CHAPTER – 1

BASICS OF AUTOMATION

1.1 WHAT IS AUTOMATION?

Automation is a delegation of human control functions to technical equipment for increasing

productivity, reduced cost & increased in safety working conditions.
Automation is basically the use of control systems (such as numerical control,
programmable logic control, and other industrial control systems), in concert with other applications
of information technology (such as computer-aided technologies [CAD, CAM, CAx]), to control
industrial machinery and processes, reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided
human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation
greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Processes and systems
can also be automated[1].
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and in daily
experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and organizational
tools to create complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
Specialized hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are
frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow
of outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight
control of almost any industrial process. Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human
interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate
with PLCs and other computers, such as entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for
further automated control or emergency response.

1.2 IMPACT OF AUTOMATION

Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of highly visible industries beyond
manufacturing.
Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by automated telephone
switchboards and answering machines. Medical processes such as primary screening in
electrocardiography or radiography and laboratory analysis of human genes, sera, cells, and tissues
are carried out at much greater speed and accuracy by automated systems. Automated teller
machines have reduced the need for bank visits to obtain cash and carry out transactions. In general,
automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy from agrarian to industrial in the
19th century and from industrial to services in the 20th century.

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 The widespread impact of industrial automation raises social issues, among them is impact
on employment. Historical concerns about the effects of automation date back to the beginning of
the industrial revolution, when a social movement of English textile machine operators in the early
1800s known as the Luddites protested against Jacquard's automated weaving looms often by
destroying such textile machines— that they felt threatened their jobs. One author made the
following case. When automation was first introduced, it caused widespread fear. It was thought that
the displacement of human operators by computerized systems would lead to severe unemployment.
At first glance, automation might appear to devalue labor through its replacement with less-
expensive machines; however, the overall effect of this on the workforce as a whole remains unclear.
Today automation of the workforce is quite advanced, and continues to advance increasingly more
rapidly throughout the world and is encroaching on ever more skilled jobs, yet during the same
period the general well-being and quality of life of most people in the world (where political factors
have not muddied the picture) have improved dramatically.

1.3 TYPES OF AUTOMATION

Automation can be divided in four parts:

1.3.1 HOME AUTOMATION

As the world gets more and more technologically advanced, we find new technology coming in
deeper and deeper into our personal lives even at home. Home automation is becoming more and
more popular around the world and is becoming a common practice.

1.3.2 OFFICE AUTOMATION

Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally create,
collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks and
goals. Raw data storage, electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business information
comprise the basic activities of an office automation system. Office automation helps in optimizing
or automating existing office procedures. The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which
allows users to transmit data, mail and even voice across the network.

1.3.3 BUILDING AUTOMATION

Building automation describes the functionality provided by the control system of a building. A
building automation system (BAS) is an example of a distributed control system. The control system
is a computerized, intelligent network of electronic devices, designed to monitor and control the
mechanical and lighting systems in a building.
1.3.4 INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

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Industrial automation is the use of robotic devices to complete manufacturing tasks. In this day and
age of computers, industrial automation is becoming increasingly important in the manufacturing
process because computerized or robotic machines are capable of handling repetitive tasks quickly
and efficiently. Machines used in industrial automation are also capable of completing mundane
tasks that are not desirable to workers.

1.3.5 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION

The main advantages of automation are:

Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous
work..Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,
volcanoes, nuclear facilities, under the water, etc)
Making tasks that are beyond the human capabilities such as handling too heavy loads, too
large objects, too hot or too cold substances or the requirement to make things too fast or too slow.
Economy improvement. Sometimes and some kinds of automation implies improves in
economy of enterprises, society or most of humankind.
The main disadvantages of automation are:
1. Technology limits. Nowadays technology is not able to automate all the desired tasks.
2. Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of automating a
process is difficult to predict accurately beforehand.
3. Initial costs are relatively high. The automation of a new product required a huge initial
investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of automation
is spread in many product batches.

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 CHAPTER – 2
CONTROLLERS

2.1. WHAT ARE CONTROLLERS?

In control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a
given dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as output variables of
the system which can be affected by adjusting certain input variables.
For example, the heating system of a house can be equipped with a thermostat (controller)
for sensing air temperature (output variable) which can turn on or off a furnace or heater when the
air temperature becomes too low or too high.

2.2. TYPES OF CONTROLLERS

There are many types of controllers. Some of them are as follows:

2.2.1 PID CONTROLLERS

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop feedback

mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems.
PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a
desired set point by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process
accordingly and rapidly, to keep the error minimal.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the
proportional, the integral and derivative values. The proportional value determines the reaction to
the current error, the integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors, and
the derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at which the error has been changing.
The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as
the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.

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 Figure 2.1

2.2.2 COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED (CNC) CONTROLLER

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) controllers, working as a brain for manufacturing automation,
are high value-added products counting for over 30% of the price of machine tools. CNC technology
is generally considered as a measure for the level of manufacturing technology of a nation. Often
referred to as "The Flower of Industrial Technology", the development of CNC technology depends
upon the integration of technologies from computer, hardware, machining, and other industries, and
requires strategic long-term support, mostly on a governmental level.
Today, computer numerical control (CNC) machines are found almost everywhere, from
small job shops in rural communities to Fortune 500 companies in large urban areas. Truly, there is
hardly a facet of manufacturing that is not in some way touched by what these innovative machine
tools can do.
The most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and consistent motion control.
Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is required on most
conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion control in a revolutionary manner. All
forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes. These axes can be
precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel. The two most common axis
types are linear (driven along a straight path) and rotary (driven along a circular path).

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 Figure 2.2

2.2.3 PC BASED CONTROLLERS

The days of the PC being used just for visualization and production data acquisition in control and
automation applications is rapidly becoming a thing of the past.
The PC is now increasingly recognized as an open and powerful hardware platform, which
can provide effective and reliable control, with no requirement for additional processors or complex
hardware additions. Traditional automation and control systems typically comprise a number of
hardware and software elements; a PC for process visualization, hard PLCs with coprocessor cards,
coprocessor PLCs, I/O via field bus, motion control via parallel cabling and a selection of software
operating systems and programming languages.
PC-based controller system is often used in the factory where it resists the adverse
environmental factors such as dustiness and extreme temperature. Under this condition, PC-based
controller system must meet the requirements of reliability, durability, strong vibration, and extreme
temperature. Since industrial products do not require high level of math functions, appropriateness is

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much more important than the performance.PC-based system is also used in the medical care
industry.
The disadvantages of this approach being high hardware and software costs, complexity of
system design and build plus, in many applications, limited functionality.

2.2.4 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

Programming Logic Controller or PLC as it is universally called is the “work horse” of industrial
automation.
The PLC, being a microprocessor based device, has a similar internal structure to many
embedded controllers and computers. They consist of the CPU, Memory and I/O devices. These
components are integral to the PLC controller. Additionally the PLC has a connection for the
Programming and Monitoring Unit, Printer and Program Recorder.
Basically PLC is used for following applications in industry:
1) Machine controls.
2) Packaging, loading uploading and weighing.
3) Palletizing.
4) Material handling and similar Sequential task

2.2.5 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS)

A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing system,
process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location
(like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each component sub-system
controlled by one or more controllers. The entire systems of controllers are connected by a network
for communication and monitoring.
DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed
equipment like Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants, Environmental control
systems, Traffic, water management systems, Oil Refining plants, chemical, Pharmaceutical
manufacturing, Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships.
Distributed control systems (DCS) use decentralized elements or subsystems to control
distributed processes or complete manufacturing systems. remote control panels contain terminal
blocks, I/O modules, a processor, and a communications interface. The communications medium in
a distributed control system (DCS) is a wired or wireless link which connects the remote control
panel to central control panel, SCADA, or human machine interface (HMI).

CHAPTER – 3

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 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION(SCADA)

3.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY SCADA?

SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. As the name indicates it is not a full
control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As such , it is a purely software package
that is positioned on the top of hardware to which it is interfaced in general via programmable logic
controllers (PLC’s ), or other commercial hardware modules.
S- supervisory (we can see process on monitor)
C- control(when setup is complete we can also control the process )
A- and
D- data( database can also be saved in plc or pc memory)
A- acquisition
SCADA programs are used in industrial process control applications for centralized
monitoring and recording of pumps, tank levels, switches, temperatures etc. SCADA systems are
also referred to as HMI (Human Machine Interfaces), or the less politically correct MMI (Man
Machine Interfaces).
A SCADA program normally runs on a PC and communicates with external instrumentation
and control devices. Communications methods can be via direct serial link, radio, modem, field bus
or Ethernet links. If a mixture of instruments with differing communication interfaces and protocols
need to be connected, then converters can be used. SCADA is often used on remote data acquisition
systems where the data is viewed and recorded centrally.
It’s an optional device used in automation for continuous monitoring.

Field Devices
(Motors, Heaters)

Field Instruments
(Sensors, Transducers,
Pressure Tx, Density Tx,
Thermocouples,
Thermistors, LVDT)

Controllers
(PLC, DCS.CNC, PC
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Based)
 SCADA
(For continuous
monitoring)

Figure 3.1

The SCADA program has a user configured database which tells the software about the
connected instrumentation and which parameters within the instruments are to be accessed. The
database may also hold information on how often the parameters of the instruments are accessed and
if a parameter is a read only value (e.g. a measured value) or read / write, allowing the operator to
change a value (e.g. an alarm set point).
The parameters of the instrument being accessed are normally split between analogue
(numeric) and logic (digital). When running, the SCADA software continuously updates its own
database with the latest analogue and digital values collected from the instrumentation. Some
SCADA systems also allow real time calculations to be made on the received data and the results
would be available as a "virtual" value. The real time values can then be used by the SCADA.

3.2 COMMUNICATIONS

3.2.1 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Server-client and server-server communication is in general on a publish-subscribe and event-

driven basis and uses a TCP/IP protocol, i.e., a client application subscribes to a parameter
which is owned by a particular server application and only changes to that parameter are then
communicated to the client application.

3.2.2 ACCESS TO DEVICES

The data servers poll the controllers at a user defined polling rate. The polling rate may be different
for different parameters. The controllers pass the requested parameters to the data servers. Time
stamping of the process parameters is typically performed in the controllers and this time-
stamp is taken over by the data server.
If the controller and communication protocol used support unsolicited data transfer
then the products will support this too. The products provide communication drivers for most of

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the common PLCs and widely used field-buses, e.g., Mod bus. Of the three field buses that are
recommended at CERN,
both Profibus and Worldfip are supported but CAN bus often not [3]. Some of the drivers are based
on third party products and therefore have additional cost associated with them. VME on the
other hand is generally not supported.

3.3 FUNCTIONALITY

3.3.1 ACCESS CONTROL

Users are allocated to groups, which have defined read/write access privileges to the process
parameters in the system and often also to specific product functionality.
3.3.2 TRENDING

The products all provide trending facilities and one can summarize the common
capabilities as follows:
1) the parameters to be trended in a specific chart can be predefined or defined on- line
2) A chart may contain more than 8 trended parameters or pens and an unlimited number of
charts can be displayed (restricted only by the readability)
3) Real-time and historical trending are possible, although generally not in the same chart

Figure 3.2

4) Historical trending is possible for any archived parameter

5) Zooming and scrolling functions are provided
6) Parameter values at the cursor position can be displayed

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 The trending feature is either provided as a separate module or as a graphical object
(ActiveX), which can then be embedded into a synoptic display. XY and other statistical analysis
plots are generally not provided.

3.3.3 ALARM HANDLING

Alarm handling is based on limit and status checking and performed in the data servers. More
complicated expressions (using arithmetic or logical expressions) can be developed by creating
derived parameters on which status or limit checking is then performed. The alarms are logically
handled centrally i.e., the information only exists in one place and all users see the same
status (e.g., the acknowledgement), and multiple alarm priority levels (in general many more
than 3 such levels) are supported.

Figure 3.3

3.3.4 LOGGING AND ARCHIVING

The terms logging and archiving are often used to describe the same facility. However,
logging can be thought of as medium-term storage of data on disk, whereas archiving is long-term
storage of data either on disk or on another permanent storage medium. Logging is typically
performed on a cyclic basis, i.e., once a certain file size, time period or number of points is reached
the data is overwritten. Logging of data can be performed at a set frequency, or only initiated if
the value changes or when a specific predefined event occurs. Logged data can be
transferred to an archive once the log is full.

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 Figure 3.4

The Logged data is time-stamped and can be filtered when viewed by a user. The logging of user
actions is in general performed together with either a user ID or station ID. There is often also a
VCR facility to play back archived data.

3.3.5 NETWORKING

1. In many application, we have to use more than one SCADA software / operator stations.
This can be achieved by taking the SCADA node on network.
2. In many cases Ethernet TCP/IP is commonly used for networking.
3. In certain cases the SCADA software use propriety networking protocols for networking.
3.3.6 DEVICE CONNECTIVITY

1. Every control hardware has its own communication protocol for communicating with
different hadrware / software. Some of the leading communication protocol include
Modbus, Profibus, Ethernet, Dh +, DH 485, Devicenet, Control net.
2. The SCADA software needs device driver software for communication with PLC or other
control hardware.
3. More the driver software available better is the device connectivity. Most of the SCADA
software used in the industry have connectivity with most of the leading control system.

3.3.7 DATABASE CONNECTIVITY

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 1. In many plants, it is important to download the real-time information to the MIS. In this case
the database connectivity is must.
2. Many SCADA software don’t have their own database. Hence for storage and reporting they
use third party database like MS Access or SQL.

3.3.8 SCRIPT

1. Script is a way of writing logic in SCADA software. Every SCADA software has its own
instructions and way of writing program.
2. Using scripts, one can develop complex applications. You can create your own functions to
suit the process requirement. Execution.
3. Various types of scripts make project execution simpler for programmer.

3.4 REPORT GENERTION

One can produce reports using SQL type queries to the archive, RTDB or logs. Although it is
sometimes possible to embed EXCEL charts in the report, a "cut and paste" capability is in
general not provided. Facilities exist to be able to automatically generate, print and archive reports.

3.5 AUTOMATION

The majority of the products allow actions to be automatically triggered by events. A

scripting language provided by the SCADA products allows these actions to be defined. In general,
one can load a particular display, send an Email, run a user defined application or
script and write to the RTDB.
The concept of recipes is supported, whereby a particular system configuration can
be saved to a file and then re-loaded at a later date .Sequencing is also supported whereby, as the
name indicates, it is possible to execute a more complex sequence of actions on one or more devices.
Sequences may also react to external events. Some of the products do support an expert system
but none has the concept of a Finite rate Machine (FSM).

3.6 APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT

3.6.1 CONFIGURATION

SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition — any application that gets data about a system in order to control that
system is a SCADA application.
A SCADA application has two elements:

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1. The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control — this can be a power plant, a
water system, a network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else.
2. A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and control
outputs. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to measure and control
specific elements of the first system.
The development of the applications is typically done in two stages. First the process
parameters and associated information (e.g. relating to alarm conditions) are defined through
some sort of parameter definition template and then the graphics, including trending and
alarm displays are developed, and linked where appropriate to the process parameters. The
products also provide an ASCII Export/Import facility for the configuration data
(parameter definitions), which enables large numbers of parameters to be configured in a more
efficient manner using an external editor such as Excel and then importing the data into the
configuration database.
On-line modifications to the configuration database and the graphics are generally possible
with the appropriate level of privileges.

3.6.2 DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

The following development tools are provided as standard:

1. A graphics editor, with standard drawing facilities including freehand, lines, squares
circles, etc. It is possible to import pictures in many formats as well as using predefined
symbols including e.g. trending charts, etc. A library of generic symbols is provided that can be
linked dynamically to variables and animated as they change. It is also possible to create
links between views so as to ease navigation at run-time.

Figure 3.5

2. A data base configuration tool (usually through parameter templates). It is in general possible to
export data in ASCII files so as to be edited through an ASCII editor or Excel.
3. A scripting language
4. An Application Program Interface (API) supporting C, C++, VB
5. A Driver Development Toolkit to develop drivers for hardware that is not supported
by the SCADA product.

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3.7 APPLICATIONS OF SCADA

We can use SCADA to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to
automate complex industrial processes where human control is impractical — systems where there
are more control factors, and more fast-moving control factors, than human beings can comfortably
manage.
Around the world, SCADA systems control.

3.7.1 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Electric utilities use SCADA systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the
operation of circuit breakers, and to take sections of the power grid online or offline.

3.7.2 WATER AND SEWAGE

State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water flow, reservoir levels,
pipe pressure and other factors.

3.7.3 BUILDING, FACILITIES AND ENVIRONMENT

Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC, refrigeration units, lighting and entry
systems.

3.7.4 MANUFACTURING

SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate industrial
automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.

3.7.5 MASS TRANSIT

Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley buses; to
automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to control railroad
crossing gates.

3.7.6 TRAFFIC SIGNALS

SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-order signals.
SCADA systems provide the sensing capabilities and the computational power to track
everything that’s relevant to your operations.

3.8 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF SCADA

The benefits one can expect from adopting a SCADA system for the control of

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experimental physics facilities can be summarized as follows:
1. A rich functionality and extensive development facilities. The amount of effort invested in
SCADA product amounts to 50 to 100 p-years
2. The amount of specific development that needs to be performed by the end-user is limited,
especially with suitable engineering.
3. Reliability and robustness. These systems are used for mission critical industrial processes
where reliability and performance are paramount. In addition, specific development is
performed within a well-established framework that enhances reliability and robustness.
4. Technical support and maintenance by the vendor.

CHAPTER – 4
PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
PLC development began in 1968 in response to a request from an US car manufacturer (GE). The
first PLCs were installed in industry in 1969.Modern industrial environment is steered with the latest
technological advancements in computers and communication. Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLC) based automation is the outcome of that.

Figure 4.1

4.2 WHAT ARE PLC’S?

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for
automationof electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory aassembly lines,

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amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements,
extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
A PLC (i.e. Programmable Logic Controller) is a device that was invented to replace the necessary
sequential relay circuits for machine control. The PLC works by looking at its inputs and depending
upon their state, turning on/off its outputs. The user enters a program, usually via software, that
gives the desired results.
PLCs are used in many "real world" applications. If there is industry present, chances are
good that there is a plc present. If you are involved in machining, packaging, material handling,
automated assembly or countless other industries you are probably already using them. If you are
not, you are wasting money and time. Almost any application that needs some type of electrical
control has a need for a plc.
PLC controllers are low cost, compact, versatile units based on the standard microprocessor
architecture used in the control of machines or processes. They are designed for ease of
programming and maintenance. The plc systems replace the old relay logic control systems in
automated manufacturing and are designed to provide an easy and efficient replacements for the
bulky relay logic controllers. The PLC, also known as programmable controller (PC) is defined by
the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) in 1978 as:
"A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the
internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions, such as logic, sequencing,
timing, counting and arithmetic, to control through digital or analog input/output, various types of
machines or process".
They essentially operate by detecting the on/off (logic) or analog inputs and depending on the
control programs - the ladder diagrams - outputs of the same type (usually logic) are produced.
In PLC implementation, field wiring between the logic elements remains unaltered, but there are no
more hard wired connections between the devices. Instead, the connections are stored in computer
memory. This allows the programming of these connections, which is in turn made easier as they are
entered in ladder logic.
PLC systems have considerable advantages over the old relay logic systems. They include:
1. all the capabilities of the earlier systems,
2. dramatic performance increase over the relay logic systems
3. greater reliability
4. little maintenance due to no moving parts

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5. no special programming skills required by maintenance personnel
6. physical size of the PLC system is much smaller than the conventional relay based logic
7. and most importantly much lower cost
Although the PLC systems have many advantages, there are also disadvantages. These include fault
finding, as PLC systems are often much more complex than the hard-wired relay systems. Secondly,
the failure of the PLC may completely stop the controlled process, whereas a fault in a conventional
control system would only disrupt the process. And thirdly, external electrical interference may
disrupt the PLC memory

4.3 PLC SCAN CYCLE

Normally, before any output devices can be turned on or off, the processor has to scan the entire
program that is in user memory, The program may be only of a few rungs or it may be hundreds of
pages in length, depending on the equipment that is being controlled, Pocessor scan does the
following:

4.3.1 INPUT SCAN

Input terminals are read and input status table is updated accordingly.

4.3.2 PROGRAM SCAN

During program scan,data in input table is applied to user Program, Program is executed and output
table is updated accordingly

4.3.3 OUTPUT SCAN

Data associated with output status table is transferred to output terminals

Time for one scan cycle is called scan time if scan time is less than efficiency of plc would be
greater

4.4 PLC VENDORS:

S.NO Company Country
1. Allen Bradley USA
2. Seimens Germany
3. ABB(Asia Brown Bravery) USA
4. GE Fanuc USA
5. Mitsubhishi Japan
6. OMRON Japan
7 MOORE Japan
8. L&T(Larson and Turbo) India

Table 1
4.5 ARCHITECTURE OF PLC:

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A typical PLC can be divided into following components:

4.5.1 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Microprocessor based, may allow arithmetic operations, logic operators, block memory moves,
computer interface, local area network, functions, etc.
CPU makes a great number of check-ups of the PLC controller itself so eventual errors would be
discovered early.

4.5.2 SYATEM BUSES

The internal paths along which the digital signals flow within the PLC are called busses.
The system has four busses:
1. The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the different elements,
2. The address bus to send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data,
3. The control bus for signals relating to internal control actions,
4. The system bus is used for communications between the I/O ports and the I/O unit .
4.5.3 MEMORY
System (ROM) to give permanent storage for the operating system and the fixed data used by the
CPU.
RAM for data. This is where information is stored on the status of input and output devices and the
values of timers and counters and other internal devices. EPROM for ROM’s that can be
programmed and then the program made permanent.

4.5.4 INPUT/OUTPUT SECTIONS

Inputs monitor field devices, such as switches and sensors.

Outputs control other devices, such as motors, pumps, solenoid valves, and lights.

4.5.5 POWER SUPPLY

Most PLC controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. Some PLC controllers have electrical
supply as a separate module, while small and medium series already contain the supply module.

4.5.6 BATTERY
It is used to update date, time and other data. if battery is discharge then red indication on plc
glows named BATT.

4.6 PROGRAMMING DEVICE

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The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the processor.
The program is developed in the programming device and then transferred to the memory unit of the
PLC.

4.7 PLC COMPONENTS

The CPU used in PLC system is a standard CPU present in many other microprocessor controlled
systems. The choice of the CPU depends on the process to be controlled. Generally 8 or 16
bit CPUs fulfill the requirements adequately.
Memory in a PLC system is divided into the program memory which is usually stored in
EPROM/ROM, and the operating memory. The RAM memory is necessary for the operation
of the program and the temporary storage of input and output data. Typical memory sizes of
PLC systems are around 1kb for small PLCs, few kb for medium sizes and greater than 10-
20 kb for larger PLC depending on the requirements. Many PLC would support easy
memory upgrades.
Input/Output units are the interfaces between the internal PLC systems and the external processes to
be monitored and controlled. Since the PLC is a logic based device with a typical operating voltage
of 5 volts and the external processes usually demand higher powers and currents, the I/O modules
are optically or otherwise isolated. The typical I/O operating voltages are 5V - 240 V dc (or ac) and
currents from 0.1A up to several amperes. The I/O modules are designed in this way to minimize or
eliminate the need for any intermediate circuitry between the PLC and the process to be controlled.
Small PLC units would have around 40 I/O connections with larger ones having more than 128 with
either local or remote connections and extensive upgrade capabilities.

Figure 4.2

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Programming units are essential components of the PLC systems. Since they are used only in the
development/testing stage of a PLC program, they are not permanently attached to the PLC. The
program in a ladder diagram or other form can be designed and usually tested before downloading to
the PLC.

4.8 PLC OPERATION

The PLC operates internally in a way very similar to computers. The inputs are continuously
monitored and copied from the I/O module into RAM memory which is divided into the input and
output sections. The CPU steps through the control program in another section of the memory and
fetches the input variables from the input RAM. Depending on the program and the state of inputs,
the output RAM is filled with the control variables which are then copied into the I/O module where
they control the processes.

4.9 PLC PROGRAMMING

One of the main advantages of the PLC controller is that it is a programmable device, which makes
it possible, unlike in the relay logic, to easily design and modify the control program or process
without any changes in the wiring (no hardware modifications). To make the programming of the
PLC systems easy and efficient, industry standards defining the programming approach and the
programming languages used were adopted. This reduces the need for personell training by making
a set of languages standard for all PLC platforms on the market. Knowing the PLC programming
languages and programming standards is thus one of the most important considerations for anyone
involved in the PLC area.

4.10 PLC LANGUAGE

The function of all programming languages is to allow the user to communicate with the
programmable controller (PC) via a programming device. They all convey to the system, by means
of instructions, a basic control plan.
Ladder diagrams, function blocks, and the sequential function chart are the most common types of
languages encountered in programmable controller system design. Ladder diagrams form the basic
PC languages, while function blocks and the sequential function charting are categorized as high-
level languages. The basic programmable controller languages consist of a set of instructions that
will perform the most common type of control functions like relay replacement, timing, counting,
sequencing, and logic. However, the instruction set may be varied from one controller to another,

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because it depends on controller model, specification and requirements. It may be extended or
enhanced to perform other basic operations.
Here are some typical combinations of the languages:
1. Ladder diagrams only.
2. Ladder diagrams and function blocks.
3. Ladder and sequential function chart.
4. Ladder, function blocks, sequential function chart.

4.11 LADDER LANGUAGE

The ladder diagram language is a symbolic instruction set that is used to create a programmable
controller program. Before the extension of the ladder language, the standard ladder instruction set
was limited to performing only relay equivalent functions, using the basic relay-type contact and
coil symbols similar to those shown in figure 1. A necessary for greater flexibility, coupled with
developments in technology, it is now extended to six sub-instruction sets and they are relay-type,
timer/counter, data manipulation, arithmetic, data transfer, and program control. Desired control
logic can be obtained by formatting the ladder instruction symbols and store into memory.

4.12 ALLEN BRADLEY PLC

Figure 4.3

4.13 RELAY TYPE INSTRUCTION

The relay-type instructions are the most basic of programmable controller instructions. They provide
the same capabilities as hardwired relay logic, but with greater flexibility. These instructions have
the ability to examine the ON/OFF status of a specific bit addressed in memory and to control the
state of an internal or external output bit. The following relay-type instructions are the most
commonly available in any controller that has a ladder diagram instruction set.

4.13.1 NORMALLY OPEN CONTACT

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The normally open contact is programmed when the presence of the input signal is needed to turn an
output ON. When evaluated, the referenced address is examined for an ON (1) condition. The
reference address may contains the status of an external input, external output, or internal output.
During the examination, if the reference address is ON, then the normal open contact will close and
permit logic continuity (power flow). If it is OFF (0), then the normally open contact will assume its
normally programmed state (open), thus breaking logic continuity.

Figure 4.4

4.13.2 NORMALLY CLOSED CONTACT

The normally closed contact is working as opposite to the normally open contact. It is programmed
when the absence of the referenced signal is needed to turn an output ON (1). The reference address
is examined for an OFF (0) condition. If the address is OFF, then the normally closed contact will
remain closed, allowing logic continuity. When it is ON, the contact will open and break logic
continuity.

Figure 4.5

4.13.3 BRANCH START

The branch start instruction begins each parallel logic branch of a rung. It is the first instruction
programmed if a parallel branch or logical OR functions is needed in a logic rung.

Figure 4.6

4.13.4 BRANCH END

The branch end instruction finishes a set of parallel branches. This instruction is used after the last
instruction of the last branch to complete a set of parallel branches.

Figure 4.7

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4.13.5 ENERGIZE COIL ( )

The energize coil instruction is programmed to control either an output connected to the controller,
or an internal output bit. If any rung path has logic continuity, the referenced output is turned ON.
The output is turned OFF if logic continuity is lost. When the output is ON, a normally opened
contact of the same address will close, and a normally closed contact will open. If the output goes
OFF, any normally opened set of contacts will then open, and normally closed contacts will close.
An example is shown (figure 3) to illustrate the rung relay-type instructions. Either of the input is
true, the output will be true.

Figure 4.8
4.13.6 LATCH COIL AND UNLATCH COIL (L) (U)
The latch coil instruction is programmed, for an output to remain energized (if necessary) even
though the status of the input bits that caused the output to energize may change. If any rung path
has logic continuity, the output is turned ON and retained ON even if logic continuity or system
power is lost. The latched output will remain latched ON until it is unlatched by an output
instruction of the same reference address. The unlatch instruction is the only automatic
(programmed) means of resetting the latched output. Although most controllers allow latching of
internal or external outputs, some are restricted to latching internal outputs only.

Figure 4.9

4.14 TIMER INSTRUCTIONS

They are output instructions that provide the same functions as would hardware timers and counters.
They are used to activate and deactivate a device after an elapsed period or an expired count. These
instructions are generally considered internal outputs. Like the relay-type instructions, timer and
counter instructions are fundamental to the ladder diagram instruction set. The operations of timers
and counters are quite similar, in fact they are both counters. A timer counts the number of times that
a fixed interval of time (e.g., 0.1sec, 1.0sec) elapses. A counter simply counts the occurrence of an
event. These instructions require an accumulator (ACC) register (word location) to store the elapsed

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count and a preset (PR) register to store a preset value and to determine the number of event
occurrences or time-based intervals that are to be counted.

4.14.1 TIMER ON DELAY INSTRUCTION (TON)

The programmed of this time delay ON timer instruction is to provide delayed action or to measure
the duration for which some event is occurring. When there is any rung path has logic continuity, the
timer begins counting time-based intervals and counts until the accumulated (ACC) time equals the
preset (PR) value as long as the rung conditions remain true. When the accumulated time equals the
preset value, a timer DONE bit in the accumulated word is set to 1. Whenever the rung logic
conditions for the TON instruction go false, the accumulated value is reset to all zeros.

Figure 4.10

4.14.2 TIMER OFF DELAY (TOF)

As the name implied, this output instruction is programmed to provide time delayed action. If logic
continuity is lost, the timer begins counting time-based intervals until the accumulated time equals
the programmed preset value. When the accumulated time equals the preset time, the output is de-
energized, and the timed bit (bit 15) is set to zero.

Figure 4.11

4.14.3 RETENTIVE ON DELAY (RTO)

This instruction is used for the timer to retain accumulated value when necessary, even if logic
continuity or power is lost. The timer begins counting time-based intervals when there is logic
continuity of the timer rung path, until the accumulated time equals the preset value. Then an output
is energized, and the timed out contact associated with the output is turned ON. The timer contacts
can be used throughout the program as a NO or NC contact. The retentive timer accumulator value
must be reset by the retentive timer reset instruction. Retentive or Accumulating timer- holds or
retains the current elapsed time when the sensor turns off in mid-stream. It is called RTO.

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 Figure 4.12
4.14.4 RETENTIVE ON RESET
The retentive timer reset output instruction is used to reset retentive timer accumulator. If any rung
path has logic continuity, then the accumulated value of the retentive timer with the same word
address is reset to zero.

4.15 COUNTER INSTRUCTIONS

4.15.1 UP-COUNTER (CTU)

The up-counter output instruction will increment by one each time the counted event occurs. A
control application of a counter is to turn a device ON or OFF after reaching a certain count..

Figure 4.13

4.15.2 COUNTER RESET

The counter reset output instruction reset the up- and down-counter accumulated values. When
programmed, the CTR coil is given the same reference address as the CTU and CTD coils. The
preset and accumulated values are displayed on the ladder diagram, but they have no real function.
If the CTR rung condition is TRUE, the counter with the same address will be cleared.

4.15.3 DOWN COUNTER (CTD)

The down-counter output instruction will count down by one each time a certain event occurs. Each
time the down-count event occurs, the accumulated value is decremented. In normal use, the down-
counter is used in conjunction with the up-counter to form an up/down counter.

Figure 4.14

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4.16 ARITHEMATIC OPERATIONS

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are the four basic operations included in the
arithmetic operations. These instructions use the contents of two word locations and perform the
desired function.
The add and subtract instructions use one word. Multiply and divide need two words for the
computed result.

4.16.1 ADDITION (ADD) (+)

The ADD instruction performs the addition of two values stored in two different memory locations.
The processor uses a GET (data transfer) instruction to access the two values. The result is stored in
the word address referenced by the ADD coil. The input conditions should be programmed before
the values are accessed in the addition rung, if the addition operation is enabled only when the rung
conditions are true.

Figure 4.15
4.16.2 SUBTRACTION (SUB) (-)
It performs the subtraction operation of two registers. As in addition, if there is a condition to enable
the subtraction, it should be programmed before the values are accessed in the rung. The subtraction
result register will use a minus sign to represent a negative result.

Figure 4.16

4.16.3 MULTIPLICATION (MUL)

Multiplication operation is performed when MUL is defined. It uses two registers to hold the results
of the operation between two operand registers. The two registers are referenced by two output coils.
It should be programmed before the two operands are accessed in the multiplication rung, if there is
a condition to enable the operation.

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 Figure 4.17

4.16.4 DIVIDE (DIV)

The DIV instruction performs the quotient calculations of two numbers. The result of the division is
held in two result registers as referenced by the output coils. The first register generally holds the
integer, while the second result register holds the decimal fraction.

Figure 4.18

4.17 DATA COMPERISON OPERATIONS

The manipulation of data using ladder diagram instructions, generally involves simple register
(word) operations to compare the contents of two registers. In the ladder language, there are three
basic data comparison instructions: equal to, greater than, and less than. Based on the result of a
greater than, less than, or equal to comparison, an output can be turned ON or OFF, or more other
operation can be performed.

4.17.1 EQUAL TO (==)

The equal to instruction is used to compare the contents of two referenced registers for an equal
condition, when the rung conditions are true. If the operation is true, the output coil is energized.

Figure 4.19

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4.17.2 LESS THEN (<)

The less instruction compares the contents of the value of one register to the value stored in second
register. If the test condition is true (i.e less than), the output coil is energized.

Figure 4.20
4.17.3 GREATER THAN (>)

Greater than instruction operates the same way as the less than instruction, except it test for greater
than condition. Some controllers do not have this function, because a greater than" function can
perform using the "less than" logic by reversing the order of the data and the "less than" function in
the logic rung.

Figure 4.21
4.18 JUMP (JMP)

The jump instruction allows the CPU to jump to a new position in the ladder diagram from the
normal sequential execution. If the jump logic rung is true, the jump coil (JMP) instructs the CPU to
jump to and execute the rung labelled with the same reference address as the jump coil. This allows
the program to execute rungs out of the normal sequential flow of a standard ladder program.
4.19 LANEL [LBL]

The label (LBL) is to identify that ladder rung which is the destination of a jump instruction. The
label reference must match that of the jump instruction with which it is used. The label instruction
does not contribute to logic continuity, and it is always logically true. It is placed as the first logic
condition in the rung. A label instruction referenced by a unique address can be defined only once in
a program.

4.20 RETURN (RET)

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The RET instruction is used to terminate a ladder jump subroutine. It must be used at the end of each
subroutine.

4.21SINKING-SOURCING CONCEPT

4.21.1 SINKING

the current driving capability of a circuit, to draw a current toward the ground or zero voltage, or to
a lower voltage.
4.21.2 SOURCING

the current driving capability of a circuit, to draw a current from the power supply or the higher
voltage in the circuit. Most commonly used DC module options in PLCs are:
1.Sinking input and
2.Sourcing output module

Figure 4.22
Sinking I/O circuits on the I/O modules receive (sink) current from sourcing field devices. Sinking
output modules used for interfacing with electronic equipment.
PLC has input and output lines through which it is connected to a system it directs. Input can be
keys, switches, sensors while outputs are led to different devices from simple signalization lights to
complex communication modules.
This is a very important part of the story about PLC controllers because it directly
influences what can be connected and how it can be connected to controller inputs or outputs. Two
terms most frequently mentioned when discussing connections to inputs or outputs are "sinking" and
"sourcing".The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:
SINKING = Common GND line (-)
SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

4.22 ALLEN BRADLEY DATA FILE DESCRIPTION

File # Type Description
O0 Output This file stores the state of output terminals for the
controller.
I1 Input This file stores the state of input terminals for the

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 controller.
S2 Status This file stores controller operation information useful for
troubleshooting controller and program operation.
B3 Bit This file stores internal relay logic.
T4 Timer This file stores the timer accumulator and preset values and
status bits.
C5 Counter This file stores the counter accumulator and preset values
and status bits.
R6 Control This file stores the length, pointer position, and status bits
for control instructions such as shift registers and
sequencers.
N7 Integer This file is used to store bit information or numeric values
with a range of -32767 to 32768.
–5
CHAPTER – 5
LADDER LOGIC EXAMPLES
5.1 SEQUENTIALLY OPERATING THREE MOTORS WITH DELAY BY USING
TIMER

Problem consists of one push button (NO Type), three TON Timers and three outputs. Which have to
be operated in following sequence .
When push button is pressed then timer 1 starts and output 1 run for 10 sec. after completion
of 10 sec. timer 2 start and output 2 run for 20 sec. after that timer 2 stops and timer 3 start so output
3 run for 25 sec. again the process start with same sequence. when push button is released then all
timer reset and whole process gets stops.

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 Figure 5.1

5.2 SEQUENTIALLY TURN OFF THE THREE OUTPUTS BY USING TIMER AND
LESS THAN INSTRUCTION

Problem consists of one push button (NO Type), One TON Timers, Three less than instruction and
three outputs. Which have to be operated in following sequence .
When push button is pressed then timer starts and all three output run. 1 Output stop after
10 sec. duration. 2 output stop after 15 sec. Duration. 3 output stop after 20 sec. duration. again the
process start with same sequence. When push button is released then all timer reset and whole
process gets stops.

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 Figure 5.2

CONCLUSION

All the different languages have the function of providing the easy programming, program
modification and allowing the user the choice of a most appropriate language for a particular
application. In this way the ease of use and maximum functionality is achieved without placing any
constraints on the possible application of a PLC system. The standardization of the PLC languages
and the programming styles has meant that the common set of languages, the subject of this report,
is supported by all the manufacturers of the PLC systems. Together with all the other advantages the
PLC systems have over the relay logic systems, they have assumed a dominant position once held by
the relay logic controllers in the field of process and automated manufacturing control. SCADA
systems have made substantial progress over the recent years in terms of functionality,
scalability, performance and openness such that they are an alternative to in house development
even for very demanding and complex control systems as those of physics experiments.

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