Energy Management Jaul W. O'Call McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY ‘York - St Louis - San Francisco Auckland Bogota - Caracas - Hamburg - Lisbon - Madrid Milan » Montreal » New Deli London Mexico Paris » San Juan Tokyo * Toronto Panama Sio Paulo - Singapore - SydneyPublished by McGRAW-HILL Book Company Europe Shoppenbangers Road- Maidenhead-Berkshre-SL6 2QL-England Tel: 062823452; Fax 0628 770224 ih Lary Cataloging in Puetion (Calapan Pat. ney Mises! We 2 ISN OOF TES Liar f ings Cataloging in Pico Dats (OCaloghn Paul W, nray supe / Paul W.OCalaghan ISON OO se Ie Energy consration 1 Te ‘unssstms 1992 vrisiso saa 80 ap Cconight © 199 McGraw Inermatonl (UK) Ln. I igh ers No prof he pubicaion may be epodaed store na wee sytem. o wana nay fom of by ay means etn ehane taopring, eg or there, boat he oc pence of McGann! (UR) Lie Pas cL 650 “Typeset Wy Thomson Pe (la) La, New Dts Peedi England by Clays Li, ST le To Menna, Catrin and Iwan WITHORAY \ 3PREFACE 1 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT LL Inoduetion 12 World Fossil Fuel Reserves 13. World Energy Consumption 14 istoricl Lives ofthe Fossil Fuels 15 The Greenhouse Eifect 16 Seeds of Doubt 17 Simple Model for Global Warming 18 Global Energy and Environmental Management 19 Conclusions References Further Reading 2. ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 21 Energy Management 22 Energy Surveying and Auditing 23 Passive Energy Cascading—Sundry Heat Gains and Losses 24 The Aim and the Determination 25 Flow Chart for the Construction of an Energy Audit 26 Preliminary Questionnaire 27 The Proliminary Request 28 Fuels and Materials Supplied 29 Bnengy Indices 210 Correlations 21 The Base Temperature 212 eating Energy Characteristc—the "Energy Signature” 213 Energy Output-—Refetion to the External Environment CONTENTS oo214 Preliminary Energy Avdit 215 Effects of Energy Conservation onthe Energy Characteristic 216 Secondary Questionnaire—The Client Interview 217 The Secondary Request 218 Internal Energy Audit Checklist 219 Energy ThroughputsEnergy Flow Charts—Energy Audit 220. Energy-saving Options 221 Investment Opportunites and Project Plan ‘Appendix 2A. Power Factor Correction Referenoes Further Reading 3. ENERGY IN MANUFACTURE 31 Intsoduction 32. Energy and Environmental Analyses of Products 33 Energy Consumption in Manufacturing 34 Energy Conservation 35. Transportation Systems 35 Water Conservation 37 Roles for the Efcient Conservation of Energy and Materials 33 Laws of Energy and Materials Flows References 4 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: 44 Thermophysical Transport Properties 42. Thermodynamics and Exergy 43 Conductive Heat Transer 44 Fluid Flow 45 Convestve Heat Transfer 46 The U-value 47 Hleat Transfer Across the Walls of Buildings 48° Heat Exchangers 49. Analogous Equilibrium Processes 430 Psychrometry 41 Vapour Migration and Condensation 412 Ragiative Heat Teanser References Further Reading 5_ ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES 51 Fuels and Combustion 52. Boilers 53 Insulated Pipework Systems 54 Building Heat Balance 55. Reject Heat Recovery 56 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 57 Thermal Rectification and Storage us References 256 Further Reading 256, 6 INSTRUMENTATION, MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL 257 61 Instrumentation and Measurement 281 62 Temperature 237 63. Measurement of Heat Flux m 64 Measurement of Radiation mB 65 Measurement of Psychrometric Variables 715 66 Measurement of Fluid Velocities and Flow Rates mn 67 Measurement of Pressure in Fluids 282 68 Data Collection 23 69 Data Analyses and Presentations 28s 610 Controls 292 References 25 Further Reading 235 7 ECONOMICS AND FINANCE 296 14 Introduction 296, 32 Beonomies 27 13 Discounted Cash Flow 298 74 Loans 308 7S Investments 30 7.6 Option Identification and Analyses 316 17 Optimization 319 18 Conict Correction 320 19° Constructing the Optimal Target Investment Schedule mr 140 Project Management, Monitoring Against the Target Financial Schedule 330 Reference 336, Further Reading 336 8 MINIAUDITUSE OF COMPUTATIONAL AIDS 337 81 Energy Management Information Systems 337 82 The Thirty-nine Steps for Energy Management BT 83 Miniaudit 30 £4 Townsville Town Hall Energy Audit 38) 85 Further Software Routines 381 9 THE PAST IS OUR FUTURE 361 9.1” Enerpy and Matrals 367 9.2 Energy and Environmental Conservation 369 93 Best Investments 310 94 Sustained Redvctions in Energy Use mS Further Reading 375 APPENDIX 1— Databank m6 APPENDIX 2Energy Management Checklists 09 INDEX a4PREFACE The demand for energy, the consumption of fossil fuels and the concomitant release of, pollutants continues relentlessly in the industrialized word, the requirement fr hgh rates of Employment demands high rates of consumption of energy and raw materials. AS @ result, prices offuelsanielectriity erain at artificially Tow levels encouraging even greater demans. ‘This book is intended as a technical guide to assist in the joint objectives of saving energy and money whilst reducing environmental pollution. It is aimed at all consumers, but particularly those who arein a position to control the use and misuse of energy an materials ‘World fossil fuel reserves ates of consumption and projected ‘ives’ are fist examined. “The global ‘greenhouse effect and the posible eects on work climates are discussed ‘Asystematic and novel procedure for energy surveying, auditing and conservation is then developed and demonstrated. The fundamental concepts involved: thermodynamics iid ow, heat wansfer, psychrometty; sir conditioning; mass transfer, radiation and solar iradiation, ate described comprehensively. The technologies of energy utilization: fuels and combustion, boilers, insulated pipework systems, building. heat Balance, comfort, climate, thermal insulation, waste heat recovery thermal storage, heat pumps and refrigerators ae covered indepth Laws, rules and checklists for use when examining energy and materials flow systems are provided throughout Tnsizumentaion, measurement, data analyses and computer-aided control systems are covered. “Techniques for economic evaluations the construction of optimal investment schedules and efetive monitoring and targeting procedures are presented, The uses of computational Aids and sofware are also demonstrated, relevant equations and data ae incorporated as well as two folly documented energy management case stodies. Finally, curren problems are reviewed and a sensible policy for the future is outlined oe ‘CHAPTER ONE ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, world fossil uel reserves, historical and cutent rates of consumption are reviewed and estimates of indigenous lives in geograpical regions are made, The arguments for and against global warming are seviewed. The rates of production and accumulations of ‘carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere are caleulatd and correlations made with reported global ‘mean temperatures and concomitant sealvel rises, The effects of other greeaowse gases are Considered, I is concluded tht, if preset rates of global fos fuel consumptions continue tmnabated, the worlds fossil fuel stone will be depleted by the year 2050. If global warming is ‘evuring this would be accompanied by a substantial rise in globl mean temperature. The fics of various protocols forthe reductions of emissions are examined It is concluded that the cael course of action should cease the production and release into the atmosphere of the more damaging industrial and domestic greenhouse eases as Soon ais practically posible land seck a sustained reduction inthe rates of combustion of fos fuels world-wide via cneray ‘management and conservation. This will sult in beter environmental proteetion and will ‘xtend the available time needed forthe development of future renewable energy economy. 1.2 WORLD FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES Acconding tothe BP Statistical Review of World Energy," proven world reserves of fosil fuels stood at an equivalent of 29.9 x 10! MJ in 1987 (Tables 1) and 1.2) ‘it ost be emphasized that the BP statics are based upon proven and extractable reserves of fost fuels, and do nt include neler and renewable resources. Highest estimated ‘undiscovered reserves and those not considered to be economically extractable are ovet four times this amount?2 mnmmoy waxaceast ‘Table 11 Proven world reserves of fossil fuck in 1987 PERCY AND THE OMRON 3 apn of on coat ox county 0honns ——_10ones 10m owt Anan ‘00 oa mn tat Anes 16100 086 a Weve Ese 250 9538 a Mise Est 76500 ne) ‘io 740 (soa? 70 ‘Ait wd Avis —— 2500 ate 3 Chie la roa 0 ust 00 aust Orne oma 8) oo Toa rio towns ns Usitl Kingdon 0 as 90 a . \ . \ i igi 1 Wor oi fk depo. Wh aS “ ‘ AR Bt i \ ii sth on Sik ‘Table 12 Energy locked up in fossil fuel reserves (10M) (ia this and subsequent tables small discrepancies in total are dae to rounding eros) Reson or counts on cot Tew ‘Noh mein 0a rman ts Ln Ame (roar Woseen Europe 822TH 0288S Mie Ene 3m as aie. as tae 0820) AstedAwedin Ge 2102 T China 409 485 ms St uss O33 TT LSS tere 00 23st Tole som 55) an Unie Rigs 0a asm one o'=s540000) cols 280080 " rea sn eames In 1987 alone, 3.12 10'* MB {06 percent or that which accumulated over 600.000 yeas) ‘ofthe fosil fuel store was coasumed (Tables 13 and 1.4) Figure 12 shows the Breakdown ‘of this consumption by region. It is noted that North America consumed 26 per cent of, the world annual consumption during that year. Energy sources other than fossil fuels cont buted 12 percent during that year. Tables 1 Sand 16show the exergy consumes berween 1977 sand 1987: 32 10! MJ (62 percent of the store) was depleted duting that decade “has by 187, he roe sl fd ress hd on pd by LAS x 8 pen Table 13.1987 Tosi ful consumption (10° te)" 13 WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION Figure 11 shows depletion of the world fossil fuel reserves due to cumulative consumption since 1850. By 1977, 111 « 10° MJ (213 per cent) of the Foss fuels estimated in total 10 have been $2 10"*MJ at the outset (ie. prior to industalization, had besn consumed. ‘Ths fossil fuel was lad down peincipally via the anaerobic decomposition of vegetable matter ‘mainly during the Carboniferous period occurting 345 milion years ago and lasting some 100 milion years ion or coy ol Cal Gk Toth me) me BT ae bs? 90 20e7 0 te 38s Ma) aT fae vial een mM) ms suet am eS #20 ows sats ms S87 ror 23865 tts ae Ute Kingdon = 782 3D RS "oom fierTable 14 1987 energy release from fossil fel (10"" MJ) ain ust oo ca NechAnie aD Tan Anircs ma 103, Weve Europe 485 ILTS le East n'a ‘ic 33 ‘case rr aa a Cine a BR Sagan ge “30 use 2 9 tes sa ISIE Toa yas 1083 nied Kingiom 3408 oe rane 30000) sero aneicn [Flt Avs Tn coe EM Eat Bw Fe ant arnt oun 0 SG an ose [owes gw 121957 ol consumption rel dons by ser. wo i 2% my 9 “The rate of increase in the world use of fos fuel has averaged 246 per cent per year since 1850. Figure 13 shows, however, that the annual rate of grow for 1968 to 1973 {58 por cent) nas cu 10414 per cnt asa resul ofthe first eneray crisis in 1973, stemming from the Arab-Israci war, and again 0 279 per cent fom 1983 onwards, resting from the Tran-Iaq war, showing that worl oil supply problems have an appreciable eect upon growth ates of fos fae consumption pansy Axo nae NVR “Table LS World energy consumption between 1977 and 1987 (10te) ‘Toa! Nicer foal = and Gd var OF Gaal Gasset yo essa Sad mse pm soeas ld 12125 61887267 wp 3S MD 2H SL ERD ber 30 toms 13072 walas sg ISD at 291A 6234 TRE fanaa owes Sa 62003 aT be dene 20MA ST om SGT ie 322m 152 GAT TEL ws) mys 7283 ie 3H993 3S La? MS 73882 we 2007 TS SSB 68D 200 ‘oat amd ISN HTS TK “Table 146 World energy consumption between 1977 and 1987 ao") ‘oat Nucar fost and Grand Yer Gf Cate fe Hpro th im one anos) amos as ‘bly tae 005s OTs OMS i Gs? Do bose aeons ats tok 0137 plone ase cma to a2 oman 0am BR aka} oom ama OD re ee en we OOo s DSO Wes DIS Duty ey Om] OR ie Gils xe apn oss aie aos oan 008 ass Tos ass oes URS ‘Tables 1.7 t9 114 show the estimated indigenous lives ofthe fossil fuels by region and type, assuming a constant rate of consumption atthe 1987 level (Tables .7 and 1.8) 2 the 1987 increasing annval rate of consumption (2.79 per cent} (Tables 1.9 and 1.10) and for an increased ennual rate of eonsumption of § percent (Tables 1.11 and 1.12). For these theee ‘utes, the fossil fuels wil be exhausted by the years 2112, 2041 and 2027, respectively Taking the United Kingdom alon, as a local example if no imports or exports of fossil fuels occurred, this country would be self'sufficient unl only 2024 fat 0 per cent rate of ese of consumption above the 1987 levels), 2013 with 279 percent growth) and 2008 (vith 5 per cent growth).6 ewinoy wassconet ey AND THE BOMROWDENE T | a) ‘Table 18 Depletion year at constant 1987 rate of consumption gon coun Ce E North Ames Ee eed Latin Ames am é Waser Borne i mmm 4 cle Est wet sd t ice none 29221585 4 ‘ita Row SBE 270209) 21T : Chine woo Bie = Depa wero z uss mu DS 5 Ofte en Toul wm 9 ows 211? zg United Kingdom 9863s 2008 Fewe 13 World si commotion 68-1987 trends of nceaing ws ‘Table 19 Indigenous lives (gears) for a consumption rate ‘Table 17 Indigenous lives (years) at the 1987 consump increasing annually by .79 percent (1987 rate of increase) ego or agin or com Ce cmt oct eT Nock amen os asa Nom Amen wor {ain Aner nae 30m Ltn Ameria o% 9 Bs Western Eons 495 28ST Wester Euope Be pas 0 Mae at oi 0st nas Mie East O87 8 Noa m6) OWT RA tice vous 68s tL ‘Assad Assraia L2G 102 SD ‘ad Attn a2 28ST iss 2m wast ar 8 Coin oe MM am Sapa o ° ° “ danse oO ° Us Him ms ssn use vise Otis 16 MR ger 95 tse: gH GBR Tosa amma Tox M86 Soe ‘Une Kingdo om HS WM ST Usted King 455090680 Tables 1.13 and 1.1$ illustrate the elects of energy conservation —if the consumption sate decreases by only I percent each year, the Ie ofthe fossil fac store san be extended infinitely, giving mankind time to develop 2 sustainable renewable nerzy economy. i ‘The United Kingdom would, however, run out of indigenous reserves in 2031 its fossil fucl consomption were reduced by only 1 per cent each yeur. This count would have to reduce fosi fuel consumption by 3 percent each year to achieve an infinite indigenous lil‘Table 1.10 Depletion yea fora consumption rate ncreas- ing atthe 1987 level Regonor soon ol Coes Tout ‘Noth Ameri. v2 wwe Latin Arers mm stm om Sree Faroe i aM mom at Mie Eat es ser oms 29 ‘tes me ‘Mia Averice 87 KG 26H Chi mm sm Saga er USSR xo ws ms Othe wa SD ‘Toute me msm UniedKinglsm® 8S DEO ‘Table 1.11 Indigenous lives (years) for a consumption rate increasing annually by 5 per cent, cont ol Cok Gat Tom orth Ames se Se iti Aer ass) Wenera Europe 43 OS ede ast ne 9 aT rae Ma ome BGR ASvind Accra 325 S690 HT RH Sine Bee ss Japon oo 8 USSR os ass aT tes Ist aT at 8S Tox nn sm mas si Kingdom 7S aH 2187 sesh RE i £ ENERGY AND THE HRURONGENT 9 ‘Table 1.12 Depletion year fora consumption rate increas- ing annually by 5 percent egonor oui on Cal Gus Totl ors Ameria oe ee Latin Ameen mit mS 2M Wester io xe OS 6 Moat moos ‘a im oa ssw Nani Aunina 16 DB Chi ne mss dagen bebe ST Use fo ome mao one i ima Tosh 9 ST Valied Kingdom 1986 QL RS 2 “Table 1.13 Indigenous Hives. (years) for a consumption rate “ecreasing annually by 1 per cet Reson or out on col aT ‘se Amen or minke sae Tain Aner we inte 1S DD ese atone rere ee) Mie Ea iaieie Diente Ae Tt) ite infinte nf ‘Ninand Austin 1195 innte 0635 nie ian Sa inine 1052 Japan ° ° ° ° Use 910 iine 9510 nite Obes 1s ie 859 1STON Toms on lie 7848 ini Unit Kingtom oo eas19 exmney aasacinest {nGROY AND THE ENVIROMENT HD ‘Table 1.14 Depletion year for a consumption rate decreasing ‘Fable 1.16 Historical lives of oil anally by 1 per cent, Lika cuene aio Rees CCossumpion, —somumption, omy or co Gas Tot vortarle 10M hone 1M rn North Ameria a ey oo jon ae 1 2615 aun Anece 20s afne 210021) oS sow sat BB 5 ‘Westen Esrope i imse ISTE 0. oi is nis Mile Est ‘eine 1957 ininie ite wo 80. 2300 128 Ba Ain 2st inte iene Bo 60 am 78 im ma ‘inst Resch 198 inne 08 nite wu me sao ae tm aa Chin ponte 67 ne ms Pere 87 an Saga wn ra eT ese ae rs nD usse 2006 moe br 500 ste 1s aD ones ss inte 3a ot 510 son 88 13 wos ‘rt ee 9000 ee ee as pe Unio Kingdom eet Z | ‘Table 1.17 Historical lives of gas ie ere 14 HISTORICAL LIVES OF THE FOSSIL FUELS Rese Conuaption —_cenmton TORU) hee PD sn |Whls the preceding analyses have been based upon the 1987 reserves ang levels of consump- ar) 205 Pers) as tothe etn vs of he fo fa a tnaneus aoa ln foun mo mn a change historically as new reserves are discovered and rates of consumption vary. wt ue sah ie “Tables 115 0 1.18 have been derived for coal cand gus ever the prod 1979-1989 ee ace ea ip Figure 1.4 shows that the “current life’ of coal decreased from 350 to years over 7 S 3 ie a un or 14 sows that het of dered fom 35010290 years overhear mS BS ou a an es cof anual consumption need Fig shows tt teen He ee a So ceased om 2 to year or the Iyer pew oe reves weezer = fr a a Fa Figuce 1.6 shows that the ‘current life’ of gus increased fom 48 to $6 yeurs over the 10-year ad 10s 1s 791 om period as more reserves were discovered, although this trend starts to level out ove" the perioc ee we oo an ae a hs enduro kctou ov ihe ped a a 5 Table 115 Historical ies of coal "Table 1.18 Historical lives ofall fossil fas : : View ere Ta ne soni, Soman ee tome 10H hue Sn wate ra eas wa mer ion mo jas ue tm ons m8 tm Sas x tm hs twee ws aoe i bane ‘on wee = boom ‘ssn cy as me toon san on te ge ae toes in ise meen toot Br a br js uses “0 a et) tts an mo ies am1 eanay wanncreest Bap vo] a a a a ver Faw M4 Mis rr fea a seen ensampon te 6 5s 2s = a a a a a Fp LS Misorclh o acarent corsa ies “The net result onthe historical ves ofthe fosi fuels is seem in Figure 17, where, after pesking at 137 years in 1982, the total He ofthe fossil felsdesnes to 126 years between 1986 and 1989, 15 THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Radiation [A body emits radiation when part ofits internal energy is converted into electromagnetic, waves, These waves travel in fee space atthe speed of ight = 2997925 x 10%ms~') and ‘ransmitenerpy without the need for an intervening transport medium. When they encounter i i ancy AND THE OONOMENT 13 a ss a a iH Yor Fie L6 Hise te af eter ps at ‘cen consempion es, Py do ns rm aE Yer we 1? Mira tne fl st uel cue comnpin 1, another body, part of the electromagnetic enery is absorbed and converted into interna nergy in that bods, casing is temperature. Electromagnetic waves are divided into classes Sevording to ther wavelength, i(m), and frequencies «(cycles or Hertz) The wavelength the radiation i defined as the ratio of the propazation velocity tothe frequency via the relationship ont ay At bodies emit sadiaton, to which we are exposed to at all times. Humans can sense radiation ia the band 0.1 to 100, within which wavelengths in the range 0:38 to 0.76,m, are detete as visible light1M peor ewes “The wavelength at which maaimum emission occurs shifts with decreasing temperatures to longer wavelengths. Absorption, reflection and transmission ‘When radiation encounters a surface, some ofits relected some absorbed and some tans sited, acording to atpts 0a ‘ihe the sre abort 8 the facto nin ration whi is aborhed By the body, ng i patches phe sarc eet the actin onder radiation ich tes om he ody an th sre ans te facon OF inet ration ich ses though the bad. "Te ratne magnitude of ep and depend jon the aerials tke an alo the want ofthe rainton “Mont oi eri boc adiation in ey thin es han 1m ee re ye ‘The exception ar the eluent materials eg or which sme nmin oe ‘ecru avn Mary gid and al qtes ate ranspurent rman lato bands ‘Many common aes rch nye; iogen hyrogn and yar ae pra ta pate o thera ion overall avenge. Carbon oi war apr, shar Gio atom monotie,smmoni,hydrcaton a8 sesh apors emt ad toad ‘adit ely been sao bands 2e Tale 9) “The grerbous gsc earbondotide, CO; tos oie, NO, he CFC rts CH, tropospeenone, Oy and water rapt H,O, al impede the ansision fog wavength rain om ther Santor cone ins the wansnision of hor-mardegh av aiton coming from the sun Solar radiation The suns ison reactor in which hydrogen is being converted to heim, easing nuclear energy Internal sun temperatures ar ofthe order of 10"°C, wthanefecivesurtaetempeature, ‘when viewed fom se cart, = @XX0°C. Thesolareneray fa the sus sce (383 10° km Giameteris 70MWm-?. Most of this nse i radiate inthe uleavilt nd ofthe specu, Table 119 Emission and absorptance Dands for common gases and vapours Seta Wonca ed ee Carbon done 236-302 Per) E xenoy aN Ta ENVRONENT 1S ‘The earth (11 700km mean diameter) intercepts solar energy atthe rate of 1.362kWm-* at the boundary of the upper atmosphere (107* MW in cota, The curent rate of fossil fuel consumption corresponds to about Q00! per cent ofthe rate of solar energy received by the earth? ‘The solar radiation incident tthe perimeter of the earth's atmosphere contains 5 percent sltraviolet, 53 per cent visible and 43 per cent infrared radiation. When the sun js directly ‘overhead in cloudless sky, 1 025EWm_? of specular radiation can reach the earth’ surface ‘The remaining 0.337kWnm* is teflected by gas molecules which filter out the shorter wave lenaths and selectively transmit ight in the blue end ofthe visible spectrum. The modified radiation contains I percent ultraviolet, 39 per oent visible and 60 per cent infrared radiation. Solar radiation which has been scattered, or absorbed and reradited, by a combination of, ‘eas molecules, water vapour and dust particles, becomes white and difuse. Layers of clouds Feflect direct and dise ‘ky’ radiation away from the earth but alo insulate against direct ‘ediation loses ftom the earth's surface. Surfaces at terrestrial temperatures radiate energy nthe infta-edend of the spestram. At nigh, inthe absence of 22390 ay ius 8% > ses st ten ete > askece Senter 1280984 im yu Onor 16898083 3 mas Nowe 16056441853 worm BBO Deenter = 2G MT isa 3595) faowry 279K 35ST Feomry 16165 mst Tons 174984 ISD LBRO ee) [NERGY YAAGIEN AND CONSERYATION 37 Fie 21 Fe dlr March 3t-Febrary 92)—htogram. @ resi. cape Fern abe oy ov Bou 0 ire 2 Eng dlr (March 9}-Ftrny 92} har. ‘Table 26 Fuel and electricity costs, £ cal NA or O3%siee —onASTRWheT Gis term TEA? Diymte — Becinity 0060 LWH"? Nighre —Bescty 037K!8 nancy wassonenr During the accounting period, 1744954kWh of dayrate electricity cost £1191804, 489159 kWh ofnightrat electricity cot £18 392.8, resulting in an average cost for electricity of £00616 perkWh, In the same period, 1493590kWh of cil cost £49740 and 4188611 kWh of gas cost £56965, giving an average cos for heating fuel of £00188 perk Wh. Table 27 and Figures 23 and 24 show the costs of energy delivered. These are dominated by the costs for electricity (57 percent) even though they donot include charges for maxizour demand or clctrical supply capacity. ‘Table 27 Costs (f) of energy delivered (March 91-February 2) ety Beescty Monts Dayne Nghe ue oF Toute Mans 1067 as ss Api 3100 ra ant ims 2h May osm teat am 16451 dine 306 re a2 09% say sa 199 138 ron be Hai has Seponber 18 ras 16 sms p38 Onoter nae, es 392 8 November Hae 15s 103 ou 26095 Decenber sors 139 as OB as Jenety 105s tar £6 to 2M Febraty i i 6 aaa sano Toul 91a 1839 496s 6 mer a suo) _ Co Nl —— Ses ro Ran See Ls! 5 : Se daly ee sen éidad Month ae 23 Coss a en) dered (Mosh 91-F ny Higa. ca nicki oh iar 24 Cot fener eer Mase I-Febeary 92) hr “Table 28 Electricity maximom demand (kVA) (Macch 91-February 92) supply capacity 1300 kVA Monh Sup Step? Surly apy ap = een om} te oe 8 to a er nr a or a er Se 0] be come oe toe on Soie 3m Be Dene tmn Be or a a) lectrcal muximum demand is paid for in two steps as shown in Tables 28 and 29, Figure 25 shows that the highest maximum demand over the accounting period was ‘62OKVA-—much les than the supply capacity of IODkVA. This situation had come about because the company’s business had contracted and personnel, equipment and activities had ‘een relocated from various, now unused, outbuildings to a single central building, Whist this space rationalization resulted in lower space heating demands, the management had neglected to renegotiate the electrical supply capacity. Reduction of the supply capacity 10 [OULVA would save £3000 each year. Recommendation 1 Renegoiate electrical supply capacity‘Table 29 Maximum demand charges (8) (March 91~Febranry 92) ‘Se Sep Sup epi, Month Eva een eva «Teale Marka) sss Apl 9 os as ins My 95S 611% jue 08 Mam 155s 6) 856 My 06) DOM 18H OS so 568 Asma 06 =D 026 104s os Sepemter 06 = DOs 56 Onesr 08 © Bak TSS se Nowater 3431913 35s 50 295 Deemer 112 $0) SDS 7m Samary 112 SMD ASS ss 7935 Fetrony 2500-4 mis as e768 Tous 00 052 ano 357352 osm dnd KYA 8 ZL ZA ZA A ZA ZB, ZA, ZA = ge 2S Eesity masa demand (Marc 91-ebeaey 924 Figure 25 also reveals a seasonal variation in maximum demand (kVA, resulting from the use of electricity for heating purposes. This shouldbe investigated a the maximum demand ‘premium is very high inthe winter months (Fig. 26), Asan example ofthe misuse f eect, Suppose a PAW illegal’ electrie ire s turned on for the month of Janvary. This wil consume 2232 kWh, costing £137 and will esult ina forther £255 for kVA charges, making total of 15. st wees sing este cost would be only Eig £13250 in he month of January alone. Recommendation 2 Investigate the se of electricity for heating purposes seers ita ii ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 41 3 J) oy a lise: sept 8 NNN S Masines cn coon € sy ES os ag Fae 26 Bec moximam demand cages (March 91-Febrary 92. ser , se " i 2s g™ | Nese {Qomsenve 2o000 som soa Z Za a} ANS ig Pighdipepaad igure 27 Tot sets et March 9. February 9}—Histo ‘This should result in evening out the monthly maximum demands over the year, and could save 40KVA of maximum demand charges as well as kWh costs. Tis will be further investigated later. ‘When the maximum demand and supply capacity charges are included inthe cots for clestrcty (Figs 27 to 210), the total costs for electricity, although only 28 per cent of the {olal energy used, becomes 62 percent of the tol annual bill £280009 (Fig. 2.1) “Tables 210 and 211 give the annual breakdowns of energy (kWh) end coss (6).42 nancy anaceeNT 8 ee SS ad ——— Tw 7 i i a Mach Fela 92} pie chat Omran pie comes bass ove FY 7 |C sor eamciy Bh v0 2692 spsept Dy bese nip Ry Bey darn 7S ZLIS TSS AS Fue 2.40 Frecg 0d mxinom demandes Marh 1-Fevery 2) hom. ENERGY HANAGEREET AND CONSERVATION Emery, ane Fy nc, she m0 ap 1 Bho sep 2 [N soe ascty Moise Fizne 214 Breda ogy an asia demand cons Morch 91-Febeaey 92) ‘Fable 210 Anna breakdown of energy consumption, kWh (March 91-February 92) oo 1493590 Taal baning S708 Gu suseott Daye sory 1744954 Toaleewisiy, 22013 DNighae deeicty 80197 Toul 6 Netiepower mio 254 Table 211 Icakdown of energy and MD casts, £ (March 91-February 92) oi oT as 6965 Tot esting 670. Daye estisy ois Toseecssty 18307 Negateessty 1892 MD sept 200 MD aep2 908 Sippy Capacity 500 te 2000s44 pany MANACBMENT 29 ENERGY INDICES “The energy igues may be normalized using the working loor area the enclosed volume of the site and the number of personnel. The concept of the mean kW, which equals annual ‘nergy use divided by the number of working hours per annum can be employed to compare ‘Table 242 Annual energy consumption per unit area, kWh? on 166 Toudbewing 7102 ou 36 Date ctioty 281 Totaedesitiy 2983 Niphrsteclotssty 61 Tosa os ‘Table 213 Anneal energy consumption per unit volume, kwh? or 313 Toul ting 120 Gus vo Daye esticty 6 Toeuiity 559 Wihiatedeccty 122 Toul wr M6 Toulhetng 576 nom Dayne sesrisiy 1625 Toul ebcciy 18906 Nighiaeeeevicty 328 ‘Table 215 Energy consumption per unit area, KW mean 1 ont Tetttetng 0081 ox om Dayatedocty 0S Tuueerty 082 Nighrate ekeiciy 007 Tot ae, iia acca [NERY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 45 ‘Fable 2.16 Energy consumption per unit volume, KW on ‘oot Toa hetng 0061 as oon. Dayateceity 00S © Taaleuiciy 06 [ighinteeetcty 0001 Tel zs ‘Table 2.17 Energy consumption per capita, KW mean on 1H Toot bag os a Deyatedocisty 133 Totaletiy 10 Wiehe eateciy 037 Tata on ‘Table 218 Annual energy costs per anit area, £m oa ai ou m2 Dayne dectisiy 90 Tetley 1720 [ight eet 20 Tosteaimy 3) MD sep 8 MD sep? ost Supply copaciy “098 Tel 30 ‘Table 219 Annual energy costs per unit volome, £m"? on ou Nighi estty Toutbeing 26 ‘Tol desikiy 34 MD op # MD sep? on Supply capacty 020 Tosa om46 ryenay wasacanent ‘Table 220 Annual energy costs per capita, £ on SHLZ2 Toul ening 1093 ue sma Dayateeaiciy 19410 Toalceristy 115465 ight eity 12222 MD sept ras MD sep? m0 ‘Seppy apy 5200 ‘Tost 1es6 {energy consumptions with those for other sites. The figures fortis site ae: loo: area, 8000 enclosed volume, 40000m?: number of personne, 150; and number of worsing hours per year, 8760, abs 2.126220 ge he esting ery nds ints of FW and cos ig the fuel and electricity costs of Table 2.6, sea ‘Comparisons with other sites ‘The indices given in Table 22 have been obtained fora varity of auited sites t can be seen thatthe present site ranks second bes in energy use pe unt area, probably as a result ble 221 Comparisons with other sites (all energy) ev ona EW ee per cgi 1 oot 105 2 on one oro 128 © om ns as 5 os + os ones 2 yan oe 2 fon oar an 5 ot ox an ans ass cw nae ant: a B oo Bow one ee ame) 0036 oa sar anes rays a on w a am oan ts mag ose 3 (Pre i bd pe | {NEROY WOKOHENT AND CONSERVATION 47 ‘of the space rationalization exercise, fith best in energy use per unit volume, and evelth in energy use per capita, Tis latter index may reflec the rational use ofthe workforce. On the whole the ste could be classified a a relatively frugal energy user 2.10 CORRELATIONS Degree-days: ‘Degree-days are a measure ofthe variation of ouside ar temperature which enables building designers and users to determine how the energy consumption of a building i related to the ‘weather? Heating depree day tables commonly published are based upon a base outside air temperature of 155°C. It is assumed that when the outside sir temperature is 155°C then no heating will be required, as sundry internal heat gains due to peopl, lights, power and roossses would ris the inside air temperatures othe required comfort level. The calculation of degree-days is based upon maximum and minimum diurnal temperatures and explained in reference 3, The degreeslays used here are named heating degree-days in this Book and defined asthe mean number of degrees by which the outside temperature ona given day is Jess than the base, or control, temperature fr the degres-day, added up forall the days in the period, usually one month, For that part ofthe winter when the outside temperature i consistently below the control temperature, the numberof heating degree-lays over a period is given by the diference between the average temperature and the contol temperature rmltilied by the number of days in the period. ‘Then, reversing this procedure, trl temperature~(degree-days per month/daysper month) tro temperature —mean degree days per day ‘= control temperature —mean heating degrees per day ‘Thus, if January (31 days) has 350 degree days toa base of 155°C, ‘mean monthly temperature = 155 — 350/31 1535-1129 =are However, in the autumn and early spring, itis common for night temperatures to drop ‘below the control temperature, whist the daytime temperatures remain above it. On such a day, eating will not be required for part of the day. Ths is allowed for in ealeulatng the 036 0 hy > oe 4 To on Table 224 letrictywsed for heating Month Babel caiciy eating ay December 164000 rm November 16100 sar Jansary 164090 2c Api 1st090 on} Fetnary 154000 am Mara” 15000 sisi Orteber 154000 os May 6000 3aoee June 164000 ssa Seplenber 164000 ‘ apt 16H 4 say reno) 4 Tost mm ‘The annual average cost per kWh is £0062, ths the available savings from cutting clectrical heating is £16858, The total annual savings from recommendation 4 then becomes £19641, 2.11 THE BASE TEMPERATURE, ‘Because the sundry gain is notin te same ratio tothe heating energy forall sites the base temperature approach as been developed as an imp-oved analytical techaigue. In this, the \degree-day concept i abandoned and the energy uilization correlated with mean monthly ENERGY WANACEVENT AND CONSERVATION SS ‘Table 2.25 Degree-days to mean monthly temperatures eas oxy Momity Daye Dagar tempers" Mou —degeedays perempery SDD) ig oe = @ Finay 2D cy Pr Mee i a is te My S me me as he ue een ke rr re iat Senter 63 2 kT cae te Noemie 35 Pr 3° Deemer BS 1081 ie outside air temperatures. Table 225 converts the degree-days per month to mean monthly emperatures, using the procedure outlined eater Figure 216 shows te relationship between maximum demand and mean monthly ouside air temperature, T,, A repression analysis indicated thatthe data can be described by kVA = 6713-97, es and this “best straight line is plotted in Fig. 217, along with the monthly dats points ‘The striking feature reveled isthe random scatter of the data about the mean Tine, up to ISOKVA, indicating & lack of maximum demand control With an ousie air temperature Fa o "en & oo <—— i pe No smi NN om pe so RNG eu! 0 NUS SS EE SS RES HFS Aigwense sninon demand roms Meant caper" teehee156 mance MANAGEMENT 0 + Figwe217 Mino demo ver mee oh cuir emperees—bst a BN : s. Zul ee * ~~ u ae ~“ ‘ius 218 Eel bWh erie mon moh onder temperate et ‘of T° recorded maximum demands vary rom SSO to 690KVA. Clearly, the wes and abuses of electriity fanmal cost £173307) should be investigated in detail Recommendation S Yavestigate elorcityvilztion Again, considerable random scattrin the datas indicated i Fig. 2.18, where the monthly electri consumptions (kWh) are ploted against outside alr temperatures, Whilst the best ENERGY MANAGIDENT AND CONSULVATION ST straight lie, given by kWh =208 124 — 2280 « T, es) ‘eld the electricity energy wed for heating purposes (i. fanction of outside ai temperature), ‘the scatter inthe data encompasses SO 00kW per month, corresponding to £36800 per year. 1 the electricity used for heating purposes were replaced by gas, the scatter inthe baseload for eetricty may be reduced. It should nevertheless be also eliminated by monitoring and controling usage. The boundary lines in Fig.218 show the range of possible savings, '30000kWh, or £2200 per year. 2.12 HEATING ENERGY CHARACTERISTIC— ‘THE ENERGY SIGNATURE’ In order to correlate energy for space eating with ouside air temperature, the electricity ‘sed for space heating must be added to the kWhs for oil and gas. This results in the date ven in Table 226. “This data may be represented by kWh= 1081244 — $5377 T, (25a) ‘Again, considerable scatter inthe data is exhibited. In Novernber and January, for example, the mean outside air temperature vas approximately the same, although the heating enersy livered ip Janvary was 150 per cent of that in November. The scatter corresponds to ‘400000KWh of heating energy, of which 100000%Wh (E1880) might be saved by improved heating controls ‘Table 226 Heating energy dependence 08 outside air temperatures Mas nent Hesing omy, owe Month Wa temperate °C Dewmter «215323 3 Novanber «252716 se Sanuary | S006288 on dit 0680S wat Febrenty 6210627 160 Bara, S50 is Osober 3852187 uae May 6TH 98 fae M2 st Seplember 493618 hat igut teu rat ay 8 Ma Toul 83861 ‘anal ca ota a tenga 98°CS58 meenoy wannaouest te ‘eth eating oon (a Somat Sete Fue 219 The ery sigan ey vss mean ov sr temperate, Figure 219 shows that, when the outside air temperature i 19°C (the base temperatere, {Tor above, no heating is required. Thus the ratio of sundry gains to tal heating energy for the site is considerably smaller than that implied using degre-days to 1 base of 155°C. ‘The mean inside ar temperature is 21°C, and so the internal sundry gains, A, are sulicient to raise interna temperatures by 2°C, B, These sundty gains, emanating from eletricel ‘equipment, people and process losses tothe internal environment, oft fie transmission losses and heat loses accompanying ventilating air agcording tothe sur» gain equation suny gains (kWh annum) o transmission heat losses + ventilation losses =(UA-$ me) <(T,— Ty) x hoursjanmun/1000 26) where U = overall ransmission heat loss coficen forthe building fabric, described in detail later, Wm ?K~* exposed area of the building. m? rate of ventilating air throughput, kgs“! specific heat ofthe ventilating ar, Tkg™"K"™ ‘mean inside ar temperature, °C ase temperature, eae nis the number of ai changes per hour, then ‘m= p¥n3600 en [NROY MANAGEIENT AND CONSERVATION 88 where p =densty ofthe ai, kgm"? = enclosed volume ofthe building, m’. ‘The density and speciic heat of air at room temperature are 12kgm~* and 000kg"*K~? respectively. Substituting these values, 2nj3600 23) and c= 1200 V/3600 = nV 3 29) “The sundry gan equation thus becomes sundry gains (kWh per year) =(UA + n¥/3)>(T;— Ta) (hours per yeary1000 (2.10) ‘The areas and the volume of the building are knovn. The U-value must be obtained fiom a detailed ste survey (later, The mean inside temperature is spciied and the base temperature, Ty, forthe building is obtained from Fig, 219, Le. when no heating energy is required, The heating energy equation is expressed similarly as 1A + nV 3) (Ty Te) touts per yeary000 ~ (2.11) where 7, PO) is the mean annual outside air temperature rom the sundry gain equation andthe heating energy equation: heating energy (kWh per year sundry guns Wh per yea) -%) _ eating meray kWh per year) - OT) (UA. A /3) x (hours pr year/1000 = sundry gins kWh perseas) _ (T= To) eating energy (kWh per year) (Ty— Tal 7, = 984°C, and 50 12) For the presets, T)=21°C, Ty = 19°C and “sundeygains Wh pergea) _ (Ti) ieatngenergy @Whperyen) —T) 2-1 98 =022 “The annual heating energy is 5955961 kWh, In order to satisfy the heating energy cwation, this most be modified for boilerhouse and distribution losses. Assuming, for the moment, 2 bolerjdsteibution efficiency of 75 percent: 955961 75 160 let) + 5682201 (il + gs) heating energy supplied4 sxonor wanscinest beating energy deivered to the building 273 760-4075 « 5682201 = 4535411 Wh and the total electricity supplied for purposes other than heating is (164000 x 12}= 1 968000kWh, From the above equation, the sundry gains are (022 x 4535411 45 percent ofthe electricity supplied. ‘The exposed area, A, ofthe building is 9820m?, the enclosed volume, V, 40000m° and ‘the heating hours per year 8760. Thus, from the sundry gin equation: sundry gains (kWh per yeas) = (UA + n¥/3)x(T,—Ty) x (hours per yea/1000 (2.10) 997790kWh, or 997 799 = (9820U + 13 333m) <2 8760/1000 997790 = (9820U + 13333n) x 1752. ‘Transposing, 98200 + 13333n= 56952 fom whieh n= 4.270740 Alternatively, using the heating energy equation: heating energy (kWh per yeat)= (UA + n¥/3)x(Ty~ 7.) hous per yeary1000 (211) 453541 453541 5632 (98200 + 133330) x (19 —984) « 8760/1000 (S200 + 13333n x 8028 98200 + 13333 27-074U vies the same result ‘The equation relating the numberof air changes per hour to the U-value ie extremely ‘important Whilst, the overall U-value may be estimated from a detailed site survey, the mean ‘numberof sir changes over the annual period i most dificult to obtain feom measurements “Methods availble willbe discussed on page 232 the overall U-value can be estimated accurately, then the mean numberof si changes per hour ean be calculated from the above equation. For the present, i is possible ro examine the possible range of combinations of values for U and n 27-0KU 3) (Overall U-raes (ee later for bulings vary rom SW mK (ery highly insulated) to6Wm "Ki foraplasshouse) Thenumberofhouryarchangesconvary/rom 0100. Substivting the range of U-vales, Table 227 lists the range of ikely combinations of U and t canbe sen that the overall Uva can be inthe range 2010 35Wnn"? K"! andthe mean annual numberof air changes per hour between 10 an 30 Alternatively boierhouse records mght be used oobi the eating eer delved ‘Table 227 Combinations of U and vos . an os 390 333 vst 15318 2» om le mo 20s ass oo 45 OM une so ast ss 4m 213 ENERGY OUTPUT—REJECTION TO ‘THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT “The heating energy delivered is lot to the external environment via fabric transmission through the walls roof and base, according tothe heating energy equation. The energy auditor is now in a position to visi the site to conduct the external energy survey (Table 2.28 ‘Table 2.28 External survey Roof tale Poked erate univ hat ith oct 1) pterbed Fate female Ieee et) el Facing ee Deseaie Sie sian 236mm em ace Ging Beh Brick” rick sbove ene mm ome Hep sss ea ee ee er Vee Work? "se U7 ty? O06 va ee ee Toa Ua is ue) SWE Tot eset enous ta) SEP 208War?K ern Over Uae Totten vane ‘rom een fr U ess 2 ‘aus te component Uae altel in ele & Commonly ecousted ‘et rade the ata Appeds@ anor MaxcEeNT 2.14 PRELIMINARY ENERGY AUDIT Having examined the input and output sides of energy use at the sit, iti now posible 10 ‘construct an inpuoutput energy audit for the site, according to: Input energy kWh per year ‘uel energy input + electricity for heating + other electrical energy input Ouput eneray fuel energy loses during combustion, conversion and distribution “+ cecsical diretly rejected during wilization ++fabrie transmission heat losses + ventilation heat losses. eu [Neglecting the small proportion of intemal sundry gains from personel (this would be significant in, for example, theatres and restaurants Input energy KWh per year 5682201 +273 760+ 1968000, Output energy (0.25 x 5682201 + 1968600 — 997790 indy gains) + UA(T,~ T) hours per yeus/1000 + 033nY(7,—T,) x hours per yer/1000 1925 961= 1420550 + 970210 + 2.09 « 9820 «(21 — 988) x 8740/1000 40038 « 2.72 x 40000 «(21 ~ 9:84) x 8760/1000 7923 961 » 1420550 + 870310 + 2006439 + 3510033 Finally, {Input energy, kWh per year 7923961 Output energy, 1907392 “This balanced audit has been obtained by equating the fuel and electricity inputs from ‘an annual set of fue! bills tothe energy losses occurring during combustios, conversion and distribution (assumed here to be 25 per cent) that part of the electricity wtiisation which doesnot result in sundry gins tothe internal environment, the heat lsss by transmission ‘through the builing fabric, andthe heat losses associated with veniating at The furnace/boler eficiency fssumed here at 75 per cent) should be measured and an ‘state of annval mean efciney should be made by examining boilerheuse records. ‘The fretion of annul electricity utilization which doesnot result in sandy guns to the iernal envionment was estimated by plotting the heating energy supplied each month against mean monthly external sir temperatures. Although the mean inside aie temperature ‘vas maintained constant at 21°C throughout the year, no heating energy would be required ‘when the outside air temperature exceeded 19°C, the base temperature forthe ste. Thus the internal sundry gains from electrical equipment and personnel (neglected ere ae sulicient 1 raise the internal temperature by 2°C with respect to the outside aie temperature. This SURG MANAGE AND CONSERVATION 6B resultsin linea refationship between internal sundry gains and the overall U-value and mean numberof air changes forthe building. 'A socond linear relationship, derived from the same graph, relates total heating energy elvered per mean ennual temperature dflerence between internal and extemal enviroamen's| to the overall U-value and the mean number ofr changes fr the bullding. These two linear relationships contain three unknosns, the internal sundry gains, the overall Uvalue and the ‘mean number ofairchanges per hour. combination ofthe latter two variables was eliminated, resulting in a value fo the intemal sundry gains which can be compared wit the overall lectricity consumption. ‘A elationship between the overall U-alue and the annual mean number ofr changes per hour was then obtained. The former was estimated from a site survey and thence the ‘mual mean numberof air changes could be estimated. Heating energy balance eating enerey input, kWh per year Fuel energy input + lectrical heating + sundry gains Heating energy outpat el energy losses during combustion, conversion and distribution "fabric transmission heat losses + ventilation heat losses eas) Substituting the numbers from above, 5682201 + 273760 4997790 Heating energy put, kWh per year 6953751 420550-4 2006439 + 3510033 Heating energy ovtpet 6937022 215 EFFECTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION ‘ON THE ENERGY CHARACTERISTIC nergy conservation From the heating energy equation, the slope ofthe regression line relating heating energy t0 ‘ouside ait temperature is proportional to (UA + nV/3. Thus Fig. 2.20 shows the elles of adding or reduing insulation levels (or the amount of reject eat recovered from ventilating aie. Tncreasing energy conservation measures results in lowering the base temperature fromTy to Tyg nthe diagram, asthe constant sundry gains offset reduced heating encrgy losses, and sso decrease the negative slope ofthe graph, The ensuing annual savings are indicated by the atea OE T, minus the aree Oy Tyy- The overall annus savings depend upon the annual ‘outside temperature profile. the number of hours at given temperatures). The frequencies ‘of accuttence may be deduced from the degree-days;month. Alteratively, these savings are(6 exency maxnonenr 20 Mean Wino gis wiles 2 Pu E Bas i a go -05 nite sr temper °C ge 220 Es of ining or are ens on he ere Senate more easily quantified using the sundry gain and heating energy equations. Note thatthe amount of ‘cooing energy required, when the outside air temperature is higher than the base temperature, also changes Reducing energy conservation measures results in raising the base temperature from Ty to Thin the diagram, asthe constant sundry gains ofet increased heating energy losses, and also increase the negative slope ofthe graph, The ensuing annual losses: are indicated by the area OF, Tu minus the area OF Ty as g E e, i i a a 1 { sie sr empeate,"C Figure 221 Ess of ler ribo siciy change onthe sores Sete. I ENG) MANAGEMENT AND ConSERVATION 65 Boile/distribution efficiencies Tncreasing the boler/dstribution efficiency (Fig, 2.2) results in no change in base temperature bot decreases the negative slope ofthe graph. The ensuing annual savings are indicated by the area OE Ty minus the are OE, ‘Decreasing the boiler distribution efficiency has the opposite effect. Inside air temperature Figure 2.22 shows the substantial eet of changes in inside air temperature 7}. Considering that all the beating energy consumed in a year serves to raise this temperature by only 8.16°C fabove the mean annual outside temperature, a change of 1°C in the mean annual inside temperature, results na change of 1225 per cent inthe annual energy bil for heating. TF the mean inside ar temperature were reduced by 3°C to 18°C, the resulting savings are indicated by the area OE Ty, minus the area O Ey Tyre I the mean inside air temperature inreased by 3°C to 24°C, the resulting nereased nergy consumption is indicated by the area Oy Tang minus the area OE Tas. Recommendation 6 Question the ned for 21°C mean inside air temperature Sundry gains Reducing the amount of sundry gains, resulting fom, for example, internal energy conservation measures, sch a8 insulating internal pipelines and process equipment, oF replacing lighting systems with more efficient hminaies, raises the base temperature while the slope of the ‘raph remains the Same, Fig 223. Thus, although energy may be saved internally, more ‘eating energy will be needed to oe fabric transmission and ventilation losses. The amount ae we we sidestep, "C Figwe 222 Bes fine sr tener changes on he ee late307, mee 7s Hetng ere el iar 223 Ee inurl dey into the ens entre is indicated by the area OF Ty, minvs the area OE, If the energy ‘saved" (ie. from becoming a sundry gain) internally was supplied from electricity, then, whilst no net energy savings will be achieved, financial savings will result from the price difference between gas and electric, ‘Conversely, increased sundey gains result in lowering the base temperature and reducing Ihating energy requirements. Economic analyses of inlernal’ energy conservation measures should be discounted by he need forextra heating energy to counter the lossn sundry gains. 216 SECONDARY QUESTIONNAIRE—THE CLIENT INTERVIEW Hoaving obtain an inpuoutput audit from the annual fuel bills and the extemal ste survey, nergy throughputs should be investigated to ascertain direct rejects of energy tothe external ‘envizonment other than those losses va fabric heat transmission and venlation (eg process uid effluents, fue gases from internal furoaces, etc) The aim is to quantify the uses of clectriity and process fuss which do not result in sundry gains. The enerey contebuting t0 sundry gains should also be disaggregated to facitate economic appraisal of internal energy conservation reteoit measures. The purpose of the secondary questionnaire is to extract informaton concerning the imermal activities, plant and proceses. A typical secondary questionnaire might appear asin Table 2.29 and should include questions exacted from the following pags. Energy management practices ‘The imerview should commence with a presentation of the intial energy audit and recom mendations and disevssions. [NEROY MANAGED AND CONSERVATION 6T ‘Table 229 Secondary questionnaire for an energy aud ‘Energy Av Secondary Questionnaire Nase of ‘ive Indore Li ‘oof premio aveed 4 Bek Steet New Costar, NeW usa ‘Tegbonemunber cosersant Fac nember sett Iatnener rote Intron 1 iy Pastion (Ce Works Eager Leeson Bodehouse ‘Surimary of initial recommendations 1, Renepotite electrical supply capacity. 2 Investigate the ue of electricity for heating purposes 3. Investigate the heating contol arrangements for year-ound heating. 4 Investigate the use of electrical heating equipment, assess the efficacy of space heating arrangements in winter months and Seek to eliminate or control electrically-heated auipment. 5, Tavetignle electricity utilization ‘6 Question the need for 21°C mean insie temperature Information shouldbe then sought under the following headings Energy management procedures Who is responsible for energy management? Position inthe organization? Reporting 10? Full or part-time? ‘Qualiations and experience? War is done? Has an energy flow diagram been prepared? What has been achieved? Financial practices, Who comrols the capital spending budget? Who comirols the recurrent spending budget?(66 panoy mnonant Upon what financial criteria should eost-fetivenes calculations be performed? What isthe period available to complete this exercise? Is there alist of energy-saving investments under review, rand inorder of privity with detailed ‘costing and cost-benefit calculations? If not, why no? ‘Comments on energy consumption Is energy consumption, about right, t00 high, too low? What are the areas of high energy consumption? What vari ae used? Why these? When were these last reviewed? Can of peak crf be use? (Can maximum demand be eu? Can power factors be improved cos-fectivly? ‘Monitoring and recording practices How is energy consumption reviewed? By whom? When was the lst review? How is energy consumption analysed? oes the analysis normalize the data with tecel of activity? = by building, by produc, by month, by yea, by cost, by wse activity, by sector ar section? What units of measurement are used? What are the metering contol arrangements? 1s there an energy consumption forecas/budget? Have standards been set (‘fora gcen task or product or building? 4s consumption compored with prsious periods, other locations, other companies or other industries? What are the monitoring and targeting procedures? ‘Should am energy management system be installed? What should be the nature ofthis sistem (computational or mana)? Personnel energy awareness Are details of energy consumption made know 0 employees? ‘Are employees made aware ofthe need for energy conservation? Whar steps hace been madeto promote nsray awareness ve eduction and taining, posters? Current energy conser What steps have been taken 1 reduce exergy consumption? What steps hace been taker to cascade or recycle energy (¢9 incineration or sale of combustible of recyelable sera or refuse, wast heat recovery fram air. water or hot products)? | ‘Comments of energy inefficiencies Are there abious incidents of energy wastage? Conditions of buildings, plant and equipment Is insulation and draughtprofing adequate and in good repr (roof. wl, lors, interzones, doors, windows)? Furnaces Is plam operating efficiently? ‘Are frmacesafcency tesed? What are the maintenance procedures? What are the control arrangements? Boilers 1s plan operating efficient? dre boilers efciency tested? Is eptimun blowdows maintcined? What are the maintenance procedures? What are the contol arrangements? Boilerhouse auxiliaries Is plane operating ecient? How i i examined? What are the maintenance proces? Heat distribution systems, Are there leaks of hot water or sean? dre pipes and ducts adequately lagged? What are the maintenance procedures? Major items, ‘Wir ae the major enetgeconsoning items of plant and equipment? Energy storage systems How are storage tanks heated? What are their temperatres? Why these temperatures! Are storage tanks adequately insulated? MATION OS p0410 psnoy 1ANsoENENT What are the maintenance procedures? What are the contol arrangements? Process pla Is plant operating ecient? “Are proces temperatures and pressures atthe lowest essetal evel? What are the maintenance procedures? What are the control arrongements? ‘Space heating services For what periods are the buildings heated? How is heating controled? Could te temperature he reduced? oes the temperature vary indifferent zones? Are parts ofthe builang being heated wmnecessarily? What are the maintenance procedures? Lighting systems Are part of the bulding bong li unnecessarily? How i ighting comrlled? What are the mantenanceprocedsoes? Power and electrical services 1s plane operating ecient? What are she maintenance procedures? ‘Mechanical ventilation What is the mininaam ventlation rate? Why this value? Hos isthe building ventilated? How does ar get i? Hoss dos air get ont? Do ventilation rates vary in diferent zones? Are parts ofthe building being ventilated umecessariy? Is there any ecdence of tertcalstratfiation? What are the mainenance procedures for fansets? What are the control arrangements? Air conditioning systems 1 plat operating efiently? What are the maintenance procedures? Whar are the contol arrangements? oe ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION TL ‘Domestic hot water systems Are there leaks of hot water? What are the maintenance procedures? What are the control arrangements? ‘Compressed air services What is the compresed air requirement? Wher does inlet air 20 the compressor come from? Where isthe ines air dct sted? hati compresed air used for? What are the delivery temperature and pressure? Whar are the pressures atthe points of we? I there any evidence of unauthorized use oF leakage? 1s plat operating efcient? What are the manienance procedures? What are the connol arrangements? Refrigeration plant 1s plane operating eficientl? What are tke maintenance procedwes? What are the control arrangements? led water distribution systems Is their evidence of leakage? 4 insulation adequate? What are the maintenance procedures? Steam plant 1s pla operating ecient? 1s there obvious leakage of steam? Is condensate recovered? Ave seam traps cleaned and unclogged? What are the maintenance procedwes? What are the control arrangements? Other services Other plant ‘Special equipment and processes Energy throughputs Information should be sought concerning the major energy.consuming items of plant and equipment (Fable 230)72 peor manner i ‘Table 2.30 Major energy-consuming items—work parameters Operating Poser tows ton, Iai Cental Maintenance Jen Description EW Een, pater arangenents procedures Doses debe sue Eaey soap seas a Spee eating ries Lipa ts Powe apd lt ees chai velaton it onto tes Compe i evn began plan hited water dro ‘gees Seam ant Kichee ad tea rhe seins ter pas Spec epee nd proce, 217 THE SECONDARY REQUEST ‘A roqust should be made forthe following information: + Plan drawings ofthe buildings + Elevations of the buildings + Details of the structural components ofthe buildings + Specifications of the boilers and associated plant : + Plans ofthe layout of process equipment and piping + Deuils of air handing unis and other space heating arrangements + Details and layout ofthe inlet and extract ventilation fn sets [NERY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 73 248 INTERNAL ENERGY AUDIT CHECKLIST : au the boierhouse ad track Dern the intra Ste surey, the ener autor should rt at he bk Date tbe il pot se and eto tothe etal enfcumen An ergy Feta» Soke dgram shoul be costed dng the ie cnr maint ches ven in Append 2s een constr for ua, This coer Fa col of a + tity 1 se frases 5 Ener conein tor astaclves and quid heaters 1 eat dation stems 1 Heating tems 1 Eeyore estes 1 pln ad equipment SUihing Thema inion + Netlation 1 Ai edo sens 1 Domes hot ater ems + Compre servis { Rereton plat ad hil water dierbuion stems 2 Seam pnt 1 Was beat nd materi eamaton + cont ‘Table 231 Savings made by reducing compressed air dliery pressures ‘Adabaie Deer (vay Toalwork Stings by Tempest, done feoweboe, Sting, Saving per x Mie?) We 100 om « ° “ 0019 012 « “ ts eon 0 oy nie ws 2 m ais fs a 0 ‘a ‘ose 2 o 08 on st 0 om ust « o fins an ° m umn) o awe mw 074 ven manncowen ‘The energy manager should consider only those major energy-consuming items of plant ‘and equipment and should remember to track back energy saved to that fel (mone) saved atthe bolerhouse. Table 231 shows the minim savings resulting from reduced compressed air delivery pressures, 2.49 ENERGY THROUGHPUIS—ENERGY FLOW CHARTS—ENERGY AUDIT ‘The final enerey audit relates all inputs, throughputs and outputs $0 thatthe ec of introducing energy saving measures for one activity on other activites may be quantified. nergy saved should be tracked back to that fuel (money) saced atthe boilerhause, Diseconomic «ffets arising fom system changes should also be identified “The object of te overall energy audit sto complete the charts shown in Figs 224 (2), in erms of kWh per year (Fig. 224) £ per year (Fig. 2240), and kW mean pe: year (Fig. 224d), so that eneray-consuoning sectors ad loss centres may’ be viewed in proper perspective. “The summary data for Bitusa Industries Ltd is given in Table 232 An analysis of compressed air usage indicated that, over the year, 470000kWh of the lectricity delivered was wsed to supply compressed ai, ‘Table 232 Summary Industries Number ofempoyes 18) Working wea tone! aso vtane soo Housaanm $16 Recommended sir chaness 3 per bour Cle sictaness 2 Table 233 Percentage breakdown of fabric ‘transmission hea losses Componset— UAWK™ Wate 29 03 sng 312 132 Root is m2 Bee 9 a To anyon SGRGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION TS [rote awe {coment | ETI oe Dain [ton ene Te at eo Trees \ | a Wwe Sr in eet ioe Electricity Raeaenaaet il ‘tn =o an = = coer open ir Tacs towe | Lesage iy os = Te we 2244 sey ot hr “Thus the chart (Table 2.34) gives the breakdown of energy use over the period considered, and this data is used to construct energy and monergy aut charts. Final energy audit—Bitusa Industries Ltd “Thecoss in terms of energy and money, ove the year considered are shown in Table 23. In addition, £3600 was paid in electric] maximum demand and supply capacity chargesNERO MANAOPMENE AND CONSERVATION 77 Toul ‘hood 19028400000 Faleas ay ae Comrioa oas 3 tana Tian oe Sem aia Tans ‘allen ‘pe Fe a ase ro a Pinte Datsun owe | Une ‘sie ° | uae ‘ Powe} 1e03s Pree i as ET Eo ae | Pa aie : a Diss pe Pros ¢ Saaiaig Spt Ey Sine Paint aman Sa seas “Baa pa] UL {es a L Se ‘ie l “i conpreaan Compe a id ‘coo me ay aha Congr a Ta on | Tea on ean oe fry ono Soa ‘Same Train (es “Trine a ‘tose Sra —— eee ere ea oat, 220 is nds gy WH prea eng ck DONE per WE Fee ni Eeciy cot £616 perk Figwe 23k €or 0 ‘Table 234 Breakdown of energy se kWh per year Table 238 Breakdown of costs Toul ‘Heating Compreved sie Ober beer eee : et ‘enon es lao aT ‘only i pe ee ite tmmone jaw Som is woe aoa Dig el men tae Prete toes Pacman est Vos) ome Tot 7M634 6950751 470000 492563 ‘Arcompuner loess sam $0787 vated haan Felon set aun Nex dd ssi