CY.147.

001

Part 66 Module 4 B1/B2

(B2 Highest Level)

Electronic Fundamentals
 PART 66 COURSE MODULE 4 (ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS) B2

Contents

1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE ...................................................................... 6

1.1 ENERGY LEVELS .................................................................................. 7

2. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS ..................................................... 8

2.1.1 Hole – electron pairs ................................................................... 8
2.1.2 crystal lattice structure ................................................................ 8
2.1.3 intrinsic semiconductors.............................................................. 9
2.1.4 extrinsic semiconductors ............................................................ 9
2.2 P AND N TYPE MATERIALS ............................................................. 10
2.2.1 Majority and Minority Carriers ..................................................... 10
2.2.2 PN Junction Diode ...................................................................... 11
2.2.3 forward bias ................................................................................ 13
2.2.4 reverse bias ................................................................................ 14
2.2.5 Characteristics ............................................................................ 14
2.2.6 Circuit Symbols & Identification................................................... 15

3. DIODE RECTIFIERS ......................................................................... 17

3.1 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER .......................................................................... 18
3.2 CENTRE TAP FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ....................................................... 19
3.3 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER ............................................................... 20
3.4 THREE PHASE RECTIFICATION ............................................................... 21
3.4.1 3 Phase half wave rectifier .......................................................... 22
3.4.2 Three Phase full wave bridge rectifier ......................................... 24

4. POWER SUPPLIES ........................................................................... 26

4.1 INPUT TRANSFORMER........................................................................... 26
4.2 SMOOTHING CIRCUITS .......................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Half wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor ............................... 27
4.2.2 Full wave rectifier with reservoir capacitor................................... 28
4.2.3 Ripple Factor .............................................................................. 28
4.2.4 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) ......................................................... 29
4.2.5 Voltage Regulation ..................................................................... 29
4.3 FILTERS ....................................................................................... 29
4.3.1 RC Ripple Filter .......................................................................... 29
4.3.2 LC Filter 30
4.3.3  Section Capacitor Input Filter .................................................. 31
4.4 DOUBLERS ................................................................................... 31
4.5 TRIPLERS (FOR INFORMATION ONLY) ............................................. 32

5. OTHER USES FOR DIODES............................................................... 34

5.1 CLAMPING CIRCUITS ..................................................................... 34
5.1.1 Circuit Construction .................................................................... 34
5.1.2 OPERATION .............................................................................. 34
5.1.3 Types of Input Waveform ............................................................ 36
5.2 LIMITING CIRCUITS ........................................................................ 36
5.2.1 Basic principles ........................................................................... 38
5.2.2 Combined limiter ......................................................................... 38

6. OTHER DIODES.................................................................................. 40
6.1 ZENER ......................................................................................... 40

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6.1.1 Operating parameters. ................................................................ 40

6.1.2 Basic voltage reference diode circuit:.......................................... 41
6.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES ................................................................ 42
6.3 PHOTOCELLS ................................................................................ 43
6.3.1 Photoconductive Cells ................................................................ 43
6.3.2 Photovoltaic Cells ....................................................................... 43
6.4 PHOTODIODES .............................................................................. 43
6.5 VARACTOR DIODE ......................................................................... 43
6.6 VARISTOR .................................................................................... 44
6.7 SCR I THYRISTOR ........................................................................ 44
6.7.1 Basic form................................................................................... 45
6.7.2 I-V Characteristic ........................................................................ 45
6.7.3 The reverse blocking triode thyristor ........................................... 47
6.7.4 Silicon Controlled Rectifier .......................................................... 48
6.7.5 Phase control. ............................................................................. 48
6.8 BI- DIRECTIONAL TRIODE THYRISTOR (TRIAC). ................................ 49
6.9 BI- DIRECTIONAL BREAKDOWN DIODE (DIAC). ................................ 51

7. TRANSISTORS .................................................................................. 53
7.1 TRANSISTOR ACTION ..................................................................... 53
7.2 CURRENTS ................................................................................... 55
7.3 CONFIGURATIONS ......................................................................... 55
7.4 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION........................................ 56
7.5 BIASING........................................................................................ 57
7.5.1 Thermal runaway ........................................................................ 58
7.6 THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH ...................................................... 59
7.7 CLASS A, B, C ............................................................................... 60

8. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR ........................................................... 63

8.1 OPERATION .................................................................................. 63
8.2 SYMBOL ....................................................................................... 64
8.3 AS AN AMPLIFIER .......................................................................... 65
8.4 IGFET ......................................................................................... 65
8.5 ADVANTAGES OF FETS ................................................................ 68
8.6 HANDLING OF FETS. .................................................................... 68

9. AMPLIFIERS ...................................................................................... 69
9.1 FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATION......................................................... 69
9.2 SYMBOLS ..................................................................................... 69
9.3 CASCADING .................................................................................. 70
9.3.1 Zin………………. ........................................................................ 70
9.3.2 Zout………… .............................................................................. 71
9.3.3 Effect of Zin and Zout on gain of cascaded amplifier ..................... 71
9.4 COUPLING .................................................................................... 72
9.5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE. .............................................................. 73
9.5.1 Transistor Transformer coupled amplifier .................................... 74
9.5.2 Decoupling Circuits ..................................................................... 76
9.5.3 Simple Amplifier Circuit. .............................................................. 76

10. POWER AMPLIFIERS ...................................................................... 78

10.1 BASIC POWER AMPLIFIER (SINGLE ENDED) ..................................... 78
10.2 APPLICATIONS OF POWER AMPLIFIERS ..................................... 79
10.3 IMPEDANCE MATCHING ................................................................. 79
10.3.1 Power output .............................................................................. 80
10.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Ended Power amplifiers

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10.4 PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER .................................................................. 81

10.5 CLASS B PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER ..................................................... 82
10.5.1 Basic Circuit................................................................................ 82
10.5.2 Cross Over Distortion.................................................................. 83
10.6 COMPLEMENTARY PAIR PUSH-PULL .............................................. 84
10.7 DARLINGTON PAIR ........................................................................ 85

11. OSCILLATORS ................................................................................. 86

11.1 CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATION ..................................................... 86
11.2 LC OSCILLATOR ........................................................................... 86
11.3 PHASE - SHIFT OSCILLATORS ........................................................ 87
11.4 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS ................................................................ 88
11.5 ASTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR ............................................................. 88
11.6 MONOSTABLE MUTIVIBRATOR ........................................................ 90
11.7 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR ............................................................ 90
11.8 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER…………………………………………………….. 90
11.9 TESTING OF TRANSISTORS……………………………………….. 90

12. FEEDBACK ....................................................................................... 95

12.1 LOOP GAIN .................................................................................. 96
12.2 EFFECT OF NFB ON GAIN STABILITY. ............................................. 96
12.3 EFFECT OF NFB ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE ................................. 97
12.4 DISTORTION. ................................................................................ 97
12.5 TYPES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ............................................ 98
12.5.1 Voltage NFB ............................................................................... 98
12.5.2 Current NFB ............................................................................... 99
12.5.3 EFFECT OF NFB ON OUTPUT AND INPUT IMPEDANCES ...... 100

13. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ............................................................ 102

13.1 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL OP AMP. ............................................... 102
13.2 PROPERTIES OF PRACTICAL OP AMP............................................. 102
13.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .................................................................... 102
13.4 PIN OUTS & CIRCUIT SYMBOL ......................................................... 103
13.5 POWER REQUIREMENTS ................................................................ 104
13.5.1 Output Voltage Limits.................................................................. 104
13.6 OPERATION .................................................................................. 104
13.6.1 Negative Feedback ..................................................................... 105
13.7 COMPARATOR............................................................................... 106
13.8 OP AMP SUMMING AMP .................................................................. 106
13.9 DIFFERENTIATOR .......................................................................... 107
13.10 INTEGRATOR ................................................................................ 108

14. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS........................................................... 109

14.1 BASE MATERIAL ............................................................................ 110
14.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL ................................................................. 110
14.3 BONDING OF CONDUCTOR MATERIAL .............................................. 110
14.4 INSPECTIONS & TESTS .................................................................. 110
14.4.1 Appearance ................................................................................ 110
14.4.2 Thickness ................................................................................... 110
14.4.3 Bow & Twist ................................................................................ 111
14.4.4 Peel Strength .............................................................................. 111
14.4.5 Heat Resistance by Solder ......................................................... 111
14.4.6 Pull-off Strength .......................................................................... 111
14.4.7 ElecTRIcal Tests......................................................................... 111
14.5 MACHINING OF BOARDS ................................................................. 112
14.6 CIRCUIT ARTWORK......................................................................... 112

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14.7 PRINTING OF CIRCUITS .................................................................. 113

14.7.1 Etching Process .......................................................................... 113
14.7.2 Additive Process ......................................................................... 114
14.7.3 Inspection ................................................................................... 114
14.8 SOLDERING METHODS.................................................................... 115
14.8.1 Hand Soldering ........................................................................... 115
14.8.2 Mass Soldering ........................................................................... 115
14.9 SOLDER RESISTS ........................................................................... 117
14.10 PLATING OF PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS ........................................... 118
14.10.1 Plating Materials & Thickness' .................................................... 118
14.10.2 Through-Hole Plating .................................................................. 119
14.11 ORGANIC PROTECTIVE COATINGS ................................................... 120
14.12 MULTI-LAYER CIRCUITS ................................................................. 120
14.12.1 Registration Jig ........................................................................... 121
14.12.2 Moulding & Curing ...................................................................... 121
14.12.3 Thickness of layers ..................................................................... 121
14.13 FLEXIBLE PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS .............................................. 122
14.13.1 Die Stamping .............................................................................. 122
14.13.2 Fusion Bonding ........................................................................... 122
14.13.3 Etched Foil.................................................................................. 122

15. SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION................................. 124

15.1 DESYNN SYSTEM........................................................................... 124
15.1.1 The Basic Desynn....................................................................... 125
15.1.2 Slab Desynn ............................................................................... 126
15.2 SYNCHRO SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 127
15.2.1 Synchro Types ............................................................................ 127
15.2.2 Synchro Schematics ................................................................... 129
15.2.3 XYZ Synchro system .................................................................. 129
15.2.4 Synchro Supplies ........................................................................ 129
15.2.5 Torque Synchro System ............................................................. 130
15.2.6 Electrical Zero ............................................................................. 132
15.2.7 Differential Torque Synchro System............................................ 133
15.2.8 Control Synchro System ............................................................. 135
15.2.9 Differential Control Synchros ...................................................... 139

16. SERVO SYSTEMS ..................................................................... 140

16.1 CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS........................................ 140
16.1.1 open loop .................................................................................... 140
16.1.2 closed loop ................................................................................. 141
16.2 REMOTE POSITION CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS ........................... 141
16.2.1 Positional Feedback ................................................................... 142
16.3 TYPES OF INPUTS ......................................................................... 143
16.3.1 Step Input ................................................................................... 143
16.3.2 Ramp Input ................................................................................. 143
16.3.3 Accelerating Input ....................................................................... 143
16.4 SYSTEM RESPONSE ...................................................................... 144
16.5 DAMPING ..................................................................................... 144
16.5.1 Frictional Forces which Produce Damping .................................. 145
16.5.2 Velocity Feedback Damping ....................................................... 147
16.6 VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS........................................ 148
16.6.1 Residual Error ............................................................................. 148
16.6.2 Velocity Lag ................................................................................ 149
16.7 A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS ........................................... 149
16.7.1 E & I Bar Transducer .................................................................. 149
16.7.2 A.C. Tachogenerators ................................................................. 150

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16.8 PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS.......................................................... 151

16.8.1 Direct Servo Current System ...................................................... 151
16.8.2 Alternating Current Servo System ............................................... 152
16.9 OTHER TRANSDUCERS .................................................................. 152
16.9.1 linear variable differential transformer ......................................... 152
16.9.2 rotary variable transformer .......................................................... 153
16.9.3 inductive type transducers .......................................................... 154
16.9.4 A.C. Current Control ................................................................... 155

17. GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................ 156

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1. Atomic Structure
The first model of an atom proposed by Neils Bohr suggested an atom consists of a central nucleus
containing one or more protons and any number of neutrons, with electrons of much smaller mass
than the other particles orbiting around the nucleus. Under normal circumstances the number of
negatively charged electrons equals the number of positively charged protons, so the atom is
electrically neutral.

Subsequent theories identified the fact that electrons have energy, but the amounts of energy are
discrete. That is, they can only be of a fixed set of values. These energy levels correspond to the
orbits around the nucleus. The smaller the radius of the orbit the lower the energy. If an electron
travels from a lower to a higher orbit its energy must increase. Similarly an electron moving to a
lower orbit must give up energy.

The energy levels are generally called shells. The first (n = 1) shell has a capacity of 2 electrons.
The next (n = 2) has a capacity of 8 electrons arranged in two sub-groups of two and six. Under
normal circumstances the lowest energy shells are filled with electrons with any vacancies
occurring in the outermost shells.

Some samples of atomic structure are shown below.

a. Carbon
n = 1 shell is full
n = 2 lower sub-shell is full
upper sub-shell is part filled with 4 vacancies

b. Germanium – 32 electrons and 32 protons

N = 1 shell is full (2)
N = 2 shell is full (8)
N = 3 shell is full (18)
N = 4 shell is part filled (4)

c. Silicon 14 electrons and 14 protons

N = 1 shell is full (2)
N = 2 shell is full (8)
N = 3 shell is part filled (4)

Electrons in the outer shell may become detached from their parent atom. The likelihood of this
varies from material to material. A detached electron becomes free and represents a current charge
carrier. The atom left behind becomes a positive ion. There are many free electrons in a conductor
with very few in an insulator.

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1.1 ENERGY LEVELS

The previous discussion refers to atoms in isolation from each other; a state which is approximately
obtained in a gas. In a solid material the atoms are packed closely together and electrons come
under the influence of other nuclei in addition to their own nucleus. This interaction between
neighbouring atoms results in a splitting and overlapping of the energy levels to form energy bands
for the material as a whole.

The highest energy bands are the only significant ones in the electrical context. These are called
the valence band and the conduction band.

The conduction band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. Electrons in the conduction
band are easily separated from the nuclei and are called free electrons.

The valence band is normally full but if an electron gains sufficient energy it is possible for it to jump
from the valence band into the conduction band across the forbidden gap.

The material will be a good conductor if the conduction band is partially filled or the valence band
overlaps the conduction band i.e. the forbidden gap is zero. The material will be a good insulator if
the conduction band is empty and the forbidden gap is so large that no electron ever receives
sufficient energy to transfer to the conduction band.

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2. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
In a semiconductor the conduction band is empty at absolute zero, but as temperature rises, an
increasing number of electrons receive sufficient energy to jump the forbidden gap and enter the
conduction band. Thus at low temperatures a semiconductor behaves like an insulator and at high
temperatures like a conductor.

The resistivity of a good conductor is in the order of 10-6 ohm-cms and a good insulator about 107
ohm-cms. The resistivity of a semiconductor varies from 10-3 to 1010 ohm-cms.

Examples of semiconductors are

Diamond - forbidden gap 7eV (very nearly an insulator)

Silicon - forbidden gap 1.2 eV
Germanium - forbidden gap 0.78eV

2.1.1 HOLE – ELECTRON PAIRS

If an electron moves from the valence to the conduction band it leaves a vacancy in the former.
This vacancy is called a hole and has the characteristics of a positive charge. The free electron and
the hole are called a hole-electron pair. The free electron will tend to fall back into the hole (or
another hole) so that a hole-electron pair has only a limited lifetime. The average life of hole-
electron pairs is called the mean free time.

2.1.2 CRYSTAL LATTICE STRUCTURE

The structures of the two most common semiconductors used in electronics, silicon and
germanium, are similar. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its neighbour. The
structure can be represented as shown below.

Each pair of electrons forms a covalent bond between two adjacent atoms. When an electron
moves from the valence band to the conduction band it breaks free from its covalent bond leaving
behind a positive hole. This hole may be filled by another electron breaking free from its bond, but
in so doing it also leaves behind a hole. Thus holes are apparently moving in the material. Thus
both holes and electrons may be regarded as mobile charges. Any movement of charge constitutes
an electric current.

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In the absence of an externally applied electric field the movements of holes and electrons will be
quite random and there will be no movement in a particular direction.

2.1.3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

The materials examined so far are called intrinsic semiconductors. In these pure materials there is
one hole for every electron. The forbidden gap between the valence and conduction bands is very
small so that at room temperature, electrons move easily from the valence to the conduction band
leaving holes in the valence band. Hole-electron pairs are formed and the material acts as a
moderate conductor of electricity.
If an external field is applied to semiconductor material the holes will drift to the negative pole and
the free electrons to the positive pole. This type of conduction is called intrinsic conduction. It is
heavily dependent on temperature and electrons and holes are created in equal numbers.
Nevertheless, in all practical semiconductors, the value of this intrinsic current is very small.

2.1.4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

The number of holes or free electrons may be greatly increased by introducing a small amount of
impurity into the semiconductor crystal. This process is known as doping and the material produced
is called extrinsic semiconductor.

2.1.4.1 Donors
Materials such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorous have 5 valency electrons. Only four of these
are required to fit into the lattice structure of a semiconductor material. Thus four electrons will form
covalent bonds leaving one electron free. This free electron will enter the conduction band. Each
atom of the donor material donates an electron and itself becomes a static positive ion. This ion is
locked into the lattice structure and cannot move and is therefore not a hole.

The material as a whole is electrically neutral as there are the same number of positive and
negative charges in the material.

2.1.4.2 Acceptors
Materials such as boron, gallium and indium have only three valence electrons.

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When inserted into the lattice structure each impurity atom will have an electron vacancy i.e. a hole.
In this case the number of holes greatly exceeds the number of free electrons. This type of impurity
accepts electrons from the lattice structure.

Again the material is electrically neutral as there are the same number of positive and negative
charges in the material.

2.2 P AND N TYPE MATERIALS

PType: Materials doped with acceptor impurity material have many more holes than electrons,
therefore any current flow consists almost entirely of holes provided by the impurity. This is called P
type material because the majority carriers of charge are holes. There will be some movement of
electrons caused by the thermal breakdown of covalent bonds and these form the minority carriers
in the material.
N Type:Materials doped with donor impurity material have many more free electrons than holes
therefore any current flow consists almost entirely of free electrons donated by the impurity. This is
called N type material because the majority carriers of charge are electrons. There will be some
movement of holes caused by the thermal breakdown of covalent bonds and these form the
minority carriers in the material.

2.2.1 MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS

At normal temperatures conduction in either material is mainly by the majority carriers. This form of
conduction is called extrinsic conduction. As temperature increases the number of hole-electron
pairs is increased due to the breakdown of some covalent bonds. There is an increase in the
number of minority carriers and the conduction becomes progressively intrinsic.

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It can be shown mathematically that the majority carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor
is approximately equal to the density of impurity atoms. In practice this means that the conductivity
of extrinsic material depends on the amount of impurity present. This can be controlled during the
manufacture of a specific device to suit the application for which the device is intended.

2.2.2 PN JUNCTION DIODE

So far we have considered n-type and p-type materials separately. We now have to consider what
happens when these materials are joined together to form a junction. These are called p-n junctions
and the behaviour of the device will depend on the electrical behaviour of the region around the
junctions. We must, therefore, examine the basic properties of the p-n junction.

When the junction is formed, some of the majority carriers will diffuse across the junction i.e. some
holes will go from the p type material to the n type and some electrons will move from the n type to
the p type.

The holes from the p type material will combine with free electrons in the n region and electrons
moving into the p type material will combine with the holes. There will also be a movement of the
minority carriers in the reverse direction but this will be small.

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As electrons move from the n type material across the junction they are leaving protons behind in
their nuclei. This means that the n type material is becoming positively charged. Movement of the
holes from the p type material will mean that it is becoming negatively charged. A potential will now
be formed across the junction.

This potential, when large enough, will oppose any further movement of majority carriers across the
junction. On the other hand this potential will encourage minority carriers across the junction.

After a short space of time a state of equilibrium is reached when majority current and minority
current flow is exactly counterbalanced by minority current flow and there is no net current flow
across the junction.

At normal temperatures and doping levels, the size of the potential barrier is about 0.3V for
germanium and about 0.7V for silicon.

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Outside the junction barrier the materials are still neutral. Inside the barrier there is a positive
charge on the N side and a negative charge on the P side. Inside the barrier there are few current
carriers leading to the region being called the depletion region, depletion layer or the space charge
region.

2.2.3 FORWARD BIAS

A variable voltage is applied to the junction such that the positive terminal is connected to the p
type material and the negative terminal is applied to the n type. As the voltage is increased free
electrons in the n type material and free holes in the p type material are pushed towards the
junction region. Their initial effect is to neutralise some of the donor and acceptor atoms reducing
the potential barrier but no current will flow across the junction.

Further increase in the voltage will reduce the potential barrier to zero and the majority carriers can
then move through the materials. It should be noted that the nature of the current changes across
the junction. In the p type region the current is hole flow and in the n type region is electron flow.

Within the junction region current is a mixture of both, the proportions varying with the distance
from the junction border.

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It is important to realise that for a short distance either side of the junction, current is also being
carried by minority carriers as well.

Connecting the supply this way round is termed forward bias and when conduction occurs the
materials will behave as a resistor having a resistance of approximately 1K ohms.

2.2.4 REVERSE BIAS

Reverse bias means that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed and will then increase the
potential barrier across the junction.

Reverse bias will mean that the electrons and holes are attracted away from the junction making
the depletion region even wider. Under these conditions no majority carrier current can flow and the

material will act as an insulator having a resistance of approximately 1M.

A small current will flow across the junction due to minority carriers being attracted across the
junction. The size of this current depends on the generation rate of the hole-electron pairs and this
depends on temperature. Increasing the reverse bias will not increase this current and it remains
substantially constant for a given temperature. It is called the reverse saturation current.

If the temperature is increased enough this reverse current will become large enough to limit the
operation of the junction.

2.2.5 CHARACTERISTICS
As the forward bias across the junction is increased the forward current increases. When the
junction barrier voltage is overcome the current rapidly increases. The resistance of the forward
biased junction is very low and the voltage drop across the junction is approximately 0.6V for a
germanium diode and 1V for a silicon diode.

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Under reverse bias conditions the current remains very low as the voltage increases. Typical values
being 10 – 100 A for germanium diodes and 0.01 – 0.02 A for silicon diodes.

As the voltage is increased eventually reverse breakdown will occur. At this point the minority
carriers are moving so fast they are colliding with electrons breaking the covalent bonds producing
more free carriers. The new carriers accelerate and break more bonds. Avalanche breakdown
occurs which destroys the junction.

The voltage at which this occurs depends on the initial concentration of carriers, but is also affected
by temperature as shown by the dotted line on the diagram.

Temperature also affects the forward current since the concentration of carriers is increased.

2.2.6 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & IDENTIFICATION

The various symbols used for diodes are shown below.

Whether the triangles are filled or unfilled depends only on the drawing office preference. Where it
is considered necessary, it is possible to show that one of the electrodes is connected to the case
of the device by adding a dot to the symbol, but this is not often used. In every symbol, the arrow
indicates the direction of conventional current flow.
The base of the triangle is the end where conventional current enters the diode, this end is called
the anode. The end through which current leaves the diode is the cathode. In some cases the
arrow symbol is marked on the diode, where it is not, the cathode is identified by a band or
distinctive shape as shown below.

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Two identification codes are used for diodes. In the American system the code always starts with
1N and is followed by a serial number, i.e. 1N4001. In the continental system, the first letter gives
the semiconductor material; A for germanium; B for silicon, and the second letter identifies the use;
A - signal diode; Y - rectifier diode and Z for zener diode. To complicate the situation some
manufacturers have their own codes.

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3. DIODE RECTIFIERS

Rectifier diodes are designed to convert ac to dc. To do this effectively and efficiently they must
have:

 Low resistance to current in the forward direction

 High resistance to current in the reverse direction.

Because of the need for a very low reverse current and a high breakdown voltage, almost all
semiconductor rectifier diodes are silicon junction types. They usually have a junction area that is
large relative to their size to assist in the dissipation of heat. In large rectifiers, special cooling
arrangements are needed to ensure heat dissipation. This generally achieved by mounting the
diode on a heat sink.

The basic rectifier shown converts ac into pulsating dc.

A negative output can be obtained by reversing the diode connections.

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3.1 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

The diagram below shows a simple half wave rectifier and its associated waveforms. Current flows
through the rectifier on alternate half cycles of the ac input and a pulsating dc flows through the
load resistor.

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The peak value of the output voltage equals the peak value of the transformer secondary voltage.
The mean value of the output is 32% of the peak value.

The input transformer enables the ac input to be stepped up or down to produce any value of dc
required. It will also isolate the output from the input.

The pulsating dc is of little use in electronic equipment and the basic circuit is in common use only
for battery charging.

3.2 CENTRE TAP FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The diagram below shows a centre tapped full wave rectifier with a positive output. To obtain a
negative output with respect to earth either:
 Earth point X and take the output from point Y

 Reverse the diodes taking the output from X with Y at earth.

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Diodes D1 and D2 conduct alternately so that current flows through the load in the same direction
during both positive and negative half cycles of the ac supply.

The peak output voltage is equal to the peak amplitude across half the transformer secondary
winding. The mean dc level is 64% of this peak value.

The frequency of the output ripple is twice the input frequency.

Current in the transformer secondary flows in opposite directions during alternate half cycles
resulting in no polarisation of the transformer core and lower transformer losses.

The output current is shared between the two rectifier diodes, therefore the full wave circuit can be
used where larger load currents are required.

3.3 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

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The circuit shown does not use a centre tapped transformer and is therefore lighter and cheaper.

Diodes Dl and D2 conduct during the positive half cycles of the input voltage, and diodes D3 and
D4 conduct during the negative half cycles of the input voltage. The output voltage waveform is the
same as for the centre tapped full wave rectifier.

The peak output voltage is equal to the amplitude across the whole of the secondary transformer
winding.

3.4 THREE PHASE RECTIFICATION

There are advantages to be gained from using three phase rectifier circuits when high output
powers are required. The object is to superimpose more voltages into the diodes in different time
relationships to one another.

The advantages are:

a) Higher d.c. output voltage for a given transformer secondary voltage.

b) Higher ripple frequency, which is easier to smooth.

c) Lower amplitude ripple voltage.

d) Higher overall efficiency.

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3.4.1 3 PHASE HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

The diagram above shows the circuit of a three-phase half wave rectifier. It usually has the primary
delta connected and the secondary star connected.

The waveforms are shown below using the red phase as the reference voltage.

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For simplicity there is assumed to be no voltage drop across the rectifying diodes. E max is the peak
value of the phase voltage at the transformer secondary.

The idealised dc output voltage, with a resistive load, varies between a maximum value of E max at
the peak of each input phase, and a minimum value of half Emax at a time when one diode ceases
to conduct and the next starts to conduct. This gives an average value for the d.c. output voltage of
0.826 Emax

At any given time, only the diode with the highest anode potential conducts. The common cathodes
follow this potential and thus reverse bias the other two diodes. Each diode conducts for one-third
of a cycle giving an output ripple frequency of three times the supply frequency. The ripple voltage
is little more than one third of that from any of the unsmoothed single phase circuits.

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3.4.2 THREE PHASE FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

The diagram below shows the circuit of a three-phase, full wave, bridge rectifier. It is the most
widely used circuit for high power rectification using semiconductor rectifiers.

In this circuit the load current always flows through two diodes, in series across the line voltage
from the transformer.

When the red phase (R) is the most positive, current flows through Dl to the load and then returns

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through D5 or D6 (which ever is the most negative) to the transformer. Thus, although each diode
conducts for one third of a cycle, the current path changes every sixth of a cycle as shown in the
figure above. The output frequency is therefore six times the supply frequency and the ripple
voltage is small.

The average d.c. output voltage is high, 0.955 Emax

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4. POWER SUPPLIES

Power supply units are used to provide electrical power for electronic equipment. They convert the
primary a.c. supply into a form suitable for use inside the equipment. This involves not only
rectification but also smoothing out the a.c. ripple and stabilisation of the supply.

The diagram below shows a typical block diagram of a power supply unit (PSU).

The input transformer has a number of secondary windings. It is used to step the mains voltage up
or down to provide d.c. voltage (when rectified).

The rectifier changes the transformer a.c. output into pulsating d.c. An ideal rectifier has zero
forward resistance, and an infinite resistance to reverse current flow.

Smoothing or filter circuits smooth the pulsating d.c. output voltage from the rectifier to give a
steady d.c. voltage for equipment supplies.

The stabiliser or regulator circuit ensures a steady d.c output voltage irrespective of changes in
main input voltage or output load current.

4.1 INPUT TRANSFORMER

The input transformer enables:

- The a.c. input voltage to be stepped up or down to produce any value of d.c.
required.

- The rectifier to be isolated from the mains.

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4.2 SMOOTHING CIRCUITS

The half wave and full wave rectifier circuits discussed in the previous section produce pulsating d.c
outputs. A smoothing circuit changes these outputs into a steady d.c voltage level.

4.2.1 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH SMOOTHING CAPACITOR

The diagram below shows a simple half wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor "C, inserted.

In the reservoir capacitor smoothing circuit:

 The capacitor "C" charges through the diode towards the peak value of the input voltage
whenever the input voltage is greater than Vc and the diode is conducting.

 When the input voltage is less than Vc, the diode cuts off and "c" discharges through RL.

 This results in a mean dc output level less than the peak of the input, with a 'ripple'
component superimposed at the input frequency.

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The higher the load current (the lower the load resistance) the higher will be the amplitude of the
ripple voltage.

The larger the amplitude of the ripple, the lower will be the mean output d.c level.

The mean output d.c level will be equal to the peak of the input a.c voltage when the load current is
zero.

4.2.2 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH RESERVOIR CAPACITOR

The diagram below shows a centre tapped, full wave rectifier with a reservoir capacitor "C" inserted.
The charge on "C" is now topped up twice during each cycle of the input waveform.

The output from the full wave rectifier has:

 A lower a.c. ripple than that for a similarly loaded half wave circuit
 A ripple frequency twice that of the a.c input frequency
A higher mean d.c output than that for a similarly loaded half-wave circuit.

4.2.3 RIPPLE FACTOR

The ripple factor gives an indication of the amount of ripple present on the output of a d.c power
supply.

The ripple factor is usually expressed as a percentage and defined as:

Ripple Factor = RMS Ripple Voltage X 100%

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DC Output Voltage

Example: If a 3 V rms ripple is superimposed on an 80 V d.c voltage from a power supply,

Ripple Factor = 3 x 100 = 3.75%

80

4.2.4 PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV)

The peak voltage across a rectifier diode in the reverse direction during the non-conducting half
cycles is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage.

In a half-wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor, the PIV is twice the amplitude of the applied
alternating voltage. The diode must be able to withstand this voltage without breaking down.

4.2.5 VOLTAGE REGULATION

Voltage regulation is a measure of the ability of a power supply unit to provide increased load
current without a fall in the output voltage.

It is defined as:

Regulation = Off load volts - On load volts x 100%

Off load volts

Example: A PSU is able to supply 360 volts when off-load. When providing a load current of 1.5 A,
the output voltage falls to 295 volts. Calculate the voltage regulation for a load current in the range
0 to 1.5 amps.

Regulation = 360 - 295 x 100%

360

= 18.1%

4.3 FILTERS

It is often not enough just to use a simple smoothing capacitor so ripple filters are used to give a
very smooth D.C. output.

4.3.1 RC RIPPLE FILTER

The diagram below shows the circuit of a centre-tap full wave rectifier incorporating an RC filter to
reduce the a.c ripple across the reservoir capacitor C, which consists of a mean d.c level with an

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a.c ripple.

With this circuit:

 There is a division of d.c potential between RF and RL, with little d.c dropped across R F if RF is
much smaller than RL.

 There is potential division of a.c between Rf and the reactance of Cf with most of the a.c dropped
across Rf if Rf is much greater than Xcf.

 The ripple is reduced, but there is also a drop in output voltage due to Rf.
 Regulation is poor.

4.3.2 LC FILTER

In the above circuit, the inductor offers a high series impedance to the ripple frequency without
introducing the d.c volts drop of RC filter discussed previously.

The d.c output voltage is equal to the average value of the rectified pulses which is lower than a
capacitive input filter.

The L-C filter has good regulation at high load currents. A bleeder resistor is often used to ensure
that the current cannot fall below the minimum value for which the filter was designed, when off-
load. The minimum current is approximately 10% of the full load current.

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4.3.3  SECTION CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER

The  section filter shown above is basically a reservoir capacitor C, followed by an L-C filter
section. It is similar to the capacitor input RC filter discussed previously, but with the resistor R
replaced by the inductor L.

In this filter there is a potential division of the a.c ripple between the high reactance of L and the low
reactance of C2, with most of the ripple appearing across L.

The result is a substantial reduction in the amplitude of the ripple without a loss of the mean d.c
level.

Regulation is better than with R-C filters.

4.4 DOUBLERS
The voltage doubler circuit is produced by connecting the outputs of two half wave rectifiers in
series. The rectifiers are both suppliers from the same secondary winding of a transformer.
During the positive half cycle Dl conducts and C I will charge to the peak value of the supply
voltage.

During the negative half cycle D2 conducts and C2 will charge.

The output voltage will be the sum of both voltages.

However if a load is applied to the circuit one capacitor will be discharging while the other is
charging and the output voltage will be greatly reduced i.e. very poor regulation.

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Below is an example of another example of a full wave voltage doubler and a half wave voltage
doubler.

Full Wave Voltage Doubler

Half Wave Voltage Doubler

4.5 TRIPLERS (FOR INFORMATION ONLY)

Note:The following is American sourced and the test refers to electron flow.

The circuit shown below is an illustration of a half-wave voltage tripler. The circuitry is identical to
the doubler except for the additional components shown by the dotted lines. (CR3, C3, and R2 make
up the additional circuitry.) By themselves, CR3, C3, and R2 make up a half-wave rectifier. If you
remove the added circuitry, you will once again have a half-wave voltage doubler.

Half-wave voltage tripler.

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Diagram A (Positive Alternation) shows the schematic for the voltage tripler. CR3 is forward biased
and functions like a closed switch. This allows C3 to charge to a peak voltage of 200 volts at the
same time C1 is also charging to 200 volts.

Voltage tripler. POSITIVE ALTERNATION

The other half of the input cycle is shown in view B (Negative Alternation). C2 is charged to twice
the input voltage, or 400 volts, as a result of the voltage-doubling action of the transformer and C1.
At this time, C2 and C3 are used as series-aiding devices, and the output voltage increases to the
sum of their respective voltages, or 600 volts. R1 and R2 are proportional according to the voltages
across C2 and C3. In this case, there is a 2 to 1 ratio.

Voltage tripler. NEGATIVE ALTERNATION

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5. OTHER USES FOR DIODES

5.1 CLAMPING CIRCUITS

Clamping circuits are used in radar and communications equipments to change the reference
levels of a waveform without changing its amplitude and without seriously affecting its shape.

An alternative name for clamping circuits is " dc restorer" circuits. As seen after passing through a
capacitor, a waveform has its de component altered. The clamping circuit is used to restore the
dc component or to give the waveform a new one.

5.1.1 CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

The simplest form of clamping circuit is the diode circuit.

The voltage to which the bottom ends of the resistor and diode are returned are known as the bias,
or reference, voltage. It may have either polarity and be of any value including zero volts (as shown
in the above diagram).

5.1.2 OPERATION

All diode-clamping circuits rely for their operation on the following basic principles.

a. When the diode cuts of the CR circuit has a long time constant.

b. When the diode conducts the CR circuit has a short time constant.

c. Kirchoffs laws must be satisfied at all times i.e. Vin = Vc + Vr.

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1. AB: The input voltage rises by 100V from zero and since C cannot change its charge instantly
the rise will appear across R. The diode will be forward biased and will conduct.

2. BC: The capacitor C and conducting diode form a short CR and the capacitor will charge
quickly to 100V. Vout will fall to zero.

3. CD: Vir drops by 100V and this fall will appear across R. So Vout falls to - I00V. The diode
is reverse biased and will stop conducting.

4. DE: The circuit now has a long CR and C will discharge very slowly. VR rises slowly towards
zero volts.

5. EF: Vir instantly rises to 100V and this will cause Vout to rise from -98V (say) to +2V which
causes the diode to conduct.

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6. After F: C charges quickly to 100V due to the short CR and the process repeats as above.

Thus after the initial spike the output waveform is a very close version of the input waveform but
negatively clamped to zero volts. The longer the value of the long CR circuit the better will be the
shape of the output waveform.

5.1.3 TYPES OF INPUT WAVEFORM

Any waveform can be successfully clamped provided the waveform has a steady upper or lower
reference level.

5.2 LIMITING CIRCUITS

The function of the limiting circuit is to limit or 'slice off' some of a waveform that is higher or lower
than a specified level.

Any shape of waveform can be limited provided that it exceeds, in one direction or the other, the
reference level. It can also be limited at both upper and lower limits.

Limiting or clipping circuits, as they are also known, are necessary when an input waveform has
some undesirable characteristic, which must be removed before the waveform is applied to
subsequent stages.

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Some examples are shown below.

Limiters are named by the name of the input waveform, which is removed, the position of the
diode in the circuit, and the reference voltage used by the circuit. Various names are:

Positive Limiter - Removes all parts of the input, which are positive with respect to the reference
level.

Negative Limiter - As above except that negative parts are removed.

Series Limiter - The diode is in series between the input and output.

Parallel (shunt) Limiter - The diode is in parallel with the output.

Combined Limiter - Uses a positive and negative limiter in the same circuit.

The reference voltage is always applied to the lower end of the component in parallel with the
output.

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5.2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

The principle of operation relies on the difference in resistance between a diode that is
forward and reverse biased we assume that the resistance is zero when forward biased and
infinite for reverse biased and the diode will conduct when the anode becomes positive with
respect to the cathode.

The value of the fixed resister R will be such that it will be large compared to the forward
bias resistance and small compared to the reverse bias resistance.

If the diode is conducting and its resistance is low the voltage will appear across the resistor
similarly if the diode is not conducting all of the voltage will be dropped across it, as its
resistance is so high.

5.2.1.1 Examples

Positive limiting

Negative limiting

50v

0v
5.2.2 COMBINED LIMITER

A combination of a positive and a negative limiter in the circuit can be used to take a slice
out of an input waveform. The diagram below shows a shunt combined limiter together with
its input and output waveforms.

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6. OTHER DIODES

6.1 ZENER

The operation of voltage reference and voltage regular diodes is very similar in that they are
designed to operate under reverse bias conditions in the 'breakdown' region. They have to
be manufactured to operate in this region without damage being caused. The differences
are

Voltage Reference Diode:-

this develops, and holds across its terminals a very stable reference voltage when
conducting within a narrow current range. They have very low temperature coefficients so
that the designed reference voltage stays constant with variations in temperature. They
typically operate within a range of 4v to 75v.

Voltage Regulator Diode:-

the voltage developed across its terminals remains within a certain range for fairly wide
variations in current through it. Its main use is in circuits where it is necessary to hold
voltages reasonably constant as variations occur in circuit conditions.

These devices are often referred to as Zener diodes; other names that have been used are
'breakdown' and 'avalanche' diodes.

6.1.1 OPERATING PARAMETERS.

These devices are all silicon diodes (to satisfy the temperature requirement) that are
specifically manufactured to operate in the reverse bias region and the characteristic is
extended into this region.

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The symbols are as shown below.

From the characteristic it can be seen that the reverse current is very small and is virtually
independent of voltage up to the breakdown point (a few mA). At breakdown the reverse
current increases rapidly for very little increase in voltage. The maximum amount of current
that a device can pass will vary but for voltage reference diodes it is in the order of 40 mA
whereas some voltage regulator diodes ca handle currents in excess of 15 A without
destruction.

6.1.2 BASIC VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE CIRCUIT:

Assume that the diode has a breakdown voltage of 6.2V at a working current of 7.5mA and
a dynamic resistance of 1kΩ (typical figures). To provide an output the value of R must be
such that the diode will operate in the breakdown region.

R = V = 28-6.2
I 7.5x10-3

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= 2906 Ohms

Basic voltage diode circuit:

These diodes are manufactured with breakdown voltages from about 2V up to 100V. This
range can be extended by connecting diodes in series.

One of the main uses of this circuit is where it is necessary to hold the output voltage
reasonably constant for changes in the supply voltage and also changes in load conditions.

6.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

A light emitting diode is a specially constructed and doped diode type device which emits
light when operated in the forward bias condition. The colour of light emitted depends on
the semi-conductor material used.

Gallium arsenide phosphide - red light

Gallium phosphide - green light

Symbols used are similar to the photodiode.

Unless an LED is the constant current type, which incorporates an integrated circuit
regulator, it must have an external resistor connected in series to limit the forward current
which, typically may only be 10mA. The voltage drop across a conducting LED is about 1.7
volts.

In seven segment LED displays, each segment is a separate LED and depending on which
segments are energised, the display lights up the number 0 to 9. Such displays are usually
designed to operate from a 5V supply - each segment needs a separate current limiting
resistor and all the cathodes or anodes are joined together to form a common connection.

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6.3 PHOTOCELLS
Photocells change light into electrical signals. There are two basic types, Photoconductive
cells and Photovoltaic cells.

6.3.1 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

The resistance of certain semiconductors decreases as the intensity of light falling
on them increases. They are therefore light sensitive resistors and sometimes
referred to as light dependent resistors.

6.3.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

When illuminated, a photovoltaic cell produces a voltage. If an external circuit is
connected to the cell, current flows through it. The source of energy is the light.

The voltage available depends on the material used, the intensity of the light and the
amount of current drawn from the cell. For a silicon cell in full sunlight the voltage on open
circuit is 0.45V. With a maximum current of 35mA for each square cm of cell. Only about
10% of the light is turned into electrical energy.

6.4 PHOTODIODES
Photodiodes are operated under reverse bias conditions. The leakage current
increasing in proportion to the amount of light falling on the device. Photodiodes
are used as fast counters and light meters.

6.5 VARACTOR DIODE

With a diode in its reverse bias condition it can be made to act as a capacitor. By varying the
reverse bias the distance the plates are apart can be varied and thus change its effective
capacitance. The circuit symbol is given below.

There are three main uses for varactor diodes:

 As remotely controlled capacitors in RF tuned circuits.

 As variable capacitors in amplifiers.

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 As variable capacitors in frequency modulator circuits.

6.6 VARISTOR

The varistor is another example of a nonlinear resistor. It is a device in which the current
varies as a power of the impressed voltage. The resistance, therefore, is also reduced. In an
ordinary resistor, the current is directly proportional to the impressed voltage and Ohm’s law
is obeyed. In the varistor, however, the current is proportional to the power of the impressed
voltage En, where n is in the range of 2 to 6. A typical voltage-current characteristic curve
and electrical symbol for the varistor are shown below.

Applications for the varistor include voltage surge protection circuits and the generation of
non-sinusoidal waveforms. The varistor is made of silicon carbide and is available in disk,
rods and washer forms. It can withstand extremely high D.C. voltages as high as 10,000V.

6.7 SCR I THYRISTOR

A thyristor is defined as a bistable semiconductor device having four, or more, layers and
three, or more, p - n junctions. Thyristor is a generic name for a whole family of devices
many of which have other names that are in widespread use. Below are the circuit symbols.

The direction of the

arrow determines
whether the SCR is
an N type gate or a P
type gate.
A P type is shown
adjacent.

The devices that are dealt with are:

 The reverse blocking diode thyristor

 The reverse blocking triode thyristor

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 The bi-directional triode thyristor (triac)

We will also deal with the bi-directional breakdown diode (diac). This is not a member of the
thyristor family but are often associated with thyristors in practical circuits and so will be
included.

The reverse blocking diode thyristor.

The reverse blocking diode thyristor is also known as:

 Pnpn switch
 Shockley diode (after its inventor)
 Four layer diode

It is also known as a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) particularly in American equipment and
literature.

6.7.1 BASIC FORM

It is a four layer device of alternate p & n type materials. It has three junctions and two
terminals. The anode is the P layer and the cathode the opposite end n layer. Also shown is
the equivalent circuit.

6.7.2 I-V CHARACTERISTIC

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Shown is the general shape of the characteristic.

Reverse bias region - With reverse bias applied two of the diodes JI and J3 are reverse
biased and J2 is forward biased. The device, as a whole, will behave as a reverse biased
junction diode and no current (apart from a very small reverse leakage current) will flow. The
device is non - conducting (off) and this is the reverse blocking state.

Small forward bias for small values of forward bias J1 and J3 are forward biased but J2 is
reverse biased and this junction will drop most of the applied voltage and will not conduct.
This is the forward blocking state.

Breakover voltage - If the forward bias voltage is increased J2 will breakdown and the
voltage across the device falls as the current increases through it. This is a small unstable
region but from then on the device is considered to be ON.

To be in its ON state it is conducting. The total voltage across the device will be very small
when on (between 0.5 and 1.5v depending on its current capabilities) but the forward
current may be large (amps rather then mA).

Switch off - The device is switched off by reducing the applied voltage to a level below that
which is required to keep the device ON. The minimum current required to keep the ON
state is known as the holding current and if the current in the device is reduced below this
level, the device will switch to the forward blocking (off) state.

6.7.2.1 Use - Pulse Generator

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The main application is as a switching device in a capacitor - discharge type of pulse

generator.

Note: CSR is the same as SCR

Capacitor C1 is charged via R1 to a voltage less than the breakdown voltage of CSR1.

A trigger pulse is applied via C2 and CRS1 will switch on and discharge C1 through the
primary of T1.

The output pulse shape and duration depends on the resonant frequency of C1 and T1.

Ringing of this circuit ensures that CRS1 switches off. (For ringing refer back to resonance
of L-C circuits in Module 3 notes.)

R1 must also be large enough to prevent current in excess of the holding current to flow
otherwise CRS1 will remain on.

6.7.3 THE REVERSE BLOCKING TRIODE THYRISTOR

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This is a four layer device similar to the diode thyristor but has an extra terminal called the
gate, which is connected to one or another of the inner layers of the device.

If the gate is corrected to the P2 layer it is referred to as a P-gate triode thyristor and is said
to be cathode controlled. If the gate is connected to the n layer the device is an n gate triode
thyristor and is said to be anode controlled.

The reverse blocking triode thyristor is also frequently referred to as a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR) particularly in power applications.

Rather than applying large bias voltages to switch the device on, a voltage can be applied to
the gate to achieve the same result. By applying the voltage at the gate a much lower value
is required to switch the device on.

The device will only switch off by reducing the voltage across the device to virtually zero.

6.7.3.1 Use - Pulse generator

The capacitor C1 is charged via RI to a voltage of CSR1 a suitable trigger pulse is applied
and CSR1 will conduct which discharges C1 through the pulse transformer T1.

6.7.4 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

These give a controllable unidirectional current (dc) from an ac waveform. This is what gives
rise to the name SCR.

6.7.5 PHASE CONTROL.

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On the positive half cycles the thyristor will be in its off state and all of the applied voltages
will be dropped across CSR1 and there will be no voltage developed across the load.

The voltage applied to the anode will also be applied to the gate but will be delayed due to
the charging time of the capacitor. Once the gate voltage is high enough CSR1 will conduct
and voltage will be applied to the load.

By varying the CR time we can control when CR1 switches on. To increase the average
power to the load decrease the value of R1 and to decrease the average load increase the
value of R1.

When the anode voltage reduces to zero the device will switch off and it will remain off
throughout the negative half cycle of the input waveform.

6.8 BI- DIRECTIONAL TRIODE THYRISTOR (TRIAC).

To make use of both half cycles of the input waveform it is necessary to have two SCR's
connected in inverse parallel.

The name TRIAC is often used for this type of device. The triac is manufactured with a single
gate terminal which simplifies the triggering for ac controllers.

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6.8.1.1 Use - AC Power Controller:

The most common use for this type of circuit is in motor speed control. As a solid state relay
contactor.

The arrangement is such that switching at a low power level can be used to apply high power to a
load.

When no gating signal is applied, the gate terminal of the triac is shorted to MT1 by the secondary
of the gate transformer. The load is switched off.

When a gating signal is applied the load is then switched on.

Advantages of this type of circuit over electromechanical relays

No contact bounce at switch on

No arcing at switch off

Small size

Lightweight

No moving parts

No routine maintenance

However the main disadvantage is that they can only be used with ac loads.

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6.9 BI- DIRECTIONAL BREAKDOWN DIODE (DIAC).

The diac is a two terminal three layer device and therefore is not a member of the thyristor family.

Its main use is to provide the gate triggering waveform for triacs.

It is similar in construction to a pnp transistor without a base connection. The two p type regions are
doped the same to give a symmetrical breakdown characteristic.

6.9.1.1 Operation

When an increasing voltage is applied of either polarity initially only a small leakage current will
flow. When a certain voltage is reached the reverse biased junction will breakdown and current
will flow with a corresponding reduction in the voltage dropped across the device. The current in
the device is limited by other components connected in series with the device.

6.9.1.2 Use – Providing gate Pulses for a triac

The main use of the diac is to provide suitable triggering current pulses into the gate terminal.

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The capacitor C charges at a rate dependant on the value of R during each half cycle. When the
voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (either positive or negative) of the diac the capacitor will
rapidly discharge through the diac and the gate circuit of the triac causing it to switch on.
The triac will switch off when the input voltage falls to zero.

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7. TRANSISTORS

Most of the theory from diodes can be extended to describe the operation of the transistor. The
junction transistor is a three layer device with two p-n junctions. There are two possible types of
arrangement.

 The n-p-n transistor, which consists of a thin region of p-type material sandwiched
between two n-type regions.

 The p-n-p transistor, which consists of a thin region of n-type material between two p-type
regions.

The three portions of the transistor are called the Emitter, the Base and the Collector. The only
difference between the two types of device is the direction in which conventional current will flow
through the device and this is indicated by the arrowhead on the emitter lead.

7.1 TRANSISTOR ACTION

Shown is an n-p-n transistor which has its two junctions biased.

The emitter - base junction is Forward Biased. (approx. 0.6 to 0.7 v)

The base - collector junction is Reverse Biased (collector is several volts positive with respect to
base)

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The forward biased of the base emitter junction will allow a large number of electrons to cross the
barrier into the base region. Because the potential across the base region is constant these
electrons will diffuse across the base to the base/collector junction. Those electrons that reach the
junction (a very high proportion of the total) are attracted to the collector by the high potential giving
a large value of collector current (almost equal to the emitter current).

Because the collector current is almost equal to he emitter current the device can be said to
operate as a power amplifier.

Power in Emitter = VEB x IE

Power in collector = VCB x IC

As IE and IC are virtually equal, and VCB is many times larger than VEB the output signal is much
larger than the input signal.

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7.2 CURRENTS

Emitter base junction - the junction is forward biased and currents will flow across the junction for
an npn transistor the majority carriers are electrons from emitter to base and holes from base to
emitter. For good transistor action the ratio of electron movement (majority carriers) to hole
movement (minority carriers) must be as high as possible and this is achieved by doping. In a
practical device the emitter region is heavily n-doped and the base is lightly p-doped.

Base - once the electrons are injected into the base they must get to the collector terminal to
become useful. The base region is thus made as thin as possible. Widths as low as 10 microns are
common in transistors.

Base/collector junction - same current will always flow through a reverse biased junction. This
consists of the minority carriers which see the junction as being forward biased and so will drift
across the junction. In an npn device this consists of electrons moving from the base to the collector
and they will add to the normal collector current during operation. It is not possible to control this
current and it is not useful in that is does not contribute to transistor action. It tends merely to
increase the power dissipated in the device and so it becomes a nuisance.

In order to dissipate the greater power developed in the collector region it is made much larger in
area than the emitter junction and, often, a heat sink is also used.

7.3 CONFIGURATIONS

Before a transistor can be used it must be connected into an input circuit (by two wires) and an
output circuit (two wires). Because the transistor only has three terminals one must be common to

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both input and output.

The common base and common collector configurations are used in special circumstances but
the main use is when in the common emitter configuration as this provides the highest gain.

7.4 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION.

Consider the transistor as shown. In order to get current flow through the device the two PN
junctions have to be biased.

The forward bias of the base emitter junction is of an approximate value of 0.7V. The reverse bias
on the base-collector junction is much higher.

If a sinusoidal voltage is now applied to the base:

On the positive half cycle the forward bias of the base emitter junction is increased which causes
a corresponding large increase on collector current.

On the negative half cycle the base emitter voltage reduces and the transistor will switch oft as
the junction is no longer forward biased.

In order to make the transistor respond to both half cycles the initial forward bias voltage needs to
be greater than the 0.7V required to switch the transistor on. If it were increased to 0.75V then on
the negative half cycle of the input waveform the base current will reduce thus causing a greater
reduction in collector current.

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Current amplification has now been achieved.

Current Amplification (HFE) = Peak to Peak Variation of IC

Peak to Peak Variation of IB

In practical terms the amplification required is voltage amplification i.e. if a signal voltage is put
into an amplifier then a larger voltage should come out.

To convert changes in Ic into voltage then a load resistance is inserted into the collector lead.

The load resistor and the transistor now form a potential divider circuit. With the base emitter
junction forward biased to 0.75V and the collector at 9V the transistor is switched on and collector
current will be flowing. There will be a volts drop across RL and this plus the voltage across the
device (Vout) will equal Vs.

If an input voltage is now introduced, on the positive half cycles Ib will increase and IC will
increase.

The voltage across RL will increase and Vout will decrease.

On negative half cycles the reverse will occur and Vout will increase.

The voltage gain will be = Peak to Peak value of Vout

Peak to peak value of Vin

It is important to note that there is now a 180 degree phase shift between the input and output
signals.

7.5 BIASING

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It is common to apply both the forward and reverse bias voltages from the same power supply.

The potential divider resistors RI and R2 will provide these voltages to the base emitter and base
collector junctions.

7.5.1 THERMAL RUNAWAY

Because silicon has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance the heating effect of the
current through the device can cause its resistance to reduce. This will lead to more current and
thus more heat. Thermal runaway can occur.

To stabilise the device a resistor RE is placed in the emitter wire.

If the current through the device increases the volts drop across RE will increase and the bias
voltage to the device will decrease thus reducing current.

RE thus forms part of the bias circuit even though its purpose is thermal stabilisation.

By introducing this resistor any changes in Ic will also cause the bias to reduce. So whenever a
signal is applied RE will effectively reduce the gain of the device.

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To prevent this a decoupling capacitor is placed in parallel with Re.

This capacitor will present a low impedance path to the changing (signal) conditions and a high
impedance path to the constant (bias) conditions.

RE will thus prevent thermal runaway by changing the bias conditions without affecting the signal
conditions.

7.6 THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

When a transistor is used as a switch it operates either as an open circuit (i.e. off) or as a short
circuit this means that the output voltage is either equal to the supply voltage or almost at zero
volts. The load resistor would have a value much higher than that normally used in amplifiers i.e.
several kilo ohms.

The figure shows the response of the collector current to a pulse input waveform applied to the

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base. It can be seen that the collector current does not instantly respond to the change in base
current.

The time delay in switching on is a result of three processes.

The time required to charge the base/emitter junction capacitance.

The time required for the current carriers to cross the base region to the collector.

The time for the collector current to rise. (affected by collector capacitance, collector load
and the current gain hfe)

Rise time can vary between 10 and 100nS. Fall times are approximately the same as the rise
times and are affected by the same factors.

7.7 CLASS A, B, C
Rise Time Fall Time

We must now consider the effect of placing a resistor in the collector circuit of a common emitter
stage. As the collector current Ic flows through the resistor RL there will be a voltage drop of Ic x
RL across the resistor. The collector voltage is dependant in the collector current.

 If Ic is zero then VCE must be 40V.

 VCE could be reduced to zero by a value of Ic of 40/RL amps.

If RL = 18 then Vce will be zero for an Ic of approximately 2.2amp.

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If we now draw a straight line joining points A and B this line represents the only values of Vce
and Ic which are possible for the circuit. Such a line is called the Load Line because it depends on
the value of the load resistor RL. If a different value of RL is used then a different load line with a
different slope would be produced.

If we consider the point C on the graph Ic is approximately 1.4A and VCE is 1.5V a base current
of 25mA is required to produce this value of collector current. C is called the quiescent point and
is the value set by the biasing network in the circuit.

If a sinusoidal input is now applied at the base we are able to vary the base current between its
limits of 15mA and 35mA. From the graph it can be seen that Ic will be varying from 1.1A to 1.7A.

Providing the sinusoidal input remains within these limits a sinusoidal output voltage will be
produced.

This is called Class A bias.

If we set the bias condition to either point X or Y, and then apply a sinusoidal waveform to the
base there will only be a change in the output voltage during one half cycle of the input.

This is called Class B bias.

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If we set the bias condition to outside point X or Y and then apply a sinusoidal waveform to the
base there will only be a change in the output voltage for only part of one half cycle of the input
waveform.

This is called Class C bias.

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8. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

A field effect transistor (FET) is a semi conductor device in which the current flowing through a
conduction channel is controlled by a voltage applied to a terminal called the gate. An n - channel
FET has its channel of p - type material.

8.1 OPERATION

If a voltage is applied to a semi conductor bar of n - type material current will flow through the bar
caused by the drift of electrons through the material. The terminal through which the majority
carriers enter the bar is called the source and the terminal through which they leave is called the
drain.

On both sides of the bar heavily doped p-type regions have been formed. These are connected
together and brought out onto the gate terminal.

If the p-n junctions reverse biased the depletion layer that exists between p-n type materials will
become larger and extend further into the channel region reducing its effective width. This will
reduce the current flowing from the source to the drain.

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By varying the small bias voltage applied to the gate we are able to control the current through
the device.

8.2 SYMBOL

 The source terminal is drawn in line with the gate.

 The direction of the arrow indicates the direction in which gate current would flow if the junction
were forward biased.

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 The device is called an n-channel depletion mode JUGFET. The name depletion-mode
indicates that the device is normally conducting and that a bias voltage is required at the gate to
cut the device off.

 The solid vertical line represents the conducting channel between source and drain

 The gate connection is shown going into the channel line indicating it is a junction-gate devise.

8.3 AS AN AMPLIFIER

The d.c. supply voltage is fairly high to ensure the FET is operating in saturation. Bias is often
applied between gate and source such that the gate is negative with respect to the source. As
shown above this is achieved by placing a resistor in the source lead (decoupled of the signal
frequencies) by a capacitor. The input signal is applied to the gate and will vary the value of the
current through the FET. This current flows through a drain resistor and the output voltage is
measured at the drain

8.4 IGFET

A major problem with the JUGFET is that the gate-channel junction must remain reverse biased if it
were forward biased gate current would flow and the device would be destroyed. An insulated gate
field effect transistor has its gate electrically insulated from the channel. In most devices the
insulation is a layer of oxide and the name metal oxide semiconductor transistor (MOST) or
MOSFET is also commonly used.

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In these devices an electric field is produced in the insulation layer by the gate voltage. This field
controls the current flow between source and drain. It is a more versatile device than the JUGFET
and is widely used in integrated circuits as well as p and n channel devices it is possible to
manufacture MOSFET's to operate either as depletion mode or enhancement mode devices.

 In the depletion mode type with zero gate bias there is current in the channel by applying
reverse bias the current in the channel is reduced. This is similar to the operation of the
JUGFET. Because the gate is insulated from the channel it is possible to apply forward bias
without causing gate current. This bias will draw more charge carriers into the channel and
results in an increase in current.

 In the enhancement mode type the gate must be forward biased to produce charge carriers into
the channel. These devices are normally off and do not conduct for zero gate bias or for reverse
gate bias.

Summary:
JFET/JUGFET’s can only operate in reverse bias because the gate is not insulated and large
currents would flow if it was forward biased. It must therefore operate in depletion mode (i.e.
control the size of the depletion layer).
MOSFET’s can be forward or reverse biased because the gate is insulated and no current would
flow in either case.
In depletion mode there will be electron flow from source to drain even if the gate is unbiased.
In enhancement mode there is no electron flow from source to drain until the gate is forward
biased.
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The gate & source terminals are drawn in line.

 The direction of the arrow indicates an n-channel (arrow pointing to channel) or p-channel
(arrow pointing away from channel) device.

 The solid line representing the channel is used for depletion mode devices to indicate they are
normally conducting.

 A broken line represents the non conducting channel used in enhancement mode devices to
indicate they are normally off (at zero gate bias).

 The gate is a vertical line parallel to the channel to indicate that it is an insulated gate device
(and that the gate Z is high and capacitive)

 The substrate connection may be brought out of the envelope to indicate a four terminal device
or may be internally connected to the source to indicate the more common three terminal
device which has this connection between source and substrate internally connected.

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8.5 ADVANTAGES OF FETS

 Because current is only carried by majority carriers the FET is less liable to random current
fluctuations & is therefore less noisy than a bipolar transistor.

The input impedance is very high typically many megohms.

 They are relatively immune from nuclear radiation, an advantage in space or satellites

 IGFET bias arrangements are not affected by gate leakage currents and are therefore thermally
stable.

8.6 HANDLING OF FETS.

All MOS devices and some FETS are susceptible to damage from static electrical charges. The
gate lead of MOSFET'S is particularly sensitive and the insulating layer can be easily punctured
by excessive voltages being applied. All precautions associated with sensitive devices must be
adhered to when handling any equipment or PCBs containing these devices.

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9. AMPLIFIERS

9.1 FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATION

.

Amplifiers may be classified by the frequency of the signals to be amplified into four main groups.

a. audio frequency 200Hz-20KHZ

b. video 20Hz-6MHZ
c. Radio frequency (RF) 20khz upwards
d. Direct coupled very low frequencies

Amplifiers may be further classified into:

a. Voltage amplifiers:- These amplify voltages and usually deal with small signals.

b. Power amplifiers:- These produce the necessary power to drive output devices
such as loudspeakers. They produce relatively large output signals of voltage and
current and often require voltage amplification to drive them.

9.2 SYMBOLS

The general block symbol for a amplifier is shown below. The stage gain is the gain between the
output and input terminals of a single stage and is given the symbol A.

The voltage gain AV = Vout

Vin

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9.3 CASCADING
If the amplifier does not give sufficient gain, two or more amplifiers may be connected in cascade.

Total gain Al x A2 x A3

N.B. The formula only applies if stage 2 does not load stage 1, and stage 3 does not load stage 2. It
is therefore important to know the input and output impedance of an amplifier.

9.3.1 ZIN

Input Impedance

This is the impedance seen when looking into the input terminal of the amplifier, typical values at
low frequencies are:

a. Bipolar transistor 1K

b. Valve 1M

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c. JUGFET 100M
d. Most 1000M

9.3.2 ZOUT

Output impedance

This is the impedance seen looking into the output terminals of the amplifier.

Typical values at Low Frequency are:

a. Bipolar transistor 20K

b. Valve 50K
c. JUGFET 100K
d. Most 100M

Note that both Zin and Zout contain capacitance which reduces the impedances as the operating
frequency increases.

9.3.3 EFFECT OF ZIN AND ZOUT ON GAIN OF CASCADED AMPLIFIER

When an input Vin is connected to an amplifier, the resulting output voltage can be represented
by a generator AVin as shown below. For a voltage amplifier it is required to transfer maximum
voltage to the next stage. The Zin of the next stage must be much greater than the Zout of the
stage feeding it for this to happen.

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Using the typical figures for a bipolar transistor. Z0UT = 20k and Zin = 1k

Therefore only 1/21 of the output of stage 1 will be transferred to Stage 2;

thus the overall gain of the 2 stage amplifier will be much less than A1 x A2

9.4 COUPLING

A coupling circuit is required when connecting amplifiers in cascade to:

a. Couple the ac signal from one stage to the next.

b. Prevent any dc on the first stage upsetting the bias conditions on the second stage.

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The coupling capacitor C3 couples the output of TR1 to the input of TR2.

It must have a low reactance compared with the input impedance of TR2 at the lowest frequency to
be amplified. If Xc is not small compared with Zin then some of the signal will be developed across
the coupling capacitor, causing a reduction in gain. R6 forms the other part of the coupling circuit
and also, in conjunction with R5 provides bias for TR2.

A typical value for C3 is 4F and above.

Note that the low Zin of TR2 effectively reduces the stage gain of TR1.

9.5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE.

Due to the capacitances in the amplifier circuit, and those in the valves or transistors
used, the gain of an amplifier varies with frequency.

The gain falls off at low frequencies due to the increasing the reactance of the following capacitors.

a. Coupling Capacitors. As their reactance increases more signal voltage is 'lost' across
them. Potential division therefore occurs between Cc and R.

b. Decoupling Capacitors. As their reactance increases they do not

decouple their associated resistances effectively thus introducing NFB and reducing
gain.

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Note: All capacitors shown reduce LF response.

High Frequency Gain. The gain falls off at high frequencies due to the reducing reactance of the
following capacitors.

a. Cin of Amplifying Device. As the reactance decreases the input impedance is reduced thus
causing less input voltage to be developed across the input terminals, reducing gain as
explained in para 9-5.

b. Cout of Amplifying Device. The decreasing reactance of Cout reduces the effective
collector/anode load of the amplifier thus reducing gain.

c. Cstray (Wiring Capacitances). Reactance of the stray capacitances between the

connecting wires and earth assists the two effects in a and b above.

In general, capacitors in series with the signal path reduce the LF gain and capacitors in
parallel with the signal path reduce the HF gain.

9.5.1 TRANSISTOR TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER

a. The transformer couples the output of TR1 to the input of TR2. No coupling capacitor is
necessary as the transformer is a dc block.

b. The transformer is arranged to match the high Zout of TR1 to the low Zin of TR2. i.e. a
step down transformer is used.

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c. Note that although the voltage is stepped down the current is stepped up. Since
transistors have a low Zin they are current operated and it is possible to achieve
a greater overall voltage gain than with RC coupling.

The disadvantages of Transformer coupling are

a. Narrower bandwidth

b. Uneven frequency response

c. Severe distortion occurs if core of transformer is allowed to saturate

d. Size, weight and cost of AF transformer

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9.5.2 DECOUPLING CIRCUITS

Coupling may take place between stages connected to the same power supply due to variations in
the current through each stage causing signal voltages to be developed across the impedance of the
power supply.

Rd and Cd are the decoupling components.

Note: The decoupling arrangement effectively reduces the power supply impedance to zero for the
ac signal but retains the DC.

9.5.3 SIMPLE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT.

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The functions of the components in the amplifier are listed below:

a. C1.C2.C4.C6. AC signal coupling capacitors and dc blocks.

b. C3,C5. Decoupling capacitors to prevent ac signal voltages being

developed across Re1 and Re2.

c. R1 R2 and R3 R4. Bias resistors. Provide the base bias voltages for TR1 and TR2
respectively.

d. Re1Re2 Bias stabilisation resistors

e. RL1 RL2. Collector load resistors.

f. Rv1. Volume controls the overall gain of the two stage amplifiers.

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10. POWER AMPLIFIERS

The object of a power amplifier is to develop power in a load (e g loudspeaker). It is therefore

required to produce a large swing of output signal current as well as a large swing of output
signal voltage. PAs are thus large signal amplifiers.

Note that in a voltage amplifier the aim is to produce a signal voltage across the load, the output
signal current being of little importance and usually very small. Voltage amplifiers are generally
small signal amplifiers.

10.1 BASIC POWER AMPLIFIER (SINGLE ENDED)

a. Circuit must operate in class A bias to avoid distortion.

b. Power transistors are usually bigger than voltage amplifier types

to enable them to dissipate the extra power.

c. PAs are operated with lower values of load impedance than voltage amplifiers.

d. Larger input voltage drive is required for PAs.

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10.2 APPLICATIONS OF POWER AMPLIFIERS

PAs may be used to provide signal power to the following typical devices

a Loudspeakers.
b Relays
c. Motors (via a speed control circuit).
d. Electromagnetic CRT deflection coils.

10.3 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

For maximum transfer of power from a transistor to the load the Zout of the device must be
matched to the load impedance. For audio frequency PAs the load usually has a resistance of a
few ohms (typically 8 for a loud-speaker). Transistors/valves have a Zout in the order of tens of
k therefore a step down transformer is necessary.

Remember that for maximum power transfer r = R. This is not the case for maximum voltage or
current transfer.

From transformer theory the turns ratio is given by:

T2 = lmpedance of secondary
Impedance of primary

Example:

Impedance across primary is Zout = 10kohms

Impedance of a speaker is Zin = 10ohms
T2 = 10000
10

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T = 31.62
So the primary winding would need 3162 turns and the secondary 100 turns for impedance
matching.

10.3.1 POWER OUTPUT

The signal power output is given by

Pout = IC x VC watts

Where Ic and Vc are rms values of the signal output current and voltage.

If the base current is varied from 60mA up to 100mA and down to 20mA then the operating point
will move up and down the ac load line from Q to D to Q to C etc. The peak to peak output signal
voltage will be 18V - 2V = 16V

= 8Vpeak

= 8 x 0.707

=5.66 Vrms

10.3.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE ENDED POWER AMPLIFIERS

a. Advantage.
Used where high quality reproduction is required and plenty of dc power is available.

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e.g. the AF output stage of a radio operating from the ac mains.

b. Disadvantages.
The primary winding of the transformer carries dc as well as ac. If saturation occurs
on the maximum swings of collector current the core will saturate and severe
distortion will occur.
Efficiency is poor. (Note dc power is dissipated at the collector even with no signal
drive).

10.4 PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER

Two transistors connected in push pull can produce more than twice the power output of a single
valve or transistor for the same amount of distortion.

a. The two transistors should be a matched pair.

b. Two equal amplitude antiphase inputs are required.

C. Class A bias is provided by R1and R2.

d. Bias stabilisation is obtained without a capacitor across Re since fluctuations will cancel
out at the junction of the two emitters.

With no signal input, IC1 = IC2 and they are flowing in opposite directions in the output transformer
primary, therefore fluxes in two halves of the core cancel.

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With a voltage input signal shown in the diagram, IC1 increases by as much as IC2 decreases.
There is now a flux in the transformer core proportional to the difference in collector currents and
therefore there will be an output current proportional to the difference in collector currents.

Advantages of Class A Push Pull over Single Ended stage are:

a. More than twice the power output can be obtained for the same amount of distortion.

b. Distortion due to curvature of the characteristic of each transistor is

cancelled

c. Little chance of distortion due to saturation of the output transformer core.

d. No feedback through power supply since outputs cancelled in common power supply lead.

e. Any ripple present on power supply D.C. is cancelled in output transformer primary.

10.5 CLASS B PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER

10.5.1 BASIC CIRCUIT

a. Both transistors are biased to Class B.

b. Only one transistor operates at a time.

c. On the first half cycle T1 conducts and produces a current in the output transformer primary.

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T2 remains cut off.

d. On the second half cycle T2 conducts and produces a current in lower half of output
transformer primary in the opposite direction. T1 remains cut off.

e. Thus each transistor provides a half cycle of output and in the secondary of the output
transformer there is a complete cycle.

10.5.2 CROSS OVER DISTORTION.

a. The basic class B push pull amplifier suffers from cross-over distortion which occurs when one
transistor is switching on, and the other is switching off, and is due to the curvature of the
characteristics.

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b Cross-over distortion can be avoided by using a small amount of bias so that the curved part of
the characteristic is not used, this bias point is called projected cut-off.

10.6 COMPLEMENTARY PAIR PUSH-PULL

Advantage is taken of the fact that transistors can be of the two complementary types ; PNP and
NPN.

a. The positive half cycle of input cuts T1 off, and T2 on, giving a positive half cycle at the emitter.

b. The negative half cycle of the input cuts T2 off, and T1 on, giving a negative half cycle at the
emitter.

Thus each transistor supplies a half cycle to the load giving a complete output.

The advantages are

a. No phase splitting transformer or phase splitting amplifier is required for the input signal
b A matching output transformer is not required if loudspeaker impedance is similar to Zout of the
transistors.

(Note: emitter followers are used in this circuit.)

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10.7 DARLINGTON PAIR

A convenient method of obtaining higher current gain than is provided by a single transistor is by
combining two as shown below which is known as a compound pair or Darlington Pair.

The emitter
current of the
first

transistor provides the base current for the second so the current gain of the pair is equal to their
product.

Current gain of TR1 is hfe1 and TR2 is hfe2 but combined it is hfe1 x hfe2. (Less any loading
effect) (Note hfe can also be designated )

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11. OSCILLATORS

An oscillator is a circuit that generates a continuously repetitive output signal. An oscillator

generates its output signal and as such does not have an input signal. It develops its output using
only the dc power provided to circuit from the supply. Thus an oscillator can be considered as a
circuit that converts dc power into an ac fluctuating dc signal.

11.1 CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATION

A sinusoidal oscillator is essentially an amplifier in which a small amount of the

output signal is fed back to the input circuit. The oscillator thus provides its own input as well as a
useable output. The first two conditions for oscillations are therefore amplification and feedback.

For oscillations to occur and to sustain two other conditions must be satisfied. First the feedback
voltage must be positive i.e. it must be in phase with the original excitation voltage at the input
circuit. Secondly it must be of sufficient amplitude to replace any losses in the input circuit.

11.2 LC OSCILLATOR

A parallel tuned circuit is the basic form of oscillator.

If we start with a charged capacitor and connect it to the coil the capacitor will discharge through
the coil. This will set up a magnetic field around the coil, which will collapse when the capacitor is
discharged. The back emf created by the collapsing field will charge the capacitor and the cycle will
repeat.

The oscillations will not continue because of the losses in the circuit. For continued oscillation these
losses must be replaced.

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Shown is the simplest form of an LC oscillator the tuned circuit is connected in the collector and
feedback is provided by the coupling of the transformer.

When power is applied to the circuit the transistor will conduct and the LC circuit will go into
oscillation. The feedback signal is provided by the transformer which will also provide the 1800
phase shift to ensure that it is in phase i.e. positive feedback. The feedback will provide the pulses
onto the base that will overcome any losses in the circuit.

11.3 PHASE - SHIFT OSCILLATORS

Phase shift oscillators consist of an amplifier with feedback that incorporates a deliberate phase
shift. The phase shift is usually introduced using RC networks.

A signal common emitter transistor amplifier has a phase shift between base and collector of1800. If
the collector is connected to the base by a network providing 1800 of phase shift then the feedback
will be in phase and oscillation will occur.

The three stage filter is arranged such that each stage has a phase shift of 60 0, thus a total phase
shift of 1800. The filter will also attenuate the collector to base signal to compensate for the voltage
gain of the transistor. The amplitude of the output is limited by the transistor going into saturation

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and coming out of conduction.

11.4 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

A problem with the previous types of oscillators is that their frequency of oscillation is dependant on
circuit characteristics and is outside the direct control of the designer. Changes in temperature and
power supply will cause the frequency of oscillation to vary.

Where oscillators are required to have a very tight specification they use quartz crystals. These
crystals are capable of vibrating up to high frequencies and as they do so the piezzo electric effect
develops an alternating voltage across the two opposite faces.

Pierce Oscillator Miller Oscillator

When power is applied the crystal will oscillate at a frequency determined by the way it is cut. The
emf produced will be amplified. In order to maintain the oscillations feedback is applied via the
capacitor back to the base.

Stability in the order of 1 in 108 and with temperature controlled ovens 1 in 1010 can be achieved
using crystal oscillators.

11.5 ASTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR

The astable multivibrator is a free running rectangular waveform oscillator. The term astable implies
that it has no stable state i.e. it continually switches from one state to another.

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The circuit consists of 2 common emitter amplifies with the output of each coupled to the input of
the other via RC networks. Outputs are available from either collector which will be in antiphase to
each other.

When power is applied both transistors will be biased to conduct. One transistor will respond
slightly faster than the other and will start to conduct. As it conducts its collector voltage will fall thus
switching the other transistor off.

If we assume initially that TR2 is on and TR1 is off it means that the collector voltage of TR2 is very
low and the collector voltage of TR1 is at Vcc. Because the collector voltage at TR2 has dropped by
almost Vcc it means that the base voltage at TR1 will be negative (capacitors cannot change
charge instantly).

The capacitor will now start to discharge at a time constant determined by C1 and R1. When the
voltage at TR1 reaches cut-on TR1 will start to conduct reducing its collector voltage. This will go to
the base of TR2 via the capacitor to cause it to switch off making its collector voltage increase.

The voltage at the base of TR2 will go to a negative value and C2 will now be charged. As C2
discharges at a time constant C2 R2 eventually the base of TR2 reaches cut on and the cycle will
repeat.

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11.6 MONOSTABLE MUTIVIBRATOR

These again produce a rectangular waveform but they are unlike the astable circuit because in one
of the two states the circuit is stable. This means that some form of trigger circuit is required to
cause the multivibrator to change state, after which it will return to its stable state – Flip Flop.

The stable state is where TR1 is off and TR2 is in saturation. TR1 collector is at Vcc keeping TR2
on and TR2 collector is very low keeping TR1 off.

With a trigger pulse applied, TR1 is made to switch on and its collector voltage will fall. This fall, via
C2, will cause the base of TR2 to go negative switching it off. The collector voltage of TR2 goes to
Vcc keeping TR1 on.

The capacitor C2 discharges and when the base of TR2 reaches the cut-on voltage it will start to
conduct, its collector voltage will fall causing TR1 to switch off.

The circuit will remain in this stable state until another trigger pulse is applied.

11.7 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

This circuit is unlike the other two in that it is stable in both states. A trigger pulse is required in
order for it to change state and it remains in its changed state until another trigger pulse is applied.
This circuit finds considerable application in the logic circuitry of digital computers.

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With power applied one transistor will conduct faster than the other and switch on. Its collector
voltage drops switching the other transistor off. It will remain in this state until a trigger pulse is
applied.

In the above circuit assume TR1 is on and TR2 is off. The base voltage of TR1 is high holding it on
and the base of TR2 is low holding it off. In this case the trigger pulse would be negative going
switching TR1 off. Its collector voltage goes high causing TR2 to switch on.

The multivibrator will stay in this state until another trigger pulse is applied.

11.8 THE VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

THE VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

This is a common application of the non-inverting amplifier in which 100% negative

feedback is used so that Vout is equal to Vin. Because of the high input impedance and low
output impedance of the operational amplifier, the load is isolated from the source.
Suppose in Fig 11 that the load RL was connected directly to the potentiometer causing a

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voltage loss at the output which depends on the position of the potentiometer wiper and
gives a non-linear output characteristic (Fig 11). By using an operational amplifier as a
follower there is virtually zero current (a few nanoamperes) drawn from the potentiometer
and the output characteristic becomes linear. The circuit is widely used for isolating low
level signals and for linearising the output signals from transducers – both DC and AC
types.

11.9 TESTING BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

INTRODUCTION
Although bipolar transistors are solid-state devices which are capable of operating for
extremely long periods of time without failure, these devices do occasionally become
defective. The failure of a particular transistor can be caused by excessively high
temperatures, currents or voltages or by simply subjecting the component to extreme
mechanical stress. As a result of these electrical or mechanical abuses, the transistor may
short or open internally or in some cases the characteristics of the device may be altered.

TEST PROCEDURES
Test equipment is readily available for testing transistors either in or out of an electronic
circuit. These instruments will indicate when a transistor is open of shorted, how well it
amplifies, and whether or not the device is passing an excessive amount of undesirable
leakage current. A simple transistor tester is shown in Fig 1. However, the most common
troubles (open and short circuits) can be easily detected with an ohmmeter.

FIG 1 A SIMPLE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR AND JUNCTION DIODE TESTER THAT CHECKS FOR SHORTS, OPENS, GAIN AND LEAKAGE

The ohmmeter may be used to determine if a short or open circuit exists between the
transistor’s emitter and base, base and collector, or emitter and collector. When checking
a transistor with an ohmmeter, you are simply looking for unusually low (near zero) or
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unusually high (nearly infinite) resistances. Since a bipolar transistor has two PN junctions,
it may be compared with two diodes that are connected back-to-back. Each diode (PN
junction) will exhibit a low resistance when forward-biased and a high resistance when
reverse-biased. The ohmmeter battery is the source of the forward and reverse-bias
voltage. In order to test a transistor we must therefore check the forward and reverse
resistance of each junction.
Caution: The (normally) red terminal may not be the internal battery positive.

TESTING NPN TRANSISTORS

To check the forward resistance of each junction in an NPN transistor, the ohmmeter leads
must be connected as shown in Fig 2A. The positive battery lead is connected to the base
while the negative lead is connected first to the transistor’s emitter and then to its collector.
The ohmmeter will send a forward current first through the emitter base junction, then
through the base-collector junction and should indicate that both junctions have a relatively
low resistance (typically several hundred ohms or less). Next, the ohmmeter leads are
reversed and both junctions are again checked as shown in Fig 2B. This time both
junctions are reverse-biased and the ohmmeter should indicate that both junctions have a
relatively high resistance (several hundred thousand ohms or greater).

TESTING PNP TRANSISTORS

When checking a PNP transistor the same basic procedure is followed; however, the
ohmmeter connections are exactly opposite to those shown in Fig 2. The proper ohmmeter
connections for checking the forward resistance of the two junctions in a PNP device are
shown in Fig 3A and the proper connections for checking reverse resistance is shown in
Fig 3B.
Although the two test procedures described above are quite simple, several general
precautions should be observed when the tests are performed. When checking the
forward resistance of the junctions, you should use a low resistance range that will allow
the meter to present a mid-range indication or one that is easy to read. When checking the
reverse resistance, a higher range must be used to obtain a convenient reading.
Furthermore, the specific resistance readings that you obtain have no real meaning. You
are interested only in determining that each PN junction has a high ratio of forward and
reverse resistance. However, through experience you will find that these forward and
reverse resistances generally fall within certain ranges. Several hundred ohms of forward
resistance and several hundred thousand ohms to several megohms of reverse resistance
is typical for both low and medium power transistors, but high power transistors generally
have forward and reverse resistances that are somewhat lower. Also, transistors that are
made from silicon, usually have higher forward and reverse resistances than transistors
that are made from germanium.

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FIG 2 TESTING AN NPN TRANSISTOR FIG 3 TESTING A PNP TRANSISTOR

When checking low power transistors you should avoid using the lowest or highest
resistance ranges on your ohmmeter if possible, because your ohmmeter will supply its
maximum current or voltage to the transistor when these ranges are used. In most cases
this will not damage a transistor but it is still a good practice.
When a junction has very low forward and reverse resistances (particularly when both
resistances are equal) the junction is effectively shorted and the transistor is therefore
defective. When a junction has as extremely high resistance in both the forward and
reverse directions, it is effectively open and the transistor is again considered to be
defective. Both the forward and reverse junction resistances must be measured before the
true condition of the junction is revealed.
When checking transistors with an ohmmeter you may notice that the forward and reverse
resistances change when different ranges are used. This occurs because the current
through the transistor and the voltage applied to the transistor changes with each range
position. Also, resistance readings may vary considerably from one ohmmeter to the next.
One way of greatly increasing the accuracy of your ohmmeter test is to simply compare
your resistance readings with those made on a transistor of the same type that is known to
be good.

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12. FEEDBACK

1. Feedback occurs when part or all of the output of an amplifier is fed back to the input.

2. Positive Feedback (PFB) occurs when the feedback assists the input (i.e. is in phase with the
input). It increases the gain of an amplifier but can cause oscillation (i.e. instability), therefore it
is rarely used in amplifiers.

3. Negative Feedback (NFB) occurs when the feedback opposes the input (i.e. is in antiphase with
the input). It reduces the gain of an amplifier but improves its performance in other ways such
as:

a. Increases stability.

b. Modifies gain and frequency response.

c. Reduces noise and distortion generated within the feedback loop.

d. Modifies the input and output impedances.

A0 = Open Loop Gain of amplifier (i.e. gain without feedback)

ß Feedback fraction and is positive for positive feedback and negative for negative feedback

Input to Amplifier = Vin + ßVout (PFB)

This is amplified A0 times by the amplifier

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Thus Vout = A0 (Vin + ßVout )

= A0 Vin + A0 ßVout

Rearranging gives

Vout (1- A0 ß) = A0 Vin

Gain with Positive F.B. which is known as closed loop gain Ac

Ac = A0
1- A0 ß

12.1 LOOP GAIN

This is defined as the product of A0 and ß.

It gives the amplitude of the feedback voltage relative to the external input.

a. PFB occurs when the loop gain is positive.

b. NFB occurs when the loop gain is negative.

12.2 EFFECT OF NFB ON GAIN STABILITY.

The fact that the application of NFB improves the gain stability of an amplifier can be seen by
considering the following example.

Consider an amplifier where the value of A varies from 1000 to 500 (i.e. a 50% fail) perhaps due to
say a change in power supply.

If 10% NFB is applied (i.e. ß = 0.1)

For A0 = 1000, Ac = 9.9

For A0 = 500, Ac = 9.8

PROOF:

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This gives a fall of Ac of approximately 1% for a fall in Ac of 50% i.e. a significant improvement in
the gain stability.

12.3 EFFECT OF NFB ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Consider the gain-frequency responses of an amplifier with A0 = 100, initially with no NFB, then
with 10% NFB.

It will be seen that at the -3dB points on Ac graph, A has fallen from 9.09 to 8.76 which is less
than -3dB. Hence the bandwidth with NFB must be greater than that without NFB.

NOTE: The improvement in bandwidth has been obtained at the expense of a reduction in
gain. In general, the gain-bandwidth product is approximately constant.

12.4 DISTORTION.

It can be shown that distortion generated in the feedback loop is reduced by the same factor as the
gain. Additional stages must be added to obtain the same overall gain, and these will, in turn,
introduce distortion. It is still possible, however, to achieve a net improvement in distortion using
NFB.

Noise generated by the amplifier within the feedback loop will also be reduced by a factor of (1 + A
B). The factor which is more important than noise, however, is the signal - to - noise ratio. An

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amplifier with NFB does not improve the signal-to-noise ratio but degrades it less than an amplifier
without NFB.

12.5 TYPES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

12.5.1 VOLTAGE NFB

This occurs when the voltage fed back to the input is proportional to the voltage across the load. A
general method of obtaining voltage NFB is shown below. It involves an a.c. divider across RL; the
voltage across RF provides the feedback voltage which will be proportional to Vout.

This type of NFB is further classified to describe how it is applied at the input i.e. either in SERIES
or in SHUNT with the input.

12.5.1.1 SERIES VOLTAGE NFB

Also known as Series Applied, Shunt Derived.

12.5.1.2 SHUNT VOLTAGE NFB

Also known as Shunt Applied, Shunt Derived.

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12.5.2 CURRENT NFB

This occurs when the voltage fed back to the input is proportional to the current through the load. It
is usually achieved in practice by developing the feedback voltage across a resistor R F in series
with the load i.e. having the same IL.

Current NFB is also further classified to describe how it is applied at the input i.e. in SERIES or
SHUNT.

12.5.2.1 SERIES CURRENT NFB

Also known as Series Applied, Series Derived.

12.5.2.2 SHUNT CURRENT NFB

Also known as Shunt Applied, Series Derived.

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12.5.3 EFFECT OF NFB ON OUTPUT AND INPUT IMPEDANCES

12.5.3.1 Output lmpedance.

How the output impedance is modified by the application of NFB depends on how the NFB is
derived i.e. voltage or current.

a. Voltage NFB involves a feedback network in shunt (parallel) with the output therefore it will
REDUCE the output impedance.

b. Current NFB involves a feedback resistor in series with the output therefore it will
INCREASE the output impedance

12.5.3.2 Input lmpedance.

How the input impedance is modified by the application of NFB depends on how the NFB is applied
at the input. i.e. either in series or shunt.

a. If the feedback voltage is applied in series with the input, the feedback network must be in
series with the input therefore the input impedance will be INCREASED.

b. If the feedback voltage is applied in parallel (shunt) with the input, the feedback network must

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be in parallel with the input thereby REDUCING the input impedance.

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13. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An operational amplifier (OP AMP) is a direct coupled amplifier with a very high open loop voltage
gain (A). It is often constructed as an integrated circuit; it uses feedback techniques to control both
its operating characteristics and its overall function. It can be used to perform most general purpose
amplifier duties as well as a number of mathematical operations.

13.1 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL OP AMP.

Although the characteristics of an ideal op amp are unattainable, modern IC types can provide a
close approximation. The ideal characteristics are:

a. Infinite Open Loop Voltage Gain (A).

b. Infinite Bandwidth i.e. 0 to infinity.

c. Infinite Input Resistance.

d. Zero Output Resistance.

e. Zero Offset i.e. is output should be zero when the input is zero.

13.2 PROPERTIES OF PRACTICAL OP AMP

As an indication of how near the practical op amp achieves the ideal properties, listed below are the
characteristics of the SN741 op amp which will be used in the laboratory experiments.

a. Ao=200,000

b. Bandwidth depends on amount of NFB applied but gain falls to 0dB at just less than 1 MHz.

c. Rin = 2MΏ

d. Rout = 75Ώ

e. Input offset voltage = 1 mV i.e. this is the voltage which must be applied between the input
terminals through two equal resistors to obtain zero quiescent output voltage.

NB. More modern ICs using FETs will approximate closer to ideal properties.

13.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

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The op amp has a differential amplifier first stage with two inputs. Thus the output voltage is
proportional to the difference between the voltages applied to the two input terminals.

If an input is applied to the inverting input (with non-inverting input grounded) the
resulting output voltage is in antiphase with the input.

If an input is applied to the non-inverting input (with the inverting input grounded)
the output voltage is in Phase with the input.

13.4 PIN OUTS & CIRCUIT SYMBOL

The circuit symbol and pin outs of a typical operation amplifier are shown below.

Most of the terminals are self-explanatory or will be explained in the course of these notes.
Terminals 1 and 5, the offset null terminals however require further explanation.

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If the
same
input
signal is
applied to the input terminals 2 and 3 the output (terminal 6) should be zero, in practice it is not.
For d.c. amplification this not acceptable. The output is zeroed by connecting a resistor between
terminals 1 & 5 as shown, and adjusting it until the output falls to zero. For a.c. amplification a
coupling capacitor in series with the output removes any unwanted d.c. offset.

13.5 POWER REQUIREMENTS

Operation is most convenient from a dual balanced d.c. power supply giving equal positive and
negative voltage + Vs in the range +5V to +15V. The centre point of the power supply, i.e. 0V is
common to input and output and is taken as their voltage reference.
The input signs on the circuit symbol for an Op Amp should not be confused with those for
the supply polarities.
An op-amp can be operated from a single power supply. The voltage difference available from, for
example, a 0V to 18V supply is the same as that from a +9V to 0V to -9V one, however, if a single
power supply is used, extra components are required.

13.5.1 OUTPUT VOLTAGE LIMITS

The output voltage of an amplifier cannot rise above the supply voltage. If the op amp output needs
to be allowed to swing positive and negative then the op amp has to have both positive and negative
voltage supplies. These determine the limits of output voltage, and if they are exceeded cause
distortion.

13.6 OPERATION
An operational amplifier has one output and two inputs as seen on the circuit and pin-out diagrams.
The two inputs are referred to as, the non-inverting input, marked with a +, and the inverting input,
marked with a -.
If the voltage applied to the non-inverting input (+) is positive relative to the other input, the output
voltage is positive. If the voltage applied to the non-inverting input is negative relative to the other
input, the output voltage is negative. That is, the non-inverting input and the output are in-phase.
If the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is positive relative to the other input, the output
voltage is negative. If the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is negative relative to the other
input, the output voltage is positive. That is, the inverting input and the output are anti-phase.
Basically an op-amp is a differential amplifier. It amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages.

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There are 3 cases:

 If V+ > V- the output is positive
 If V+ < V- the output is negative
 If V+ = V- the output is zero
In general to output is given by V0 = A0  ((V+) - (V-)) where A0 is the gain.

13.6.1 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

As already mentioned, and as can be seen from the

transfer characteristic to the left. There is only a very
small range of input values giving an output that is
directly proportional (A to B). It takes very little input
to drive the amplifier into saturation due to its
extremely high gain.
Assuming a gain of 105, the maximum input voltage
swing (for linear amplification) is 9V/105 = 90V.
This is of little practical use.
To reduce this gain and allow larger input signals,
requires the use of negative feedback. Part of the output is fed back to the input in such a way that
it produces a voltage at the output that opposes the one from which it was taken. This basically
means taking part of the output and feeding it back to the inverting input. (Feedback applied to the
non-inverting input would be positive and would increase the output).
The application of negative feedback also gives greater stability, less distortion and increased
bandwidth, it also becomes possible to exactly predict the gain of the amplifier. The relatively small
loss in gain is far outweighed by the advantages obtained.
A simple feedback network is shown in the diagram of an inverting amplifier below. (Note the
direction of the arrow shows electron flow.)

The signal to be amplified is applied to the inverting input via the resistor, the output is therefore
antiphase with respect to the input. The non-inverting input is connected to ground. Negative
feedback is provided by resistor Rf, called the 'feedback resistor', it feeds back a certain amount of
output voltage to the inverting input.
Using this arrangement the gain can be calculated from;
-Rf/R1, therefore if Rf = 1M and R1 = 10k
the gain A = Error! = -100 and,

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an input of 0.01V will cause an output change of 1.0V.

It should be noted that the gain depends entirely on the values of resistors Rf and R1, and is totally
independent of the parameters of the operational amplifier.

13.7 COMPARATOR

If both inputs of an op amp are used together the output voltage is given by

Vout = Ao x (V2-V1)

V1 is the non-inverting and V2 is the inverting input

(Note: no feedback is used)

The difference in voltage is amplified and appears at the output. However, the gain of the amplifier
is so large that only a very small voltage difference between the two inputs approximately 90 μV will
cause the output to fall or rise to the supply voltage limit. The op amp is behaving like a 2-state
switch, switching high or low depending and the difference in the inputs.

By connecting a reference voltage to the inverting input, the output will swing to +Vs when the
signal is greater than the reference voltage and to -Vs when the signal is smaller than the
reference.

13.8 OP AMP SUMMING AMP

When connected as multi-input inverting amplifier (see previous topic on feedback), an op amp can
be used to add a number of voltages, either a.c. or d.c.

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In the above circuit, 3 input voltages, Vin 1, Vin 2 and Vin 3 are applied through resistors R1, R2
and R3 respectively. This is because at point P as an ideal Op Amp has infinite input impedance
no current will flow into the amplifier so the input currents at point P are I1 + I2 + I3 = If. (Kirchoff)

Hence: Error! = Error! + Error! + Error!

V0ut = - Error!

Thus the input voltages are added and amplified if Rf is greater than each of the input resistors.

If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin, the input voltages are amplified equally

and V0ut = Error! (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)

If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin = Rf

then V0ut = (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)

The output voltage is the sum of the input voltages but is of opposite polarity.
This device can be used as a digital to analog converter by making R2 twice the size of R1, and R3
twice the size of R2. If a 3 bit digital word is then be applied to the resistors, with the least
significant bit applied to R1 and the most significant bit applied to R3, the output will be the analog
equivalent of the binary word.

13.9 DIFFERENTIATOR
A basic CR circuit will act as a circuit providing it has a very short time constant compared to
changes at the input. The output is taken from the resistor.

By using an operational amplifier the current charging the capacitor will stay constant and the
exponential effects in the waveform will be gone.

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13.10 INTEGRATOR

A basic CR circuit will act as an integrating circuit providing it has a very long time constant
compared to changes at the input the integrating output is taken from the capacitor.

A constant voltage at the input will result in a ramp output from the circuit. The capacitor will charge
linearly, because the current is constant. There will be no exponential curve. If the input voltage is
as shown above then the output will be a gradually increasing negative ramp until the Op Amp
gores into saturation. However, if the input voltage swings equally positive and negative about 0V
then the output would be a sawtooth waveform since the output would be equivalent to the area
under the input curve.

Note:
Differentiators and integrators are commonly used in Inertial Navigation and Autopilot Equipments.

If the output of an Accelerometer is integrated it will give an output signal which represents velocity.
and if it is further integrated it will give distance.

a = m/s2 = V/s therefore V = ∫a.dt

If distance is known and differentiated it will give velocity and if it is differentiated yet again it will
give acceleration.

ds/dt = V(velocity) and dv/dt = a(acceleration)

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14. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

The assembly of the various circuits which form part of the units employed in aircraft electronic
systems, necessitates the interconnection of many components by means of electrical conductors.
Before the introduction of printed wiring, these conductors were formed by wires which connected
to the components either by soldering, or by screw and crimped terminal methods.
In the development of circuit technology, micro-miniaturisation, rationalisation of component layout
and mounting, weight saving, and the simplification of installation and maintenance, become
essential factors; and as a result, the technique of printing the required circuits was adopted. In this
technique, a metallic foil is first bonded to a base board made from an insulating material, and a
pattern is then printed and etched on the foil to form a series of current conducting paths, the
pattern replacing the old method or wiring. Connecting points and mounting pads, for the soldering
of components appropriate to the circuit, are also formed on the board, so that, as a single
assembly, the board satisfies the structural and electrical requirements of the unit which it forms a
part.
If the circuit is a simple one, the wiring may be formed on one side of a board, but, where a more
complex circuit is required, wiring is continued on to the reverse side, which also serves as the
mounting for components. In addition, complex circuits may be incorporated in multi-layer
assemblies.

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14.1 BASE MATERIAL

The base material, or laminate as it is sometimes called, is the insulating material to which the
conducting material is bonded. The base material also serves as a mounting for the components
which comprise the circuit. The base material is commonly made up either of layers of phenolic
resin impregnated paper, or of epoxy resin impregnated fibre glass cloth which has been bonded to
form a rigid sheet, which can be readily sawn, cut, punched or drilled. The thickness of the base
material depends on the strength and stiffness requirements of the finished board, which, in turn
are dictated by the weight of the components to be carried, and by the size of the printed conductor
area.

14.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL

The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil, the minimum purity value of which is
99.5%.

14.3 BONDING OF CONDUCTOR MATERIAL

For the manufacture of a typical circuit board, the base material and copper foil are cut into sheets,
and are then inspected and assembled inside a clean room in alternate layers with stainless steel
separator plates (known as cauls) interposed between the layers, as shown below. The steel
plates are very hard and have a delicately grained surface which is imparted to the finished boards.
The layered sheets (the assembly) are then passed out of the clean room to be bonded in a hot
press. During the pressing operation, the heat melts the resin in the base material , so that it flows
and fully wets out the material and the copper foil. The pressure applied is adjusted so as to
exclude all air and vapour from any residual volatiles. As polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds,
each layer of the base material reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil firmly bonded to it.
After cooling has taken place, the individual copper-clad boards are trimmed to the required size,
inspected, and packed in sealed polythene bags.

14.4 INSPECTIONS & TESTS

After manufacture, all boards are inspected, and tests are carried out on selected samples, in
accordance with the relevant specifications.

14.4.1 APPEARANCE
The copper surface should be free from resin and undesirable defects, such as blisters, wrinkles,
pinholes, bumps, deep scratches, and pits. Any discolouration or contamination of the surface is
removed by an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, or by a suitable organic solvent.

14.4.2 THICKNESS
The thickness of a board is checked, to ensure that it does not depart at any point from the
specified nominal thickness. A typical thickness range is from 0.031 to0.125 in. and the preferred
tolerances over this range are from 0.0035 to 0.008 in. for paper base material, and from 0.006
to 0.012 in. for glass cloth base material.

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14.4.3 BOW & TWIST

Bow is measured parallel to the edges of the board. The board is laid, concave side uppermost, on
a flat horizontal surface, and a straight edge is offered to the upper surface in the direction of
maximum curvature. The maximum clearance between the board and the straight edge should be
taken as the measure of bow. Twist, is measured with the predominantly concave side of the board
downwards on a flat horizontal surface, and is taken as the separation of any one of the corners of
the board on the concave side with the three other corners held lightly in contact with the surface

14.4.4 PEEL STRENGTH

Peel strength is the minimum load required to pull a strip of foil from the base material. The foil is
detached from one end of the specimen and pulled in a direction perpendicular to the plan of the
board, so as to peel off a specified length of foil at a steady rate. The load is measured by any
suitable load measuring device, e.g. a spring balance, and should be within the limits specified.
Typical values of peel strength are, not less than 12 ozf per Error!in. width for phenolic paper
base, and not less then 24 ozf per Error!in. width for epoxy glass.

14.4.5 HEAT RESISTANCE BY SOLDER

For this test, a one inch square specimen of the board is floated, with the copper face downwards,
on to the surface of clean molten solder. The temperature of the solder is typically 250C 2C.
The specimen should be left in contact with the solder for 10 seconds. The copper should not show
any signs of blistering, or of delamination, at the end of this time. For double-clad boards, a fresh
specimen should be used for testing each side.

14.4.6 PULL-OFF STRENGTH

For this test, a specimen of board is printed with a test pattern of up to ten lands. A hole is drilled
through the centre of each land, and, after tinning of the lands, a short length of hard-drawn brass
wire is passed through each hole, and is soldered at right angles to the lands. A load is applied to
the free end of each wire in turn, in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the board, by a
tensile testing machine, and the load is increased until the land is pulled from the base material.
The minimum pull-off force required should not be less than the value specified; typically for
phenolic paper base materials 7 lbf and for epoxy glass base materials 15 lbf.

14.4.7 ELECTRICAL TESTS

On each batch of boards, it is also necessary to investigate certain electrical properties, and for this
purpose, specimens should be printed with specific circuit patterns. The following tests are those
generally carried out:

14.4.7.1 Surface Resistance

This test is designed to ascertain the insulation resistance (in megohms) between adjacent printed
conductors when a test voltage of either 85 or 500 volts d.c. is applied to the conductors for one
minute.

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14.4.7.2 Loss Tangent

The loss tangent (sometimes called the dissipation factor or power factor) of a material, is a
measure of its insulating characteristics in an alternating electric field. The lower the loss tangent,
the smaller is the power wasted in the form of heat.

14.4.7.3 Foil Resistance

The resistance of a strip cut from a board should be measured with a suitable electrical bridge.
Care should be taken to ensure that the bridge current used is not so high as to cause any
appreciable heating of the strip.

14.5 MACHINING OF BOARDS

All boards require machining, e.g.
a. guillotining.
b. sawing.
c. punching.
d. drilling.

14.6 CIRCUIT ARTWORK

The quality of a printed wiring board is dependent on the production of master artwork which must
show precisely the circuit conductor pattern required, where components are to be located, circuit
module designations and other essential references. Artwork production requires the use of
dimensionally stable base materials, and the application of skilled drafting techniques, because a
printed wiring board is an actual reproduction of the original artwork produced for it.

Artwork is normally prepared under controlled temperature and humidity conditions and the
materials for artwork layout are required to exhibit minimal changes in dimensions; thus,
dimensional stability is of great important.

Materials which are satisfactory in this respect, and which are in common use, are:
 Polyester film.
 Optical glass plate.
 Foil card, made up of a sheet of aluminium with a white paper surface on each side.
 Aluminium sheet coated with several coats of white enamel.
Optical glass plate is the most stable of materials for artwork production, but, as it is difficult to work
on directly, other methods of laying out circuit patterns are desirable. Two methods which are
generally recommended are:

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 Initial preparation of the artwork on polyester film, followed by photographic transfer to the glass
under controlled environmental conditions.
 Preparation of the artwork directly onto the glass by means of a numerically controlled drafting
machine.

The required circuit patterns may be drawn in ink, or, as is more usual, by the application of self-
adhesive black material specially produced in tape form to represent conductors, and in other
shapes to represents terminal points, edge connector contacts, drilling points, connector pads, etc.
The material is produced in a wide range of sizes to suit both the scale selected for the drawing and
the reduction ratio required for the subsequent photographic and printing processes.

The layout and drafting of master artwork vary according to both the skill of the draftsman
concerned and the environmental conditions existing at the photographic stage. In order to
normalise the photographic film, environmental conditions at the photographic stage should be the
same as those under which the artwork was produced. Other factors which may cause inaccurate
reproduction include, damage to artwork during handling and storage, shrinkage of tapes causing
breaks in connections, tape overlaps causing distortion of sharp edges, and lack of temperature
stabilisation of artwork before the photographic stage.

For circuits which are to be printed on both sides of a board, accurate registering during the
photographic stage is essential. An alternative technique for accurate registration of double-sided
boards, consists of drafting both circuit patterns on a single piece of artwork material with tapes of
different colours. Red tape is used for one pattern, and blue tape for the other; while black tape is
used for those conducting paths which are common on both patterns and which must appear on
both sides of the boards. During the photographic process, colour filters are used, to eliminate the
red and the blue tape images, so that two negatives are produced, each of which shows a separate
side of the board in perfect register.

14.7 PRINTING OF CIRCUITS

The printing of circuits is carried out using either an etching process or an additive process. Both of
these processes, are briefly described in the following paragraphs.

14.7.1 ETCHING PROCESS

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In this process the copper foil is first cleaned, either chemically or mechanically, and is then coated
with a photo-sensitive solution known as a 'resist' such as dichromate glues, which have the
property if becoming soluble when exposed to strong light. A photographic positive of the circuit
artwork is then placed over the sensitised board and time-exposed in a special printing machine.
After exposure, the resist is washed away to leave unprotected areas of copper around the circuit
pattern, and the board is dried by a clean, oil and water free air blast. The board is then placed in a
bath which contains an etching solution, such as ferric chloride which etches away all the
unprotected copper. In order to minimise 'undercutting' by the etching solution, the solution is
either agitated over the immersed board, or directed over its surface by spray jets. When the
etching process has been completed, the board is thoroughly washed in water in order to remove
all traces of etching solution, and is then dried and given a final inspection.

14.7.2 ADDITIVE PROCESS

In this process, copper is deposited only in the areas where conductors are required. To achieve
this the base material is pre-coated with a suitable adhesive, the circuit holes are pre-fabricated,
and the board is sensitised with a photo-resist solution. A negative of the circuit pattern is then
screen printed onto the board so that the exposed areas define the conductor network. These
exposed areas are chemically activated, and the board is then immersed in an electroless copper
plating solution. After a period of time consistent with the deposition of the required thickness of
copper, the board is removed from the bath.

14.7.3 INSPECTION
After printing, circuit patterns should be inspected and particular attention should be paid to:
 Dimensional Accuracy and Condition of the Edges of Conductors
 Condition of the Pattern Surfaces
 Particles of Copper in Unwanted Areas
 Insulation Areas
 Lack of Resin Bond in etched Areas

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14.8 SOLDERING METHODS

There are two main methods of soldering employed in connection with printed circuits boards, (a)
hand soldering and (b) mass soldering.

14.8.1 HAND SOLDERING

As covered in Modules 6 and 7.

14.8.2 MASS SOLDERING

In this method, all joints of a finally assembled board are soldered simultaneously, by bringing the
board into contact with an oxide-free surface of molten solder, which is contained in a special type
of bath. Mass soldering may be carried out in any one of five different ways, some details of each
are given in the following paragraphs.

14.8.2.1 Flat or Static Dipping

In flat or static dipping (see diagram (a) below) one edge of the board is first lowered on to the
solder and the other edge is then lowered slowly to allow flux and solvent vapour to escape. An
angles path is also adopted when withdrawing the board; this assists the solder to drain, and thus
prevents 'icicling'. This technique can also be automated, for production line purposes, by
conveying the boards across the surface of the solder as shown in the diagram (b) below.

14.8.2.2 Wave Soldering

In wave soldering the surface of the solder is maintained free of dross by pumping the solder from
the bottom of the solder bath through a narrow slot, so that a symmetrical 'standing wave' of solder
is produced across the width of the bath. In order to assist in drainage of the solder from the board,
the wave forms may be varied as shown in diagrams (b) and (c) on the following page.

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The wave soldering technique is part of an automated soldering process whereby a circuit board
after being fluxed, is passed against the crest of the solder wave by a conveyor.

Each solder joint area is in contact with the solder for only a few seconds to prevent distortion and
damage to the board and its assembled components. The width of the solder wave determines the
maximum width of the circuit board which can be treated, but there is no limit to the length of the
board since it is traversed by the conveyor.

14.8.2.3 Weir & Cascade Soldering

These systems (see diagram below) are of the moving solder type, the solder flowing down a
trough by gravity, and then being returned to the main bath by a pump. In weir-soldering (diagram
(a)) a circuit board is lowered on to the solder; while in cascade soldering (diagram (b)) a board is
conveyed across the crests of solder waves in a direction opposite to the solder flow.

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14.8.2.4 Reflow Soldering

This automated soldering process (also known as 'heat cushion' soldering) is applied particularly to
circuit boards on which microcircuits and associated devices are to be assembled. These efficient
but costly components require a special soldering technique, so that their full potential as surface-
mounted devices can be realised. The reflow technique is generally recognised as the best
method, since the soldered joints are easier to inspect and to remake when a faulty component has
to be replaced. In addition, soldering times and the risk of overheating sensitive components are
reduced, and distortion of leads is prevented.

The sequence of reflow soldering is shown in the diagram below. The leads of the circuit or
component, and the relevant lands on the circuit board which have been pre-tinned by such
methods as wave soldering or dip soldering, are first brought into contact with each other and
accurately aligned. The sequence is then initiated by lowering the electrode on the lead to be
soldered. Shortly before the electrode makes contact with the lead, the pre-set heating power is
automatically switched on. The electrode is then pressed on to the lead under a load which
gradually increases until the pre-selected value is reached. The solder melts, and in reflowing, it
forms a 'cushion' through which the lead is pressed against its corresponding land of the circuit
board. As soon as the cushion is formed, the timing device cuts off the heating supply. An air blast
is then delivered to cool the soldered joint, this accelerates the completion of the soldering process,
and also improves the quality of the joint.

14.9 SOLDER RESISTS

There are organic coatings which are designed for use on both rigid and flexible printed circuit, to
mask off those areas where soldering is not required. Some important advantages of the use of
solder resists are as follows:
 Elimination of bridging and icicling between closely spaced conductors and mountings.
 Protection is afforded against corrosion and contamination during storage, handling subsequent
life of the circuit.
 Flexibility of circuit patterns is maintained since a resist flexes with the conducting material.
 The surface resistance values of the circuit patterns are improved.
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 Minimising of solder contamination from large surfaces of copper and other plated materials,
thereby maintaining a high level of solder purity and an extension of bath life.
 Heat distortion is minimised, since a resist acts as a heat barrier.

14.10 PLATING OF PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS

Plating finishes for printed wiring circuits are used as aids to the performance of circuits under
specific conditions of use, and are not intended to be decorative. The choice of finish is, therefore,
governed strictly by the functional and environmental conditions in which the circuit will be used.

14.10.1 PLATING MATERIALS & THICKNESS'

The material and thickness which are specified for a circuit, depend on a number of factors such
as:
(b) the environmental conditions,
(c) durability (in the case of edge connector finger contacts),
(d) contact resistance,
(e) solderability,
(f) metallic migration,
(g) alloying, and
(h) cost.

The applications of the materials most commonly used for plating are given in the following
paragraphs.

14.10.1.1 Copper
Copper plating is normally restricted to circuits with plated-through holes, since this is the means by
which durability is given to the holes. The surface plating thickness of the circuit tracks is governed
by the plating thickness required for the walls of the holes. Because of its poor resistance to
climatic changes, copper plating is usually followed by a protective plating process.

14.10.1.2 Solder
This is the standard finish over copper for circuits requiring environmental protection coupled with
good solderability. A disadvantage of solder plating, is that greater difficulty is experienced with
growth in width of conductors during plating, than with any other finish.

14.10.1.3 Nickel
Nickel is usually applied as an undercoat for either rhodium or gold, not only to provide a hard base
for edge-connector finger contacts and switching contact surfaces, but also to reduce the thickness
of rhodium or gold needed to ensure minimum porosity.

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14.10.1.4 Rhodium
This is the hardest noble metal in common use as a plating material, and, because of its extremely
good resistance to wear and corrosion, it is applied principally to switching contact surfaces. Two
different plating process may be adopted;
(a) plating directly onto copper,
(b) plating over a nickel undercoat

The latter process is widely adopted, since it avoids the higher internal stress which is inevitable
with thicker rhodium deposits.

14.10.1.5 Silver
Silver is particularly suitable for power switching where low contact resistance is important.
Thickness' of up to 0.0005 in. are frequently used to provide good solderability with reasonable
corrosion resistance. Under some combinations of humidity and direct current potential, difficulty
can be caused by the migration of silver between unconnected conductors.

14.10.1.6 Gold
Gold gives a durable, low-resistance, corrosion-resistance finish with a long service life, and it is
commonly used for edge-connector finger contacts, even where other parts of the circuit are plated
with a different finish. Its solderability is good, but there is a danger of formation of a brittle gold/tin
alloy, which can cause 'dry joints' under extreme conditions of service. This embrittlement can be
minimised by restricting the plating thickness.

14.10.1.7 Palladium
Of the noble metals recommended for plating, palladium exhibits the most useful combination of
properties. It is the least costly, the deposit is comparatively free from internal stress, and it is
completely impermeable at thickness' of 0.0002 in. and above.

14.10.2 THROUGH-HOLE PLATING

Through-hole plating is a process which is widely employed to provide a conducting surface in the
holes of single-sided and double-sided boards, and also to provide a land or pad for the connection
of components. This process is generally used with epoxy/glass laminates, since they can be
plated more easily then those of the phenolic/paper type. When holes have been punched or
drilled in the appropriate positions, the board is pre-treated, and a thin layer of copper is deposited
on its surfaces by an electroless copper plating process. The desired thickness of copper through
the holes, and on the other surfaces of the board, is then built up by normal electrolytic deposition
of copper pyrophosphate. Following this deposition, a photo-sensitive resist is applied, and the
circuit pattern is exposed and etched. See diagram below.

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14.11 ORGANIC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

After printed wiring boards have been manufactured, organic coatings are applied to their surfaces,
to protect them from oxidation and contamination. The coatings vary, depending on whether
temporary protection is required or permanent protection is to be applied after soldering for
protecting the circuit. For temporary protection the coating is usually of a resin-based type which
does not require removal before soldering, since it also serves as a flux. Permanent protective
coatings are usually epoxide or polyurethane based resins having exceptionally low oxygen
absorption, high humidity resistance, and resistance to cracking and discoloration.

14.12 MULTI-LAYER CIRCUITS

In order to save weight and space, and to provide for the interconnection of integrated circuits the
relevant circuits are assembles as a multi-layer moulded package, consisting of three or more

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single and / or double-sided printed boards and insulting layers of 'prepreg' material. The
fundamentals of a typical moulding and curing operation are outlined in the following paragraphs.

14.12.1 REGISTRATION JIG

The individual boards and 'prepreg' material are first cleaned to exclude all extraneous particles,
and are then assembled in their appropriate sequence on the polished surface of a steel plate,
which forms the bottom of a registration jig. The function of the jig is to permit accurate register of
the positions of individual circuits, and for this purpose locating pins pass through holes around the
periphery of the circuit boards and 'prepreg' material. The number and positioning of locating holes
depend on the size and complexity of the circuit. When the complete assembly has been mounted
onto the locating pins, a second steel plate of the registration jig is fixed in position, with its polished
surface adjacent to the multi-layer assembly.

14.12.2 MOULDING & CURING

The moulding and curing cycle of the multi-layer assembly is carried out by loading the registration
jig into a hydraulically operated laminating press equipped with flat and parallel platens. The
platens are designed to be heated up to a temperature of 175C, and the hydraulic pressure on the
area of the multi-layer assembly is selected and controlled within the range 10-500 lbf/in2.

The hydraulic pressure is controlled initially, at a specific value between 10 and 30 lbf/in 2 on the
area of the multi-layer assembly. When the temperature within the assembly rises to 110 - 120C,
the resin in the 'prepreg' layers beings to flow; this usually occurs after 3 to 7 minutes. The resin
gels after a further 1 - 3 minutes, and, immediately before this occurs, the hydraulic pressure is
increased to a specific value between 250 and 300 lbf/in2. This pressure is maintained throughout
the remainder of the cycle. The platens are then cooled (while under pressure) and the multi-layer
assembly is removed from the press when the temperature within the assembly has fallen to below
50C.

14.12.3 THICKNESS OF LAYERS

A multi-layer assembly can be made up from a number of different thickness of laminates, but a
more economical design results when all layers are of the same thickness. The number and
thickness of layers are limited by the following:
 The required overall thickness.
 The minimum thickness of the boards in the assembly.
 The thickness that has to be allowed for 'prepreg' (B stage) material.
 The smallest hole-diameter required.

Laminate manufacturers normally quote an overall laminate thickness and the increases in
percentage thickness with increasing core thickness.

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14.12.3.1 Interconnection Between Layers

The interconnection between layers is achieved by the connection of the through-hole plating to the
thin rim of copper which is exposed where the hole passes through each copper layer. In some
cases, interconnection is made by means of solid copper pillars which, unlike plated-through holes
are not necessarily extended through the entire board, they can be routed around conductors of
intermediate layers and brought to the surface at any convenient point.

14.13 FLEXIBLE PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS

Unlike rigid printed wiring boards, flexible circuits serve only as a means of interconnecting units,
particularly those which require to be moved relative to each other, and those which may be
mounted in different planes. Flexible circuits also permit easier assembly and higher density
packaging of units. Flexible circuits are laminated form, consisting of a flexible base insulation
material (e.g. polyester, epoxy glass cloth and polyimide) copper foil, and an insulating coverlay of
the same material as the base. Any one of three basic methods may be used in their production;
die stamping, fusion bonding, and etched foil.

14.13.1 DIE STAMPING

In the die stamping method, copper foil is coated with a heat-sensitive adhesive, and is brought into
contact with the base material. A heated metal cutting die is used to cut the copper foil into the
required conductor pattern, the stroke of the die being controlled to prevent damage to the base
material. Heat from the die activates the adhesive, which then bonds the copper conductor pattern
to the base material. The coverlay, which is adhesive coated and pre-punched, is laid over the
exposed copper, and is thermally bonded to it. Finally, the circuit is blanked into its finished shape,
and is completely encapsulated, except for exposed contacts and termination pads.

14.13.2 FUSION BONDING

In the fusion bonding method the base material is brought almost to its melting point, so that it
fuses on to the copper foil. The conductor pattern is then etched in a similar manner to rigid printed
wiring boards. A coverlay is then applied and the whole circuit is placed in a heat platen press.
When the platen temperature approaches the melting point of the base material, pressure is
applied, in order to effect a bond between the three layers of the circuit. When the assembly is
cooled and removed from the press, the required pads and terminations, necessary for the
soldering of connections, are provided by removing, by abrasion, the coverlay and the oxide
coating on the copper. The circuit is then blanked into its final shape.

14.13.3 ETCHED FOIL

In the etched foil method, the circuit pattern is produced in the same way as for rigid printed wiring
boards, and the three layers are thermally bonded to each other by means of adhesive coatings.
Holes are either drilled or pierced in the coverlay, prior to the bonding operation, in order to expose
the connection and termination points on the circuit pattern.

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15. SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION

Synchronous data transmission systems are designed to indicate the position of a component or
control surface that cannot be directly observed. The systems fall into one of two categories; d.c.
systems called 'Desynn Systems' and a.c. systems which are generally grouped under the heading
of 'Synchro Systems'.
Both a.c. and d.c. systems comprise two main components, a transmitting element and a receiving
element. The two being interconnected by wiring that provides the signal path. The word
'synchronous' means 'happening at the same time', which infers that when the transmitter is moved,
the receiving element, normally an indicator, will follow that movement instantly.

Data Transmission Systems

Torque Transmission Systems Control Transmission Systems

D.C. A.C. D.C. A.C.

Desynn Synchro Potentiometer

Potentiometer Synchro

Potentiometers are straightforward and were covered as past of Module 3.

15.1 DESYNN SYSTEM

There are a variety of different types of Desynn systems available:
The Basic Desynn is generally operated by a rotary motion, however linear versions are also
found. The conversion from linear to rotary motion being achieved by a push rod and gear wheel.
The Micro Desynn was designed to magnify the small movement obtained by such items as
pressure measuring devices. They are operated by linear motion.
The Slab Desynn was designed to overcome signally errors inherent in the basic Desynn system.
In the vast majority of instances the errors in the basic Desynn could be considered insignificant.

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15.1.1 THE BASIC DESYNN

15.1.1.1 Construction
In the basic Desynn system the transmitter comprises an endless resistance wound on a circular
former, this arrangement being referred to as a 'Toroidal Resistance'. Equally spaced at 120
intervals around the resistor are 3 tappings, it is to these that the signal wires are connected.
Running on the resistor are two wiper arm type contacts that are spaced apart by 180 and
insulated from one another, it is to these that system power is applied.

The indicator comprises a two pole permanent magnet rotor, pivoted to rotate inside a soft iron
stator, the pointer being attached to the spindle. The stator carries three star connected windings
that are connected to the three wires coming from the tappings of the transmitter.

15.1.1.2 Operation
When dc power, is applied to the wiper arms of the transmitter, current will enter the positive wiper
arm and divide to flow in both directions, left and right, around the Toroidal resistor. Both halves of
the resistor have the same resistance, therefore the current in each path will be equal.

The resistance of the resister varies linearly. That is, the change in resistance for every degree of
movement around it will be the same, therefore when 28 volts is applied to the system as shown in

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the diagram, the voltage at tapping 2 will be approx. 9.3 volts, as will the voltage at tapping 3. The
voltage at tapping 1 will be 28 volts.

The differences in potential at the three tappings cause currents to flow in the wires that connect to
the receiver. The flow of current creates magnetic fields around the 3 stator windings in the
receiver, which combine to produce a resultant field across the stator. The permanent magnet
aligns with the resultant stator field, in turn aligning with the wiper arms of the transmitter.

If, for ease of explanation, the transmitter wiper arms are rotated by 120 clockwise, the potential at
tapping 2 will increase to 28 volts, the potential at tapping 3 will remain the same at 9.3 volts and
that at tapping 1 will decrease to 9.3 volts. Current will now flow out of the transmitter at tapping 2
into the indicator at terminal 2, through the first winding where it will divide equally, half returning to
the transmitter via terminals 1, the other half via terminals 3. The resultant field now produced
across the stator will be in line with stator coil 2, this will cause the permanent magnet rotor, band
pointer, to swing around 120 clockwise to once again align with the wiper arms of the transmitter.

Irrespective of the position of the wiper arms in the transmitter, the current flow between transmitter
and receiver will always create a field across the stator that aligns with their position.

15.1.1.3 Fail Safe Devices

A problem with the Desynn as shown, is that should the d.c. power to the system fail, the pointer
will remain in its last position. This is not a satisfactory situation, the instrument should 'fail safe'
that is it should respond in such a way that the fault will be identified. This is achieved by fitting a
small permanent magnet in the indicator. Under normal operation, the field of the permanent
magnet is weak in comparison to the fields produced by the coils and therefore has no effect.
When power is removed, the small permanent magnet attracts the permanent magnet rotor, moving
the pointer off scale.

15.1.2 SLAB DESYNN

If the voltage at the 3 tappings of the transmitter of a basic Desynn are measured as the wiper arms
are rotated 360, it will be seen that they produce a sawtooth waveform as opposed to a sinewave.
This results in the pointer of the indicator not following the transmitter exactly. In most instances

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the difference is insignificant, however their may be certain circumstances where it cannot be
overlooked.

The solution is to use a modified Desynn transmitter called a 'slab Desynn'. In a slab Desynn, the
resistor is wound on a slab former and has the power supply connected to it, whilst the wiper arms
now provide the output to the receiver, there being 3 wiper arms each displaced from the next by
120. The output from this device is a sinewave. It can be connected to the same type of indicator
and operates in the same way as the basic Desynn.

15.2 SYNCHRO SYSTEMS

Synchro's, as Desynn's, are electromagnetic devices used to transmit positional data electrically
from one position to another. They have an advantage over Desynn's in that they can also be used
to compute the sum of two rotations or the difference in angle between them.
Servo systems, which will be examined in the next section, employ synchros in conjunction with an
amplifier and a controlling motor to provide to provide an automatic control mechanism. They are
used in applications requiring output torque's greater than those which can be produced by a
synchro.

15.2.1 SYNCHRO TYPES

Synchro types may be classified as follows:
 Torque transmitter
 Torque receiver
 Control transmitter
 Control transformer
 Torque differential receiver
 Torque differential transmitter
 Control differential transmitter
 Resolver

15.2.1.1 Torque Transmitter - TX

A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for transmitting electrical information
corresponding to the angular position of the rotor relative to the stator. Denoted by the letter TX.

15.2.1.2 Torque Receiver - TR

A synchro, the rotor of which is free to turn, which develops a torque dependent on the difference
between its rotor position and the electrical angular information received from its connected torque
transmitter or torque differential transmitter. Denoted by the letters TR.

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15.2.1.3 Control Transmitter - CX

A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for transmitting electrical information
corresponding to the angular position of the rotor relative to the stator, normally used to supply
control differential transmitters or control transformers. Denoted by the letters CX.

15.2.1.4 Control Transformer - CT

A synchro, which is supplied with electrical angular information and which supplies a voltage
proportional to the sine of the difference between the electrical input angle and its own rotor
position angle. Denoted by the letters CT.

15.2.1.5 Torque Differential Transmitter - TDX

A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for modifying electrical angular information
received from a torque transmitter and transmitting electrical information corresponding to the sum
of or difference between the electrical input and its own rotor position angle. Denoted by the letters
TDX.

15.2.1.6 Control Differential Transmitter - CDX

A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for modifying electrical angular information
received from a control transmitter and transmitting electrical angular information corresponding to
the sum of or difference between the electrical input angle and its own rotor position angle.
Denoted by the letters CDX.

15.2.1.7 Torque Differential Receiver - TDR

A synchro, the rotor of which is free to turn, which develops a torque dependent on the difference
between its own rotor position and the sum of or difference between the two sets of angular
information received from two connected torque transmitters. Denoted by the letters TDR.

15.2.1.8 Resolver
A resolver has two windings, whose axes are mutually perpendicular, on the rotor and on the stator
(4 windings in total). It can resolve an input signal into its sine and cosine components, perform the
operations of vector addition and subtraction or convert polar to cartesian co-ordinates and vice
versa.

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15.2.2 SYNCHRO SCHEMATICS

All synchros are represented by the same basic schematic symbol which may be drawn in any one
of three different ways:

This is the simplest and possibly the most commonly used representation in maintenance manuals.
The code letters are inserted in the centre circle to identify the type and function.
Used when an explanation is given of the operation of a synchro. The schematic shows the rotor in
the zero degree position.
This is now commonly used when an explanation is given of the operation of a synchro.

Note: By convention, the vertical winding in the last 2 schematics is identified as S2, the lower right
as S1 and the lower left as S3.
The resolver synchro can be represented schematically by any one of the following symbols.

15.2.3 XYZ SYNCHRO SYSTEM

Synchros often appear in aircraft wiring and schematic
diagrams with the letters X, Y, Z indicating the free end
of each stator winding and the letters H and C indicating
the ends of the rotor.

S1 ----- X
S2 ----- Z
S3 ----- Y
R1 ----- H
R2 ----- C

When connections to earth are required, the stator wire

designated S2 or Z is earthed and the C end of the rotor
winding is earthed.

15.2.4 SYNCHRO SUPPLIES

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Synchros used in aircraft data transmission systems are operated from either 115V 400Hz or 26V
400Hz alternating current supplies. Radio systems commonly employ 26V 400Hz.

15.2.5 TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

Torque synchro systems are used where the turning force or torque required is very small. The
system only produced sufficient torque to move a pointer over a scale, or to operate a micro switch,
because of this they are limited to indicating systems.

15.2.5.1 Construction
The torque synchro system comprises a Torque transmitter (TX) and a Torque Receiver (TR)
interconnected as shown below.
In practice:
 R2 and S2 will be connected to earth.

 The transmitter rotor will be mechanically rotated by suitable means appropriate to the system
whose positional information has to be transmitted.
A pointer, which will indicate the transmitted data, will normally be attached to the rotor of the
receiver.
The ac power supply is connected to both rotors, the rotors being in parallel.

15.2.5.2 Operation
With supply current flowing, voltages are induced is the stator winding of both the TX and TR by
transformer action. With the rotors in the same angular position, as shown in the diagram, the
voltages in the TX and TR will be equal and opposite, hence no current will flow in the stator coils
and interconnecting wires. The system is said to be balanced or nulled.

The voltage induced in the stator coils will depend on:

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 The ratio of the number of turns on the rotor to the number of turns on the stator and,
 The angular position of the rotor with respect to the stators.

For the position of the rotors shown in the diagram, the voltages induced in the stators of both
transmitter and receiver would be:
 S1 half maximum voltage
 S2 maximum voltage
 S3 half maximum voltage

If the transmitter rotor is rotated through any angle, the voltages induced in the stator coils of the
TX will change. The voltages induced in the stator coils of the TR will remain unchanged. This
creates potential differences across the interconnecting wires, and current flow in them. The
current flows produce magnetic fields around the stator windings which combine to form a resultant
field across the stator of both the TX and TR.

A torque reaction will now exist between the resultant stator field and the field that exists around the
rotor. This torque reaction will exist at both the TX and TR.
The rotor of the TX is held by the system whose positional information has to be transmitted and
cannot move. The rotor of the TR is however free to rotate and moves around in response to the
torque.

Once the TR rotor is in the same angular position as the transmitter rotor, the voltages induced in
the stators will again be equal and opposite, current will cease to flow and the system will once
again be balanced.
To ensure accuracy of the system there must be sufficient current flow to produce a torque even for
small changes in transmitter position. This requires the impedance of the windings to be very
small. Under normal operating conditions this is of no concern, however, should the receiver
pointer jam then a large potential difference would exist between the TX and TR with resulting high
currents. This can easily lead to one or both of the synchros burning out.

15.2.5.3 Synchro System Faults

A loss of supply to the TR rotor will result in Low Torque operation with possible 180 error.
A loss of supply to the TX rotor will result in no operation of the synchro.
An open circuit on one stator line will result in the receiver oscillating between 2 points
approximately 75 apart.
A short circuit between 2 stator lines will result in the receiver being displaced by 0, 60, 120,
180, 240 or 300 and movement in 180 steps.
The table below shows the results or effects of a number of cross connections.

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Cross Connections Fault Symptoms

S1 and S2 Reversed. Receiver indicates 120 and rotates in

opposite direction to transmitter.

S2 and S3 Reversed. Receiver indicates 240 and rotates in

opposites direction to transmitter.

S1 and S3 Reversed Receiver indicates correctly but rotates

in opposite direction to transmitter.

R1 and R2 Reversed Receiver indicated 180 error but rotates

in same direction as the transmitter.

R1 and R2 Reversed and

S1 and S2 Reversed
or Receiver indicates 60 error and rotates
in opposite direction to transmitter.
R1 and R2 Reversed and
S2 and S3 Reversed

R1 and R2 Reversed and Receiver indicates 180 error and

rotates in opposite direction to
S1 and S3 Reversed transmitter.

15.2.6 ELECTRICAL ZERO

The electrical zero setting of a synchros provides a standard means of aligning synchros units so
they will all have the same position at the same instant. This setting provides a common reference
point at which all synchros are set before being installed.

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Electrical zero is defined as the position of the rotor with respect to its stator when the voltage
between S1 and S3 is zero and the voltage at S2 with respect to S1 or S3 is in phase with that of
R1 with respect to R2. It simply means that the rotor is parallel to S2 and that R1 is at the top. By
connecting the voltmeters as shown electrical zero can be determined. V1 should indicate zero
and V2 should indicate a value less than the supply voltage. Remember that if R2 were at the top
V1 would still indicate zero but, if the voltage between R1 and S2 would be antiphase and V2 would
indicate a value greater than the supply voltage.

15.2.7 DIFFERENTIAL TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

A differential synchro system consists of a differential synchro used in conjunction with a synchro
transmitter and receiver. It is electrically connected as shown in the diagram below.

The first thing to notice is that the rotor of the differential synchro has three equally spaced
windings and is connected to the transmitter and receiver stators. When connected as shown it will
provide an output which is the difference between the two inputs from the mechanical drives. It can
also be wired to produce an addition of the two inputs. There is no connection between the
differential synchros and the supply.

15.2.7.1 Operation
Consider the differential synchro to be three 1:1 transformers between the three stator windings of
the transmitter and the three stator windings of the receiver.

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When the system is set as shown in the diagram above, (the interconnecting wires have been
removed for clarity), the induced voltages in the stators and across the transformers will be equal
and no current will flow in any of the interconnecting wires.

If the transmitter (on the left) is turned by 60º, the TX stator voltages will change and current will
flow around the stator windings. Resultant fields will be set up and the TR rotor will feel torque, so
the rotor will turn until, again, the voltages are equal and current stops flowing.

An important thing to remember is that all three components feel the torque reaction created by the
interaction of rotor and stator fields, but because the transmitter rotors are mechanically connected
to other systems they will not be free to move. Only the receiver rotor (on the right) is free to
respond.

If the TX is left stationary and the TDX is rotated by 15º the voltages will be different and current will
flow around the stator windings. A torque reaction will occur and the rotor on the receiver will turn
until the voltages are equal and current stops flowing. It should be noted that when the TDX is
wired as shown, clockwise rotation of the TDX results in anticlockwise rotation of the TR.

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If both the TX and the TDX were rotated then the TR would show the difference between the two
movements.
The differential synchro need not always be a transmitting device. The system could be arranged
with two transmitting synchros and a TDR with a pointer attached. Under these conditions, the
torque differential receiver (TDR) is the receiving element, but the system will respond as
previously described to show the difference in the two inputs.

15.2.7.2 Sum of Two Inputs

If the S1 and S3 connections between the TX and TDX are crossed and the S1 and S3 connections
between the TDX and TR are also crossed, the system will algebraically add the two mechanical
inputs.
i.e. TX 30 clockwise TDX 15 clockwise moves the TR 45 clockwise.
TX 30 anticlockwise TDX 15 clockwise moves the TR 15 anticlockwise.
A similar arrangement of cross connections could be used on a TDR type system to make the TDR
show the sum of two inputs.

15.2.8 CONTROL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

Control synchros are used in electromechanical servo and shaft positioning systems. They only
produce a signal representative of the position of the transmitter. This signal can then be amplified
many times to power very large motors that can move very large loads to a desired position.

15.2.8.1 Construction
In construction, control synchros are similar to torque synchros but because they do not have to
handle any motive power for driving a load they may be of lighter construction. Also, because the
signal from the receiver is going to be amplified to drive an output, the impedance of the windings
can be made much higher and there is no danger of the system burning out. The control synchro
system is the most common of all synchros and has extensive use in aircraft instrument and
navigational systems.

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15.2.8.2 Operation
In a control synchro system the ac power supply is only connected to the rotor of the transmitter,
the CX. The signal representing the position of the transmitter is obtained from the rotor of the
receiving element, the CT. Note that in the balanced or nulled position, the rotors of the CX and CT
are at 90 to each other.

When the rotor of the CX is in the position shown, maximum voltage is induced in stator S2 and half
maximum voltage is induced in stator windings S1 and S3. No emf's are induced in the stator
windings of the CT, therefore a potential difference exists between each stator winding of the CX
and CT and currents flow in the transmission wires.

The current flowing in the CT stator windings produce magnetic fields that combine to form a
magnetic field across the stator. This alternating field cut's the rotor winding. The emf induced in
the CT rotor winding depends on the position of the rotor relative to the resultant field. When the
rotor winding is parallel to the resultant field, maximum voltage is induced in it, when the rotor is at
90 to the resultant field, zero emf is induced in it.

The amplitude of the induced emf is proportional to the sine of the angle between the rotor and
resultant field. The phase of the induced emf depends on whether the rotor is clockwise or
anticlockwise of the balanced or nulled position. The control transformer can therefore be
considered as a null detector and is most often used in servo systems.

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Note that although in the table below it shows the field coil rotating it is actually the magnetic axis
which is rotating in the Control Synchro System described above.

CT Rotor Position EMF Induced in CT

Rotor

90 clockwise

90 anticlockwise

5 clockwise

5 anticlockwise

15.2.8.3 Control Synchro Servo System

The diagram on the following page shows a control synchro system employed in its most common
role as part of a servo system.

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As shown, the system is balanced, zero emf is induced in the CT rotor, there is no output to the
servo motor and the motor and pointer are stationary.

If the rotor of the CX is now moved clockwise, the resultant field across the stator of the CT will also
move around clockwise. The rotor of the CT is now no longer at 90 to the resultant field and
therefore has an emf induced in it.

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The emf is applied to a discriminator amplifier to sense its phase relationship to the excitation
supply, to obtain direction information, and then applied to the motor. The motor turns, driving the
pointer and at the same time driving the rotor of the CT towards the balanced position (90 to the
resultant field).

When the rotor is at 90 to the resultant field, the induced emf falls to zero and the motor stops, the
pointer having moved to indicate the new position.

If the rotor of the CX had been moved anticlockwise, the error signal in the CT rotor would have
been of opposite phase and the motor would have turned in the opposite direction to once again
null or balanced the system.

15.2.9 DIFFERENTIAL CONTROL SYNCHROS

These are in common use. Their operation is the same as for Torque differential synchros, and
they can also be wired to produce an electrical signal proportional to the sum or difference between
two inputs.

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16. SERVO SYSTEMS

Servomechanisms are a type of automatic control system. The action of the output in slavishly
following the demands of the input gives the system its name. (Servus is the Latin name for slave).
Human operators are incapable of providing the degree of precision necessary to operate complex
machines requiring fast and accurate control. They are also limited in the amount of power they
can apply to a load. Servomechanisms provide the precise control and power that humans are
unable to provide.
Servomechanisms, or Servo’s possess the following properties:
 They are error activated.
 They have power amplification.
 They contain moving parts.
 They are automatic in operation.

16.1 CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS

Servomechanisms can be classified according to two main categories:
 Open loop systems.
 Closed loop systems.

16.1.1 OPEN LOOP

In an open loop system, the input demand generates an electrical equivalent of the demand
position. This signal is amplified to the required power level and applied to a motor to position the
load. The speed of response and the final position of the load depend on the following factors:
 Any variations in load conditions.
 Frictional forces within the motor and its load, and any mechanical interconnections.
 Variations in power supplies.
 The value of the demand voltage.
 Variations in amplifier gain.

As the open loop system suffers from the variable factors shown above, the output is unlikely to

follow the input precisely and cannot provide the close tolerance required.

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16.1.2 CLOSED LOOP

If the errors in the output of a system are detected and fed back to the input so that the necessary
corrections can be made to eliminate the error, the system is said to be a closed loop system. A
Closed loop system is shown below.

The essential features of a closed loop system are:

 Information concerning the behaviour of the load is fed back to the input. This is called
feedback.
 The position of the output (feedback) is compared to that demanded by the input. Typically in a
summing amplifier.
 The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between the demand and
feedback signals.
 Power amplification of the error signal to control the load.
 Movement of the load in such a direction as to reduce the error signal to zero, at which point the
output is the same as that demanded by the input.

16.2 REMOTE POSITION CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS

One form of closed loop servo system is a Remote Position Control (RPC) servo system. This
system is used to control the position of a remotely located device in response to a change in the
demanded input. The essential parts of an RPC servo are as follows:

 Transducers - In general, a transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into
another, for example, electrical to mechanical, heat to electrical or light to electrical. In servo
systems these are generally used to convert a mechanical input to an electrical signal for the
servo.

 Amplifier - The amplifier increases the power of the input signal to a level suitable to drive the
device being positioned. Large mechanical work outputs are therefore possible for very small
work inputs.

 Motors - Motors are used to move the device being controlled. They are usually coupled to a
gearbox and produce either a linear or rotary motion.

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16.2.1 POSITIONAL FEEDBACK

As already mentioned. For a closed loop system to function correctly is requires the use of Position
Feedback (PFB). In a perfect system incorporating positional feedback, the output shaft would
exactly follow the input shaft position. The diagram below shows a simple system using positional
feedback.

Assuming the angular position of the output shaft corresponds exactly with the angular position of
the input shaft, the demand and feedback voltages from the potentiometers will be equal. These
voltages could be any value, we will assume they are both 5 volts.

In the summing amplifier, the feedback signal is subtracted from the demand signal resulting in no
error signal. With no error signal applied to the amplifier, the motor will be stationary and the
system is said to be at rest. This may be expressed mathematically as:

Error = Demand - Feedback = 0

If the input shaft is now rotated clockwise through some angle, changing the demand voltage from
5 volts to 6 volts, the difference between the input shaft voltage, now 6 volts, and the output shaft,
still 5 volts, will be:

Error = Demand - Feedback

Error = 6V - 5V = 1V

The motor now runs in the direction determined by the polarity of the error voltage. As the motor
runs to reposition the load, the wiper on the potentiometer is moved so as to increase the feedback
voltage. When the feedback voltage is again equal to the demand voltage (6 volts), the error signal
will be zero, the motor will stop and the output shaft would be realigned with the input shaft.

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If the input shaft had been rotated anti-clockwise through the same angle, instead of clockwise, the
demand voltage would have decreased from 5 volts to 4 volts, and the error signal would have
been –1 volt. This would have caused the motor to drive in the opposite direction, decreasing the
feedback voltage.

Error = Demand - Feedback

Error = 4V - 5V = -1V

The example uses a d.c. system but the same principles apply in the case of the equivalent a.c.
circuit, except that the direction of rotation of the motor is determined by the phase relationship
between the output and a reference phase.

16.3 TYPES OF INPUTS

There are three possible types of inputs to a servo, these are:

16.3.1 STEP INPUT

This type of input can be achieved by switching off the servo power, moving the input shaft and
then re-applying power. The response of a servo system to this type of input reveals a great deal
of information about the servo system. It is therefore used as a test signal.

16.3.2 RAMP INPUT

This type of input is created when the input shaft is suddenly rotated at a constant angular velocity.
The units would be radians / second. The diagram shows an example of a ramp Input. Servo
systems are subjected to this type of input during normal operation.

16.3.3 ACCELERATING INPUT

An accelerating function is created when the input shaft is rotated with a constant acceleration.
The units would be radians / second2. The diagram shows an example of an accelerating input.
Systems are subject to this type of input during normal operation.
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16.4 SYSTEM RESPONSE

How well a servomechanism responds to a particular change in input signal, in terms of transient
response and overshoot, is a measure of its overall performance. Any servomechanism will take a
finite time to start to move and also to settle down at a new position. 'Settling Time' is defined as
the time taken to approach a final steady state within specific limits. The diagram below shows the
response of a RPC system to a step input.

Unless special precautions are taken a servomechanism will oscillate. The diagram above, when
the output response reaches the required value at point 'x', the load has acquired considerable
momentum and consequently overshoots. The error now increases in the opposite sense and a
reverse-torque is applied which brings the load to rest at point 'y', and then accelerates it back in
the opposite direction where it again overshoots the desired position, at point Z. This process can
continue indefinitely if the frictional losses in the system are negligible, and system would oscillate
continuously. This is called 'hunting'. To avoid oscillation and subsequent hunting, some form of
damping is required.

16.5 DAMPING
Different amounts of damping produces different response curves.

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 Underdamped - When overshoots and transient oscillations are observed at the output of a
system the servomechanism is said to be underdamped.

 Critically damped - When the system responds to an error in such a way that the output
moves to the required position at the fastest possible rate without producing overshoots it is
said to be critically damped. This is a theoretical position and provides the division between
underdamping and overdamping.

 Overdamped - When no overshoots are produced, but a time lag is introduced into the
system, the servomechanism is said to be overdamped.

In practice, servo systems are designed to be slightly underdamped in order to reduce response
delays. This is shown by the dotted line in the diagram. This degree of damping is often called
'ideal damping'.

Under ideally damped conditions, the system reaches the required position more quickly than when
critically damped, but it overswings the demanded position and has to move back onto it. This
means the system takes slightly longer to reach the steady state.

16.5.1 FRICTIONAL FORCES WHICH PRODUCE DAMPING

There are frictional forces inherent in a servo system, which provide damping. These are coulomb
friction and viscous friction. Another friction present when the servo is at rest is stiction.

16.5.1.1 Stiction
Stiction is present in the system when it is at rest. This initial friction must be overcome in order for
the system to move. Once moving, stiction falls to zero. The name stiction comes from Static
Friction.

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16.5.1.2 Coulomb Friction

Coulomb Friction is a constant force independent of speed and is demonstrated by the rubbing
friction between two plates. The diagram below shows a system both undamped and damped with
Coulomb friction. The number of overshoots in the system using Coulomb friction is proportional to
the size of the initial error, the larger the error the greater the number of overshoots.

It will be noted that the response curve of the system using Coulomb friction brings the system to a
steady state but that a positional error is present. For this reason coulomb friction is not used in
practical systems, and although always present in the form of inherent friction, good system design
keeps it to a minimum.

16.5.1.3 Viscous Friction

Viscous Friction is proportional to velocity and provides satisfactory damping for servo systems.

When the velocity of the system is zero, viscous friction is zero, and therefore it will not cause a
position error. If the system moves more rapidly, the viscous friction will increase, as necessary to
provide the additional damping required.

The response of a system to a ramp input is shown below. The oscillations of the system are
damped out, but a constant error is produced. This error is called 'Velocity Lag'. The amount of
Velocity Lag is proportional to the amount of viscous damping.

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16.5.1.4 Efficiency of Output Damping

Both Coulomb and Viscous damping have the great disadvantage of being applied to the output of
systems. This requires large amounts of energy to control high power outputs. This inevitably
generates heat, which entails the provision of complex cooling systems. It is more efficient to apply
damping to the input of the system, where power levels are much lower.

16.5.2 VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING

A simple and commonly used method of providing damping at the input is to use Negative Velocity
Feedback (NVFB).

A system using NVFB damping is shown in the diagram below. The feedback is applied to the
input and therefore must be electrical. Velocity feedback provides damping similar to viscous
friction, but because it is applied to the input, little power is required.

In servomechanisms, velocity feedback is achieved by using a tacho-generator (TG) driven by the

output shaft of the system as shown above. A Tacho-generator is a small electrical generator,
which is either A.C or D.C. operated. The great advantage of this type of feedback is that amount
of voltage fed back to the system, and therefore the amount of damping, can be controlled by using
a simple potentiometer.

16.5.2.1 Velocity Feedback Curves

The diagram below shows the result of applying Velocity feedback in the circuit shown in above.
As RPC servos are concerned with the position of the load, the velocity lag will only be present
when the load is moving and will therefore only cause a slight increase in the response time.

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16.6 VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS

In some applications it is the rotational speed of a shaft and not its position that must be controlled.
A Rate Servo is shown in the diagram on the following page. The input demand signal is used to
control the angular velocity of the output shaft and not its position. To make the speed of the
driving motor exactly proportional to the input demand a servomechanism is essential. If a
servomechanism were not used the speed of the output motor would vary with changes in the
supply voltage or any changes of the friction in the motor or its load.

Note that there is no position feedback.

Movement of the speed control potentiometer produces a voltage proportional to the demanded
speed. The tacho-generator provides a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the output
shaft. If there is a difference between these two signals an error voltage will be fed to the amplifier.
The output of the amplifier will accelerate or decelerate the motor until the output of the tacho-
generator produces a voltage exactly equal to the input demand voltage and the motor will run at
the demanded speed.

16.6.1 RESIDUAL ERROR

Because of inherent frictional and damping losses, some torque is always required to turn the
motor and load at a constant speed and therefore a difference between the input demand and the
actual speed will always be present. By using high gain in the amplifier this difference can be kept
very low.

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16.6.2 VELOCITY LAG

A Rate Servo using velocity feedback is just as prone to velocity lag as a RPC Servo, but as it is
only the speed and not the actual position of the output that is measured, it may be ignored.

16.7 A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS

The components associated with dc servo systems are simple in operation and require no further
explanation, however, some of the components in ac servo systems require additional
consideration.

16.7.1 E & I BAR TRANSDUCER

The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of its component parts. The diagram
below shows the construction and operation of an angular displacement E & I bar transducer. A
winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries an A.C. excitation supply. Secondary coils are
connected in series opposition. With the I bar in the centre position equal flux will flow in the outer
limbs of the E bar, the voltages induced in the two secondary coils will be equal and opposite and
will therefore cancel out and there will be no output signal. If the I bar is displaced from the central
position, more flux will flow in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air gap and less flux will flow in
the limb with the larger

air gap. The induced voltages in the two windings will no longer cancel out and an output voltage
will be produced.

The phase of the output voltage is determined by the direction of movement of the I bar. The
magnitude is determined by how far the bar moves. In a servo system the amount of movement
will be kept small due to the follow-up action.

The E & I Bar may also be used to convert linear movement to an electrical signal. A practical
application of this is shown in the diagram below. The I bar is moved linearly by an evacuated
capsule. Note that the diagram contains a complete servo system.

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16.7.2 A.C. TACHOGENERATORS

Tachogenerators provide the velocity feedback for servo systems. A tachogenerator normally
utilises the drag cup principle and will always produce a voltage with the same frequency as the
supply voltage.

The diagram below shows the electrical components of the tachogenerator. With the drag cup
stationary no voltage is induced in the secondary winding as it is placed at right angles to the
primary winding and the output is zero.

As the output shaft drives the rotor, the current in the input coil produces a field that induces a
current in that part of the cup passing through the primary axis. As the cup rotates, rotating eddy
currents are induced and this will in turn induce a voltage across the output winding. The amplitude
of the voltage will be proportional to the speed of rotation of the drag cup and the phase will be
dependent on the direction of rotation.

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Ideally, the output of the tachogenerator would be zero when stationary but in practical systems a
small voltage is present.

16.8 PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS

The following are examples of typical servo systems, many more systems will be encountered and
examined during the course.

16.8.1 DIRECT SERVO CURRENT SYSTEM

The potentials at the 2 potentiometer wipers are proportional to the input and output shaft positions
I and o. Any difference in the relative positions results in a difference of potential between the
wipers which is the error signal applied to the amplifier. The polarity of the voltage indicated the
direction of the error. The signal is amplified and produces a flux in the split field motor.

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The motor armature carries current continuously, thus the presence of the field produces a motor
torque which drives the load in a direction corresponding to the polarity of the error signal, towards
alignment. When alignment is reached the error signal falls to zero, the motor field disappears and
the motor stops.

16.8.2 ALTERNATING CURRENT SERVO SYSTEM

The input shaft fixes the position of the control transmitter (CX) rotor and hence the position of the
stator field of the control transformer. The output shaft fixes the position of the rotor of the control
transformer (CT). When the rotor of the CT is at 90 to the rotor of the CX, no emf's are induced in
the rotor of the CT and the system is stationary (nulled).

With a misalignment in the system an emf is induced in the rotor of the control transformer, this is
the error signal. The error signal is amplified and passed to the motor, which with both phases
excited drives the load in one direction or other according to the phase of the rotor emf. When
alignment is reached there is no output from the CT, no input to the amplifier and the motor stops.

16.9 OTHER TRANSDUCERS

16.9.1 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Linear variable differential transforms (LVDT's) are used to produce an electrical signal proportional
to a linear movement. LVDT's consists of a moveable iron core that is mounted inside three
windings wound on a coil former. The centre winding is the excitation winding and is connected to
an a.c. reference voltage. The two outer windings are connected in series opposition and provide
the output.

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With the core centralised and a.c. applied to the excitation coil, an emf is induced in each of the
output windings. The emf's induced in each winding are the same size, but phase displaced by
180º, and therefore cancel out, producing no output.
When the iron core is moved, the emf induced in one output winding increases, and in the other it
decreases. The two voltages no longer cancel, and an output is produced. If the core is moved the
same amount in the opposite direction, an emf of the same size, but of opposite phase will be
produced.

16.9.2 ROTARY VARIABLE TRANSFORMER

Rotary Variable Differential transformers and E and I bar transducers work on the same principle as
the LVDT. Each device being used to produce an electrical signal from a mechanical movement.
The RVDT produces an electrical signal proportional to a rotational movement, and the E and I bar
can be used to produce a signal from both a linear and rotary movement.

In the example studied, the excitation was applied to the single centre winding, this is not always
the case, the excitation can be applied to the two outer windings. Each winding will induce an emf
of opposite polarity in the centre winding. If both emf's are the same size they will cancel, if not a
resultant output voltage will be produced. The phase of the output signal depends on which
reference coil induced the larger emf into the single output winding, which in turn depends on the
position of the core.

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16.9.3 INDUCTIVE TYPE TRANSDUCERS

Inductive type transducers use the principles associated with inductance that were discussed
earlier in the course. Inductance is generally used in one of two ways in aircraft transducers.
Firstly a changing magnetic field is used as the transducer output and secondly by using changes
in flux density to control a.c. current flow.

16.9.3.1 Induced EMF Type

This type of transducer comprises a coil and a permanent magnet and requires a steel target for its
operation. When the target is displaced from the transducer the field of the permanent magnet
surrounds the coil, but does not induce an emf in it because the lines of flux are not moving relative
to the conductor.

When the steel target is placed in close proximity to the transducer the magnetic flux density
increases due to the reduction in reluctance, again, although the flux density increased, no emf is
induced because there is no relative movement between the conductor and coil.

If the target is moved continually back and forward past the transducer, the flux density continually
increases and decreases. This changing flux induces an emf in the transducer. The frequency of
the induced emf depends on the speed of movement; the faster the target is moved, the higher the
frequency.

This form of transducer is used to measure rotational speed of items such as engine shafts.

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16.9.4 A.C. CURRENT CONTROL

When a.c. current flows in an inductor, the continually changing flux produces a continually
changing back emf that opposes the current flow. This opposition to current flow is called inductive
reactance, and is dependent on the value of inductance of the coil.
The inductance of the coil can be changed by changing the coil material, or by placing a piece of
steel adjacent to it. Placing a piece of steel near the coil increases its inductance, which in turn
increases the inductive reactance of the coil. Increasing the inductive reactance reduces the a.c.
current flow in the coil, which can be detected and used to provide a signal to indicate when the
steel is in close proximity to the coil or sensor.

This form of transducer is used in proximity sensing systems such as those used to sense the
position of the undercarriage.

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17. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Listed below are some terms particular to servomechanisms. For a complete listing British
Standard 1523 should be referred to.
Response Time The time duration for the first incidence of the output response to the final
steady state value, to a step functional input signal.

Settling Time The time taken for the output response to reach the demanded final steady
state, within specified limits.
Transient response The output signal time variation when an input signal of a specified value is
applied.

Steady state The final value the output shaft attains when the effects of oscillation have
stopped.

Stable state A system is judged stable if the deviations of the output shaft are directly
related, within limits, to the output demand.

Unstable state If the deviations of the output shaft are unrelated to the input demand, either
limited by the system or unlimited, the system is said to be unstable.

Stabilisation The term used to describe either the attenuation of undesirable and unrelated
oscillations occurring in a control system, or the process of affecting a
change of state from unstable to a stable condition.

Damping (i) The continuous attenuation of system oscillations,

(ii) The methods used for oscillation suppression.

Overshoot The instantaneous difference between the output shaft response to a step
function input, and the final steady state value.
Hunting Undesirable self-sustained oscillations of an output sh aft.

Two-term controller A system which utilises a combination of proportional action with either
integral or derivative action.
Three-term controller A system which utilises a combination of proportional, Integral and
derivative action.

Damped oscillation An oscillation of continually reducing amplitude, due to some method of

damping
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