Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

De nitions Series
f(n) = O(g(n)) i 9 positive c n0 such that X
n X
n + 1) X
n
i = n(n2+ 1) i2 = n(n + 1)(2n 3 = n (n + 1) :
2 2
0
f(n)
cg(n) 8n  n0. i
i=1 i=1 6 i=14
f(n) = (g(n)) i 9 positive c n0 such that In general:

f(n)  cg(n)  0 8n  n0.
X
n X
n ;
f(n) = (g(n)) i f(n) = O(g(n)) and m i = m 1+ 1 (n + 1)m+1 ; 1 ; (i + 1)m+1 ; im+1 ; (m + 1)im
f(n) = (g(n)). i=1
 
i=1
nX;1 X m+1
m
f(n) = o(g(n)) i limn!1 f(n)=g(n) = 0. im = m 1+ 1 k Bk nm+1;k :
lim a = a i 8 2 R, 9n0 such that i=1 k=0
n!1 n Geometric series:
jan ; aj < , 8n  n0.
Xn n+1 X
1 X
1
sup S least b 2 R such that b  s, ci = c c ;;1 1 c 6= 1 ci = 1 ;1 c ci = 1 ;c c c < 1
8s 2 S. i=0 i=0 i=1
X
n n n
nc ; (n + 1)c + c X
1
ici = (1 ;c c)2
+2 +1
inf S greatest b 2 R such that b
ici = c 6= 1 c < 1:
s, 8s 2 S. i=0 (c ; 1)2 i=0
lim inf a lim inf fai j i  n i 2 Ng. Harmonic series:
n!1 n n!1 X
n X
n
Hn = 1i iHi = n(n2+ 1) Hn ; n(n4; 1) :
lim sup an lim supfai j i  n i 2 Ng.
n!1 i=1 i=1
n!1
;n X
n Xn i  n + 1  
k Combinations: Size k sub- Hi = (n + 1)Hn ; n m Hi = m + 1 Hn+1 ; m 1+ 1 :
sets of a size n set. i=1 i=1
 n Stirling numbers (1st kind):   X n n n  n 
k n
1. k = (n ; k)!k! n! 2. n 3. k = n ; k
Arrangements of an n ele- k =2
ment set into k cycles. n  n
 n ;1
 k =0  n   n ;1
 n ; 1

n Stirling numbers (2nd kind): 4. k = k k ; 1 5. k = k + k ; 1
k
Partitions of an n element       X r + k r + n + 1
set into k non-empty sets. 6. mn mk = nk mn ;; kk 7. k = n
n 1st order Eulerian numbers:     k  n    
k X k
n n+1 X r s
n r+s
Permutations 12 : : :n on 8. = 9. =
 n
f1 2 : : : ng with k ascents. nm
k=0 m+1
k ; n ; 1 k=0 k n; k  n
k 2nd order Eulerian numbers. 10. k = (;1)k k 11. n1 = nn = 1
Cn Catlan Numbers: Binary n n n ; 1 n ; 1
trees with n + 1 vertices. 12. 2 = 2 ; 1 n ;1
13. k = k k + k ; 1

n = (n ; 1)! 
n = (n ; 1)!H 
n =1 n  n
14. 1 15. 2  n;1 16. n 17. k  k

n = (n ; 1) n ; 1 + n ; 1
    Xn 
18. k k k;1 19. n ;n 1 = n ;n 1 = n2 20. n = n! 21. C = 1 2n
n n+1 n
n  n  n  n   n k=0 k  n ; 1  n ; 1
22. = = 1 23. = 24. = (k + 1) + (n ; k)
 00  n n ; 1 k  n; 1 ; k
n
k  n k kn ;+ 11
25. 1 if k = 0, 26. 1 = 2n ; n ; 1 27. 2 = 3n ; (n + 1)2n + 2
k = 0  otherwise n X
X n n x+k m n + 1 n X n  n  k 
28. xn = k n 29. m = k (m + 1 ; k)n(;1)k 30. m! m = k n;m
 n k=0X n  n n ; k
k=0  n   nk=0

31. n;k;m k! 32. 0 = 1 33. n = 0 for n 6= 0
m = k=0 k m (;1)
 n   n ; 1   n ; 1  X n  n  (2n)n
34. k = (k + 1) k + (2n ; 1 ; k)
k;1 35. k = 2n
 x X n  n x + n ; 1 ; k  n + 1 X n k X n k
k =0

36. x ; n = k=0 k 2n 37. m + 1 = k m = m (m + 1)n;k

k k=0
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Identities Cont. Trees
 X   X
n 
k nn;k = n! X n 1 k  X n  n x + k Every tree with n
38. mn ++ 11 = n k =
k m k=0 m 39. x ;x n = vertices has n ; 1
 n X k n k=0 k! m  k=0 k  2n
k+1 n X n+1 k edges.
40. m = k m + 1 (;1)n;k 41. m = k + 1 m (;1)m;k Kraft inequal-
 m + n +k1 Xm n + k m + n + 1
k
X m n + k
ity: If the depths
42. = k k 43. = k(n + k) of the leaves of
m m k a binary tree are
 n  X  n +k=0
1
k  n  X n + 1  k k=0 d1 :n: : dn:
44. m = (;1) m; k 45. (n ; m)! m = (;1)m;k for n  m, X ;di
k + 1 m k + 1 m 2
1
 n k X m ; nm + n m + k  n
k
X m ; nm + n m + k i=1
46. n ; m = 47. n ; m =
 n ` +kmm +Xk  kn 
+k
n
k

;k n
 n
m + k n + k k
k` + m X k  n ; k n and equality holds
only if every in-
48. ` + m ` = ` m k 49. ` + m ` = ` m k : ternal node has 2
k k sons.
Recurrences
Master method: ;
1 T(n) ; 3T(n=2) = n
 Generating functions:
T (n) = aT(n=b) + f(n) a  1 b > 1 ;  1. Multiply both sides of the equa-
If 9 > 0 such that f(n) = O(nlogb a; ) 3 T(n=2) ; 3T (n=4) = n=2 tion by xi .
then .. .. .. 2. Sum both sides over all i for
T (n) = (nlogb a ): . . . which the equation is valid.
3 log2 n ; 1
;T(2) ; 3T(1) = 2 3. Choose a generatingPfunction
If f(n) = (nlogb a ) then ;
3log2 n T(1) ; 0 = 1
 G(x). Usually G(x) = 1 i
i=0 x .
T(n) = (nlogb a log2 n): 3. Rewrite the equation in terms of
If 9 > 0 such that f(n) = (nlogb a+ ), Summing the left side we get T(n). Sum- the generating function G(x).
and 9c < 1 such that af(n=b)
cf(n) ming the right side we get 4. Solve for G(x).
for large n, then X2 n n i
log 5. The coecient of xi in G(x) is gi .
T(n) = (f(n)): i3 : Example:
i=0 2 gi+1 = 2gi + 1 g0 = 0:
Substitution (example): Consider the Let c = 23 andm = log2 n. Then we have Multiply
following recurrence Xm c m+1 ; 1  X andi sum: X X
i
Ti+1 = 22  Ti2 T1 = 2: n ci = n c ; 1 gi+1 x = 2gi xi + xi:
i=0 i0 i0 i0
Note that Ti is always a power of two. = 2n(c  c log2 n
; 1)
P
We choose G(x) = i0 xi. Rewrite
Let ti = log2 Ti . Then we have k logc n in terms of G(x):
ti+1 = 2i + 2ti t1 = 1: = 2n(c  c ; 1)
G(x) ; g0 X i
Let ui = ti =2i. Dividing both sides of = 2nk+1 ; 2n  2n1:58496 ; 2n x = 2G(x) + x:
i0
the previous equation by 2i+1 we get where k = (log2 32 );1 . Full history recur-
ti+1 = 2i + ti : rences can often be changed to limited his- Simplify:
2i+1 2i+1 2i tory ones (example): Consider the follow- G(x) = 2G(x) + 1 :
Substituting we nd ing recurrence x 1;x
ui+1 = 12 + ui u1 = 12 X
i;1 Solve for G(x):
x
Ti = 1 + Tj T0 = 1: G(x) = (1 ; x)(1 :
which is simply ui = i=2. So we i;nd1 j =0 ; 2x)
that Ti has the closed form Ti = 2i2 . Note that Expand this using partial fractions:
Summing factors (example): Consider Xi 
the following recurrence Ti+1 = 1 + Tj : G(x) = x 1 ;2 2x ; 1 ;1 x
Ti = 3Tn=2 + n T1 = n: j =0 0 1
X X
Rewrite so that all terms involving T Subtracting we nd = x @2 2i xi ; xi A
are on the left side Xi X
i;1
Ti ; 3Tn=2 = n: Ti+1 ; Ti = 1 + Tj ; 1 ; Tj X ii+10 i0
i+1
j =0 j =0 = (2 ; 1)x :
Now expand the recurrence, and choose = Ti : i0
a factor which makes the left side \tele-
scope" And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1. So gi = 2i ; 1.
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
p p
  3:14159, e  2:71828,   0:57721, = 1+2 5  1:61803, ^ = 1;2 5  ;:61803
i 2i pi General Probability
1 2 2 Bernoulli Numbers (Bi = 0, odd i 6= 1): Continuous distributions:Z If
b
2 4 3 B0 = 1, B1 = ; 2 , B2 = 6 , B4 = ; 30 ,
1 1 1
Pra < X < b] = p(x) dx
3 8 5 B6 = 421 , B8 = ; 301 , B10 = 665 . a
4 16 7 Change of base, quadratic formula: then p is the probability density function of
p X. If
5 32 11 logb x = log blog a x ;b b2 ; 4ac
: PrX < a] = P(a)
6 64 13 a 2a then P is the distribution function of X. If
7 128 17 Euler's number e: P and p both existZthen
8 256 19 e = 1 + 21 + 16 + 241 + 120 1 +  a
 x n x P (a) = p(x) dx:
9 512 23 lim 1 + = e : ;1
10 1,024 29 ;1 +n!1  n;  Expectation: If XX is discrete
1 n < e < 1 + 1 n+1 :
11 2,048 31 n n   Eg(X)] = g(x) PrX = x]:
12 4,096 37
;  n e
1 + n = e ; 2n + 24n2 ; O n3 :
1 11e 1 x
If X continuous
Z1 then Z1
13 8,192 41 Harmonic numbers:
14 16,384 43 Eg(X)] = g(x)p(x) dx = g(x) dP (x):
1, 23 , 116 , 25
12 , 60 , 20 , 140 , 280 , 2520 : : :
137 49 363 761 7129 ;1 ;1
15 32,768 47 Variance, standard deviation:
16 65,536 53 lnn < Hn < ln n + 1 VARX] = EX 2] ; EX]2
17 131,072 59 1 p
Hn = ln n +  + O n :  = VARX]:
18 262,144 61 Basics:
19 524,288 67 Factorial, Stirling's approximation: PrX _ Y ] = PrX] + PrY ] ; PrX ^ Y ]
20 1,048,576 71 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, : : : PrX ^ Y ] = PrX]  PrY ]
21 2,097,152 73 p  n n  1  i X and Y are independent.
n! = 2n 1 +  :
22 4,194,304 79 e n PrX jY ] = PrX ^Y]
PrB]
23 8,388,608 83 Ackermann's 8 jfunction and inverse: EX  Y ] = EX]  EY ]
24 16,777,216 89 <2 i=1
25 33,554,432 97 a(i j) = : a(i ; 1 2) j=1 i X and Y are independent.
26 67,108,864 101 a(i ; 1 a(i j ; 1)) i j  2 EX + Y ] = EX] + EY ]
27 134,217,728 103
(i) = minfj j a(j j)  ig: EcX] = c EX]:
28 268,435,456 107 Binomial distribution: Bayes' theorem:
n
29 536,870,912 109 PrX = k] = k pk qn;k q = 1;p PrAijB] = PnPrB jAi] PrAi ]
PrA :
30 1,073,741,824 113 j =1 j ] PrB jAj ]
Xn n Inclusion-exclusion:
31 2,147,483,648 127 E X] = k = 1k p k qn;k = np: h _n i X n
32 4,294,967,296 131 k Pr Xi = PrXi ] +
Pascal's Triangle Poisson distribution: i=1 i=1
; k
1 PrX = k] = k! e
EX] = : X k+1 X h ^k i
n
(;1) Pr Xij :
11 Normal (Gaussian) distribution: k=1 ii <<ik j =1
121 p(x) = p 1 e;(x;)2 =22 EX] = : Moment inequalities:
 
1331 2 Pr jX j   EX]
1
The \coupon collector": We are given a h
14641 random coupon each day, and there are n Pr X X]
    i
1 :
1 5 10 10 5 1 dierent types of coupons. The distribu-
; E 2
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 tion of coupons is uniform. The expected Geometric distribution:
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 number of days to pass before we to col- PrX = k] = pk;1q q = 1;p
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 lect all n types is X1
nH n : E X] = kpqk;1 = p1 :
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1 k=1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Trigonometry Matrices More Trig.
Multiplication: C
X
n
(0,1)
C = AB cij = aik bkj : b h a
b (cos  sin ) k=1
A C  Determinants: det A = 0 i A is non-singular.
A c B
(-1,0) (1,0)
det A  B = det A  det B
c a XY
n Law of cosines:
B (0,-1)
det A = sign()ai(i) : c2 = a2 +b2;2ab cos C:
Pythagorean theorem:  i=1
2 2 and 3 3 determinant: Area:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 :  a b 
De nitions:  c d  = ad ; bc A = 21 hc
sin a = A=C cos a = B=C  a b c        = 12 ab sin C
csc a = C=A sec a = C=B  d e f  = g  b c  ; h  a c  + i  a b 
 g h i   e f   d f   d e = c sin A sin B :
2
sin a = A cot a = cos a = B :
tan a = cos 2 sinC
a B sin a A aei + bfg + cdh Heron's formula:
Area, radius of inscribed circle: = ; ceg ; fha ; ibd: p
1 AB AB : Permanents: A = s  sa  sb  sc
2 A+B +C XY
n s = 12 (a + b + c)
Identities: perm A = ai(i) : sa = s ; a
 i=1
sin x = csc1 x cos x = sec1 x Hyperbolic Functions sb = s ; b
sc = s ; c:
tan x = cot1 x sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 De nitions:
x ;x x ;x
sinh x = e ;2 e cosh x = e +2e More identities:
r
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x 1 + cot x = csc x sin 2 = 1 ; 2cos x
2 2
x e;x x
; 
sin x = cos 2 ; x sin x = sin( ; x) tanh x = eex ;
+ e;x
1
csch x = sinh x r
;  1
sech x = cosh x 1 :
coth x = tanh cos x = 1 + 2cos x
cos x = ; cos( ; x) tan x = cot  ; x
2 x 2
r 1 ; cos x
cot x = ; cot( ; x) csc x = cot x2 ; cot x Identities: x
tan 2 = 1 + cos x
cosh2 x ; sinh2 x = 1 tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1
sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x siny = 1 ;sincosx x
coth2 x ; csch2 x = 1 sinh(;x) = ; sinh x
cos(x y) = cos x cos y  sin x sin y
cosh(;x) = cosh x tanh(;x) = ; tanh x = 1 +sincosx x
tan(x y) = 1tan x tan y r 1 + cos x
 tan x tany sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y x
cot 2 = 1 ; cos x
cot(x y) = cotxxcot
cot y1
cot y
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y = 1 +sincosx x
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sin 2x = 2 tanx2 sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
1 + tan x = 1 ;sincos
x
x
cos 2x = cos x ; sin x
2 2
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x ; 1 cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
e ix ; e;ix
cos 2x = 1 ; 2 sin2 x cos 2x = 11 ; tan2 x cosh x + sinh x = ex cosh x ; sinh x = e;x sin x = 2i
+ tan2 x (cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx n 2 Z e ix + e;ix
2 tanx cot2 x ; 1 cos x = 2
tan 2x = 1 ; tan x
2 cot 2x = 2 cot x 2 sinh2 x2 = cosh x ; 1 2 cosh2 x2 = cosh x + 1: eix ; e;ix
tan x = ;i eix + e;ix
sin(x + y) sin(x ; y) = sin x ; sin y
2 2
 sin cos  tan  : : : in mathematics 2ix
cos(x + y) cos(x ; y) = cos2 x ; sin2 y: you don't under- = ;i ee2ix ;+1
1
0 0 p1 p0 stand things, you
Euler's equation: 
6
1
p22
3
p22 3
3
just get used to sin x = sinhi ix
eix = cos x + i sin x ei = ;1:  1 them.
4 p23 2
p { J. von Neumann cos x = cosh ix
c 1994 by Steve Seiden  1
3
[email protected] 3

2
1
2
0 1 tan x = tanhi ix :
http://www.ics.uci.edu/~sseiden 2
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Number Theory Graph Theory
The Chinese remainder theorem: There ex- De nitions: Notation:
ists a number C such that: Loop An edge connecting a ver- E(G) Edge set
tex to itself. V (G) Vertex set
C  r1 mod m1 Directed Each edge has a direction. c(G) Number of components
.. .. .. Simple Graph with no loops or GS] Induced subgraph
. . . deg(v) Degree of v
C  rn mod mn multi-edges.
Walk A sequence v0e1 v1 : : :e` v` . (G) Maximum degree
if mi and mj are relatively prime for i 6= j. Trail A walk with distinct edges. (G) Minimum degree
Euler's function: (x) is the number of Path A trail with distinct (G) Chromatic number
positive integersQnless than x relatively vertices.  E (G) Edge chromatic number
G c Complement graph
prime to x. If i=1 pei i is the prime fac- Connected A graph where there exists
torization of x then a path between any two K n Complete graph
Yn vertices. Kn1 n2 Complete bipartite graph
(x) = pei i ;1(pi ; 1): Component A maximal connected r(k `) Ramsey number
i=1 subgraph. Geometry
Euler's theorem: If a and b are relatively Tree A connected acyclic graph.
prime then Free tree A tree with no root. Projective coordinates: triples
1  a (b) mod b: DAG Directed acyclic graph. (x y z), not all x, y and z zero.
Eulerian Graph with a trail visiting (x y z) = (cx cy cz) 8c 6= 0:
Fermat's theorem: each edge exactly once. Cartesian Projective
1  ap;1 mod p:
Hamiltonian Graph with a path visiting (x y) (x y 1)
The Euclidean algorithm: if a > b are in- each vertex exactly once. y = mx + b (m ;1 b)
tegers then Cut A set of edges whose re- x=c (1 0 ;c)
gcd(a b) = gcd(a mod b b): moval increases the num- Distance formula, Lp and L1
Q
If ni=1 pei i is the prime factorization of x ber of components. metric:
Cut-set A minimal cut. p
then (x ; x )2 + (x ; x )2
X Y n ei +1 Cut edge A size 1 cut. jx ;1 x jp0+ jx ;1x jp01=p
S(x) = d = pip ;;1 1 : k-Connected A graph connected with 1 0 1 0
djx i=1 i
the removal of any k ; 1 lim
 jx1 ; x0 j + jx1 ; x0jp
p 1=p:
Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect num- vertices. p !1
ber i x = 2n;1(2n ; 1) and 2n ; 1 is prime. k-Tough 8S  V S 6=  we have Area of triangle (x0 y0), (x1 y1 )
Wilson's theorem: n is a prime i k  c(G ; S)
jS j. and (x2 y2): 
(n ; 1)!  ;1 mod n: k-Regular A graph where all vertices 
 x 1 ; x0 y1 ; y0 
2 abs  x2 ; x0 y2 ; y0  :
1
have degree k.
Mobius 8inversion: k-Factor A k-regular spanning Angle formed by three points:
< 10
> if i = 1.
subgraph.
(i) = > (;1)r ifif ii isis not
the
square-free.
product of Matching A set of edges, no two of (x2 y2 )
: r distinct primes. which are adjacent.
Clique A set of vertices, all of `2
If X which are adjacent. 
G(a) = F(d) Ind. set A set of vertices, none of (0 0) `1 (x1 y1 )
dja
which are adjacent.
then X   Vertex cover A set of vertices which cos  = (x1 y1`) `(x2 y2) :
F(a) = (d)G ad : cover all edges. 1 2
Line through two points (x0 y0 )
dja Planar graph A graph which can be em- and (x1 y1):
Prime numbers: beded in the plane.  x y 1 
pn = n ln n + n lnln n ; n + n lnlnlnnn Plane graph An embedding of a planar
graph.
 x0 y0 1  = 0:
n X  x1 y1 1 
+ O ln n deg(v) = 2m: Area of circle, volume of sphere:
v2V A = r2 V = 43 r3:
(n) = lnnn + (lnnn)2 + (lnn)
2!n
3 If G is planar then n ; m + f = 2, so If I have seen farther than others,
 n  f
2n ; 4 m
3n ; 6: it is because I have stood on the
+ O (ln n)4 : Any planar graph has a vertex with de- shoulders of giants.
gree
5. { Issac Newton
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
 Calculus
Wallis' identity: Derivatives:
 = 2  21  23  43  45  65  67    1. d(cu) du 2. d(udx+ v) = dx
du + dv 3. d(uv) dv + v du
dx = c dx ; dx
 ;  dx = u dx dx
Brouncker's continued fraction expansion: n du
d(u=v) v dx ; u dx dv cu
 =1+ 12 4. d(u ) n;1 du
dx = nu dx 5. dx = v2 6. d(edx ) = cecu du
dx
4
2 + 2+ 3252 u
72
2+ 2+


7. d(cdx ) = (ln c)cu du
dx 8. d(ln u) 1 du
dx = u dx
Gregrory's series:
9. d(sin u) = cos u du d(cos u) = ; sin u du
 = 1; 1 + 1 ; 1 + 1 ; 
4 3 5 7 9
dx dx 10. dx dx
Newton's series:
d(tan u)
11. dx = sec2 u dx du 12. dx = csc 2 u du
d(cot u)
=1+ 1 + 13 +  dx
6 2 2  3  23 2  4  5  25
Sharp's series: 13. d(sec u)
dx = tan u sec u dx
du 14. d(csc u)
dx = ; cot u csc u dx
du
 
 = p1 1 ; 1 + 1 ; 1 +    15. d(arcsin u)
dx = p1 ; u2 dx
1 du 16. d(arccos
dx
u) = p ;1 du
1 ; u2 dx
6
3 31  3 32  5 33  7
Euler's series: 17. d(arctandx
u) = 1 du
1 ; u dx
2
18. d(arccot u) = ;1 du
dx 1 ; u2 dx
2 = 112 + 212 + 312 + 412 + 512 +   
6
 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 +   
2 19. d(arcsec
dx
u) = p 1 du
u 1 ; u2 dx
20. d(arccsc
dx
u) = p;1 du
u 1 ; u2 dx
8 1 3 5 7 9
2 = 12 ; 12 + 12 ; 12 + 12 ;   
12 1 2 3 4 5 21. d(sinh u) du
dx = cosh u dx 22. d(cosh u) du
dx = sinh u dx
Partial Fractions
Let N(x) and D(x) be polynomial func- 23. d(tanh u) 2 du
dx = sech u dx 24. d(coth u) 2 du
dx = ; csch u dx
tions of x. We can break down
N(x)=D(x) using partial fraction expan- 25. d(sech u) du
dx = ; sech u tanh u dx 26. d(csch u) du
dx = ; csch u coth u dx
sion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide 27. d(arcsinh
dx
u) = p 1 du 28. d(arccosh u) = p 1 du
N by D, obtaining 1 + u dx 2 dx u ; 1 dx
2
N(x) = Q(x) + N 0(x) d(arctanh u) 1 du d(arccoth u) 1 du
D(x) D(x) 29. dx = 1 ; u2 dx 30. dx = u ; 1 dx
2

where the degree of N 0 is less than that of 31. d(arcsech u) = p;1 du 32. d(arccsch u) = p;1 du :
D. Second, factor D(x). Use the follow- dx u 1 ; u2 dx dx juj 1 + u2 dx
ing rules: For a non-repeated factor: Integrals:
N(x) = A + N 0 (x) Z Z Z Z Z
(x ; a)D(x) x ; a D(x) 1. cu dx = c u dx 2. (u + v) dx = u dx + v dx
where  Z 1 n+1 Z 1 Z
A = N(x)
D(x) x=a :
3. xn dx = n + 1x n 6= ;1 4. x dx = ln x 5. ex dx = ex
Z dx Z dv Z du
For a repeated factor: 6. 7.
N(x) mX;1 Ak + N 0 (x) 1 + x2 = arctan x u dx dx = uv ; v dx dx
= Z Z
m
(x ; a) D(x) (x ; a)m;k D(x)
k=0 8. sin x dx = ; cos x 9. cos x dx = sinx
where   Z Z
dk N(x)
Ak = k!1 dx : 10. tan x dx = ; ln j cos xj 11. cot x dx = ln j cos xj
k D(x)
x=a Z Z
The reasonable man adapts himself to the 12. sec x dx = ln j sec x + tan xj 13. csc x dx = ln j csc x + cot xj
world! the unreasonable persists in trying Z p
to adapt the world to himself. Therefore 14. arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa + a2 ; x2 a>0
all progress depends on the unreasonable.
{ George Bernard Shaw
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Z Calculus Cont. Z
p
15. arccos ax dx = arccos xa ; a2 ;x 2 a>0 16. arctan xa dx = x arctan ax ; a2 ln(a2 + x2) a > 0
Z ;  Z ; 
17. sin2 (ax)dx = 21a ax ; sin(ax) cos(ax) 18. cos2(ax)dx = 21a ax + sin(ax) cos(ax)
Z Z
19. sec 2 x dx = tan x 20. csc2 x dx = ; cot x
Z n;1 1 Z sinn;2 x dx Z n;1 x sinx n ; 1 Z
21. sinn x dx = ; sin nx cos x + n ; n 22. cos n x dx = cos
n + n cosn;2 x dx
Z tan n;1 x Z Z cot n;1 x Z
23. n n
tan x dx = n ; 1 ; tan x dx n 6= 1; 2 24. cot x dx = ; n ; 1 ; cotn;2 x dx n 6= 1
n
Z n;1 x n ; 2 Z
25. sec n x dx = tan xnsec
;1
+ n ; 1 sec n;2 x dx n 6= 1
Z n;1 x n ; 2 Z Z Z
26. csc n x dx = ; cot xncsc
;1
+ n;1 csc n;2 x dx n 6= 1 27. sinh x dx = cosh x 28. cosh x dx = sinh x
Z Z Z Z  
29. tanh x dx = ln j cosh xj 30. coth x dx = ln j sinh xj 31. sech x dx = arctan sinh x 32. csch x dx = ln tanh x2 
Z Z Z
33. sinh x dx = sinh(2x) ; x
2 1
4
1
2 34. cosh x dx = sinh(2x) + x
2 1
4
1
2 35. sech 2 x dx = tanh x
Z p Z
36. arcsinh ax dx = x arcsinh ax ; x +a2 2 a>0 37. arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa + a2 ln ja2 ; x2 j
8 p
Z < x arccosh xa ; x2 + a2 if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
38. arccosh ax dx = : p
x arccosh xa + x2 + a2 if arccosh xa < 0 and a > 0,
Z dx  p 2 2
39. p
a2 + x2
= ln x + a + x a>0
Z dx Zp p
40. x
a2 + x2 = a arctan a a > 0
1
41. a2 ; x2 dx = x2 a2 ; x2 + a22 arcsin ax a>0
Z p
42. (a2 ; x2)3=2dx = x8 (5a2 ; 2x2) a2 ; x2 + 3a84 arcsin xa a > 0
Z dx Z dx

1 ln  a + x 
 Z dx x
43. p = arcsin ax a>0 44. =
a ; x 2a  a ; x  45. (a ; x ) = = p 2
Z pa ; x a a ; x2
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
p  p  Z  p 2 2
46. a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2 
2
47. px2dx; a2 = ln x + x ; a  a > 0
Z   Z p + bx)3=2
48. ax2dx+ bx = a1 ln  a +x bx  49. x a + bxdx = 2(3bx ; 2a)(a 15b2
Z pa + bx p Z 1 Z x 1

 p
a + bx
p 
; a 
50. dx = 2 a + bx + a p dx 
51. pa + bx dx = p ln  pa + bx + pa  a > 0
Z pa2x; x2 p2 2
x a +pbx 
 a + a2 ; x2  Z p2
52. x dx = a ; x ; a ln  x  53. x a2 ; x2 dx = ; 13 (a2 ; x2)3=2
 p 2 2 
Z p p Z dx
54. x2 a2 ; x2 dx = x8 (2x2 ; a2) a2 ; x2 + a8 arcsin xa a > 0 4
55. p 2 2 = ; a1 ln  a + ax ; x 
Z x dx Z x2 dx a ;x
p2 2 p
56. pa2 ; x2 = ; a ; x 57. pa2 ; x2 = ; x2 a2 ; x2 + a2 arcsin ax a > 0 2

Z pa2 + x2 p2 2  p 2 2  Z px2 ; a2 p2 2
58. dx = a + x ; a ln 
 a + a + x 
 59. dx = x ; a ; a arccos jaxj a > 0
x  x  x
 
Z p Z
60. x x2 a2 dx = 13 (x2 a2)3=2 61. xpxdx 2 + a2
= 1 ln  x
a  a + a2 + x2 
p 
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Calculus Cont. Finite Calculus
Z dx = 1 arccos a a > 0 Z p
Dierence, shift operators:
63. 2 p dx2 2 =  xa2 x a
2 2
62. p a jx j f(x) = f(x + 1) ; f(x)
Z x x ;a
2 2
Z px2x ax2 a (x2 + a2)3=2
x dx p2 2 E f(x) = f(x + 1):
64. p 2 = x a 65. x4  dx =  3a2x3 Fundamental Theorem:
x a2 8  X
 2ax + b ; pb2 ; 4ac  if b2 > 4ac,
p
Z >
> 1 f(x) = F (x) , f(x)x = F (x) + C:
dx < p2 ln
b ; 4ac  2ax + b + b2 ; 4ac 
66. =
ax + bx + c >
X
b X
b;1
2
: p 2 2 arctan p2ax + b 2 f(x)x = f(i):
if b2 < 4ac, a i=a
4ac ; b 4ac ; b Dierences:
8 1  p p 
Z >
< p ln 2ax + b + 2 a ax2 + bx + c if a > 0, (cu) = c u (u + v) = u + v
dx a (uv) = u v + E v u
67. p 2 =
ax + bx + c > : p1;a arcsin p;b2ax ;b
2 ; 4ac
if a < 0, (xn) = nxn;1
Z p 2 p 2Z
(Hx ) = x;1 (2x ) = 2x
68. ax + bx + c dx = 2ax4a+ b ax2 + bx + c + 4ax8a; b p 2 dx (cx ) = (c ; 1)cx
; x  ;x
ax + bx + c m = m;1 :
Sums:
Z x dx ax
p
2 + bx + c b Z dx P cu x = c P u x
69. p 2
ax + bx + c
= a ;
2a p
ax + bx + c
2 P(u + v) x = P u x + P v x
8 ;1  2pcpax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c  P u v x = uv ; P v u x
>
Z dx < pc ln 
> x
 if c > 0,
 P xn x = xn+1
E
P x;1 x = H
70. p => m+1 x
x ax + bx + c > 1
: p;c arcsin jxjpbxb2+;2c4ac P; x  x = ; x :
2
if c < 0, P cx x = cx
c;1 m m+1
Z p Falling Factorial Powers:
71. x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 ; 152 a2 )(x2 + a2)3=2 xn = x(x ; 1)    (x ; m + 1) n > 0
Z Z x0 = 1
72. xn sin(ax) dx = ; a1 xn cos(ax) + na xn;1 cos(ax) dx
Z Z xn = (x + 1)  1 (x + jnj) n < 0
73. xn cos(ax) dx = n n n;1
a x sin(ax) ; a x sin(ax) dx
1
xn+m = xm (x ; m)n :
Z xn eax ; n Z xn;1eax dx Rising Factorial Powers:
74. xneax dx = a a xn = x(x + 1)    (x + m ; 1) n > 0
Z  
75. xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1 ln(ax) ;
1
n + 1 (n + 1)2
x0 = 1
Z n+1 Z xn = (x ; 1)  1 (x ; jnj) n < 0
76. xn(ln ax)m dx = nx + 1 (ln ax)m ; n m n m;1
+ 1 x (ln ax) dx: xn+m = xm (x + m)n :
Conversion:
x1 = x1 = x1 xn = (;1)n (;x)n = (x ; m + 1)n
x2 = x2 + x1 = x2 ; x1 = 1=(x + 1);n
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + x1 = x3 ; 3x2 + x1 xn = (;1)n (;x)n = (x + m ; 1)n
x4 = x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
4 = x ; 6x3 + 7x2 ; x1
4 = 1=(x ; 1);n
Xn n n 
x5 = x5 + 15x4 + 25x3 + 10x2 + x1 = x5 ; 15x4 + 25x3 ; 10x2 + x1
xn = x k = X n (;1)n;k xk
x1 = x1 x1 = x1 k=1 k k=1 k
X n
n 
x =
2 x + x1
2 x =
2 x ; x1
2
xn = (;1)n;k xk
x3 = x3 + 3x2 + 2x1 x3 = x3 ; 3x2 + 2x1 k=1 k
x4 = x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1 x4 = x4 ; 6x3 + 11x2 ; 6x1 Xn n
n
x = xk :
x5 = x5 + 10x4 + 35x3 + 50x2 + 24x1 x5 = x5 ; 10x4 + 35x3 ; 50x2 + 24x1 k=1 k
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series
Taylor's series: Ordinary power series:
X1 i X
1
f(x) = f(a) + (x ; a)f 0 (a) + (x ;2 a) f 00 (a) +    = (x ;i! a) f (i) (a):
2
A(x) = aixi :
i=0 i=0
Expansions:
1 X
1 Exponential power series:
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +    = xi X1 i
1;x i=0 A(x) = ai xi! :
1 X
1 i=0
1 ; cx = 1 + cx + c2x2 + c3 x3 +    = ci xi Dirichlet power series:
i=0 X1
1 X
1
A(x) = iaxi :
1 ; xn = 1 + xn + x2n + x3n +    = xni
i=0 i=1
x X
1 Binomial theorem: 
(1 ; x)2 = x + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 +    = ixi X n n
n;k k
 1  i=0 (x + y)n = k x y:
dn X
1 k=0
xk dx n 1;x = x + 2n x2 + 3nx3 + 4n x4 +    = n i xi Dierence of like powers:
i=0 nX
;1
X
1 xi
xn ; yn = (x ; y) xn;1;kyk :
ex = 1+x+ x + x +
1 2
2
1 3
6 = i!
i=0 k=0
X
1 xi For ordinary power series:
ln(1 + x) = x ; 12 x2 + 31 x3 ; 14 x4 ;    = (;1)i+1 i X
1
i=1
A(x) + B(x) = (
ai + bi )xi
X1 i
ln 1 ;1 x = x + 12 x2 + 31 x3 + 14 x4 +    = xi i=0
X
1
i=1 xk A(x) = ai;k xi
X1 2i+1
sin x = x ; 3!1 x3 + 5!1 x5 ; 7!1 x7 +    = (;1)i (2ix + 1)! P i=0
i=0 A(x) ; k ;1
ax X
i=0 i
i 1
X1 x2i xk = ai;k xi
cos x = 1; x + x
1 2 1 4
; 1 6
x + = (;1)i (2i)! i=0
2! 4! 6!
i1
=0 X
1
X x2i+1 A(cx) = ci aixi
tan;1 x = x ; 13 x3 + 51 x5 ; 17 x7 +    = (;1)i (2i i=0
i=0   + 1) X
1
X1 n A0 (x) = (i + 1)ai+1 xi
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n(n2;1) x2 +    = i xi i=0
i=0 
1 ; x2 +    X1 i + n X
1
= 1 + (n + 1)x + n+2 = xi xA0 (x) = iai xi
(1 ; x)n+1 2 i i=1
x
i=0
X1 i Z X
1 a
ex ; 1 = 1 ; 12 x + 121 x2 ; 720
1 x4 +    = Bi!i x A(x) dx = i;1
i x
i
1 1 2i
i=0 i=1
1 (1 ; p1 ; 4x) X A(x) + A(;x) = X1
2x = 1 + x + 2x2 + 5x3 +    = i + 1 i xi a2ix2i
i=0   2 i=0
1 X1 2i
A(x) ; A(;x) 1 X
p = 1 + x + 2x2 + 6x3 +    = i xi = a2i+1x : 2i+1
1 ; 4x 2
1
 1 ; p1 ; 4x n ;4+nx2 +   
i=0 
X1 2i + n i=0
P
p
2x = 1 + (2 + n)x + = i xi Summation: If bi = ij =0 ai then
1 ; 4x 2
i=0
1 1 X
1 B(x) = 1 ;1 x A(x):
1 ; x ln 1 ; x = x + 32 x2 + 116 x3 + 25
12 x +    =
4 Hi xi
Convolution: 0 1
1 ln 1 2
i=1
X
1 H xi
i;1 X
1 X i
2 1;x = 12 x2 + 34 x3 + 11
24 x +   
4 = i A(x)B(x) = @ aj bi;j A xi:
i=2
x X
1 i=0 j =0
1 ; x ; x2 = x + x + 2x + 3x +   
2 3 4 = Fi xi
i=0 God made the natural numbers!
Fn x X
1 all the rest is the work of man.
1 ; (Fn;1 + Fn+1)x ; (;1)n x2 = Fnx + F2nx + F3nx +    =
2 3 Fnixi : { Leopold Kronecker
i=0
 Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Series Escher's Knot
Expansions:
1 1 X
1 n + i  1 ;n X1 i
i xi
(1 ; x)n+1 ln 1 ; x = (Hn+i ; Hn) i x
i=0  x = n
i=0 
X1 n X1 i n!xi
xn = i xi (ex ; 1)n = n i!
 1 n i=0 
X1 i n!xi i=0
X
1 (;4)i B x2i
2i
ln 1 ; x = n i! x cot x = (2i)!
i=0 i=0
X
1 2i 2i 2i;1 X
1 1
tanx = (;1)i;1 2 (2 ;(2i)!
1)B2i x (x) = ix
i=1 i=1
1 X1 X1
(x) = (i) x
(x ; 1) = (i)x
i=1 i (x) i=1 i
Y
(x) = 1 ;1p;x Stieltjes Integration
p
X
1 d(i) If G is continuous in the interval a b] and F is nondecreasing then
 (x) =
P Zb
i where d(n) = djn 1
2
i=1 x G(x) dF (x)
a
X1 P d exists. If a
b
c then
(x)(x ; 1) = S(i) i where S(n) = djn Zc Zb Zc
i=1 x G(x) dF(x) = G(x) dF(x) + G(x) dF (x):
2n;1jB j
= 2 (2n)! 2n 2n a a b
(2n)  n2N If the integrals involved exist
Z b;  Zb Zb
x X1 i 2)B2ix2i
= (;1)i;1 (4 ;(2i)! a
G(x) + H(x) dF(x) = G(x) dF(x) + H(x) dF(x)
a
sin x i=0 Zb ;  Zb Za b
 1 ; p1 ; 4x n X1 G(x) d F (x) + H(x) = G(x) dF(x) + G(x) dH(x)
2x = n(2i + n ; 1)! xi
i!(n + i)!
a
Zb Zb a
Z ab
i=0
c  G(x) dF(x) =
;
G(x) d c  F(x) = c
 G(x) dF (x)
X1 2i=2 sin i
a a a
ex sin x = i!
4 xi
Zb Z b
s i=1 G(x) dF(x) = G(b)F (b) ; G(a)F (a) ; F(x) dG(x):
1; 1;x
p X
1 (4i)! a a
If the integrals involved exist, and F possesses a derivative F 0 at every
x = i p xi
i=0 16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)! point in a b] then
 arcsin x 2 X 1 4i i!2 Zb Zb
x = (i + 1)(2i + 1)! x2i: G(x) dF (x) = G(x)F 0(x) dx:
i=0 a a
Crammer's Rule 0 47 18 76 29 93 85 34 61 52
Fibonacci Numbers
If we have equations:
a11x1 + a12x2 +    + a1nxn = b1
86 11 57 28 70 39 94 45 2 63
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 : : :
95 80 22 67 38 71 49 56 13 4
a21x1 + a22x2 +    + a2nxn = b2 59 96 81 33 7 48 72 60 24 15
De nitions:
.. .. .. 73 69 90 82 44 17 58 1 35 26 Fi = Fi;1+Fi;2 F0 = F1 = 1
. . . F;i = (; 1)i;1 Fi
an1x1 + an2x2 +    + annxn = bn
68 74 9 91 83 55 27 12 46 30

Fi = p15 i ; ^i
37 8 75 19 92 84 66 23 50 41
14 25 36 40 51 62 3 77 88 99
Let A = (aij ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then 21 32 43 54 65 6 10 89 97 78 Cassini's identity: for i > 0:
there is a unique solution i det A 6= 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
42 53 64 5 16 20 31 98 79 87 Fi+1 Fi;1 ; Fi2 = (;1)i :
xi = det Ai
det A :
The Fibonacci number system: Additive rule:
Every integer n has a unique Fn+k = Fk Fn+1 + Fk;1Fn
representation F2n = FnFn+1 + Fn;1Fn:
Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked n = Fk1 + Fk2 +    + Fkm Calculation
roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius. where ki  ki+1 + 2 for all i,  F F by matrices:  n
{ William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell) n;2 n;1 = 0 1 :
1
i < m and km  2. F n;1 F n 1 1