Refresher Notes 

Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Refresher Notes
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

SCHOOL OF PE REVIEW – WATER RESOURCES – Breadth

TABLE OF CONTENTS

HYDROLOGY PAGE

Hydrologic Cycle ..........................................................2

Precipitation ................................................................3
Average Rainfall Methods
Hyetograph
Intensity
Example – Hyetograph
Excess Precipitation
Probability & Frequency ..............................................6
Recurrence Interval/Frequency
Probability
Example – Probability
Hydrographs ................................................................7
Direct Runoff
Base Flow
Example – Calculating Volume of a Hydrograph
Stormwater Management............................................10
Stormwater Controls
Detention Basins
Water Budget Problems ...............................................15
Example – Stormwater Basin Overflow
Time of Concentration .................................................16
Runoff Analysis ............................................................17
Drainage Area Characteristics
Rational Equation
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Example – Rational Equation Application

Storm Sewer Networks
Example – Tc for Storm Sewer Networks
NRCS Curve Number Method
Example – Basin Sizing Using NRCS CN Method
Concept Problems ........................................................25

HYDRAULICS – FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS PAGE

Fluid Properties............................................................28
Pressure
Density and Unit Weight
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Pressure Measuring Devices ........................................29
Static Pressure (Piezometer) Tube
Manometer

HYDRAULICS – CLOSED/PRESSURE CONDUITS PAGE

Continuity Equation .....................................................31

Example – Continuity Equation
Energy Equation ...........................................................32
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines................................33
Conduit Properties .......................................................33
Friction Losses .............................................................34
Reynolds Number
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Example – Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Hazen-Williams Equation
Example – Hazen-Williams Equation
Minor Losses ................................................................39
Equivalent Lengths
Example – Equivalent Lengths
Loss Coefficients
Example – Loss Coefficients
Pipe Networks..............................................................41
Pipes in Series
Pipes in Parallel
Pumps ..........................................................................42
Total Dynamic Head
System Curve
Pump Performance Curve
Operating Point
Cavitation
Siphon ..........................................................................45
Water Hammer ............................................................45
Concept Problems ........................................................46

HYDRAULICS – OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PAGE

Manning’s Equation .....................................................49

Hydraulic Radius
Most Efficient Cross Section
Example – Pipe Cross Section Efficiency
Normal Depth
Example – Calculating Q Using Hydraulic Elements Chart
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Example – Apx 19E-F Normal Depth in Trapezoidal Channel

Example – Apx 19E-F Side Slopes for Trapezoidal Channel
Stormwater Collection .................................................55
Gutter Flow
Example – Flow in a Gutter at Maximum Spread
Flow Measurement - Weirs .........................................56
Sharp-Crested Weir
Trapezoidal Weir
Triangular Weir
Broad-Crested Weirs and Spillways
Culverts........................................................................58
Inlet Control
Outlet Control
Culvert Nomographs
Example – Headwater Depth
Concept Problems .......................................................61

SITE DEVELOPMENT PAGE

Erosion Processes ........................................................63

Sediment Transport .....................................................64

Erosion and Sediment Controls ....................................64

General Controls
Channel Protection
Outlet Protection

Construction NDPES Permit .........................................68

Concept Problems ........................................................69

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

SCHOOL OF PE REVIEW – WATER RESOURCES – Part 1

REFERENCES

1. Lindeburg, M.R. (2014). Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE

Exam (14th Edition). Professional Publications, Inc. (PPI), Belmont, CA.

2. Brant, J. and Kauffman, G.J. (2011). Water Resources and Environmental

Depth Reference Manual for the Civil PE Exam. Professional
Publications, Inc. (PPI), Belmont, CA.

3. Publication 584, PennDOT Drainage Manual, Pennsylvania Department

of Transportation, 2012.

4. Hydraulics Manual, Oregon Department of Transportation.

5. HDS-5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Federal Highway

Administration.

6. http://www.douglas.co.us/water/What_is_an_Aquifer$q.html

7. http://www.nationalatlas.gov

8. http://www.sswm.info

9. Water Environment Federation. Design of Urban Stormwater Controls.

New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012.

10. Friebel, Harry C. A Dictionary of Civil, Water Resources & Environmental

Engineering. Berlin, NJ: Golden Ratio, 2013.
Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

HYDROLOGY
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Hydrologic Cycle [p. 20-1]

The hydrologic cycle is a process that occurs within the earth's atmosphere in which
water molecules move and are transformed from liquid to vapor and back to liquid
again.

Energy from the sun evaporates water from the oceans. Atmospheric winds transport
the moist air to other regions, where it condenses into clouds, some of which produce
rain and snow. Precipitation falls into an ocean or, if the precipitation falls on a
continent, a great deal of the water makes its way back to the ocean in a complex
journey over land and underground.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Precipitation [p. 20-2]

Precipitation can take the form of rain, snow, hail, or sleet. Only rain is covered on the
PE exam.

Rainfall events are measured using recording gages, and the average rainfall over a
region is calculated using the point data

Non-recording gages - Measures the cumulative amount of

rain. Standard type is a large cylinder with a funnel and a
plastic measuring tube inside the cylinder.

Recording gages - Automatically records the amount of

rainfall reaching the surface as a function of time during
the lifespan of a storm.

Tipping-bucket rain gage - Consists of a cylinder with

a funnel that drains into a pair of buckets that are
balanced on a horizontal axis. When a bucket fills, it
tips causing the other bucket to move quickly into position and catch the
incoming rain. With each tip, an electronic signal is sent to a data logger
that records the time of tip occurrence.

Weighing rain gage - Collects the amount of falling rain into a vessel that
sits on a scale and measures the weight of accumulated water.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Arithmetic Mean Method – average rainfall of all gages within the region
boundary; each gage is assigned the same weight; must be uniformly distributed
over a relatively flat region
𝑃𝑖
𝑃= ∑
𝑛

P = avg rainfall (inches)

Pi = the depth of rainfall in each gage
n = # of gages within study area

Thiessen (Polygon) Method – gages are weighted by the areas they represent;
gages outside of the watershed may be used in this method

Steps:
1 – Connect adjacent gages with dashed
lines
2 – Draw perpendicular bisectors
3 – Count the # of squares in each subarea
(Ai)
4 – Use the weighted rainfall formula below

𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑃=∑
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Hyetograph – A graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall over time. A

histogram is used to display a hyetograph.

Intensity – A measure of the amount of rain that falls over time. Typical units are
inches/hr, mm/hr.

[a] What is the total rainfall in inches for the storm event above?
The total rainfall can be determined by reading the cumulative curve at the end of
the storm. At hour 11, the cumulative rainfall is 4.5 inches.

[b] What is the peak (consecutive) 2-hour rainfall intensity for the storm, in inches per
hour?
The maximum rainfall accumulation for any 2-hour period is during hours
5 and 6.
Ipeak = (1.25” + 1.00”)/2 hrs = 1.12 in/hr

Excess precipitation – The precipitation in excess of infiltration capacity,

evaporation, transpiration, and other losses. It is also referred to as effective
precipitation or net rainfall.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Probability & Frequency [p. 20-6]

Recurrence Interval/Frequency, F – the average number of years between storms of
a given intensity (or floods of a given magnitude). Design storms and floods in civil
engineering practice are often specified by the recurrence interval (e.g., 100-year
storm).

Probability, p – the inverse of recurrence interval, often specified

as a percentage (e.g., 1% flood). A 1% chance flood would be
exceeded in severity only once, on average, every one hundred
years.
1
p [Eqn. 20.19]
F
The probability p of a storm/flood with a frequency F occurring in n years is:
n
1
p 1 1 [Eqn. 20.20]
F

The probability of a storm/flood not occurring is: pnot = 1 – p

An undersized culvert is due to be replaced in 10 years, but the highway department is

concerned about the frequency of the road flooding. A 25-year or greater magnitude
event causes the road to flood. What is the probability of the road flooding before the
culvert is replaced?

1 n 1 10
p = 1 − (1 − ) ► p = 1 − (1 − )
F 25

p = 0.335 = 34% chance that flooding will occur

The probability of having exactly n occurrences in N trials is:

N!
p n,N pn 1 p N n
n! N n !
For example, the probability that a 50-year flood will occur twice in a 50-year
period… n = 2, N = 50, p = 0.02
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Hydrographs [p. 20-7] Hydrographs are continuous plots of discharge,

Q (volume per unit time) vs. time, t.

A site-scale application of a hydrograph is hydrologic routing through a stormwater

management (SWM) basin. SWM basins are used to attenuate runoff and reduce peak
flow rates. Durations are typically minutes to hours.

A watershed-scale application is a stream flow hydrograph. Stage or discharge data

from a stream gage is plotted. Durations are typically hours to days.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stream flow hydrographs are comprised of two flow components:

Direct Runoff – Storm induced short term flow contributed from surface runoff,
storm sewers, etc.

Base Flow – Long term (perennial) flow due to contributions from groundwater; can
vary during a storm as groundwater is recharged.

Direct runoff and base flow can be separated using various methods. [p. 20-7]
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

The total volume of water represented by a hydrograph can be found by calculating the
area under the hydrograph curve.

Calculate the volume in the direct runoff hydrograph below.

The volume of direct runoff (Vdirect runoff) can be calculated by summing all of the
ordinates of the direct runoff hydrograph and multiplying the sum by the time
increment between each ordinate.

Time (hr) Q (cfs)

0 0
1 12
2 35
3 65
4 40
5 25
6 15
7 0 ft3 sec
∑= 192 cfs Vdirect runoff = (192 ) (1 hr) (3600 ) = 691,200 ft3
sec hr
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stormwater Management

Land development often results in the removal of vegetation and compaction of

loose soils. Buildings, roads, and other structural improvements increase impervious
area. Each of these factors increases stormwater runoff and decreases recharge of
groundwater supplies.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stormwater controls are used to reduce the effects of development on receiving

waterbodies by removing pollutants and attempting to mimic the natural hydrologic
patterns.
Peak rate of runoff - attenuation (store and release)
Volume of runoff - infiltration and evapotranspiration
Water quality of runoff - various physical and chemical processes (e.g.,
sedimentation, sorption, filtration, ion exchange)

Terms used to describe stormwater controls:

Best Management Practice (BMP)
Stormwater Control Measure (SCM)
Stormwater Management Facility (SMF)

Types of “structural” control measures (not all-inclusive)

Basins - Wet, Dry Detention, Infiltration
Vegetated Swale
Vegetated Filter Strip
Filters - Sand Filter, Bioretention (Ran Garden), Green Roof, Manufactured
Infiltrators - Trench, Dry Well, Permeable Pavement

Types of “source” controls (not all-inclusive)

Elimination/disconnection of impervious surfaces
Rainwater harvesting
Soil and vegetative restoration
Street sweeping
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Detention Basins

Temporary storage (detention) in a stormwater basin allows water to be

released at a lower flow rate compared to the inflow rate.

The engineer sizes the basin and designs the outlet structure, which controls
the effluent flow rate from the basin.

Stage-Storage Curve indicates the volume of storage available at

incremental elevations within the basin.

Stage-Discharge Curve indicates the total discharge rate from the basin
at incremental elevations within the basin.

Stage Storage Discharge

(ft) (ft3) (cfs)
0 0 0
1 200 0
2 450 5
3 700 12
4 950 22
5 1,200 30
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stage-Storage Data

Elev. ∆ Elev. Area Avg. Area ∆ Volume Volume

(ft) (ft) (ft2) (ft2) (ft3) (ft3)
100 - 10,000 - - 0
- 1.0 - 11,000 11,000 -
101 - 12,000 - - 11,000
- 1.0 - 13,200 13,200 -
102 - 14,400 - - 24,200
- 1.0 - 15,840 15,840 -
103 - 17,280 - - 40,040
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Permanent storage may be incorporated into the design to create a

permanent pool (wet pond) or provide a certain volume to be removed via
infiltration (through the bottom of the basin).
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Water Budget Problems

Problem involving the change in the water stored (depth or volume) in a lake, pond,
stormwater basin, reservoir, etc.

Change in Stored Water, ΔS = Inflows – Outflows

Parameters that would typically be used for a stormwater basin scenario…

→ Inflows
Precipitation, P: rain that falls directly into storage area (in)
Surface Runoff, Qin: direct surface runoff from upland areas (cfs, in, ft3)
→ Outflows/Losses
Infiltration, F: loss of water from bottom of facility (gpm, in/hr)
Discharge, Qout: overflow or release from a stormwater basin (cfs, gpm)

ΔS = [P + Qin] – [F + Qout]

When a problem involves a basin that is initially empty and you need to calculate how
long it takes to drain completely following a storm event, ΔS = 0.

Depth = Volume / Surface Area (ok to assume for large storage areas)

A 0.25-acre stormwater detention basin is empty before a rainfall event.

The average inflow rate during the storm is 10 cfs while the average
discharge rate is 5 cfs. If the basin is 5 feet deep and the inflow and outflow rates are
assumed constant, how many hours before the basin overflows?
Ans.
ΔS = Qin – Qout where ΔS = the total basin volume
Vfull = (0.25 acre) (43,560 ft2/acre) (5.0 ft) = 54,450 ft3
t = Vfull / (Qin – Qout) where Q is in ft3/sec, t is in sec
t = (54,450 ft3) / (10 ft3/sec – 5 ft3/sec) = 10,890 sec
t = (10,890 sec) / (3,600 sec/hr) = 3.0 hrs
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Time of Concentration [p. 20-3]

Tc is defined as the time needed for water to travel from the hydraulically most
distant point in a drainage area to the point of interest.

In site scale applications, Tc can be thought of as the time required for all parts of a
catchment area to contribute runoff to a point of interest, such as a storm drain inlet
or culvert.

Watersheds

Roadway Drainage

Various equations for calculating Tc depending on application

Example of commonly used equation:

Segmental Method Tc = tsheet + tshallow + tchannel [Eqn. 20.5]

L (ft)
In general: t (sec)
v (ft/sec)

Longer flow length = longer Tc

Rougher surfaces/channels = longer Tc (e.g., woods, heavy brush)

Flatter surfaces/channels = longer Tc

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Runoff Analysis

Drainage area characteristics affect the size and shape of a runoff hydrograph.

Source: HEC-19, FHWA, 1986

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Source: alleghenygeoquest.com/watershed_management.htm
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Rational Equation – used to calculate peak flows for small drainage areas

Qpeak (ft3/sec) = C x I (in/hr) x Ad (acres) [Eqn. 20.36]

Conversion note: 1 ft3/sec ≈ 1 acre-in/hr

C – (non-dimensional) runoff coefficient (Apx 20.A, p. A-63); weighted C is

computed for areas with multiple types of coverage

Cweighted = ∑ Ci*Adi / Atotal

= [C1A1 + C2A2] / [A1 + A2]

Ad – drainage area (acres)

I – storm intensity (in/hr); based on the Tc

Intensities can be found using Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves.

Duration of Storm in Minutes

Source: PennDOT Pub. 584
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

You are replacing a 36-inch diameter culvert under a road. The drainage area to the
culvert is 120 acres; 48 acres is light forest cover (C=0.20), 72 acres is lawn grass
(C=0.40). The design storm is a 25-year frequency, and the computed time of
concentration is 15 minutes. Find the design peak discharge rate to the culvert in cubic
feet per second.

I25 = 3.8 in/hr

Q = CIAd

(0.20)(48 ac)+(0.40)(72 ac)

Cw = = 0.32
120 ac

Q = CIAd = 0.32(3.8)(120) = 146 cfs

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Storm Sewer Networks – This is an application of the Rational Equation.

To compute a peak flow using the Rational Equation for sizing a pipe, the subareas
upstream of the pipe must be combined into a single drainage area that has a single
Cw and a single Tc (required to find I).

Example: Using the information in the diagram above, calculate the rainfall intensity
that would be used in the Rational Equation to size the outlet pipe, given:
I (in/hr) = 15 / [10 + Tc (min)]

Ans.
The time that it takes all contributing drainage areas to reach the inlet at the outfall
pipe entrance is the greater of (5+1+1), (8+1), and (10).

Therefore, the Tc is 10 minutes.

I = 15 / (10 + 10) = 0.75 in/hr

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

NRCS Curve Number Method – method for calculating the net rainfall (i.e., runoff)
produced by a watershed for a given rainfall event.

Q is expressed as a depth (in)

P 0.2S 2
Q [Eqn. 20.44]
P 0.8 S

1000
S 10 [Eqn. 20.43]
CN

Q, P, S typically units of inches

Precipitation, P – 24-hour rainfall depth

Storage capacity, S – potential maximum retention after runoff begins.

Curve number, CN – function of the soil type, land use, and moisture condition.
High curve numbers are generally finer textured soils and/or areas that have been
developed. Soils are classified into one of four Hydrologic Soil Groups (HSG)

Group A Group B Group C Group D

Runoff
Low Moderate Moderate High
Potential
Infiltration
High Moderate Moderate Low
Rates
(in/hr) > 0.30 0.15-0.30 0.05-0.15 0-0.05
Soils / Sand or Moderately Moderately
Clay
texture gravel coarse fine to fine

CN values in Tables 20.4 and 20.5

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Source: CERM 13th Edition

Multiple land uses – general rule of thumb is to not average curve numbers
unless they are less than 10 apart. Calculate the depth of runoff from each land
use separately.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

A developer is required to collect and store runoff from his site in a stormwater
detention basin for a one inch rainfall event. His site consists of 0.15 acre impervious
(house, driveway, etc.) and 0.65 acre lawn (uniform grass coverage). Site soils are
hydrologic soil group C. If the basin must be 10’ wide x 20’ long, what is the minimum
depth required for storage, in feet?

Volume = Depth x Area

Vrunoff = Qrunoff x Ad

(P − 0.2S)2 1000
Q= [Eqn. 20.44] S= − 10 [Eqn. 20.43]
(P + 0.8S) CN
CN for lawn, good condition, hydrologic soil group C = 74
1000 1000
Slawn = − 10 = 3.51 in Simperv = − 10 = 0.20 in
74 98
[1.0 in − 0.2(3.51 in)]2
Qlawn = = 0.02 in
[1.0 in + 0.8(3.51 in)]
[1.0 in − 0.2(0.20 in)]2
Qimperv = = 0.79 in
[1.0 in + 0.8(0.20 in)]

Vrunoff-lawn = 0.02 in (1 ft/12 in)(0.65 ac)(43,560 ft2/ac) = 47 ft3

Vrunoff-imperv = 0.79 in (1 ft/12 in)(0.15 ac)(43,560 ft2/ac) = 430 ft3

Vrunoff-total = 477 ft3

Abasin = 10 ft x 20 ft = 200 ft2

Min. basin depth = Vrunoff/Abasin = 477 ft3/200 ft2 = 2.4 ft

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Concept Problems

1. Which statement about hydrographs is incorrect?

a. Hydrograph routing is used to size stormwater detention basins for site design.
b. The hydrograph duration is equal to the rainfall duration.
c. Drainage area characteristics affect the size and shape of a hydrograph.
d. Hydrographs plot discharge (dependent var.) versus time (independent var.).

2. Choose the correct statement about stream flow hydrographs.

a. Base flow is always constant during a storm/flood event.
b. There is a lag between the centroid of the rainfall hyetograph and the peak
discharge of the hydrograph.
c. The size of the watershed has no effect on the hydrograph duration.
d. Stream flow hydrograph curves are typically symmetrical.

3. Which of the following is not a common result of land development activities?

a. Reduced evapotranspiration
b. Increased stormwater runoff
c. Reduced infiltration
d. Increased rainfall frequency

4. Time of concentration is not generally influenced by which of the following?

a. Rainfall duration
b. Drainage area slope
c. Drainage area ground cover
d. Size of drainage area

5. Which of the following drainage area characteristics would affect a runoff

hydrograph by giving it a “flatter” appearance?
a. Steep slopes
b. Smooth slopes
c. Dense brush/ground cover
d. High density of channels/drainage features
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

6. Which of the following combinations of land cover and hydrologic soil group
would result in the most runoff generated for a given storm event?
a. Lawn, good condition, HSG C
b. Park, fair condition, HSG B
c. ¼ acre lots, HSG A
d. 1 acre lots, HSG B
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

HYDRAULICS –
FLUID PROPERTIES & STATICS
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Fluid Properties

Pressure
Absolute pressure is measured with respect to zero pressure.
Gage pressure is measured with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure gages read pgage.

pabsolute = pgage + patmospheric [Eqn. 14.1]

English system units are pounds per square inch (lbf/in2, psi) or pounds per square
foot (lbf/ft2, psf); other pressure units are kilopascals (kPa), atmospheres, inches
or feet of water, mm or cm or inches of mercury
Density and Unit Weight
Density (ρ) is mass per unit volume (lbm/ft3)
Unit weight ( ) is weight per unit volume (lbf/ft3)
On earth water density lbm/ft3 is numerically equal to unit weight lbf/ft3
ρwater = 62.4 lbm/ft3; water = 62.4 lbf/ft3
Specific Gravity
SGliquid = ρliquid/ρwater
Viscosity
Measure of fluid’s resistance to flow when acted upon by an external force
Absolute viscosity (μ – Greek letter mu) units are lbf-sec/ft2
Kinematic viscosity (ν – Greek letter nu) units are ft2/sec
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Pressure Measuring Devices

Static pressure tube (piezometer tube)

the static pressure in the pipe
forces fluid into the vertical tube
p = h [Eqn. 15.7(b)]

Manometer
used to measure the pressure difference between the ends of the tube
p2 – p1 = mh + 1h1 - 2h2 [Eqn. 15.4(b)]
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

HYDRAULICS –
CLOSED CONDUIT / PRESSURE FLOW
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Continuity Equation
Qin = Qout
Q Q1 A1 v1 A2v2 Q 2 [Eqn. 17.3]
Q = flow rate (ft3/s)
A = cross sectional area (ft2), v = velocity (ft/s)

Exam Hint: If the pipe size does not change, the velocity must be the same.

10 cfs flows through a pipe of changing dimension, as shown below.

(1) What is the velocity in the first section, in ft/sec?

Q πD2 π(2.0 ft)2
v= Q=10 cfs A= = = 3.14 ft2
A 4 4
10 cfs ft
v= = 3.2
3.14 ft2 s

(2) What does the diameter of the second pipe section need to be to double the
velocity compared to the first pipe section?
v2 = 2v1 ► Q = v2A2 ► Q = 2v1A2
π
A2 = D22
4
ft π
10 cfs = 2 (3.2 ) D22
s 4
D22 = 2.0 ► D2 = 1.4 ft
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Energy Equation

Bernoulli Equation The total energy head, H, at any point in a closed conduit is the
sum of three components.
H (ft) hv hp hz [Eqn. 16.4]

hv v2 velocity head, ft | v - velocity (ft/s) | g = 32.2 ft/s2

2g

hp P pressure head, ft | P - pressure (lb/ft2) | water = 62.4 lbf/ft3

hz = z elevation head, ft

Fluid Height Equivalents [Table 15.2]

2.31 ft of water = 1 psi of pressure
27.70 in of water = 1 psi of pressure
2.036 in mercury = 1 psi of pressure

Friction (hf) and minor (hm) losses dissipate energy. The total energy upstream (H1) is
equal to the total energy downstream (H2) plus the sum of friction and minor losses in
between (hf + hm).

H1 H2 hf hm

hv1 hp1 hz1 hv 2 hp2 hz 2 hf hm

v12 P1 v 22 P2
z1 z2 hf hm
2g 2g
When a pump (adds energy) or turbine (removes energy) is added to the system:
H1 hpump H2 (hf hm ) hturbine
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

The EGL is a linear representation of the total energy (velocity + pressure + elevation
heads) along a closed system

HGL does not take into account kinetic energy (velocity head)

The HGL can be determined using a piezometer (piezometric level)

P v2 P
HGL Z EGL Z
2g

v12 hf
2g
v 22
2g
P1
P2

Z1 Z2

Conduit Properties [p. 16-9 to 16-12]

Circular – water/oil/gas distribution systems, storm sewers

Industry standard dimensions for certain types of pipe

Apx 16.B, 16.C – welded and seamless steel pipe*

Apx 16.D – small diameter PVC pipe*
Apx 16.E – large diameter PVC sewer and water pipe
Apx 16.F – concrete sewer pipe
Apx 16.G – cast iron pipe*
Apx 16.H – ductile iron pipe
* Check appendices for steel, cast iron, and small diameter PVC dimensions
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Friction Losses

Since fluids are viscous and conduit walls are not perfectly smooth, friction causes a
pressure (or head) loss in the conduit.

Reynolds Number – ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces; dimensionless

Dh v
Re = [Eqn. 16.17]
𝜈∗
Dh = hydraulic diameter (ft) (p. 16-6)
v = velocity (ft/s)
* = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s) (Apx 14.A)

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Re < 2100 Re > 4000
Low velocity High velocity
Fluid particles move parallel to Particle paths completely
the overall flow direction irregular
Rare in practice in water systems Most common type of flow

Exam Hint: Most problems tend to involve turbulent flow because laminar flow has
limited applications in civil engineering.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Head (energy) loss due to pipe friction, hf, increases with pipe length, velocity, and a
decrease in diameter.
hf = friction head (ft)
2
fLv f = Darcy’s friction factor
hf [Eqn. 17.22]
2Dg L = pipe length (ft)
v = fluid velocity (ft/s)
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)

Darcy’s friction factor, f, is found using the following:

Laminar flow, f = 64/Re
Turbulent flow, f (Apx 17.B)
- need Re and ε/D (relative
roughness)
- ε is specific roughness

[excerpt]

Eqn. 17.22 rearranged to solve for velocity:

2Dghf
v where hf is equal to the loss of pressure head from friction
fL
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

A working pressure of 50 psig is needed at the end of a 6-inch inside diameter steel
pipeline. Minor losses are negligible. The velocity and friction factor are 8.5 ft/s and
0.0174, respectively. What pressure (in psig) is required at the beginning of the
pipeline?

Need to set up energy balance b/c there is a change

in elevation between the ends of the pipe and there
is friction loss.

HA = HB + hf
hpA + hvA + hzA = hpB + hvB + hzB + hf
Velocity terms cancel because the pipe size is constant.
Set beginning of pipeline EL=0, such that the end EL=60 ft.
hpA = hpB + hzB + hf
fLv2
hf = [Eqn. 17.22]
2Dg
2
0.0174(3,000 ft)(8.5 fts)
hf = = 117 ft
ft
2(0.50 ft)(32.2 s2
)
hpB = 50 psi x 2.31 ft/psi = 116 ft
hpA = 116 ft + 60 ft + 117 ft = 293 ft
PA = 293 ft / 2.31 ft/psi = 127 psi
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Hazen-Williams Equation

Can be used for turbulent flow only and liquids (i.e., not gas)

hf = friction head (ft)

3.022v 1.85 L
hf [Eqn. 17.29] v = fluid velocity (ft/s)
C1.85 D1.17
L = pipe length (ft)
C = friction coefficient (Apx 17.A)
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for velocity:

0.541
h f C 1.85 D1.17 ΔP
v h
3.022L f

Note: The equation above for Δ P is applicable only when the change in elevation and
velocity heads are negligible. It is the pressure drop (loss) due to pipe friction.

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for length:

hf C1.85 D1.17
L
3.022v1.85

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for diameter:

0.855
3.022v1.85L
D
C 1.85h f

Eqn. 17.29 rearranged to solve for C:

0.541
3.022v1.85L
C
D1.17h f
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

A pressure drop of 10 psig is measured across a 200 ft long 4” inside diameter (I.D.)
ductile iron pipe (C=140). What is the approximate velocity of water in the pipe in feet
per second?

In this problem, there is only a pressure loss, so an energy balance is not necessary. The
friction loss equation can be used directly to solve the problem.

0.541
h f C 1.85 D1.17
v
3.022L

ΔP (10 psi)(144 in2 /1 ft 2 )

hf 23.1 ft
62.4 lbf/ft 3

or you can use: hf (ft) = ΔP (psi) x (2.31 ft/psi)

1.17 0.541
23.1 ft 140 1.85 0.33 ft
v 11.9 ft/s
3.022 200 ft
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Minor Losses

Minor losses, also known as local losses, are friction losses from fittings in the line,
changes in direction, changes in flow area, etc.

Equivalent Lengths
Each fitting or flow variation is assumed to produce friction equal to the pipe wall
friction from an equivalent length of pipe.

L total L actual L equiv [Eqn. 17.38]

Apx 17.D is table of equivalent lengths for common pipe fittings. A portion of the
table is shown below.

What is the total length with equivalent lengths of fittings of 4-inch I.D.
steel pipeline shown below, in feet? All connections are flanged.
Use Apx. 17.D to find eq. lengths for fittings:
Regular 90° el = 5.9’ ea. x 2 = 11.8’
Swing ck valve = 38.0’ ea. x 1 = 38.0’
Lequiv.= 49.8’
Lactual = 250’ + 300’ + 450’ = 1000’
Ltotal = 1000’ + 49.8’ = 1050’
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Loss Coefficients
Energy losses are calculated for each fitting, separately from pipe wall friction.
v2
hminor K [Eqn. 17.39]
2g

Calculate the head loss from the pipe fittings in the 4” I.D. steel pipeline
shown below for a 200 gpm flow rate.
v2
hminor K [Eqn. 17.39]
2g
Q πD2 π(0.33 ft)2
v= ► A= = = 0.0855 ft2
A 4 4
1 cfs
Q = (200 gpm) ( ) = 0.45 cfs
449 gpm
(0.45 cfs) ft
v= = 5.3
(0.0855 ft2 ) s
Table 17.4: k90° elbow = 0.9; kck valve = 2.3
If velocity is constant through the fittings, k values can be summed and multiplied by the
velocity head.
(5.3 ft⁄s)2
hminor = [2(0.9) + 2.3] = 1.79 ft
2(32.2 ft⁄s2 )
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Pipe Networks

Friction losses are added together for pipes connected in series.

hf total hfa hfb [Eqn. 17.89]

For pipes connected in parallel:

Flow divides so that friction loss is equal in both pipes.

hfa hfb [Eqn. 17.95]

v a1.85 L a v b 1.85 L b
Hazen-Williams:
C a1.85 D a1.165 C b 1.85 Db 1.165
Head loss between junctions can be calculated using any branch.
hf1 2 hfa hfb [Eqn. 17.96]
Total flow is equal to the sum of flow in the branches.
Q1 Q a Q b Q 2 [Eqn. 17.97]

If parallel branches have identical properties except one:

the shorter (L) one will carry more flow
the smoother (C) one will carry more flow
the bigger (D) one will carry more flow
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

A pressure drop of 5 psig is measured between the junctions of the parallel branches.
What is the velocity in branch “a”? Assume no significant elevation differences.

Branch “a” L = 400’, D = 12”, C = 100

Branch “b” L = 300’, D = 12”, C = 120
0.541
hf C1.85 D1.17
v
3.022L
hf (ft) = ΔP (psi) x (2.31 ft/psi) = 5 x 2.31 = 11.55 ft
0.541
11.55 ft 100 1.85 1.0 ft 1.17
v 8.1 ft/s
3.022 400 ft

Pumps [Ch. 18]

Total Dynamic Head – Energy head added by a pump

Can be determined from the difference in pressure energy on either side of
the pump.
In reservoir systems, can be determined by performing an energy balance
between the reservoirs
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

System Curve
Plot of the static and friction energy
losses experienced by the fluid for
different flow rates
Depends only on the configuration of
the suction and discharge lines
The total head that a pump needs to
overcome (add to the system) is equal
to the sum of the elevation head, hz,
and the friction head, hf
hA hz hf [Eqn. 18.38]
hz hz(d) hz(s) [Eqn. 18.39]
hf hf(s) hf(d) [Eqn. 18.40]

Pump Performance Curve

For a given impeller diameter and
constant speed, the head added, hA,
will decrease as the flow rate
increases
Supplied by the manufacturer of the
pump
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Operating Point
Intersection of the pump curve
and system curve; defines the
system head and system flow
rate
Can be changed by throttling
(with a valve) the discharge
line

Cavitation – The spontaneous vaporization of fluid, which negatively affects pump

performance and damages the pump. Fluid pressure drops below vapor pressure.
Occurs when NPSHA < NPSHR (p. 18-14)
Strategies for preventing cavitation: increase NPSHA, reduce NPSHR (p. 18-15)
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Siphon

Curved tube that carries fluid from a higher

elevation to a lower elevation.

Starting a siphon requires the tube to be

completely filled with liquid.

Water Hammer

Water hammer occurs when a gate or valve in a piping system suddenly closes, resulting
in an instantaneous decrease in flow velocity and a substantial increase in pressure. The
shock wave caused by water hammer can cause water main breaks and pipe failure.

Installing a surge tank, accumulator, slow-closing valve, or pressure-relief valve in the

line will protect against water hammer damage.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Concept Problems

1. A manometer connected to a water main might be used to:

a. Find the absolute pressure in main
b. Determine the amount of head loss across a shut off valve
c. Find the flow velocity in the pipe
d. Determine the difference in temperature in parallel pipes

2. In a pressurized water system, a 12” dia. pipe flows into an 18” dia. pipe. The 18”
dia. pipe will most likely:
a. Have higher flow velocity than the 12” dia. pipe
b. Be at the same pressure as the 12” dia. pipe
c. Be at a higher pressure than the 12” dia. pipe
d. Be at a lower pressure than the 12” dia. pipe

3. Which of the following statements about a straight, horizontal section of 12” dia.
pressurized conduit carrying water is incorrect?
a. The EGL and HGL are parallel to each other
b. The friction head is equal to the loss in pressure head
c. The velocity head gradually decreases from the beginning to end of pipe
d. The HGL is below the EGL

4. Choose the correct statement about minor (local) losses from pipe fittings.
a. Larger loss coefficients (K) translate to larger head losses
b. Elbows produce greater energy losses than most valves
c. The equivalent length of pipe for a fitting is independent of pipe diameter
d. The equivalent length of pipe for a fitting is independent of pipe material

5. Choose the correct statement about two 12-inch inside diameter pressurized
water mains connected in series, each made of different material.
a. Velocity in the rougher pipe will be lower compared to the smoother pipe
b. Head loss is equal in the two pipes
c. The total head loss is the product of the head loss in each pipe
d. The pressure in the downstream pipe is less than the upstream pipe
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

6. Which of the following is not a measure used to protect water lines from water
hammer damage?
a. Pressure relief valve
b. Check valve
c. Slow closing valve
d. Surge tank

7. Which of the following is a strategy to prevent pump cavitation?

a. Increase water temperature
b. Use smaller diameter pipes on the source (suction) side of the pump
c. Raise the pump elevation relative to the source water surface elevation
d. Shorten the length of pipe between the source water and the pump
Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

HYDRAULICS –
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Manning’s Equation

1.49 2/3 1/2

v R S (U.S.) [Eqn. 19.12b]
n
Q vA
v = velocity (ft/s)
n = Manning’s coefficient
(Apx 19.A)
R = hydraulic radius (ft)
S = slope of energy grade line (ft/ft)
= channel slope for uniform flow
A = flow area (ft2)

Hydraulic Radius
flow area A
R
wettedperimeter WP

D
R when a circular pipe is full or half-full; D = pipe diameter
4

Table 19.2 in CERM – Hydraulic Parameters of Basic Channel Sections

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Most Efficient Cross Section (p. 19-9)

Maximizes the flow for a given Manning’s n, slope, and flow area; hydraulic radius is
at a maximum; for a given flow area, wetted perimeter is at a minimum

Highest efficiency Semi-circle (but not constructible in earth material)

Most efficient trapezoid: d = 2R (i.e., half of a hexagon) [Eqn. 19.38]
2d
b= [Eqn. 19.39] and A=√3d2 [Eqn. 19.40]
√3

Most efficient rectangle: d = w/2 (i.e., half of a square) [Eqn. 19.34]

A circular metal storm pipe under a road is deformed due to excessive vehicle loads.
The deformed shape resembles an ellipse. Has the pipe’s capacity increased, decreased,
remained constant, or cannot tell?

Ans. – The deformed pipe has less capacity than the original circular pipe. A circle is
the most efficient cross section. A deformed pipe maintains the same wetted
perimeter, but the flow area is reduced. Smaller hydraulic radius = less flow capacity.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Normal Depth (p. 19-6)

Depth when flow is uniform; difficult to solve by hand (trial and error).

Circular pipe flowing full… (note same units as Manning’s equation)

3/8
nQ
D dn 1.335 [Eqn. 19.16b]
S
0.463D8 3 S 0.591D2 3 S
Q full v full
n n
Qhalf-full = 0.5Qfull

Source:
www.adsenv.com
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

One way to solve for normal depth in circular channels is to use a hydraulic elements
chart for finding partially-full flow: (similar to Apx 19.C, p. A-48)

Source: ODOT Hydraulic Manual

What is the discharge, in ft3/sec, in a 30-inch diameter pipe, with a Manning’s n of

0.024, a flow depth of 7.5 inches, and on a 0.50% downward slope?

Ans.

d 7.5 in Q
= = 0.25 ► = 0.14 ► Q = 0.14Qfull
D 30.0 in Qfull

0.463D8⁄3 S1⁄2 0.463(2.5 ft)8⁄3 (0.005)1⁄2

Qfull = = = 15.7 cfs
n 0.024

Q = 0.14(15.7 cfs) = 2.2 cfs

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Normal depth in rectangular, trapezoidal, and triangular channels can be solved quickly
using Appendix 19.E and 19.F in CERM

Rectangular channel when = 90° or m = 0

Triangular channel when b = 0 or d/b = ∞

Appendix 19.E – Use when d is known to find Q or b

K 83 Qn
Q d S K 8
n d 3 S
Appendix 19.F – Use when b is known to find Q or d
K' 8 3 Qn
Q b S K' 8
n b 3 S

If (Q), (n), (d or b), and (S) are given in the problem:

Step 1 – calculate K or K' using above equations
Step 2 – locate the nearest K or K' in the chart under the side slope column*
Step 3 – note the corresponding (d/b) value in the left-hand column
Step 4 – multiply (d/b) by (b) or (d) given in the problem
If (d) and (b) are given in the problem:
Step 1 – calculate (d/b) and select K or K' under the side slope column*
Step 2 – plug K or K' into the equations above and solve for the unknown

* If side slopes are not equal, average them and use the average.
e.g., For a channel with 2H:1V and 4H:1V side slopes, use 3H:1V (m=3).
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

What is the normal depth, in feet, in a trapezoidal drainage ditch with a

2.0-foot bottom width, 2H:1V side slopes, Manning’s n of 0.05, 1.0%
channel slope, conveying 13.0 ft3/sec?
Ans.
b is known, therefore, use Apx. 19.F
Qn (13 cfs)(0.05)
1: K' = = = 1.02
b8⁄3 √S (2.0 ft)8⁄3 √.01
2: Column for 2.0 H:V side slopes (26.6°) ► nearest value is K'= 0.990

3: d/b = 0.60
4: d = 0.60b = 0.60(2.0 ft) = 1.2 ft

What side slopes should be used for a 2.0-foot wide ditch, Manning’s n
of 0.05, 1.0% channel slope, conveying 13.0 ft3/sec at a 1.20-foot depth?
Ans.
Qn (13 cfs)(0.05)
1: K' = = = 1.02
b8⁄3 √S (2.0 ft)8⁄3 √.01
2: d/b = 1.2/2.0 = 0.60

3: Nearest value to K' = 1.02 in the d/b = 0.60 row is 0.990 ► m = 2.0
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stormwater Collection

Gutter Flow – calculations used to relate the quantity of flow in a curbed channel to
the spread of water on the shoulder or pavement section

Uniform cross slope – gutter/shoulder at same cross slope as travel lanes

0.56 1.67 0.5 2.67
Q Sx S T Q = flow rate in gutter (ft3/s)
n n = Manning’s n
1.79Qn 3 8 Sx = road cross slope, ft/ft
T S = longitudinal (direction of flow) slope, ft/ft
S x5 8 S 3 16 T = spread, top width of flow (ft)

Exam Hint: Spread into the travel lane = T – gutter or shoulder width

What is the maximum flow that can be conveyed without encroaching on

the travel lane? The profile grade of the road is 3.0% and n=0.011.

0.56 1.67 0.5 2.67 0.56 1.67

Q Sx S T 0.04 0.03 0.5 4.0 2.67
n 0.011
Q = 1.7 cfs
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Flow Measurement – Weirs

Obstruction in an open channel over which flow occurs – the discharge rate, Q (cfs), is a
function of the head, H (ft), over the weir and the width of the weir crest, b (ft).

Sharp-Crested Weir – typically used for measuring flow

If the velocity of the approach is
negligible:
2 ⁄
Q= b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.48]
3
If the weir is located in a channel:
2 ⁄
Q= C1 b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.49]
3

C1 = discharge (weir) coefficient;

typically 0.61-0.62
beffective = bactual − 0.1NH [Eqn. 19.53]

Trapezoidal Weir – Cipoletti weir (1H:4V) used for approximate flow rates
2
Q = Cd b(H3⁄2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.57]
3
Cd = discharge (weir) coefficient; average value is 0.63
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Triangular Weir – used for measuring small flow rates

8 θ
Q = C2 ( tan ) (H5⁄2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.55]
15 2
C2 = discharge (weir) coefficient; typically 0.58-0.61 (0.593 for 90°)

Broad-Crested Weirs and Spillways

A weir is broad-crested if the weir thickness (direction of flow) is greater than half of
the head, H.
For ogee and dam overflow spillways:
2 ⁄
Q= C1 b(H3 2 )√2g [Eqn. 19.59]
3
C1 = discharge (weir) coefficient; typically 0.60-0.75 (ogee) 0.50-0.57 (other)

For all other broad-crested spillways, based on the Horton equation:

3⁄2
v2
Q = Cs b (H+ ) [Eqn. 19.60]
2g
Cs = spillway coefficient; varies; typically 2.6-3.3
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Culverts – A culvert is a relatively short segment of conduit that is used to transport

water underneath a roadway or other type of earthen embankment.

Source: FHWA, HDS-5

Culverts are classified according to which end controls the discharge.

Inlet Control

Source: FHWA, HDS-5

Flow capacity is controlled at the entrance by the headwater depth, cross-

sectional area and type of inlet edge
Always partially full
Flow passes through critical depth at the inlet and remains supercritical through
the culvert
Usually “steep” slopes
Submerged inlet ► Behaves like orifice flow

Non-submerged inlet ► Behaves like weir flow

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Outlet Control
Source: FHWA, HDS-5

All of the factors influencing the performance of a culvert in inlet control also
influence culverts in outlet control.
The barrel characteristics (roughness, area, shape, length, and slope) and the
tailwater elevation also affect culvert performance in outlet control.
Full or partially full
Subcritical flow through the culvert
Usually “mild” slopes
Flowing full
Energy balance between ends of culvert
The total energy required to pass the flow through the culvert barrel is
made up of the entrance loss (he), the friction loss through the barrel
(hf), and the exit loss (ho).

Partially-full ► Water surface profile analysis (direct step method)

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Culvert Nomographs

What is the headwater depth required to convey the design flow through
the selected pipe culvert?
D = 42 in (3.5 ft); Q = 120 cfs
Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Inlet Control

3.

Ans.

HW/D = 2.5
HW = 2.5 D
HW = 2.5 (3.5 ft)
HW = 8.8 ft

Source: FHWA, HDS-5

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Concept Problems

1. Which of these statements about open channel flow hydraulics is incorrect?

a. Velocity is a function of channel shape, roughness, slope, and flow depth
b. Flow rate is the produce of velocity and flow area
c. Manning’s n values for rough channels are larger than smooth channels
d. Reducing hydraulic radius increases the channel velocity

2. Which of the following shapes is most efficient for a given flow area?
a. V-shaped
b. Trapezoidal (half hexagon)
c. Rectangular
d. Semi-circular (half circle)

3. The flow capacity of a culvert operating in inlet control would not likely be
improved by:
a. Increasing the cross-sectional area of the culvert entrance
b. Using a smoother pipe material
c. Using wing walls and rounding the pipe culvert edges
d. Allowing greater headwater depth
Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

SITE DEVELOPMENT
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Erosion Processes

Erosion is the removal of soil from its original location by forces such as wind, water, or
gravity. It is a natural process that can be accelerated by human activity. Construction
activities such as removing vegetation, disturbing soil, and redirecting drainage can
increase the natural rates of erosion.

Soil erosion potential is based on four factors:

Soil type – texture, organic content, structure, and permeability are factors that
affect erodibility. Well-drained soils, such as sands, are less prone to erosion
because their higher permeability results in less surface runoff.

Land use/land cover – erosion occurs when soil is left bare, so the most effective
soil erosion control measure is vegetative ground cover.

Topography/slope – erosion is highest in large, steeply sloped watersheds. Soil

erosion increases with watershed slope and area.

Climate – the frequency, intensity and duration of rainfall are factors affecting
runoff and therefore affect erosion.

The erosion process by water is as follows:

Raindrop or Splash Erosion: Soil particles are

displaced by raindrop impact.

Sheet Erosion: Uniform layer of shallow flow that

moves loose soil particles.

Rill Erosion: Concentrated flows create small

eroded channels, and erosive energy begins to increase.

Gully Erosion: High-volume, high-velocity, concentrated flows displace large

amounts of soil quickly, creating large eroded channels.

Channel or Streambank Erosion: Shear stress along walls removes soil.

 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Mass Wasting or Slumping: Soil structural failure is caused by factors such as

saturation, vegetation removal, and soil type.

Sediment Transport
Detached soil particles will remain in suspension until flow energy is insufficient to keep
particles suspended. When particles settle out, it is referred to as deposition. E&S
controls that reduces flow energy (velocity) are considered sediment control practices.

Erosion and Sediment Controls

Construction site erosion and sediment controls (common examples):

Erosion prevention/minimization –
straw/hay/pellet mulch, spray on mulch
temporary or permanent vegetative cover (70% minimum)
rolled erosion control products (slope and channel protection)
slope roughening
Sediment control –
perimeter sheet flow controls (silt fence, compost filter sock, hay bales)
sediment trap, sediment basin
inlet protection (filter bag, stone/block)
rock construction entrance
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Channel Protection

Channels subjected to erosive forces; bare earth condition usually not adequate
Types:
Permanent: grass, turf reinforcement mat, riprap, concrete
Temporary: rolled erosion control products (RECP)
Design Process
1) Calculate design flow
2) Calculate flow velocity and/or channel shear stress
Velocity: Manning’s equation
Shear stress:
= design shear stress, lbf/ft2
= unit weight, water, lbf/ft3
= flow depth, ft | S = channel slope, ft/ft
3) Select temporary/permanent lining with allowable values that are
greater than the calculated design values. Temporary lining must
provide sufficient protection until permanent grass establishes or
channel is no longer needed.
4) Recompute flow depth based on channel lining roughness and verify
adequacy of channel size, freeboard, etc.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Source: http://www.ectc.org/
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Outlet Protection

Supercritical flow, high energy discharge from pipes, channels, spillways

Resist erosive forces, prevent scour – variation includes energy dissipation
Design is a function of pipe size, flow velocity, downstream (tailwater) condition

Scour Prevention
Highest
velocity/energy
occurs at pipe outlet
Armoring ground
prevents soil
detachment
Ex: Rock Apron

Energy Dissipation
Reduce flow energy
by forcing a hydraulic
jump
Ex: Stilling Basin

Common types:
Rock Apron
Rock Energy Dissipator
Drop Structure
Stilling Basin
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Stilling Basin Example

Construction NPDES Permit

As authorized by the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq.), the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program controls water pollution by
regulating point sources that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States. Point
sources are discrete conveyances such as pipes or man-made ditches.

Notice of Intent (NOI) for Storm Water Discharges Associated with Construction Activity
Stormwater discharges from construction activities (such as clearing, grading,
excavating, and stockpiling) that disturb one or more acres, or smaller sites that are part
of a larger common plan of development or sale, are regulated under the NPDES
stormwater program. Prior to discharging stormwater, construction operators must
obtain coverage under an NPDES permit, which is administered by either the state (if it
has been authorized to operate the NPDES stormwater program) or EPA, depending on
where the construction site is located.
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 1

Concept Problems

1. Soil erosion potential is affected by all except which of the soil properties below?
a. Texture
b. Structure
c. Permeability
d. pH

2. Which of the following erosion and sediment control measures is used to remove
sediment from runoff that has not yet concentrated in a channel?
a. Filter bag storm inlet protection
b. Sediment trap
c. Rock construction entrance
d. Silt fence

3. An incorrect statement about channel erosion protection is:

a. A common method of determining proper protection is to compute shear
stress on the channel and provide adequate lining
b. Temporary channel lining is often used to protect the channel while the
planted vegetative cover establishes
c. A good practice would be to select a permanent channel lining based on a 1-
year frequency storm event.
d. Larger stone (riprap) sizes translate to greater shear stress resistance
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 2

Refresher Notes

Code: CIWGR2 Fall 2015

This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
Brennan Burbank ([email protected])
 Water Resources & Geometrics Related Topics Part 2

Geometrics Refresher

Table of Contents
1. Surveying ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Bearings and Azimuths .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Latitude and Departures ......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Stationing ............................................................................................................................... 5
2. Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................................................................ 6
2.1.1 Braking or Skidding Distance ......................................................................................... 7
3. Horizontal Curves ......................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Circular Curves ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve Section ........................................................ 13
3.3 Superelevation ...................................................................................................................... 15
4. Vertical Curves ........................................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Vertical Curve Elevations .................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Vertical Curve Design .......................................................................................................... 20

REFERENCES
Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 14th Edition, by Michael R. Lindeburg
(Popularly known as CERM)

*NOTE: All references to CERM are to the 14th Edition of the Civil Engineering Reference Manual
for PE Exam, by Michael R. Lindeburg

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1. Surveying
1.1 Bearings and Azimuths
See definitions on CERM* page 78-12, section 23.

PROBLEM 1 - Convert the following bearings to azimuths from north:

(a) N 740 24’ 01” W

(b) S 850 13’ 16” W
(c) N 840 28’ 13” E
(d) S 080 19’ 19” E

SOLUTION 1

(a) 3600 - 740 24’ 01” = 3590 59’ 60” - 740 24’ 01” 2850 35’ 59”

(b) 1800 + 850 13’ 16 = 2650 13’ 16”

(c) In the NE quadrant, Azimuth = bearing angle = 840 28’ 13”

(d) 1800 - 080 19’ 19” = 1790 59’ 60” - 080 19’ 19” = 1710 40’ 41”

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PROBLEM 2 - Convert the following azimuths from north to bearings:

(a) 2320 31’ 18”

(b) 2910 37’ 06”
(c) 1060 12’ 46”
(d) 120 13’ 47”

SOLUTION 2

(a) 2320 31’ 18” – 1800 = S 520 31’ 18” W

(b) 3600 - 2910 37’ 06” = 3590 59’ 60” - 2910 37’ 06” = N 680 22’ 54” W

(c) 1800 - 1060 12’ 46” = 1790 59’ 60” - 1060 12’ 46” = S 730 47’ 14” E

(d) In the NE quadrant, bearing angle = Azimuth = N 120 13’ 47” E

1.2 Latitude and Departures

Latitude of a line is the distance that the line extends in a north or south
direction. A line that runs towards north has a positive latitude; a line that runs
towards south has a negative latitude.
Departure of a line is the distance that the line extends in an east or west
direction. A line that runs towards east has a positive departure; a line that runs
towards west has a negative departure.

For additional details, please see CERM Page 78-13.

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PROBLEM 3
Determine the latitude and departure of each side of the closed traverse ABCDA.
Total the latitudes and departures.
Side Bearing Length
0
AB S 60 00’ E 50.0
0
BC N 30 00’ E 100.0
0
CD N 75 00’ W 200.0
0
DA S 41 30’ E 151.0

SOLUTION 3
latitude departure
Side bearing length cos sin
AB
S 600 00’ E 50.0 0.5000 0.8660 -25.0 +43.3
BC
N 300 00’ E 100.0 0.8660 0.5000 +86.6 +50.0
CD
N 750 00’ W 200.0 0.2588 0.9659 +51.8 -193.2
DA
S 410 30’ E 151.0 0.7490 0.6626 -113.1 +100.1
+0.3 +0.2

TIP: For Closed Traverse, Sum of Latitudes is Zero and also Sum of Departures is
Zero

PROBLEM 4
Using Problem 3, determine the coordinates of point D if the coordinates of point C
are N 365,423.24 and E 485,674.46.

SOLUTION 4
Coordinates of Point D
ND = NC + Latitude of Line CD = 365,423.24 + 51.8 = N 365,475.04
ED = EC + Departure of Line CD = 485,674.46 – 193.2 = E 485,481.26

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1.3 Stationing
Stationing concept is used along horizontal alignments for referencing purpose
1 station = 100 feet
How do you represent stationing?
o Specific location is represented as Sta 10+00
o Distance is represented as 10.00 sta

PROBLEM 5
What is the station at Point B?

SOLUTION 5
Station at Point A = Sta 22+45
Station at Point B = (Sta 22+45) + 1028’ = 2245’+1028’ =3273’
= Sta 32+73

PROBLEM 6
The survey has identified the beginning and ending points along an urban arterial
highway that require new sidewalks. The first station is located at 5+88 and the
second station is located at 10+05. What is the difference in length between stations
in feet and in stations?

SOLUTION 6
Difference in length = (10+05) – (5+88) = 1005’ – 588’= 417’
Difference in stations = 4.17 sta

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2. Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the
vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant
the brakes are applied; and (2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant
the brake application begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and
braking distance, respectively.

The AASHTO GB provides the following equations for calculating braking distance
and SSD, with and without the effect of grades.

The following equation includes terms for both the brake reaction distance and
braking distance (Use CERM equation 79.43(b) on page 79-10):
2
Vmph
SSD = 1.47Vmph t +
a
30 G
32.2
where:

SSD = Stopping Sight Distance, ft;

V = design speed, mph;
t = breaking reaction time, 2.5 sec
a = deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/sec 2
G = percent of grade divided by 100, it is in decimal

a
NOTE: can be replaced with f as discussed on CERM page 79-10, section 14
32.2

First part of the equation represents brake reaction distance and the second part
represent braking distance.

If a vehicle is traveling on a level roadway, then SSD can be determined using the
following simplified equation:
2
Vmph
SSD = 1.47Vmph t + 1.075
a

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2.1.1 Braking or Skidding Distance

If the vehicle does not come to a full stop, then the following equation can be used to
calculate braking or skidding distance:
V02 - V 2
D=
a
30 G
32.2
Where
V0 = Initial Speed in mph
V = Final Speed in mph

a
NOTE: can be replaced with friction factor 'f ', if f ' is given.
32.2

PROBLEM 7
A motorist is traveling on a level grade at 50 mph. A tree has fallen across the road
and forces the motorist to stop. Assuming a 2.5 sec PRT and 11.2 ft/sec 2 deceleration
rate, determine the brake reaction distance and braking distance in feet.

A. 147’ and 154’

B. 165’ and 194’
C. 184’ and 240’
D. 165’ and 290’
E. 184’ and 194’

SOLUTION 7

Brake reaction distance = 1.47Vt = 1.47(50)(2.5) = 184'

V2 502
Braking distance = 1.075 = 1.075 = 240'
a 11.2
The correct answer is C, 184’ and 240’

NOTE: CERM Table 79.2 on page 79-11 shows AASHTO minimum SSDs for
various design speeds.

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PROBLEM 8
A motorist is traveling down a 6% grade at 65 mph and needs to stop because of a
crash scene. Assuming a 2.0 sec PRT and 12.0 ft/sec2 deceleration rate, determine the
total SSD in feet.

SOLUTION 8
V2 652
SSD = 1.47Vt + = 1.47(65)2 +
a 12
30 G 30 0.06
32.2 32.2
4225
= 191.1+ = 641.52'
9.380

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3. Horizontal Curves
3.1 Circular Curves
A horizontal circular curve is an arc between two straight lines known as
tangents.

See CERM equations 79.1 to 79.10 and Figure 79.1 on pages 79-2 and 79-3

Stationing on Horizontal Curves can be determined using CERM equations

79.11 and 79.12 on page 79-3.

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PROBLEM 9

For the following circular curves having radius R, what is their degree of curve by
Arc definition and Chord definition?

SOLUTION 9

(a) Roadway curve with 500.00 ft

5729.578'
Da 110 27'33"
500 ft

(b) Railroad curve with 500.00 ft

50
Dc 2(sin 1 ) 11 28'42"
500 ft

(c) Roadway curve with 1500.00 ft

5729.578′
Da = = 30 49′ 11"
1500 ft

(d) Railroad curve with 1500.00 ft

50
Dc = 2 Sin−1 ( ) = 30 49′ 13.53"
1500 ft

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PROBLEM 10
Compute T, L, E, HSO, R, or D, and stations of the PC and PT for the circular curve
described below. Use the chord definition for the railroad curve and the arc definition
for the highway curve.

SOLUTION 10
(a) Railroad curve with Dc = 40 00’, I = 240 00’, and PI Sta. 36+45.00
50 I 240
R= 0
=1432.68 ft; T = R tan =1432.68 = 304.53 ft
4 2 2
sin
2
I 240
L= 100 = 0 100 = 600.00 ft
Dc 4
I 240
E = T tan = 304.53 tan = 32.01 ft
4 4
I 240
HSO = R 1 - cos = 1432.68 1-cos = 1432.68(0.013) = 31.31 ft
2 2
PC Sta. = PI Sta. - T = 3645.00 - 304.53 = 3340.47 ft = 33+40.47
PT Sta. = PC Sta. + L = 3340.47 + 600.00 = 3940.47 ft = 39+40.47

(b) Highway curve with R = 750.000 ft, I = 180 30’, and PI Sta 123+24.80
(Homework Problem)
5729.578′
𝐷𝑎 = = 7° 38′ 22" ; 𝐼 = 18° + 30′ ⁄60′ = 18.5° ;
750 𝑓𝑡
𝐼 18.5°
𝑇 = 𝑅 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = 750 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = 122.145 𝑓𝑡
2 2
𝐼 18.5°
𝐿= 2𝜋𝑅 = 2𝜋750 = 242.164 𝑓𝑡
360° 360°
𝐼 𝐼 18.5° 18.5°
𝐸 = 𝑅 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = 750 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2 4 2 4
= 750 × 0.1629 × 0.0809 = 9.881 𝑓𝑡
𝐼 18.5°
𝐻𝑆𝑂 = 𝑅 (1 − cos ) = 750 (1 − cos ) = 750(0.013) = 9.753 𝑓𝑡
2 2
𝑃𝐶 𝑆𝑡𝑎. = 𝑃𝐼 𝑆𝑡𝑎. − 𝑇 = 12324.800 − 122.145 = 122 + 02.655
𝑃𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎. = 𝑃𝐶 𝑆𝑡𝑎. + 𝐿 = 12202.655 + 242.164 = 124 + 44.819

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PROBLEM 11
Compute interior (or intersection) angle for the following circular curve:

SOLUTION 11
I 1800 600 600 600

PROBLEM 12
How far is point C from point X in the
drawing shown below?

SOLUTION 12

L = 330 – 125 = 205 ft

R = 180 ft
I
Solve for I; 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑅
360
I
205 = 2𝜋 (180)
360
I = 65.250

𝐼 65.25
Solve for M; 𝑀 = 𝑅(1 − cos ) = 180 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) = 28.4 𝑓𝑡
2 2

M represents the distance between point C and point D.

Distance CX = Distance CD – Distance XD = 28.4 – 25 = 3.4 ft

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3.2 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve Section

Obstructions along the inside of curves can limit the available (chord) sight distance.
A curve must be designed that will simultaneously provide the required stopping sight
distance while maintaining a clearance from a roadside obstruction.

See CERM equations 79.44 and 79.45 and figure 79.9 on page 79-11.

𝑅 𝑅 − 𝐻𝑆𝑂
𝑆=( ) (𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝐶𝐸𝑅𝑀 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 79.44
28.65 𝑅

28.65𝑆
𝐻𝑆𝑂 = 𝑅 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) CERM Eqn. 79.45
𝑅

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PROBLEM 13
A 6-lane divided highway has a design speed of 65 mph and the following typical
section:

Grassed median: 14 ft wide

Median shoulders: 4 ft wide
Lanes: 12 ft wide, 3 lanes directional
Rightside shoulders: 10 ft. wide
Centerline Degree of Curvature, D is 3o 45’

If single face concrete barrier be installed along the highway without encroaching on
the required horizontal sight distance, how far (at minimum) from the roadway
centerline should the face of the barrier be located?

SOLUTION 13
From CERM Table 79.2 for V = 65 mph, SSD = 645 ft.
5729.578
For D = 3o 45’= 3.75 o ……. R= = 1527.89 ft
3.75°

The centerline of the curve’s inside lane is offset 41 ft (7 + 4+ 2(12) +

(12/2)) from the roadway centerline.
Radius of centerline of the curve’s inside lane 1527.89 ft – 41 ft = 1486.89 ft
Using CERM equation 79.45,

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28.65S 28.65 645

HSO R 1 cos 1486.8874 1 cos
R 1486.89
HSO 34.84 ft

Required offset from centerline: 75.84 ft = (7 + 4+ 2(12) + 6 + 34.84)

3.3 Superelevation
Used at horizontal curves
Use CERM equation 79.37(b) on page 79-7

2
𝑣𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑒= − 𝑓𝑠 CERM Eqn. 79.37(b)
15𝑅

Where:
e = superelevation rate in ft/ft
v = design speed in mph
R = curve radius in ft
fs = side friction factor

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PROBLEM 14
What is the minimum radius, Rmin, that can be used on a horizontal curve with a 70
mph design speed, a maximum superelevation, emax = 0.08, and a side friction factor, f
= 0.10?

SOLUTION 14
Use CERM equation 79.37(b);

emax = 8%; V = 70 mph; fmax = 0.10

Vmph 2
R min =
15(emax + f max )
(NOTE: In AASHTO GB Eqn 3-8, emax is multiplied with 0.01. If you use
AASHTO Eqn, then emax should be in Percent. If you use CERM eqn, emax should
be in fraction. Both should give the same answer)

702
R min = = 1814.80 ft
15(0.08 + 0.10)

See AASHTO Green Book (2011) Table 3-7 for emax = 8%, page 3-32.

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4. Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to change the grade of a highway.
Most vertical curves take the shape of an equal-tangent parabola. Such curves
are symmetrical about the vertex.
Two types of vertical curves – Crest and Sag

See CERM figure 79.10 and equations 79.46 to 79.49 on pages 79-11 and 79-12.

G2 − G1
R= [may be negative] CERM Eqn. 79.46
L

Rx 2
elevx = + G1 x + elevBVC CERM Eqn. 79.47
2
−G1
xturning point = [in stations] CERM Eqn. 79.48
R

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4.1 Vertical Curve Elevations

PROBLEM 15
A straight vertical alignment rises at a rate of 1.4 feet per station. The length of the
grade from the low point to the high point is 3.08 stations. What is the change in
height along this grade?

SOLUTION 15
Rate = 1.4 ft/sta (or 1.4%)
Length = 3.08 sta
Height = 1.4 * 3.08 = 4.31 ft

PROBLEM 16
A +3.25% grade intersects a -2.00% grade at Sta. 45+25 and elevation 695.42 ft. A
1000 ft vertical curve connects the two grades. Determine:
a) the station of turning point
b) the elevation of turning point
c) the elevation along the curve at Sta. 45+00
d) the elevation along the curve at Sta. 50+25

SOLUTION 16
a) Using CERM Eqn. 79.48, x = -G1/R

Using CERM eqn. 79.46,

G2 G1 2.00 3.25
R 0.525
LSta 10
x = -G1/R = -3.25/-0.525=6.1905 Sta.

Highest Point Location:

Sta. = BVC Sta. + x = 4025 ft + 619.05 ft = 4644.05 ft = Sta 46+44.05
b) Using CERM equation 79.47, Elev. = (R/2)x2+G1(x)+BVC Elev.

Elevation at BVC = 695.42 - 5(3.25) = 679.17 ft

Elev. = (R/2)x2+G1(x)+BVC Elev. = 689.23 ft

Where x = 6.1905, R = -0.525, G1=3.25, BVC Elev = 679.17

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c) Using CERM equation 79.47,

Elev. = (R/2)x2+G1(x)+BVC Elev = 688.69 ft

Where x = 4.75, R = -0.525, G1=3.25, BVC Elev = 679.17

d) Using CERM equation 79.47,

Elev. = (R/2)x2+G1(x)+BVC Elev = 685.42 ft

Where x = 10.00, R = -0.525, G1=3.25, BVC Elev = 679.17

PROBLEM 17
For the following vertical curve, determine the tangent slope at Sta. 87+00.

SOLUTION 17
G2 G1
Tangent Slope G1 X
L
Where X is the distance from PVC to the point for which we are determining Tangent Slope

NOTE: This equation is not in CERM

X = (Sta 87+00) – (Sta 84+00) = 300 ft

0.0125 ( 0.03)
Tangent Slope 0.03 300 0.0064 ft / ft or 0.64%
350
Tangent slope at Sta 87+00 is computed as 0.64%

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4.2 Vertical Curve Design

Minimum vertical curve length is computed
Using K-value method,
L = KA (CERM equation 79.57)
Where A = G 2 -G1
K = Factor that can be found using the following references
based on the type of the curve (For Crest Curves, use CERM
Fig 79.13 and for Sag Curves, use CERM Fig 79.15)

PROBLEM 18
A +4.0% grade intersects a -3.0% percent grade at PVI Sta. 222+00 on a two-lane
highway with a design speed of 45 mph. What should be the minimum length of the
vertical curve using K-value method?

SOLUTION 18

This is a crest curve

Using CERM Fig 79.13, for V=45 mph …. K = 61

A = -3.0 - 4.0 =7
L = K(A) = 61(7) = 427’

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