is allowed to vary within a slip range of +30%, ‘Thus, the power converter can be sized to about 30% of rated power. ‘The equivalent electrical diagram of a DFIG is shown in Figure 12. Its similar to one for a regular induction generator except for addi- tional rotor voltage, representing volt- age produced by a power converter. Rotor + external resistance Figure 11 Effect of external resistance for a Type 2WTG Under normal operation, this voltage is actually from a current-controlled power converter with the ability to con- trol the real and reactive power output instantaneously and independently. ‘The capability to control flux (flux- oriented controller—FOC) in indue- tion machines has been used in the motor drive industry since the seventies. The typical connection diagram for a DFIG (Type 3) WTG is shown in Figure 12. In an ideal situation, the power converter connected to the rotor winding should be able to withstand the currents induced by the de and ac components flowing in the stator winding. However, the components of the power converter (IGBT, diode, capacitor, etc.) are designed to han- dle only normal currents and normal de bus voltage. A crowbar system is Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults Re iy Le own 1 Rs. yw bn vis | Figure 12 Simplified equivalent circuit of a DFIG pete Det tg ‘ranlormer z=: = NNMATTETI Mn 2 MEP 3-3 “ts o8 oF os os 1 TIME (eee) 2onc=02 g sew S sooc-c2 B ssor-os B cooe-co AS __an TEES Oe oF 08 08 1 TIME se) ‘CURRENT (KA) “TIME (see) Figure 14 The fault currents, the rotor currents, and the power consumed by the crowbar circuits in a Type 3 WTG Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qausually used for protecting the power electronics converter from overvolt- age and thermal breakdown during short-circuit faults, A crowbar is usu- ally implemented to allow the insertion of additional resistance into the rotor winding to divert the SCC in the ro- tor winding from damaging the power converter. Additional dynamic braking on the de busis also used to limit the de bus voltage. During faults, the rotor wind- ings are essentially short circuited by an equivalent adjustable crowbar re- sistance Ry. The modified equation for SCC, maximum current, and the rotor transient time constant can then be derived using the values shown in ‘Table 1 [7]. In a Type 3 WTG, how- ever, the size of the crowbar is usually controlled, such that the actual fault current is more controllable than the simplified assumption. In Figure 14, three-phase fault currents are shown to be well regulated by proper control of the crowbar resistance. In this case, the crowbar circuit installed on the rotor winding is controlled to main- tain the de bus voltage constant. ‘A dynamic braking resistor is also installed on the de bus to help reg- ulate the de bus. Figure 14 shows the size of the real power modulated in the crowbar during the faults. There are also dynamic braking resistors and a de chopper installed on the de bus to help regulate the de bus voltage during transients, The corresponding rotor currents are also shown in Figure 14. Because of differences in crowbar implementation from one turbine man- ‘ufacturer to the other, a protection engi- neer should evaluate the recommended value provided by the manufacturers. Case Study However, if none is available, the val- ‘ues of minimum and maximum SCCs presented in Table 1 can be used. Type 4WTGs An example of a Type 4 direct-drive WIG with permanent-magnet syn- chronous generator (PMSG) is shown in Figure 15. This is a variable-speed WTG implemented with full power conversion, Recent advances and lower cost of power electronics make it feasible to build variable-speed wind turbines with power converters with the same rating as the turbines. ‘The full power conversion allows sepa- ration between the WTG and the grid, thus, the mechanical dynamic can be buffered from entering the grid and the transient dynamic on the grid can be buffered from entering the wind tur- bine dynamic. Thus, while the grid is at 60 Hz, the stator winding of the gen- erator may operate at variable frequen- cies. The temporary imbalance between aerodynamic power and generated power during a transient is handled by the pitch control, dynamic brake, and power converter control. The SCC contribution for a three-phase fault is limited to its rated current or a little above its rated cur- rent. It is common to design a power converter for a Type 4 wind turbine with an overload capability of 10% above rated. Note that in any fault condition, the generator stays con- nected to the power converter and is buffered from the faulted lines on the grid. Thus, although there isa fault on the grid, the generator output current is controlled to stay within the current limit (eg., 1.1 p.u.). However, keep in ‘mind that with a fault on the grid, the Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa8 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults Pw Converter Ccolectr Bos “alt 4% ose output power delivered to the grid is Jess than rated power. Although the currents can be made to balance, due to reduced voltage and/or unbalanced voltage, only a reduced output power can be delivered. In Type 4 WTGs, the SCCis a controlled parameter. So, such WTGs can be represented as a constant three-phase balanced current source ina short-circuit models. The priority of the real power versus reactive power during the fault depends on the prior setting of the controller. However, the current limit of the power converter must be fol- lowed to protect the power switches SCC Comparison for Symmetrical Faults The SCs for different types of wind turbines are not the same. For cach turbine type, the peak value of the magnitude of the SCC is affected by the transient reactance, the prefault voltage, the effective rotor resistances, and the instant the fault occurs, For turbine Types 1 through 3, the SCC declines as the fault progresses wre Type Zz Xe Tt u R, TABLE 1 Tube Figure 15 PMSG direct-crive WTG diagram and eventually ceases as the rotor flux is depleted. For Type 4 WITGs, the SCC can be maintained constant. The SCC transient behavior is affected by the stator time constant and the rotor time constant for Type 1 through Type 3 WIGs. The Type 4 generators can generate constant cur- rent during the fault In Table 1, the list parameters are shown. These parameters can be used to substitute the parameters from equation (4) and equation (6) for different types of WTGs. Table 2 lists the maximum and minimum pos- sible values of the peak of SCC. It is shown that the Type 1 WTG can pro- duce the largest SCC. The instant of the fault has affects on the magnitude of the SCC. The maximum value is based on the peak of the ac compo- nent and the highest value of the de component, and the minimum value is based on the peak value of the ac component only. Fora Type 2WTG, the maximum, value is computed when Ry = 0 0. Type 2 Type 3 VXE FRA, VF FRB u y B+ Ra R+ Re Modified Values for SCC Calculation for Different Types of WTGs sont pry ene may bsp oe Book eC) Eta ews ond a sy oped ect os ot mailWIG Max’ Tes pax Min Isa pax TABLE 2 ‘Maximum and Minimum Possible Value of the SCC. ‘The minimum value is computed when the slip reaches 10% above synchro- nous speed. And for a Type 3 WIG, the maximum value is computed when the crowbar shorts the rotor winding and the minimum value is computed when the power converter can fol- low the commanded current (ie., in case the fault occurs far away from the point of interconnection, the re- maining terminal voltage is relatively high enough to let the power conver- ter operate normally and supply the commanded currents). Note, that for a symmetrical fault, the actual fault current for each phaseiis different from the other phases due to the fact that the time of the fault occurs at a different phase angle for different phases, thus affecting the de offset. For a Type 4 WTG, the stator current can always be controlled because of the nature of power converter which is based on current controlled voltage source converter. An example of SCC for Type 4 WTGs is given in the next section. In this section, the SCC is analyzed at the terminals of the generator In an actual WPP, the faults will likely occur at the transmission side, Thus, the impact of the cable capacitance, plant level reactive VXE + (GRP Case Study Type3 Type4 vu, , 1 compensation, and wind plant trans- former connections are not included. References [10-14] provide good sources of information for the WPP environment Unsymmetrical Faults ‘The nature of the fault produces a different response for different wind turbine types. In this section, the ob- servation of the short-circuit behavior for unsymmetrical faults on different types of WIGs is presented. Note that operating an induction genera- tor under an unbalanced condition creates torque pulsation and unbal- anced currents. If this condition per- sists for a long period of time, it may excite other parts of the wind turbine, and the unbalanced currents may create unequal heating in the three- phase windings and, thus, shorten the life of the winding insulation Unlike in a symmetrical three- phase fault, the positive-sequence voltage source continues to drive the fault current until the fault or the generator is removed from the circuit. ‘The remaining un-faulted (normal) phases continue to maintain the air gap flux. The initial conditions of the fault currents are different for each phase. The three line currents usually Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCopyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults show a different de offset, which eventually settles out over time. To explore the short-circuit behavior of unsymmetrical faults presented in this section, a detailed model of the system is developed in PSCAD™. Single Line-to-Ground (SLG) Faults The single line-to-ground fault is the most likely to occur in the power sys- tem, The magnetic flux in the air gap, although smaller than normal and unbalanced, is maintained by the re- maining un-faulted lines. Thus, the short circuit in SLG faults will con- tinue to flow until the circuit breaker removes the fault from the circuit. Figure 16 shows the SCC of a Type 1 WTG for three lines-to- ground (3LG) and an SLG fault, In the symmetrical fault, the SCC dies out rather quickly, while in a SLG fault, the SCC is driven by the re- maining two phases and it continues to flow until the short circuit is re- moved from the circuit. The peak current during a SLG fault is typ- ically higher than for a 3LG fault (there is a quicker decay of current during symmetrical a 3LG fault due to magnetic field collapse). The dif- ference in peak currents for both 3LG and SLG faults depends on generator parameters, fault location, ete. Note also that the presence of the posi- tive sequence, the negative sequence, and zero sequence currents in the unsymmetrical faults influence the size of the SCC. No comparison has been made between dynamic simula- tion results and results obtained via symmetrical component calculations (this is planned for future work), In Figure 17, the SCC for a Type 3 WTG is shown both for the three-phase currents and the corre- sponding sequence components. The changes in positive sequence and the sudden appearance of the negative se- quence are also shown. The absence of the zero sequence current is a consequence of transformer winding connections. z rf. !raraealltpereme a Bo ~ ri es i 3 — AWW Wiproweneccns re) Figure 16 Voltage and SCC for 3LG and SLG for a Type 1 WTG he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study ‘CURRENT (KA) TIME (600) (a) Three phase currents z\ ea ose” | Nese eo in ae [ 8 - Ue 08 OF 8 08 1 “Me (te) (b) Positive, negative and zero sequence currents Figure 17 SCC for SLG for a Type 3 WTG Line-to-Line (LL) and breaker removes the fault from the Line-to-Line-to-Ground (LLG) circuit Faults As shown on Figures 18 and 19, the type of fault affects the existence ‘The line-to-line fault and the line-+o- oF the zero sequence component in line-to-ground fault also maintain the §CC of the WPP. Thus, the line the air-gap flux during the fault. currents in the three phases are dis- Output power of the generator will tributed differently based on its pos- be limited and pulsating due to an tive sequence, negative sequence, and unbalanced condition. The SCC the zero sequence magnitudes and will continue to flow until the circuit phase angles Zw i me oe i: _— Meee) Figure 18 The SCC for a LL fault of a Type 2WTG Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults [as [ne nana [Ace Figure 20 SCC for Type 4 WTG for different types of faults ie Rea NySCC for the Type 4 WTG under Different Faults In Figure 20, the fault currents for a Type 4 WTG are shown. Note, that the power converter buffers the generator from the grid. The SCC is basically controlled by the power converter. Hence, the line currents are symmetrical currents at different types of unsymmetrical faults. The postfault recovery may slightly differ for different faults. Conclusions In this case study, the SCC contribu- tions of different WTGs for faults at the terminal of the generator were simulated using simplified model to determine SCC characteristics for symmetrical faults. The simplified model represents the size and the time constants governing the SCC behavior. A table summarizing dif- ferent fault impedance and transient rotor time constants is provided. An- other table summarizing the range of SCCS for different types of WTGs is presented in Table 2. For Type 1 and ‘Type 2 WTGs, the maximum and the minimum values depend on timing of the fault and the parameters and the operating condition of the induction generator. For Type 3 WTGs, the con- trol and the operation of the crowbar and dynamic braking affects the char- acteristics of the SCC. For Type 4 WTGs, the SCC is controllable by the power converter, ‘To compute unsymmetrical faults, detailed models were used to demonstrate the behavior of SCCs of different WTGs. As expected, the SCC continues to flow until the fault Case Study is cleared from the circuit or the gen- erator is disconnected from the grid. ‘The terminal voltage and currents ate sustained longer because the line volt- ages, except from the faulted phase, are able to sustain air gap flux. The nature of SCC is not only affected by the type of WIG, but also by the nature of the faults, the winding connections of the generator, and the transformers between the fault and the generator. Auxiliary compo- nents (reactive compensations), cable length and capacitance, and the di- versity of the WPP contribute to the size and nature of the SCC, one way or another. Each WPP is unique. Therefore, recommended practice from local re- liability organizations, the manufac- turers, transmission planners, wind plant developers, and the local util- ities should be followed very closely. Acknowledgment This work is supported by the US. Department of Energy and California Energy Commission. References 1. US. Department of Energy— Energy Efficiency and Renew- able Energy, “20% Wind Energy by 2030—Increasing Wind Energy's Contribution to US. Electricity Supply,” May, 2008 2. J. Charles Smith, Michael R. Milligan, Edgar A. DeMeo, and Brian Parsons, “Utility wind Integration and operating impact state of the art,” EEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 22, pp. 900-908, Aug. 2007. Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa434 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults 3. E, Muljadi, Z. Mills, A. Ellis, and R. Foster, “Fault Analysis ata Wind Power Plant for a One ‘Year of Observation,” presented at the JEEE Power Engineering Society, General Meeting, Pitts- burgh, PA, July 20-24, 2008. 4, E, Muljadi, S, Pasupulati, A. Ellis, and D. Kosterey, “Method of Equivalencing for a Large Wind Power Plant with Multiple Turbine Representa- tion,” presented at the EEE Power Engineering Society, General Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, July 20-24, 2008, 5. E. Muljadi, C. P. Butterfield, A. Ellis, J. Mechenbier, J Hochheimer, R. Young, N. Miller, R. Delmerico, R. Zavadil, and J.C. Smith, “Equivalencing the collector system of a large wind power plant,” in Proc. 2006 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting. June 18-22, 2006. 6. Nader Samaan, Robert Zavadil, J. Charles Smith, and Jose Conto, “Modeling of Wind Power Plants for Short Circuit Analysis in the Trans- mission Network,” in Proc. of IEEEIPES Transmission and Distribution Conference, Chi- cago, USA, April 2008. 7. J Moren, and S.WH. de Haan, “Short-Circuit Current of Wind Turbines with Doubly Fed Induction Generator,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 22, No. 1, March 2007 10. itt 12. 13. 14. . Sulawa, Zabara, et al. “Short circuit current of induction generators.” IEEE ISCAS 2007 proceedings. . O. Anaya-Lara, N. Jenkins, et al, Wind energy generation: ‘modeling and control. Wiley. ISBN 9780470714331 IEEE PES Wind Plant Collec- tor System Design Working Group,“Wind Power Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliabil- ity and Economics,” Proceed- ings of the 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting IEEE PES Wind Plant Collec- tor System Design Working Group, “Power Transformer Application for Wind Plant Substation,” Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting. IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation Coordination,” Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting. WECC Modeling and Vali- dation Work Group, “WECC ‘Wind Power Plant Power Flow Modeling Guide Prepared.” May 2008. “Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems-Part 0: Calculation of currents,” IEC Standard 60909-0, July 2001. Conyigh 2017 Coange Lean AILRighs Ree May nt cio, ase o dpe in whale orn ar Doe eon ih, sone party coe may be supe om he Book steht) Ea ei hs deed ht oy upesed oe oe lm ‘Hf te oer leases Cenage ean ester th gh ema al coment any ine facut Heres qeEduard Muljadi (M'82-SM'94-F'10) received his PhD (in Electrical Engi- neering) from the University of Wis- consin, Madison. From 1988 to 1992, he taught at Califor- nia State University, Fresno, California. In June 1992, he joined the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado. His current research interests are in the fields of electric ma- chines, power electronics, and power systems in general with emphasis on renewable energy applications. He is a member of Eta Kappa Nu, Sigma Xi, and a Fellow of the IEEE. He is involved in the activities of the IEEE Industry Application Society (AS), Power Electronics Society, and Power and Energy Society (PES) He is currently a member of various committees of the IAS, and a member of the Working Group on Renewable Technologies and Dy- namic Performance Wind Generation ‘Task Force of the PES. He holds two Section 7.1 Series R-. Circuit Transients patents in power conversion for re- newable energy. Vahan — Gevorgian (M°97) graduated from the Yerevan Polytechnic Institute (Armenia) in 1986 During his studies he concentrated on electrical machines His thesis research dealt with doubly fed induction generators for stand- alone power systems. He obtained his PhD degree in electrical engineering from the State Engineering University of Armenia in 1993. His dissertation was devoted to a modeling of electri- cal transients in large wind turbine generators. Dr. Gevorgian is currently working at the National Wind Tech- nology Center (NWTC) of Natio- nal Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Golden, Colorado, USA, as a research engineer. His current interests include modeling and testing of various applications of small wind turbine based power a systems, i 35 ee 7.1__ SERIES R-L CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS Consider the series R-L circuit shown in Figure 7.1. The closing of switch SW at 1 = 0 represents to a first approximation a three-phase short circuit at the terminals of an unloaded synchronous machine, For simplicity, assume zero fault impedance; that is, the short circuit is a solid or “bolted” fault, The current is assumed to be zero before SW closes, and the source angle a determines the source voltage at = 0. Writing a KVL equation for the circuit, Ldi(t) dt + Ril) = V2V sin (wt +a) t= 0 Gala) Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa436 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults FIGURE 7.1 a ae anaes wt “a FLcieutwithes sivat w) ow voltage source ves T | | ‘The solution to (7.1.1) is (0) = ing(0) + gl) = YY sin (or ta ~ 0) ~ sina —)e"] A aaa in(orta-0) A 1.3) nay = sin (a= ye A 1.4) 2=VET OE = VEE a Ls) 0= tan SE = tant 1.16) RoR ie aan The total fault current in (7.1.2), called the asymmetrical fault current, is plotted in Figure 7.1 along with its two components. The ac fault current (also called symmetrical or steady-state fault current), given by (7.1.3), is a sinusoid, The de offset current, given by (7.1.4), decays exponentially with time constant T=LR ‘The rms ac fault current is I,, = V/Z. The magnitude of the de offset, which depends on a, varies from 0 when a = 9 to V2I,, when « ~ (9 * 17/2). Note that a short circuit may occur at any instant during a cycle of the ac source; that is, a can Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaSection 7.1 Series R- Circuit Transients hhave any value. To find the largest fault current, choose a becomes (0 — 1/2). Then (7.1.2) a(t) = V21, A (7.18) where v nn A (7.1.9) The rms value of i(t) is of interest. Since i(t) in (7.1.8) is not strictly periodic, its rms value is not strictly defined. However, to calculate the rms asymmetrical fault current with maximum dc offset, treat the exponential term as a constant, stretching the rms concept as follows: Lael!) = VOLP + Hall = VRPT Vie =LVit2e™ A 1.10) Itis convenient to use T = X/(2nf R) and t = r/f, where ris time in cycles, and write (7.1.10) as Theat) = Ke A (AAD where K@) = ViF 2 ™™ per unit (7.1.12) From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12), the rms asymmetrical fault current equals the rms ac fault current times an “asymmetry factor,” K(r). Izq,(7) decreases from V3I,, when 0 to I,, when 7 is large. Also, higher X to R ratios (X/R) give higher values of I,q,(7). The above series R-L short-circuit currents are summarized in Table 7.1. Component Instantaneous Current (A) rms Current (A) Symmettical (ac) iO = Fon (ot a9) -Viv dc offset hel) = ¥ sin (a — o)e® ‘Asymmetrical (total) HD = AAO + le Isl) = VE GAO with maximum de offset: Irealt) = KEV TABLE71 Short-circuit current—series R-L circuit* *See Figure 7.1 and (7.1, through (7.1.12). Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa438 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults Fault currents: R-L circuit with ac source A bolted short circuit occurs in the series R-L circuit of Figure 7.1 with V = 20KV, X = 8 0, R = 0.8 0, and with maximum de offset. The circuit breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the rms ac fault current, (b) the rms “momentary” current at + = 0.5 cycle, which passes through the breaker before it opens, and (¢) the rms asymmetrical fault current that the breaker interrupts. SOLUTION a, From (7.1.9), 20108 _ 20 x 10° = = 2.488 kA V@FF 3? 8.040 b. From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12) with QUR) = 8/(0.8) = 10 and 7 = 0.5 cycle, K(0.5 cycle) = /1 + 2e77 = 1.438 Tyomeatay = K(0.5 eycle)I,, = (1.438)(2.488) = 3.576 kA From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12) with (X/R) = 10 and 1 = 3 cycles, KG cycles) = V1 + 26377 — 1.023 Tne(3 cycles) = (1.023)(2.488) = 2.544 kA 7.2. THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE One way to investigate a three-phase short circuit at the terminals of a synchronous machine is to perform a test on an actual machine, Figure 7.2 shows an oscillogram of the ac fault current in one phase of an unloaded synchronous machine during such a test. The de offset has been removed from the oscillogram. As shown, the amplitude of the sinusoidal waveform decreases from a high initial value to a lower steady-state value. ‘A physical explanation for this phenomenon is that the magnetic flux caused by the short-circuit armature currents (or by the resultant armature MMF) is initially forced to flow through high-reluctance paths that do not link the field winding or damper circuits of the machine. This is a result of the theorem of constant flux link- ages that states that the flux linking a closed winding cannot change instantaneously. ‘The armature inductance, which is inversely proportional to reluctance, is therefore sont pry ene may bsp oe Book eC) Eta ews ond a sy oped ect os ot mailSection 7.2 Three-Phase Short Circuit—Unloaded Synchronous Machine Nv initially low. As the flux then moves toward the lower reluctance paths, the armature inductance increases. The ac fault current in a synchronous machine can be modeled by the series R-L circuit of Figure 7.1 if a time-varying inductance L(1) or reactance X(t) = oL(0) is employed. In standard machine theory texts [3, 4], the following reactances are defined: Xj = direct axis subtransient reactance X; = direct axis transient reactance X, = direct axis synchronous reactance where Xj < X} < X,. The subscript d refers to the direct axis. There are similar quadrature axis reactances X3, X;, and X, [3, 4]. However, if the armature resistance is small, the quadrature axis reactances do not significantly affect the short-circuit current, Using the above direct axis reactances, the instantaneous ac fault current can be written as Lim sb = (=p) tfoa(oree-3) aay where E, is the rms line-to-neutral prefault terminal voltage of the unloaded syn- chronous machine, Armature resistance is neglected in (7.2.1), Note that at f= 0, when the fault occurs, the ms value of i,¢(t) in (7.2.1) is (7.2.2) which is called the rms subtransient fault current, I". The duration of I" is determined by the time constant T, called the direct axis short-circuit sub-transient time constant. Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny 439 FIGURE 7.2. inone phase of an unloaded synchronous machine during a three-phase short circuit the de offset current is removed) he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa40 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults Ata later time, when is large compared to T; but small compared to the direct axis short-circuit transient time constant Tj, the first exponential term in (7.2.1) has decayed almost to zero, but the second exponential has not decayed significantly. The rms ac fault current then equals the rms transient fault current, given by TeX; (72.3) When 1 is much larger than Tj, the rms ac fault current approaches its steady-state value, given by Tal I (72.4) Since the three-phase no-load voltages are displaced 120° from each other, the three-phase ac fault currents are also displaced 120° from each other. In addition to the ac fault current, each phase has a different de offset. The maximum de offset in any one phase, which occurs when a = 0 in (7.2.1), is 1. = /Fy" ers 725) where T, is called the armature time constant. Note that the magnitude of the max- imum de offset depends only on the rms subtransient fault current I". The above synchronous machine short-circuit currents are summarized in Table 7.2. Component Instantaneous Current (A) rms Current (A) Symmetrical jac) 72.) Suitransient I= EX Transient "= E/X, Steady-state 1= EK Maximum de offset iat) = V2 Asymmetrical (total) 9 = il + fal lal = Vio with maximum de offset, (9 = Vie + (V2 e TABLE72 ‘Short-circuit current—unloaded synchronous machine* *See Figure 7.2 and (7.2.1) through (7.25) Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaSection 7.2 Three-Phase Short Circuit—Unloaded Synchronous Machine at Machine reactances Xj, Xi, and X,as well as time constants Tj, Tj. and T, are usually provided by synchronous machine manufacturers. They also can be obtained from a three-phase short-circuit test by analyzing an oscillogram such as that in Figure 7.2 2}. Typical values of synchronous machine reactances and time constants are given in Appendix Table A.1 Mme ‘SOLUTION Three-phase short-circuit currents, unloaded synchronous generator ‘A.500-MVA, 20-KV, 60-Hz synchronous generator with reactances Xj 0.24, and X, = 1.1 per unit and time constants Tj = 0.035, Ty = 2.0, T, = 0.20 sis connected to a circuit breaker. The generator is operating at 5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted three-phase short circuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The breaker interrupts the fault three cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the subtransient fault current in per-unit and kA rms; (b) maximum de offset as a function of time; and (c) rms asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assuming maximum de offset. a, The no-load voltage before the fault occurs is E, = 1.05 per unit, From (7.2.2), the subtransient fault current that occurs in each of the three phases is 1.05 P= Sgn 70 per unit ‘The generator base current is I, = Sat = 500 *V3Veaa (V3)(20) 14.43 kA ‘The rms subtransient fault current in kA is the per-unit value multiplied by the base current: Y= (7.0)(14.43) 101.0 kA b, From (7.2.5), the maximum de offset that may occur in any one phase is aeauax (0) = V2(101.0)e7" = 142.9e7"?” kA (Continued) sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol matelyaa Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults ¢. From (7.2.1), the rms ac fault current at t = 3 cycles = 0.05 s is, 1, (0.05) = 1 o|( #(2u i) pole 024” 11)* 1 = 4.920 per unit = (4.920)(14.43) = 71.01 kA ‘Modifying (7.1.10) to account for the time-varying symmetrical component of fault current, Tyne(0.05) = V'11,.(0.05)P + [V2I"e' Tr = 1,(0.05) 4/1 + 12 =| = 101_[',-2005/020 (71.01) ve2[ 2. = (71.01)(1.8585) = 132 kA 7.3 POWER SYSTEM THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS In order to calculate the subtransient fault current for a three-phase short circuit in a power system, make the following assumptions: [ransformers are represented by their leakage reactances. Winding resistances, shunt admittances, and A~Y phase shifts are neglected. 2. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent series reactances. Neglect series resistances and shunt admittances. 3. Synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage sources behind subtransient reactances. Neglect armature resistance, saliency, and saturation. 4, Neglect all nonrotating impedance loads. 5. Especially for small motors rated less than S0 hp, either neglect induction motors or represent them in the same manner as synchronous machines. ‘These assumptions are made for simplicity in this text, and in practice they should not be made for all cases. For example, in distribution systems, resistances of primary and sec- ondary distribution lines may in some cases significantly reduce fault current magnitudes. Figure 7.3 shows a single-line diagram consisting of a synchronous genera- tor feeding a synchronous motor through two transformers and a transmission line. sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol matelya Y teoMva 100 MA 1aBky 198RVA, X= 018 x= 010 38 kV Section 7.3 Power System Three-Phase Short Circuits Xine = 20.0 Consider a three-phase short circuit at bus 1, The positive-sequence equivalent cir- cuit is shown in Figure 7.4(a), where the voltages Ey and Ey, are the prefault inter- nal voltages behind the subtransient reactances of the machines, and the closing of switch SW represents the fault, For purposes of calculating the subtransient fault current, E and Ej, are assumed to be constant-voltage sources, In Figure 7.4(b) the fault is represented by two opposing voltage sources with equal phasor values Vp. Using superposition, the fault current then can be calculated from the two circuits shown in Figure 7.4(c). However, if Vp equals the prefault 70.1050 x) a} Thre phase short ¢ ‘bj Short circuit represented by we appasing voltage sources J) ¥, set equal ‘Apphication of superposition { 10 profault vollage at fault FIGURE 7:3, Single-line ciagram of a synchronous generator feeding synchronous mator FIGURE 7.4 Application o superposition to ‘2 pawer system three-phase short circuit Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa8 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults voltage at the fault, then the second circuit in Figure 7.4(¢) represents the system before the fault occurs. As such, /f, = 0 and V,, which has no effect, can be removed from the second circuit, as shown in Figure 7.4(d). The subtransient fault current is then determined from the first circuit in Figure 7.4(d), 1f = f,. The contribution to the fault from the generator is I? = I", + I, =I, + h,, where f, is the prefault generator current. Similarly, I), = I, ~ I, @E0Gme Three-phase short-circuit currents, power system The synchronous generator in Figure 7.3 is operating at rated MVA, 0.95 pf. lagging and at 5% above rated voltage when a bolted three-phase short circuit, ‘occurs at bus 1. Calculate the per-unit values of (a) subtransient fault current; (b) subtransient generator and motor currents neglecting prefault current; and (©) subtransient generator and motor currents including prefault current. SOLUTION a. Using a 100-MVA base, the base impedance in the zone of the transmission line is 190.44 0 20 «; mm = Top.qq ~ 01050. per unit Figure 7.4 shows the per-unit reactances. From the first circuit in Figure 7.4(d), the Thévenin impedance as viewed from the fault is (0.15)(0.505) 4 ~J(0.13 + 0.505) =X = j0.11565 per unit and the prefault voltage at the generator terminals is, Ve 1.05 /0° per unit The subtransient fault current is then ee ce Lo" Zz, 011565 =/9.079 per unit b. Using current division in the first circuit of Figure 7.4(@), Ps ( 0.505 i 1 \0.505 + 0.15 sont pry ene may bsp oe Book eC) Eta ews ond a sy oped ect os ot mail (0.7710)(-j9.079) = =j7.000._per unitSection 74 Bus Impedance Matrix o1s) _ _ (ava) (f = (0.2290)(—j9.079) = —j2.079 per unit ©. The generator base current is 100 anon = a 7 A187 kA and the prefault generator current is 100 = /= 00871 0.95 = 3.9845 /-18.19° kA (3105 x 13.8) 3.9845 /—18.19° = 0.9524 /-18.19° NE 0.9524 /—18.19' = 0.9048 — j0.2974 per unit The subtransient generator and motor currents, including prefault current, are then i +h, = —j7.000 + 0.9048 — 0.2974 0.9048 — 77.297 = 7.353/—82.9" per unit = ~/2.079 — 0.9048 + j0.2974 —0,9048 — j1.782 = 1.999/243.1° per unit An alternate method of solving Example 7.3 is to frst calculate the internal voltages £’ and E), using the prefault load current J, Then, instead of using superposition, the fault currents can be resolved directly from the circuit in Figure 7.4(a) (see Problem 7.11). However, in a system with many synchronous machines, the superposition method has the advantage that all machine voltage sources are shorted, and the prefault voltage is the only source required to cal- culate the fault current. Also, when calculating the contributions to fault current from cach braneh, prefault currents are usually small, and hence can be neglected. Otherwise, prefault load currents could be obtained from a power-flow program. 5 7.4 __BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX Now to extend the results of the previous section to calculate subtransient fault cur- rents for three-phase faults in an N-bus power system, the system is modeled by its positive-sequence network, where lines and transformers are represented by series reactances and synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage sources be- hind subtransient reactances. As before, all resistances, shunt admittances, and nonro- tating impedance loads, and also for simplicity prefault load currents, are neglected. Consider a three-phase short circuit at any bus n. To analyze two separate circuits, use the superposition method described in Section 7.3. [For example, see Figure 7.4(d).] sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol matelya6 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults In the first circuit, all machine-voltage sources are short-circuited, and the only source is due to the prefault voltage at the fault. Writing nodal equations for the first circuit, ¥uy,.B0 = 10 (4ay where Yuu is the positive-sequence bus admittance matrix, £° is the vector of bus voltages, and J" is the vector of current sources. The superscript (1) denotes the first circuit. Solving (7.4.1), ZogP = E® (742) where Zou = Yi (7.43) Zou, the inverse of Yj, is called the positive-sequence bus impedance matrix. Both Zu, and Y,,, are symmetric matrices. Since the first circuit contains only one source, located at faulted bus n, the current source vector contains only one nonzero component, I! = —J%,. Also, the voltage at faulted bus in the first circuit is Ey” = — Vy. Rewriting (7.4.2), 0 ‘EY 0 BE - 144 Tou) [FV oa Zow ZxxJ LO EY “The minus sign associated with the current source in (7.4.4) indicates that the current injected into bus n is the negative of 7}, since 5, lows away from bus n to the neutral From (7.4.4), the subtransient fault current is, Ve Ten (7.4.5) Also from (7.4.4) and (7.4.5), the voltage at any bus in the first circuit is Zin, EP = Zul Z, (14.6) The second circuit represents the prefault conditions, Neglecting prefault load current, all voltages throughout the second circuit are equal to the prefault voltage; that is, E°) = Vp for each bus k. Applying superposition, WN (4.7) Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaSection 74 Bus Impedance Matrix a7 @Euame Using Z,,, to compute three-phase short-circuit currents in a power system The faults at bus 1 and 2 in Figure 7.3 are of interest. The prefault voltage is 1.05 per unit, and prefault load current is neglected. (a) Determine the 2 x 2 positive-sequence bus impedance matrix. (b) For a bolted three-phase short cir- cuit at bus 1, use Z,q, to calculate the subtransient fault current and the contribu- tion to the fault current from the transmission line, (c) Repeat part (b) for a bolted three-phase short circuit at bus 2. ‘SOLUTION a, The circuit of Figure 7.4(a) is redrawn in Figure 7.5 showing per-unit admittance rather than per-unit impedance values. Neglecting prefault load current, Ey = Ey, = V-=1,05/0° per unit, From Figure 7.5, the positive- sequence bus admittance matrix is y, AY For the power system given in Problem 7.12, a three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 2, where the prefault voltage is 525 kV, Prefault load current is neglected. Determine the (a) Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (b) sub- transient fault current in per unit and in kA rms, and (¢) contributions to the fault from lines 1-2, 2-3, and 2-4. Equipment ratings for the five-bus power system shown in Figure 7.15 are as follows Generator Gl: 50 MVA, 12 kV, X" = 0.2 per unit 467 FIGURE 4 Problems 7.12, 7.13, 718, 7.24, 7.28, and 7.26 Generator G2: ‘Transformer TI: ‘Transformer T2: 100 MVA, 15 KV, X” = 0.2 per unit 50 MVA, 10 kV Y/138 kV Y, X = 0.10 per unit 100 MVA, 15 kV A/138 kV Y, X = 0.10 per unit Each 138-kV line: X, = 40.0. A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 5, where the prefault voltage is 15 kV. Prefault load current is neglected. (a) Draw the positive-sequence reactance diagram in per unit on a 100-MVA, 15-KV base in the zone of generator G2. Determine (b) the Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (¢) the subtransient fault current in per unit and in kA rms, and (d) contribu tions to the fault from generator G2 and from transformer T2 . figure 735 Tg \ | Problems 7.14, Y OF GRA isin ry YA weé 2 4 ANE Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaFIGURE 7.16 Problem 7.16 FIGURE 0 Problem 7.17 Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | 745 716 nk 20 MVA 15% nk 10 MVA 10% 17 Ott“ #-On Symmetrical Faults For the power system given in Problem 7.14, a three-phase short circuit ‘occurs at bus 4, where the prefault voltage is 138 kV. Prefault load current is neglected. Determine (a) the Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (b) the subtransient fault current in per unit and in kA rms, and (c) contribu- tions to the fault from transformer T2 and from line 3-4. In the system shown in Figure 7.16, a three-phase short circuit occurs at point F. Assume that prefault currents are zero and that the generators are operating at rated voltage. Determine the fault current, ©—fawasi ecg [ew ‘A three-phase short circuit oceurs at the generator bus (bus 1) for the system shown in Figure 7.17. Neglecting prefault currents and assuming that the generator is operating at its rated voltage, determine the subtran- sient fault current using superposition bus 2 25MVA 25 MVA 25 MVA 15MVA 42.8kV —13.2/69KV 69/13.2 kV 13kV 15% n% 1% 15% SECTION 7.4 7.48 (a) The bus impedance matrix for a three-bus power system is 012 0.08 0.04] Zou =j] 008 0.12 0.06 | per unit 0.04 0,06 0.08 } where subtransient reactances were used to compute Z,... Prefault volt- age is 1.0 per unit and prefault current is neglected. (a) Draw the bus impedance matrix equivalent circuit (rake equivalent). Identify the per- unit self and mutual impedances as well as the prefault voltage in the circuit. (b) A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 2. Determine the subtransient fault current and the voltages at buses 1, 2, and 3 during the fault, he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaProblems, (©) Repeat for the case of 04 01 03 Zoe =i|0.1 08 0.5] per unit 3.05 12 719° Determine ¥,,, in per unit for the circuit in Problem 7.12. Then invert You, 10 obtain Zin 7.20 Determine ¥,,, in per unit for the circuit in Problem 7.14. Then invert 72 12 ¥,,, to obtain Zy, Figure 7.18 shows a system reactance diagram, (a) Draw the admittance diagram for the system by using source transformations. (b) Find the bus admittance matrix Y,.,.(¢) Find the bus impedance Z,., matrix by inverting Y,,, For the network shown in Figure 7.19, impedances labeled 1 through 6 are in per unit, (a) Determine Y,,,, preserving all buses. (b) Using MATLAB ora similar computer program, invert ¥,,, to obtain Zi. ® _ jaz 6) Reference Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny FIGURE 7.18 Problem 7.21 FIGURE 7.19 Problem 7.22, he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaa0 FIGURE 7.20 Single-ine diagram for Problem 7.23 Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults 123 Bus 3 A single-line diagram of a four-bus system is shown in Figure 7.20, for which Z,., is given below: 0.25 0.2 016 O14 z,,-;|02, 023 015 0451 A 1016 0.15 0.196 01 | Poms 0.14 0.151 01 0.195. Let a three-phase fault occur at bus 2 of the network. {a) Calculate the initial symmetrical rms current in the fault. (b) Determine the voltages during the fault at buses 1, 3, and 4. (© Compute the fault currents contributed to bus 2 by the adjacent unfaulted buses 1, 3, and 4. (@) Find the current flow in the line from bus 3 to bus 1. Assume the pre- fault voltage V,at bus 2 to be 1/0° pu, and neglect all prefault currents, Bus 2 j0.25 j0.25 Bus 1 Bus 4 joa joa jo2 jo2 (round is the reference node) PowerWorld Simulator case Problem 7_24 models the system shown in Figure 7.14 with all data on a 1000 MVA base, Using PowerWorld Simu- lator, determine the current supplied by each generator and the per-unit bus voltage magnitudes at each bus for a fault at bus 3 Repeat Problem 7.24, except place the fault at bus 4 Repeat Problem 7.24, except place the fault midway between buses 2 and 3 Determining the values for line faults requires that the line be split with a fictitious bus added at the point of the fault. The original line’s imped- ance is then allocated to the two new lines based on the fault location, which is 50% each for this problem. Fault calculations are then the same as for a bus fault. This is done automatically in PowerWorld Simulator by first right-clicking on a line, and then selecting Fault. The Fault dialog appears as before, except now the fault type is changed to In-Line Fault. he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa[Pw] 727 [Pw] 7.28 [pw 7.29 [pw] 7.30 Problems, Set the location percentage field to 50% to model a fault midway between buses 2 and 4. One technique for limiting fault current is to place reactance in series with the generators, Such reactance can be modeled in PowerWorld Simula- tor by increasing the value of the generator’s positive sequence internal impedance. For the Problem 7.24 case, how much per-unit reactance must be added to G? to limit its maximum fault current to 2.5 per unit for all three-phase bus faults? Where is the location of the most severe bus fault? ‘Using PowerWorld Simulator case Example 6_13, determine the per-unit current and actual current in amps supplied by each of the generators for a fault at the POPLAR69 bus. During the fault, what percentage of the system buses have voltage magnitudes below 0.75 per unit? Repeat Problem 7.28, except place the fault at the REDBUD69 bus. Using PowerWorld Simulator case Example 7_5, open the line connect- ing buses 4 and 5. Then, determine the per unit current supplied by the generator at bus 3 due a fault at bus 2 SECTION 7.5 73 732 733 734 A three-phase circuit breakerhasa 15.5-kVratedmaximum voltage, 9.0-kA rated short-circuit current, and a 2.50-rated voltage range factor. {a) Determine the symmetrical interrupting capability at 10-kV and 5-kV operating voltages. (b) Can this breaker be safely installed at a three- phase bus where the symmetrical fault current is 10 kA, the operating voltage is 13.8 kV, and the (X/R) ratio is 12? A.345-KY, three-phase transmission line has a 2.2-KA continuous current rating and a 2.5-kA maximum short-time overload rating with a 356-kV ‘maximum operating voltage. The maximum symmetrical fault current on the line is 30 kA. Select a circuit breaker for this line from Table 7.10. A 69-KY circuit breaker has a voltage range factor K = 1.25, a continuous current rating of 1200 A, and a rated short-circuit current of 19,000 A at the maximum rated voltage of 72.5 kV. Determine the maximum sym- metrical interrupting capability of the breaker. Also, explain its signifi- cance at lower operating voltages ‘As shown in Figure 7.21, a 25-MVA, 13.8-KV, 60-Hy, synchronous gener- ator with X,’ = 0.15 per unit is connected through a transformer to a bus that supplies four identical motors, The rating of the three-phase trans- former is 25 MVA and 13.8/6.9 kV with a leakage reactance of 0.1 per unit. Each motor has a subtransient reactance X,’ = 0.2 per unit on a base of 5 MVA and 6.9 kV. A three-phase fault occurs at point P, when the bus voltage at the motors is 6.9 kV. Determine (a) the subtran- sient fault current, (b) the subtransient current through breaker A, and (©) the symmetrical short-circuit interrupting current (as defined for circuit breaker applications) in the fault and in breaker A Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa ama2 FIGURE 7.21 Problem 7.34 Chapter 7 | Symmetrical Faults CASE STUDIES QUESTIONS a. What are the four main types of wind-turbine generators (WTG)? How do WTGs differ from conventional generators? b. Which type of WIG can produce the largest three-phase short-circuit current? Motors ©. For which type of WTG can the short-circuit current be controlled? Why? DESIGN PROJECT 3 (CONTINUED): POWER FLOW/ SHORT CIRCUITS Additional time given: 3 weeks Additional time required: 10 hours ‘This is a continuation of Design Project 3. Assignments 1 and 2 are given in Chapter 6 Assignment 3: Symmetrical Short Circuits For the single-line diagram that you have been assigned (Figure 6.13 or 6.14), convert the positive-sequence reactance data to per unit using the given base quantities. For synchronous machines, use subtransient reactance. Then using PowerWorld Simulator, create the machine, transmission line, and transformer input data files. Next, run the program to compute subtransient fault currents for a bolted three-phase-to-ground fault at bus 1, then at bus 2, then at bus 3, and so on, Also compute bus voltages during the faults and the positive-sequence bus impedance matrix. Assume 1.0 per-unit prefault voltage. Neglect prefault load currents and all losses. ‘Your output for this assignment consists of three input data files and three output data (fault currents, bus voltages, and the bus impedance matrix) files. This project continues in Chapter 9 sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol matelyReferences REFERENCES 1 1. Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Electrical Transmission and Distri- bution Reference Book, 4th ed. (East Pittsburgh, PA: 1964), E. W. Kimbark, Power System Stability, Synchronous Machines, vol. 3 (New York: Wiley, 1956) A.E, Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S, Umans, Electric Machinery, Sth ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990). M.S. Sarma, Flectrie Machines, 2nd ed. (Boston: PWS Publishing, 1994). JR, Neuenswander, Modern Power Systems (New York: Intext Educa tional Publishers, 1971), H.E. Brown, Solution of Large Networks by Matrix Methods (New York: Wiley, 1975) G.N, Lester, “High Voltage Cireuit Breaker Standards in the USA— Past, Present and Future,” EEE Transactions PAS, vol. PAS-93 (1974): pp. 590-600, W.D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th ed. (New York: MeGraw-Hill, 1982) C. A. Gross, Power System Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1979). Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Sym- metrical Current Basis, ANSI C 37.010 (New York: American National Standards Institute, 1999/R 2005), E. Muljadi and V. Grevorgian, “Short-Circuit Modeling of a Wind Power Plant,” Conference Paper NRELICP-5500-50632, Power & Energy Soci ety General Meeting, July 24-29, 2011 Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa 4138 Symmetrical Components 1918, is a powerful technique for analyzing unbalanced three-phase systems. Fortescue defined a linear transformation from phase components to a new set, of components called symmetrical components. The advantage of this transforma- tion is that for balanced three-phase networks the equivalent circuits obtained for the symmetrical components, called sequence networks, are separated into three uncou- pled networks, Furthermore, for unbalanced three-phase systems, the three sequence networks are connected only at points of unbalance, As a result, sequence networks for many cases of unbalanced three-phase systems are relatively easy to analyze. T: method of symmetrical components, first developed by C. L. Fortescue in. Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa Generator stator showing completed windings for a 157-MVA, 3600-RPM, 60-Hz synchronous generator (Courtesy of General Electric) 415a6 Chapter | Symmetrical Components The symmetrical component method is basically a modeling technique that permits systematic analysis and design of three-phase systems. Decoupling a detailed three-phase network into three simpler sequence networks reveals compli- cated phenomena in more simplistic terms, Sequence network results then can be superposed to obtain three-phase network results, As an example, the application of symmetrical components to unsymmetrical short-circuit studies (see Chapter 9) is indispensable. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the concept of symmetrical com- ponents in order to lay a foundation and provide a framework for later chapters cov- ering both equipment models as well as power system analysis and design methods. Section 8.1 defines symmetrical components, In Sections 8.2 through 8,7, sequence networks of loads, series impedances, transmission lines, rotating machines, and transformers are presented. Complex power in sequence networks is presented in Section 8.8. Although Fortescue’s original work is valid for polyphase systems with n phases, this chapter considers only three-phase systems, CASE STUDY The following case study traces the development of gas-insulated substa- tions and switchgear (GIS) since GIS technology originated in 1936. GIS advantages include enhanced reliability, compact modular design, reduced maintenance and cost, prolonged life, and advanced monitoring capabili- ties. GIS circuit breakers are now available at voltages up to 1100 kV and interrupting currents up to 63 kA. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF,) is the most com- monly used gas for electrical insulation in GIS. This case study presents an overview of the environmental impacts of switchgear, where SF, as a greenhouse gas is an ongoing environmental concern [4]. Technological Progress in High-Voltage Gas-Insulated Substations Ibrahim A. Metwally In the last two decades, the evolution- ary development of gas-insulated sub- stations/switchgear (GIS) has resulted in higher integration of a number {© 2010 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from I. A. Metwaly, “Technological Progress in High-Voltage Gas-Insulated Substations,” IEEE Potentials Magacine, November! December 2010, pp. 25-32. of new technologies to enhance per- formance and reliability by reducing defects, having more compact designs, and reducing maintenance intervals and costs. Incremental improvements are continuing in interrupter technol- ogy, such as self-extinguishing fea- tures at medium voltage (MV) and resistance interruption at extra~ and Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaultra-high voltages (EHV and UHY). In addition, sulfur hexaftuoride (SF,) gas technology for circuit breakers, zinc oxide (ZnO) for arresters, radio communication for condition moni- toring, and a choice of porcelain or polymer composite for the full range of equipment are also some of the technologies integrated or innovated by GIS manufacturers in recent years. Recently, ac GIS ratings have reached up to 1100-KV rated voltage and S0-KA,,, rated short-circuit break- ing current. In addition, 1200-KV ac GIS are going to be visible very soon, Moreover, 500-kV de GIS for dc transmission systems have become available GIS Construction GIS is commonly used to designate gas-insulated, metal-clad electrical switchgear. GIS includes air entrance bushings, power cable connections, transformer connections, busbars, SI ten 2) Buspar 3) Bus isolator | 4) Bus isolator I t=" 5) Surge Arrester $41 8) Grounding Switch 7) Grounding Switeh 8) Make-Proof Grounding Switch 10 8) Circuit Breaker 2110) Curent Transformer 33 \'' s 11) cable isolator 12) Cable Sealing End 2 413) Voltage Transformer f- Case Study circuit breakers (CB), bus and cable isolators, earthing switches, current and voltage transformers “measur- ing devices” (CT and VT), and surge arresters. Figure 1 illustrates a sin- gle-line diagram and components of GIS. Many new SF,-to-air bushings are now composed of composite con- struction, consisting of a fiberglass! epoxy inner cylinder that contains the SE, gas and provides structural strength, The external weather shed is made of silicone rubber. SF, is the most common gas used for electrical insulation; its pressure values range from 0.29 MPa to 0.51 MPa (at 20°C). Recently, SF, has been replaced with the 95% mixture of ni- trogen (N,) and 5% of SF, at 1.3 MPa pressure, or with a 90% mixture of Ny and 10% of SF, at 0.94 MPa pressure, as well as with a 80% mixture of Ny and 20% of SF, at 0.71 MPa pressure. The latter corresponds to the 0.4 MPa pressure when pure SF, is used. an Figure 1 Single-line diagram and components of GIS Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaa8 Chapter | Symmetrical Components ‘Today, the environmental con- sideration related to the “greenhouse” effect grows, especially for using SF, and its mixtures in the compressed-gas electric power apparatus. SF, gas is one of the strongest manmade “greenhouse” gases; its global warm- ing potential is estimated to be ap- proximately 25,000 times larger than that of carbon dioxide (CO,) gas. At equal gas pressure, SF,/N, mixtures are less sensitive to insulation defects than undiluted SF,. The recent trend is to use ultra-diluted SF,/N, gas mix- tures with SF, content = 1%, ‘Typically, solid insulators are required to provide support to stressed conductors in such systems. Solid in- sulating spacers represent the weakest points in these systems. Several trou- bles and system outages have been reported worldwide due to spacer fail- ures. Normally, pure SF, or SF,/N; mixtures at high pressures are used as an insulating medium. Complete fail- ure or partial discharge may occur on the spacer surfaces, but they rarely oc- cur at the highly pressurized gas unless there are solid conducting particles in the gas, as will be discussed later. Spacers used in GIS are usually made of epoxy or cast resin. These spacers fundamentally are divided into two types according to their shapes, namely, discs and cones. The presence of spacers results in complex dielectric field distribution. It often intensifies the clectric field, particu- larly on the spacer surface. The insu- lation ability of SF, is highly sensitive to the maximum electric field, and furthermore, the insulation strength along a spacer surface is usually Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny lower than that in the gas space. Due to the previously mentioned spacer troubles, they should be precisely designed to realize a quasi-uniform electric field distribution along their surfaces. In addition, functionally graded materials (FGM) find ex- tensive application in the insulation system such as GIS. FGM consist of materials of different permittivities (dielectric constants), ie., with a spa- tial distribution of permittivity. This new spacer material can be optimized to control the electric field along the spacer surface, especially at the triple junction “gas/spacer/enclosure.” Advantages Gas-insulated systems, such as gas- insulated lines and switchgear (GIL and GIS), are widely used in the elec tric power industry for transmitting and controlling bulk power, respec- tively. The concept of SF, HV GIS has proved itself in several thousands of installations worldwide. It offers the following outstanding advantages: © Minimal space requirements, where the availability and price of land play an important part in selecting the type of switch- gear to be used. It resolves the problems that arise in large towns, industrial conurbations, mountainous regions with nar- row valleys, and underground power stations * Full protection against contact with live parts because the metal enclosure affords maximum safety for personnel under all operating and fault conditions. he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa© Protection against pollution due to the fact that the metal enclosure fully protects the switchgear internal compo- nents against environmental pollutants such as salt deposits in coastal regions, industrial vapors, and precipitates, as well as sandstorms. The compact switchgear can be installed in buildings of uncomplicated design in order to minimize the cost of cleaning and inspec- tion and to make necessary repairs independent of weather conditions. © Free choice of installation site that leads to potential sav- ings for the expensive grading and foundation work, eg., in permafrost zones, and short delivery and erection times for indoor switchgear installa- tion regardless of the weather conditions. © Protection of the environment because of its very flexible modular system that can meet all requirements of configura- tion given by network design and operating conditions. © Longevity means an expected lifetime of at least 50 years and being maintenance-free for more than 20 years. History and Technological Progress Historically, air-insulated substations (AISs) were the only available tech- nology until 1936. However, this resulted in a number of difficulties, Case Study namely, (1) pollution in desert areas or in close proximity to industrial or coastal areas, (2) insufficient space for AIS when constructing new sub- stations/extensions (eg., inside ies), and (3) restrictions by planning laws that only permit AIS substations where there is “no demonstrable alternative.” If GIS and AIS are compared in the need of space for the same function, the space reduction by using GIS is in the ratio of 1:5 That means less than 20% of the space of AISs is needed to install a GIS. In 2007, more than 20,000 bays in over 2000 substations are installed worldwide, in all kinds of environmental conditions and with the whole spectrum of voltage and current ratings. Following the invention of SF, gas in 1900, the applications of this gas have significantly advanced since 1940. Alternating current (ac) GIS technology originated in 1936, when a Freon-GIS assembly, rated at 33 KV, was demonstrated in the United States. Later, in the mid- 1950s, the excellent insulating and arc-extinguishing properties of SF, gas were recognized. By the mid- 1960s, GIS was sufficiently well- developed to be commercially viable and appealing to a broader market Over time, progressive innovative steps have allowed manufacturers to develop a range of GIS voltage rat- ings of 550 kV in 1976, 800 kV in 1979, and recently up to 1100 kV as shown in Figure 2 for the ac systems. ‘The use of 1100-KV ac transmission lines, (ie., doubling the voltage from 413 Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter | Symmetrical Components & 8 8 Rated Short-Circuit Breaking Current {kip} 0 the traditional level of $50 kV) re- duces the transmission losses by a factor of four, which is a significant savings of energy. Moreover, the 1200-KV ac GIS are going to be seen very soon, Recent trends in power trans- mission and distribution technologies involve high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) installations in the electric system. This improves the overall system reliability and achieves eco- nomical benefits, Direct current (de) GIS are considered integral parts of these installations, Therefore, there has been a resurgence of interest in HVDC SF, equipment in recent years, Recently, 500-kV de GIS for de transmission systems have become available in Japan. The phenomenon of accumu- lated charges on a solid insulator sur- face is one of the critical parameters al the insulation design stage even for both ac and de all gas-insulated equipment (¢.g., GIS and GIL). There are three kinds of electric charging PPL LL PH OILS Voltage Rating (kVjme) Figure 2 Rated short-circuit breaking current of ac GIS fora wide voltage range mechanisms: volume conduction, surface conduction, and electric field emission. These mechanisms are characterized in terms of the time constant, applied voltage, and charge distribution. The behavior of metal- lic particles left on the enclosure is one of the largest differences. Also, degradation of metal-oxide arrester blocks under de stress is of significant importance. Figure 3 illustrates the percent- age evolution and development of different types of HV substations in the market from 1960 to 2020. Highly integrated switchgear (IIIS) is a compact switchgear solution for a rated voltage of up to 550 KV. HIS is mainly used for renewal or expansion of air-insulated outdoor and indoor substations, particularly if the operator wants to carry out modifications while the switchgear is in service. With the HIS solution, the circuit-breakers, disconnectors, earthing switches, and transformers are accommodated in compressed Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study ses Ssees 10 1 1960” 1980 2000" 2020 AIS BLHIS AIS Compact [ll Bay Module ais Figure 3 Percentage evolution and development of HV substations in the market gas-tight enclosures and at a min- imum number of independent gas compartments, This makes the switchgear extremely compact. The modularity and flexibility of today’s switchgear allows designing highly optimized GIS using a reduced min- imum number of junction elements (elbows and cross junctions, among others). This concept allows deliv- ering subtransmission and distri- bution substations made of one or two shipping units only, fully assem- bled and tested in factory. This will result in quasielimination of the site assembly and tests, which is a real benefit of the customer’s project management. These optimized GIS can shorten the time needed from ordering to commissioning to about 44% (ie., by about 5-6 months). It is worth mentioning that the recent size of building, space requirement, and packing volume have been reduced for the 145 kV GIS, to be less than 20%, 15%, and 25% of those in 1968, respectively. Gas-insulated modules have recently been seen at all voltage lev- els up to 550 KY, as an intermediary between GIS and AIS. They are suit- able for the following categories of applications: standardization and op- timization of new substation and/or extensions in large networks, recon- struction or refurbishment of AIS with operational constraints and/or space limitations, and the extension of ATS with space limitations. There- fore, the market of these applications will most likely inerease as shown in Figure 3. Recently, disconnecting circuit breaker technology, which integrates the disconnecting function into the circuit breaker and eliminates the need for two separate free-standing disconnectors, has led to shrinking aa Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter | Symmetrical Components footprint, equipment, and construc- tion costs, and increases availability. The solution makes it possible—for the first time—to build compact EHV AIS substations and load hhubs close to large cities and urban areas, where high land prices and space restric- tions usually prohibit the construc- tion of large AIS. ‘Transmission system growth may lead to higher requirements with regard to short-circuit current and/or nominal current ratings af- ter the initial GIS installation. An upgrade of busbars, circuit break- ers, and metering transformers may have to be investigated. Upgrades may also consist of an addition of isolated earthing switches for offline monitoring, voltage indicators, and partial discharge sensors. The plan- ning for an extension or upgrade option should begin during the ini- tial GIS design stage In some designs of bay mod- ule type used for GIS extensions and upgrades, the following elements are integrated into one bay: circuit breakers, bus disconnectors, earthing switches, voltage transformers, cur- rent transformers, outgoing feeder disconnectors with earthing switches, and surge arresters. In addition, the circuit breaker is integrated with cur- rent transformers, and disconnector contacts are directly mounted on cir- cuit breaker. The key benefits of this compact design are: space-saving by optimized system design, modular- ity and flexibility for application in all possible substation designs, low overall height, optimized mainte- nance management, reduction in life cycle cost, and short on-site erection due to prefabricated and type-tested modules New Development Trends Increased equipment loading and an inability to build new or expand conventional stations to accommo- date additional loads has lowered the relative GIS costs compared with those of AIS. Manufactur- ing improvements have lowered the real GIS costs as well. Changes in the utility business environment and ownership have led to a greater acceptance of these changes. The above factors will increase the mar- ket share of GIS. This is expected even without further GIS technical improvements. The evolutionary development of GIS has resulted in higher integra~ tion, reduced opportunity for defects, and more compact designs. Incre- ‘mental improvements are continuing in interrupter technology, such as self-extinguishing features at MV and resistance interruption at EHV and UHV. The latest GIS technological achievement is in the 1100-kV AC GIS. The 1100 KV system has the following features: multi-bundle conductors, larger line-charging ca- pacity (approximately four times as large as that of the 550 kV system), larger power plants that are located relatively close to the UHV system, and large-capacity transformers (3000 MVA/bank) that interconnect the UHV system with the 550 kV system. To reduce corona noise, mul- tibundle “eight” conductors with a Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study large diameter are employed, which Solutions for network problems leads to a decrease in the line surge and technology, such as second- impedances and an increase in the ary arc extinction. Secondary time constant of de component asso- are extinction is a serious con- ciated with fault current, In addition, cern in UHV systems and needs the use of large power generators to be addressed at the design and large capacity power trans- stage of such projects. Miti- formers lead to larger reactance-to- gation measures, such as neu- resistance ratio and contribute to tral reactors, special switching an increase of the de time constant schemes of shunt reactors, and in the fault currents. Consequently, high-speed grounding switches, the rate of decrease of current have to be studied (dildt) around current zero is taken Insulation coordination issues, as 28 A/us, which is equivalent to pete enciee atone 63 KArn, With 10% component. As a mission lines and in substations, result, the rated short-circuit break- can be ellectively controlled ing current, which is the highest short- ys nigtrerform nea bent circuit current that a circuit breaker is Fats fecreceatenterniT esetores capable of breaking at the instant of Finca ce rear ecard contact separation in KA,gp, is taken an individual energy rating of 8 50 KAyns (See Figure 2). = 5S MJ, These metal-oxide Generally, there are two main surge atresters are a key tech- problems for network expansion in Poloeyafare 100°E Vaineulariont the 550 kV to transfer power from re- oor iinat reese the Na mote plants: characteristics become more Peete airienlt teteeenre ace flat (.¢., higher energy aborption tiple power transmission routes, capability). Lightning _over- PS niteesn eran cen aeenes voltages dominate the nonself- eaten aer entrance scone restoring internal insulation plants, thus, the construction of psn ee ed the 1100-KV transmission lines pa ec with'a capability three to four suppress lightning overvolt- times greater than that of 550-kV emcee mean ee transmission lines, Bae eae adequate locations, such as at aca re LES eee Saree eas network will inerease above the formers, and also within GIS ee Se To control switching overvolt- Highly sophisticated system ages below the ground fault design technologies are necessary overvoltage level, the closing! to deal with the following technical opening resistor canbe issues of the 1100-kV transmission employed as shown in Figure 4, system: where the total length and Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter | Symmetrical Components —— Glosng Resistor Figure 4 Fourinterrupter and closing resistor and its close/open (CO) switch unit of the 1100-kV gas circuit breaker the height of the 4-interrupter/ closing resistor and its close! open (CO) switch unit are 10 m and 3.8 m, respectively. For MV networks, on the other hand, the interrupting chamber of the self-extinguishing CB is divided into two main compartments at the same pressure of about 0.51 MPa during the closed condition. During opening, the gas pressure increases by heat generated in the are, then the gas blasts from one arc compart- ment to the other one. By applying an external magnetic field, one arc rotates around the contact periphery and cools, and no pitting of contacts occurs. Life Cycle Assessment The switchgear only makes a minor contribution to the total global warm- ing potential of a representative urban distribution grid. On the contrary, other grid components such as cables and transformers play the deci- sive role—regardless of whether AIS. or GIS technology is used. Figure 5 shows an overview of the percentage environmental impact categories that ‘were examined in a study at switchgear level. It is based on a representative ix of all switchgear types in the MV range. Clear advantages for GIS com- pared to AIS are also shown in regard to global warming potential, except the SF, emission as was explained ear- lier. It is worth mentioning that the contributions to global warming potential of an urban power distri- bution grid is 92% from grid com- ponents, such as cables and lines, and 8% from switchgear, where the latter can be divided as 7% from switchgear in ring-main units and only 1% from switchgear of substa- tion transformers. GIS Failures GIS have been in operation for more than 35 years, and they have shown a high level of reliability with ex- tremely low failure rates. This is the result of quality assurance during the design and manufacturing pro- cesses as well as during the erection and on-site commissioning. How- ever, the return of experiences has shown that some of the in-service failures are related to defects in the insulation system. The main components involved in failures of 300-500 KV GIS are Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCase Study Als. A's. Als. AIS. Primary Global Acidification Nitification Energy Warming Potential Potential Demand _ Potential I Ohmic Losses I SF, Emissions 1 Materials and Manufacturing Figure § Environmental impact of AIS and GIS Earthing Switch, 0.60% ‘and interconnecting Parts, 24.30% Other, 0.60% ee ‘Surge Arrester, 1.90% Figure 6 Main components involved in failures of 300-500 kV GIS given in Figure 6, where the major — terconnecting parts. Major failure of components that cause failures by GIS is a collapse of one of its ma- about 72% are circuit breakers (CB), jor components or elements, which disconnectors, and bus ducts and in- _causes the lack of one or more of its ‘Coyigh 2017 Cangage Lesming AIL Rigs Reseed Noy ne copied, aed o dap n whaler in par ew eon hs, sone part coe may be supe om the eBook seh) Eta ein as deed hy supese ont oes nol ly Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaCopyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Chapter | Symmetrical Components 2 20 § 5 | 100-200Kv = 116 || Il 300-500 kv B14 B12 10 8 o8 B06 Boa 02 Foo cIGRE fundamental functions. A major fail- ure will result in an immediate change in the system operating conditions. The major failure rate is equal to the number of major failures divided by the sum of circuit-breaker bays, mul- tiplied by the number of in-service years, The dielectric failure rates pre- sented in Figure 7 are taken from dif- ferent sources. Inrange 1 (from 100kV to 200 kV), the failure rate is in good correspondence and amounts to be about 0.25 failures per 100 CB-bay years, In range 2 (from 300 kV to 500 KV), the failure rate is signifi- cantly higher due to the higher elec- tric field strength. The deviations are between 0.95 and 1.8 failures per 100 CB-bay years. When analyzing the failure causes, it must be stated that a lot of failures do not occur in GIS of modern design (e.g,, insufficient insu- lation coordination of disconnectors and earthing switches or imperfec- tions in solid material). Furthermore, a reduction of teething faults is likely due to the application of advanced CIGRE "S$ German Inquiry WG33/23-12 System Operators, Figure 7 Rates of dielectric failures in GIS testing methods. Therefore, a tar- get failure rate of 0.1 failures per 100 CB-bay years should be achiev- able, where about 61% of the failures could have been detected and clas- sified by monitoring and diagnostic systems, respectively. Origin of PD in GIS Partial discharges (PD) are electri- cal discharges that do not completely bridge between the electrodes. Al- though PD magnitudes are usually small, they cause progressive deterio- ration and may lead to ultimate failure, Ttis essential to detect their presence in a nondestructive controlled test. There are two types of the fine contaminants in both GIS and GIL systems: either insulating or metallic particles. The former has a relatively innocuous effect, while the latter drastically re- duces the corona onset and break- down voltages of the system. GIS equipment is made com- pact; hence the working field strength within the equipment increases and becomes very sensitive to field he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaperturbations due to defects PD in compressed SF, GIS arise from pro- trusions, free conducting particles, floating components, and bulk insula- tion defects, such as voids and delam- nations. PD resulting from the third and the fourth sources will, in turn, lead to failure of the GIS. In the case of a floating component (one not bonded to the conductor or sheath), the dis- charge magnitude is normally suffi- cient to decompose SF, in quantities. Enclosure Protrusion on cere se Spacer ‘Conductor Protrusion on Enclosure. \ Figure 8 Possible defects in the insulation system of GIS err nl Coane Bulk Insulation of Spacers, 10% Figure 9 Main failure causes in GIS Electrically Fre resce (se N Spacer an Case Study Treeing is a failure process in solid dielectrics, which, once initiated, will normally proceed to a failure through the bulk of dielectric, The most im- portant defects are shown in Figure 8 Typical defects may result from errors in manufacturing, shipping, and as- sembly, including loose or electrically floating corona shields, undetected scratches, and poor electrical contacts Figure 9 illustrates the contri- bution of each of these defects and 2 Particle on Insulation Coordination of Disconnectors, 10% een) Caer ae 0% Protrusions! Particles on HV, 5% Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaChapter | Symmetrical Components other sources in the failure of GIS It can be seen from Figure 9 that the defects shown in Figure 8 rep- resent about 53% of the total main failure causes in GIS, A protrusion from live or grounded parts creates a local field enhancement. Such de- fects have little influence on the ac withstand level because the volt- age varies slowly and the corona at the tip will have time to build up a space charge that shields the tip. Under switching and lightning surges, however, there is not enough time to build up such space charges. Consequently, the basic lightning impulse withstand level (BIL) will be drastically reduced. Usually, pro- trusions exceeding 1 mm are consid- ered harmful Free moving particles have lit- tle impact on the BIL, while the ac withstand level can be significantly reduced. This reduction depends on their shape and position; the longer they are and the closer they get to the HY conductor, the more dangerous they become. If they move onto a spacer, they become even more dan- gerous. A particle on a spacer may, with time, lead to deterioration of the spacer surface. Under typical condi- tions for GIS, particles have incep- tion electric fields of several kV/mm and true charges of several 10 pC to 100 pC. Wire particles approximately correspond to the type of particles encountered in practice, Voids and defects inside spacers could create discharges once the ini- tiation voltage is exceeded. Usually, such voids are found during quality control in the factory. A defect within a spacer will give rise to discharges, electrical trees, and eventually lead to breakdown, Since the sound absorp- tion in epoxy is very high, the chance to detect them with acoustic measure- ment is small A floating component is a con- ducting element that is not bonded to, or in electrical contact with, the conductor or sheath. Generally, floating components should not be present in GIS. The most common types of components that may be- come floating are spacer inserts or field-grading shields at either the conductor or the sheath “enclosure.” If a ficld-grading shield becomes mechanically loose, it may become electrically floating. A floating shield adjacent to an electrode could give rise to large discharges between the shield and the electrode, which can eventually lead to failure, Floating components normally causePD withmagnitudesintherange of 10* to 10° pC/pulse with repeti- tion rates of 120 to several thousand discharges per second, in multi- ples of 120 Hz (for 60 Hz power frequency). An electrically float- ing shield takes a potential, which is determined by the relationship between its capacitance to the con- ductor versus that to ground, which exceeds the insulation level to the conductor or to ground, and the ca- pacitance will then discharge. Such discharges tend to be repetitive witha charge transfer in the range of nC to HC. The discharge pattern is usually regular and with PD magnitude larger than that for a void in an insulator. Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaIf the effects of defects/contaminants are mitigated or controlled, then improvement in the reliability of SF, GIS could be achieved. Moreover, this could lead to higher working stresses for future compressed gas apparatus, and consequently to a considerable reduction in SF, GIS size and cost. Some techniques that are used for the mitigation and con- ttol of particle contaminations in GIS are particle traps, dielectric coat- ing of the electrodes, and the use of SF, gas mixtures GIS systems are typically con- ditioned before service by raising the voltage in discrete steps so as to move particles over a period of time into particle traps, but additional particles may be generated due to the switching operation of circuit break- ers and conductor movement under load cycling. Particles adhering to the support insulators can result in significant reduction in the impulse flashover voltage of the system. In order to prevent the particles from interacting with solid support insula- tors, electrostatic particle drivers and traps are used. In ac GIS, the par- ticle traps are usually fixed around, or near to, the insulators, which rep- resent low-field areas, to prevent the attachment of the particles on the insulators and so reduce the chance of particle-initiated — breakdowns associated with the insulators. In de GIS, the bus consists of three regions, namely, a spacer region where an electric shield is installed at the triple junction, a particle Case Study seavenging region where both the particle driver and the particle trap exist, and a non-evitating region where the electrodes are coated. In such de GIS, a shield ring “field-well ring” is placed at the end of the par- ticle driver for two purposes: (1) to reduce the electric field and assist the particle trapping and (2) to prevent the firefly phenomenon, where the particle sometimes stays very close to the HV conductor under negative polarity. Dielectric coatings of conduc- tors in GIS systems improve the di- electric strength. Thisisdue to coating over the conductor roughness and decreasing the high local field; coat- ing resistance reduces the develop- ment of pre-discharges in the gas, and significance reduction in the particle charge during impacts and consequent increase in the lifting field. However, coating the conduc- tor can also create problems. If the coating is damaged, it could create particles. The coating lowers the par- ticle mobility and thus, makes more difficult the use of particle traps. By increasing the lift-off voltage, it can be more dangerous because the particles can then lift off and induce direct breakdown without previous warning or possibility of PD detec- tion “spring effect.” SF,N, is often considered to be the best substitute for SF, in both GIS and GIL because of the follow- ing reasons: ‘© Nyisa cheap gas, and its dielec- tric strength in a uniform ficld is higher than that of gas Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa430 Chapter | Symmetrical Components mixtures of SF, with most com- ‘mon gases. ‘* Itavoids SF, liquefaction at low ambient temperatures. © It reduces the quantity of SF, and hence reduces environmen- tal impact. © At equal gas pressure, SFeN, mixtures are less sensitive to insulation defects than undi- luted SF,. The effective ionization coef- ficient (a) for the SF,-N, mixture decreases with the ratio of N,/SF, In addition, the PD magnitude for fixed protrusions increases with gas pressure, where pure SF, gives the greatest increase, For free moving particles, the PD magnitude is inde- pendent of both the type and pres- sure of the gas Generally, the field strength near the triple junction can be reduced by devising the spacer shape such that an obtuse angle exists at each spacer~ electrode interface, as well as by elec- trode-inserted spacers. In addition, FGM has recently been introduced. as was discussed earlier. Furthermore, the conducting particles can be ef fectively trapped and prevented from reaching the HV conductor by elec- trode-inserted rib spacers or trap-rib spacers with dielectric coating of the earthed enclosure. Partial Discharge Monitoring Systems Ultra-high frequency (UHF) tech- nique can be applied for PD mea surement in GIS, either using internal or external UHF couplers. Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny The internally fitted UHF couplers have some limitations, such as the tisk of breakdown (if they are not positioned in the hatchcover, where the field is very low), a large num- ber of sensors is required to detect PD for a GIS (e.g., from six to nine per three-phase bay), and possible focusing of the UHF signal be- cause the enclosure may act as a reflector. External UHF couplers also have some limitations, such as some loss of sensitivity as they may contain internal protection circuitry or preamplifiers that prevent pulse injection during the sensitivity ver- ification test. However, external UHF couplers have many advan- tages such as: sensors are movable, the UHE technique is applicable to GIS having dielectric windows, it is a cost-effective method, and it of- fers a more effective and flexible PD location system The acoustic emission (AE) technique offers several advantages: movable sensors, good sensitivity, immunity to external noise, defects may be localized and recognized, and risk assessment based on source characterization. Its disadvantages are the high attenuation and, for some cast enclosures and defects in cast epoxy (eg,, voids) attenuation may be significant, requiring too many sensors. Therefore, the UHF technique has many characteristics that make it advantageous over that of the AE. The world’s first GIS online partial discharge monitoring (PDM) system was introduced in 1993, and they are now installed worldwide he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaat voltages of 230-800 KV. Today, different PDM systems are avail- able and utilize the same principle of UHF technology. Based on prac- tical experiences with actual moni- toring and diagnostic systems, the GIS system's reliability can be im- proved with exploitation of service life, The cost benefits of using PDM systems can be deduced from the dramatic reduction in failure rates when comparing the in-service fail- ure statistics with and without using such systems, A PDM system normally op- erates as a “black box” that captures UNF signals and submits warning and alarm signals to the substa- tion control system only in the case of in-service relevant PD activity. Therefore, the most important PDM system features are the applied noise suppression techniques and the efficiency of the PD identification algorithms. Today, the suppression of noise and other background signals like radar or mobile phone signals is re~ alized by combined hardware and software filters. Actual PD identifica tion algorithms are based on phase- resolved pulse sequence analysis. The applied redundant diagnosis systems (RDS) with hierarchical or hybrid structures consist of PD feature ex- traction and defect classification in combination with a proper reference data base to identify the type and nature of the insulation defect. The results from such RDS can have an accuracy of correct identification in the range of over 95%. Only a very small number of captured PD data Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny Case Study sets are classified as unknown defect or identified in a wrong way. Conclusion GIS are widely used in the electric power industry as a key element for controlling bulk power from MV to UHV range. SF, and SF,/N, mix- ture HV GIS have proved themselves in several thousands of installations worldwide because of their many out- standing advantages. Epoxy or cast-esin solid in- sulators are used as spacers in GIS, ‘They represent the weakest points in GIS systems as the electric field on their surfaces is higher than that in the gas space. Historically, AIS were the only available technology until 1936, and it will continue to share more than 60% in the coming decade with the introduction of compact AIS and HIS types. Highly optimized GIS, us- ing a minimum number of junction elements (elbows and cross june- tions), allows delivering much smaller subtransmission and distribution substations fully assembled and tested in factory (ie, shortening the ‘time to commissioning), AC GIS rated 1100 kV and short-circuit breaking current of 50 KA, is the latest GIS technologi- cal achievement, The 1200-kV ac GIS are going to be visible very soon. DC GIS rated 500 KV for HVDC trans- mission systems have become avail- able, too. Circuit breakers, disconnectors, bus ducts, and interconnecting parts are the major components that cause he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa ast492 Chapter | Symmetrical Components failures by about 72% in GIS. Gen- erally, the higher the operating volt- age of GIS, the higher is the failure rate due to the higher electric field strength. ‘A target failure rate of 0.1 fail- ures per 100 CB-bay years should be achievable, in particular by means of monitoring and diagnostic systems, as about 61% of the failures could have been detected. PD in compressed SF, GIS arise from protrusions, free conduct- ing particles, floating components, and bulk insulation defects (voids) These defects represent about 53% of the total main failure causes in GIS Some techniques used for the mitigation and control of particle contaminations in GIS are parti- cle traps, dielectric coating of the electrodes, the use of SF, gas mix- tures, and the use of FGM as solid spacers for optimizing its profile. The ultra-high frequency and acoustic emission techniques can be used for GIS PD monitoring system, where the former has many advanta- geous characteristics over the latter. A dramatic reduction in failure rates can be achieved when using such systems. Further Reading 1. A. Metwally, “Status review on partial discharge measurement tech- niques in gas-insulated switchgears! lines,” J. Electr Power Syst. Res., vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 25-36, 2004. IEEE Guide for Recommended Levels in Air-Insulated Electrical Power Substations, EEE. Standard 2007.359971, May 4, 2007. High-Voltage Switchgear and Control Gear—Part 205: Compact Switchgear Assemblies for Rated Voltages Above 52 kV, IEC Standard 6271-205, Edition 1.0, 2008. J.D. McDonald, Electric Power ‘Substations Engineering, 2nded. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, May 2007. P.Ponchon, M. Bues, H. Bosia, and G. F. Montillet, “World applica- tions of gas-insulated modules (GIMs) to HV and EHY substations.” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 1935-1940, 2006. S. Yanabu, E. Zaima, and T. Hasegawa, “Historical review of high voltage switchgear developments in the 20th century for power trans- mission and distribution system in Japan,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 659-664, 2006. About the Author Ibrahim A. Metwally (metwally@squ edu.om) earned a BEng. in electri- cal engineering, and both an M-Eng, and a PhD in high-voltage engineer- ing. He is a permanent professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering at Mansoura Univer- sity, Egypt, and currently on leave as a professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi- neering, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, He is a senior member of the IEEE and a fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in Bonn, Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaSection 8.1 Definition of Symmetrical Components 8.1__ DEFINITION OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS Assume that a set of three-phase voltages designated V,, V,, and Vis given. In ac cordance with Fortescue, these phase voltages are resolved into the following three sets of sequence components’ 1. Zero-sequence components, consisting of three phasors with equal mag- nitudes and with zero phase displacement, as shown in Figure 8.1(a) 2. Positive-sequence components, consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, +120° phase displacement, and positive sequence, as in Figure 8.1(b) 3. Negative-sequence components, consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, +120° phase displacement, and negative sequence, as in Figure 8.1(¢) The zero-, positives, and negative-sequence components of phase a, which are Vio, Vay, and Vs, respectively, are presented in this section, For simplicity, drop the subscript a and denote these sequence components as V;, V, and V;, They are de- fined by the following transformation: vy fio i ip yj=li @ ally, 1.1) vio lia @lly 8.1.2) Vo y ASS (a) Zero-sequence (bt Positive-sequence _{c} Negative-sequence components, components somponents Phase @ Phase 6 Phase c Copyright 2017 Coane ening. AIL Rights Ree Ny 493 FIGURE 8.1 Resolving phase voliages into three sets of sequence ‘components he oie sae dpa in wile or inp: Doe cnc ia, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa434 Chapter | Symmetrical Components d@asifar @=1240 a=1/0 ltatag=0 V3 /=30" P= V3/430 #-a=V3/210 ja=t 210° l+a=—a = 1/60" 14a =-a=1/-60° +a =-1=1/180° TABLE 8.1 Common identities invalving a = 1/120° Writing (8.1.1) as three separate equations: Vi= Vat Vit Ve (8.1.3) Vy= Va + aV, + aVy (8.14) Vi=Vy+avi+av (8.15) In (8.1.2), ais a complex number with unit magnitude and a 120° phase angle. When any phasor is multiplied by a, that phasor rotates by 120° (counterclockwise). Similarly, when any phasor is multiplied by a? = (1/120°) (1/120°) = 1/240", the phasor rotates by 240°. Table 8.1 lists some common identities involving a. ‘The complex number a is similar to the well-known complex number j = V=T = 190°, Thus, the only difference between j and ais that the angle of jis 90°, and that of ais 120° Equation (8.1.1) can be rewritten more compactly using matrix notation. De- fine the following vectors Vand V;, and matrix A’ ve Ve=|¥, (8.1.6) vy. Vy v=|¥, 1.7 Vy riot 1 @ a G18) la @ Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qaSection 8.1 Definition of Symmetrical Components where Vp is the column vector of phase voltages, Vs is the column vector of sequence voltages, and 4 is a3 X 3 transformation matrix. Using these definitions, (8.1.1) becomes Vy = AVs 1.9) The inverse of the A matrix is 1 At=-|loa @ (8.1.10) 1 juation (8.1.10) can be verified by showing that the product 44~ is the unit matrix. Also, premultiplying (8.1.9) by A~* gives Ve= AV, 11) Using (8.1.6), (8.1.7), and (8.1.10), then (8.1.11) becomes Mm] yfi i ue yj=sli a @lly, (8.1.12) vy} oli @ ally, Writing (8.1.12) as three separate equations, VW=h Vet Vet Vd (8.1.13) VY=V +a, + av) (8.1.14) V,=4(V,+ @V, + aV) (8.1.15) Equation (8.1.13) shows that there is no zero-sequence voltage in a balanced three- phase system because the sum of three balanced phasors is zero. In an unbalanced three-phase system, line-to-neutral voltages may have a zero-sequence component. However, line-to-line voltages never have a zero-sequence component, since by KVL, their sum is always zero, The symmetrical component transformation also can be applied to currents, as follows. Let I= Aly B16) where Jp is a vector of phase currents, qe I 1.17) 1, k=|h (8.1.18) Conyrigh 2017 Coane Lenin AILRighs Ree May nt iio, ase o dpe in whale orn par. Do ean ih, sone party coe may be supe om the Book steht Ea ei hs deed ht oy upset ol mately Hf te oer amis eens Cengage ang esas th gh ema anal coment any ine facut esr qa436 Chapter | Symmetrical Components Also, 1=A hy (8.1.19) Equations (8.1.16) and (8.1.19) can be written as separate equations as follows. The phase currents are L=h+h+h (8.1.20) I= ht @l* ah (8.1.21) I=h+ah+@l, (8.1.22) and the sequence currents are b= sUt htt) (8.1.23) L=4U,+ ah + @1) (8.1.24) L=hU,+@h, + al) (6.1.25) In a three-phase Y-connected system, the neutral current J, is the sum of the line currents: L=Lth+l, (8.1.26) ‘Comparing (8.1.26) and (8.1.23) 1,=3h (8.1.27) The neutral current equals three times the zero-sequence current. In a balanced ‘Y-connected system, line currents have no zero-sequence component, since the neu- tral current is zero. Also, in any three-phase system with no neutral path, such as a A-connected system or a three-wire Y-connected system with an ungrounded neu- tral, line currents have no zero-sequence component. ‘The following three examples further illustrate symmetrical components. esa Sequence components: balanced line-to-neutral voltages Calculate the sequence components of the following balanced line-to-neutral voltages with abe sequence: Vn) [2771/0 Vp =| Voy | =| 277/=120° Vn) (277/120 ct) taal ees decid speed ot St ati