Chapter 2: Ecology and Ecosystem

 Definition: Ecology
Scientific study of the interaction between the living organism and its environment. It is the
study of how organisms interact with their environment.
 Objectives of an ecological study
The primary objectives of an ecology is to understand the interrelationship and
interdependence between and among the different biotic components and their interaction
with abiotic components. Other objectives are:
1) The interrelationship between the organisms in their population and in diverse
communities.
2) The effect of temporal changes in the occurrence of organisms.
3) The behavior of organisms under natural conditions.
4) The structural adaptations and functional adjustments of organisms to their physical
environment
5) To find out the energy flow and material cycling

 Concept of an ecosystem
Three open abiotic systems occupied by living things known as biosphere. The biosphere is all
life on the earth and it depends on interacts with air, water and land. Indeed, living organisms
cannot be isolated from their non-living environment because later provides the material and
energy for the survival of former. This brings us to the concept of an ecosystem.
 Classification of an ecosystem
Ecosystems are classified: 1) based on occurrence and 2) based on existence on the earth
1)

Based on occurrence

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem

-Naturally occurring -Man-made ecosystem
Eg. Forest, pond etc. Eg. Garden, zoo, aquarium
2)

based on existence on the earth

Terrestrial ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem
-Existing on land
-Existing in water
eg. Forest, desert, grass land
Eg. Pond, river, ocean etc.
etc.

 Functioning of an ecosystem
The characteristics of an ecosystem depend on climate, topography, nature of soil and the
living organisms that are available in an ecosystem.
The function of an ecosystem is to allow the flow of energy and material cycling which ensures
stability of the system and continuity of life. Thus these two processes- energy flow and
material cycling including interactions between biotic and abiotic environment is the heart of
the ecosystem functioning.
Functioning of an ecosystem is clearly understand by food web, food chain, ecological
pyramids and biogeochemical cycles.
 Components of an ecosystem
Any components of an ecosystem can be divided into two parts.
1 Biotic and
2 Abiotic components
1 Biotic components
On the basis of their role in the ecosystems, the biotic components are further classified into
Producers/ Autotrophs
Consumers/ Heterotrophs and
Decomposers/ Reducers
Producers/ Autotrophs: These are the set of living organisms which are capable of producing
food on their own. Eg. Green plants
Consumers (heterotrophs): They are the set of living organisms which dependent on
producers. Consumers are further classified on the basis of their degree of dependence:
Primary consumer/ herbivores: Directly dependent on producers. Eg. Cow, goat, deer etc.
Secondary consumers/ carnivores: Dependent on primary consumers Eg. Cat, fox, snakes
etc.
Tertiary consumers/ omnivores: Directly dependent on primary as well as secondary
consumers. Eg. Humans
Decomposers/ reducers: They are the set of living organisms that dependent on all producers
& consumers and decompose them from complex organic matters to simple nutrients. Eg.
Bacteria and other micro organisms
2) Abiotic components: Non living organisms in an ecosystem form the abiotic component
of the ecosystem. They are classified as 1) Climatic factors and 2) Edaphic factors
Climatic factors: Includes Rain, temperature, pressure, wind, air, sunlight etc.
Edaphic factors: Includes soil, pH, minerals, metals etc.

 Structure of an ecosystem
Ecosystem consists of two major components: Biotic and abiotic components.
In particular ecosystem, the biotic community consists of all the living organisms and abiotic
components includes all the non-living organisms.
Ecologists are interested in finding out the interrelationship between the biotic and abiotic
components present in a particular ecosystem and also to find out the material and energy
transfer from one form to another form and from one place of an ecosystem to another place.

 Biogeochemical cycle
In an ecosystem the material and energy transfer from one form to another form and from
one place of an ecosystem to another place in a particular ecosystem. The material and energy
transform includes both the biological and geological world, so it is known as biogeochemical
cycle. Hydrological cycle is the most common biogeochemical cycle. There are two types of
biogeochemical cycle: 1) Gaseous cycle: Carbon and oxygen cycle and 2) Nutrient cycle:
Nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus

 Hydrological cycle/ water cycle

This cycle shows the transfer of water from the oceans to the atmosphere and back to the
oceans.
Solar energy evaporates water from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. Some of this
water returns to the earth as rain or snow, passes through the living organisms, flows into
bodies of water and evaporated again to continue the cycle.
The main processes involved in the hydrological cycle are:
1. Evaporation (E)
2. Transpiration (T)
3. Precipitation (P)
4. Infiltration and percolation (I)
5. Run off (R)

Evaporation: The conversion of liquid water from ocean and other water bodies to water
vapor is known as evaporation.
Transpiration: The process by which the water is evaporated from the plant leaves after it
has been extracted from the soil by roots. The hydrologist use the term evapotranspiration
to describe the combine losses of water due to evaporation and transpiration from the
plant’s leaves.
Precipitation: it is the process by which water is returned from the atmosphere back to the
earth. The water can fall as rain or snow.
Infiltration and percolation: the vertical movement of water earth’s surface to underground
storage area through the soil.
Run off: the surface movement of water after falling to the earth, to the rivers and oceans
to resume the cycle.
 Carbon cycle
Carbon is the building block of all organic substances and is one of the most important
element for the existence of all organisms.
The carbon is found on the planet
1) As organic molecules in living and dead organisms
2) As CO2 in the atmosphere
3) As organic matter in soils
4) As fossil fuel and sedimentary rock deposits
5) As dissolved CO2 in oceans

The carbon is circulated through the whole biosphere by the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle
is based on CO2(g), which is dissolved in water. The activities such as aerobic respiration of
living organisms, volcanic activities releases CO2 to the atmosphere. In ocean, carbon is
present mainly in the form of dissolved CO2(g).
Photosynthesis is the major driving force for the carbon cycle. During the photosynthesis
process, CO2 and water is converted in to glucose and releases O2 in to the atmosphere. The
aerobic respiration in living organisms breaks down glucose and other organic compounds
and convert carbon back to CO2. Thus photosynthesis and aerobic respiration circulates
carbon in the biosphere representing major part of global carbon cycle.
 Nitrogen cycle
N2 gas constitutes 78% of the volume of atmospheric air. N2 cannot be used directly as
nutrients by most forms of life. Nitrogen gas is converted into some usable form by three
processes like
1) Nitrogen fixation
2) Ammonification and
3) Denitrification

1) Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation is carried out by certain type of bacteria in aquatic system , in the soil and
into the roots of some plants.
N2(g)-------- NH3
This ammonia can be used by plants. The excess ammonia undergoes “nitrification” where it
is converted into nitrite ion (NO2-) and then to nitrate ion (NO3-) which are easily used by
plants as nutrients. Plants take ammonia, ammonium ions and nitrate ions as nutrients.
Animals get their nitrogen by eating plants.
Fixation also occurs due to direct conversion of N2 and O2 gas to nitrogen oxide.
2) Ammonification
The nitrogen rich organic compounds are converted into nitrogen rich inorganic compounds
such as ammonia, ammonium ions is known as ammonification.
3) Denitrification
Nitrogen leaves the soil through a process called denitrification.
The denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia, ammonium ions are converted in to nitrogen
gas and nitrous oxide. These gases enter into atmosphere to begin the cycle again.

 Oxygen cycle
Almost all living organisms need oxygen. They use this oxygen during the process of creating
energy in living cells.
Just as water moves from earth to sky and back to earth’s surface, oxygen is also cycled
through the environment.

Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrate or glucose and releases oxygen into the atmosphere during the
photosynthesis process. This means that plants and other producers breathe in carbon
dioxide and breathe out oxygen into the atmosphere.
Animals, humans and other living organisms form the other half of oxygen cycle by breathe
in oxygen which is used to break carbohydrates down into chemical energy in a process
called respiration.
CO2 produced during respiration is breathed out by animals, humans and other living
organisms in the air. So, oxygen is created in plants and used up by animals. Plants must
break carbohydrates down into energy just as animals do.
Plants are also doing respiration process but plants produce ten times oxygen than they
consume during photosynthesis process.

 Sulphur cycle
Sulphur is one of the most important element for the living organism for preparation of
proteins, amino acids and certain vitamins.
In the environment, sulphur is found as sulphide and sulphates and in inorganic forms ,
much of the earth’s sulphur is stored underground in rocks including sulphate salts.

Sulphur enters the atmosphere form several natural resources such as

1) Release of hydrogen sulphide from volcanic activities, industrial processes and
decomposition of organic matters
2) Release of SO2 from volcanic activities and industrial activities
3) Conversion of dimethyl sulphide into SO2 and releases in to the atmosphere
4) In terms of dissolved salts such as ammonium sulphate
In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide is converted in to sulphur trioxide and then converted to
sulphuric acid. This sulphuric acid falls to the earth and deposited as acid deposition. The
particles will then be absorbed by plants again and are released back into the atmosphere,
so that the sulfur cycle over again.

 Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus is an important element for plant growth and for protoplasm. Phosphorus
requirement is 1/10th as much as nitrogen.
Phosphorus is limiting nutrient as it is not accessible in environment. Phosphorus dosen’t
form any important gaseous compounds in normal environment.
Salts formed by phosphorus ions with calcium, iron and aluminium ions are not soluble in
water.
Phosphorus is available in the form of dissolved suspended phosphate in land. It is taken by
plants through the root system. Animals get their phosphorus from plants. Phosphorus is
also available in the form of dead organic matters. Phosphorus can also obtained by
phosphatizing bacteria.
Dissolved suspended phosphate available in land moves to ocean or river during
transportation in the form of dissolved phosphates.

 Energy flow through the Ecosystem

The diagram above shows how both energy and inorganic nutrients flow through the
ecosystem. Energy "flows" through the ecosystem in the form of carbon-carbon bonds. When
respiration occurs, the carbon-carbon bonds are broken and the carbon is combined with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This process releases the energy, which is either used by the
organism (to move its muscles, digest food, think, etc.) or the energy may be lost as heat. The
dark arrows represent the movement of this energy. Note that all energy comes from the sun,
and that the ultimate fate of all energy in ecosystems is to be lost as heat. Energy does not
recycle!!

The other component shown in the diagram are the inorganic nutrients. They are inorganic
because they do not contain carbon-carbon bonds. These inorganic nutrients include the
phosphorous in your teeth, bones, and cellular membranes; the nitrogen in your amino acids
(the building blocks of protein); and the iron in your blood. The movement of the inorganic
nutrients is represented by the open arrows. Note that the autotrophs obtain these inorganic
nutrients from the inorganic nutrient pool, which is usually the soil or water surrounding the
plants or algae. These inorganic nutrients are passed from organism to organism as one
organism is consumed by another. Ultimately, all organisms die and become detritus, food
for the decomposers. At this stage, last energy is extracted (and lost as heat) and the inorganic
nutrients are returned to the soil or water to be taken up again. The inorganic nutrients are
recycled, the energy is not.

To summarize: In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few
generalizations can be made:

1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun

2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain
as one organism eats another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are recycled, energy is not.

 Food Chains and Webs

Food chain:

There are two types of food chains:

1. Grazing food chain: In this, the producers are generally green plants and consumers
dependent on them. Humans are more dependent on this system.
2. Detritus-based food chain: In this, microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria break
down and metabolize dead organic matter and acts as producer.

In both the case, material and energy flow from one organism to another. Each level of
consumption in food chain is called a trophic level.

A food chain is the path of food from a given final consumer back to a producer. For instance,
a typical food chain in a field ecosystem might be:
grass ---> grasshopper --> mouse ---> snake ---> hawk-- bacteria of decay
Food webs:

The real world, of course, is more complicated than a simple food chain. A more realistic
depiction of who eats whom is called a food web; an example is shown below:

Animals consume a variety of diet and serve as a food for a variety of other creatures that
prey on them. Hawks don't limit their diets to snakes, snakes eat things other than mice, mice
eat grass as well as grasshoppers, and so on. These interconnections create food webs.

 Ecological Pyramid
Ecological pyramid is also known as trophic pyramid or energy pyramid; it is graphically
represented to show the biomass or productivity of the biomass at each trophic level in
an ecosystem. They are graphical representations of the structure of trophic levels of
ecosystems. To understand the material and energy flow in any ecosystem Charles Elton was
the scientist who gave the concept of pyramids to describe these flows.
There are 3 types of ecological pyramids as described as follows:

 Pyramid of energy
 Pyramid of numbers and
 Pyramid of biomass.

1. Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy or the energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the ecosystem.
During the flow of energy from organism to other, there is considerable loss of energy in the
form of heat. The primary producers like the autotrophs there is more amount of energy
available. The least energy is available in the tertiary consumers. Thus, shorter food chain has
more amount of energy available even at the highest trophic level.

 The energy pyramid always upright and vertical.

 This pyramid shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels.
 It depicts the energy is minimum as the highest trophic level and is maximum at the
lowest trophic level.
 At each trophic level, there is successive loss of energy in the form of heat and
respiration, etc.

2. Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers,
herbivores and the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the
number of individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid varies
from ecosystem to ecosystem. There are three of pyramid of numbers:

 Upright pyramid of number

 Partly upright pyramid of number and
  Inverted pyramid of number.

Upright Pyramid of Number

This type of pyramid of number is found in the aquatic and grassland ecosystem, in these
ecosystems there are numerous small autotrophs which support lesser herbivores which
in turn support smaller number of carnivores and hence this pyramid is upright.

Partly Upright pyramid of Number

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of producers are lesser in number and
support a greater number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer number of
carnivores.

Inverted Pyramid of Number This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain
where one primary producer supports numerous parasites which support more
hyperparasites.
3. Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental, they represent the quantitative relationships
of the standing crops. In this pyramid there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the
producers to the higher trophic levels. The biomass here the net organisms collected from
each feeding level and are then dried and weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it
represents the amount of energy available in the form of organic matter of the organisms. In
this pyramid the net dry weight is plotted to that of the producers, herbivores, carnivores,
etc.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are:

 Upright pyramid of biomass and

 Inverted pyramid of biomass.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers support a smaller weight of
consumers. Example: Forest ecosystem.

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

This happens when the smaller weight of producers support consumers of larger weight.
Example: Aquatic ecosystem.
 Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is defined as the process by which there is a structural change in the
biological community of a species over time. Ecological community initiates with a few plants
and animals and the development of these species increases until it becomes stable. The
"engine" of succession causes a change in the ecosystem and the change impact the
established species on their own environment.

Types
There are two different types of succession

 Primary succession and

 Secondary succession.

Primary ecological succession occurs in the lifeless areas like in the regions which are
incapable of sustaining life as result of lava flows, sand dunes newly formed; left over rocks
from the retreating glacier. It is the beginning of a new habitat in an uninfluenced area
without any pre-existing communities.

Secondary ecological succession occurs in areas where a community has been removed from
a previously existing area. This succession may be triggered by smaller-scale disturbances and
they do not eliminate all the life and nutrients from the pre-existing environment. Secondary
succession occurs after the disruption of a pre-existing community.

Stages
There are three fundamental stages involved in the order of ecological succession. They are
as follows:

 Primary Succession
 Secondary Succession and
 Climax Community.

The order of ecological succession can be altered depending upon the location of the region
and its climatic conditions. Although there are stages in which succession occurs.
The order is as follows:

1. Pioneer species,
2. Grasses,
3. Shrubs,
4. Trees,
5. Eventually a climax community stage is reached where the succession process is
stabilized until the land is forced to turn into a barren land once again.
Primary succession happens simultaneously with the growth of the pioneer species. During
the primary succession, a barren land is transformed from a lifeless environment into an
environment which supports life.

Secondary succession is the process where one community is changed into another. It occurs
in the place where life is already present.

Climax community is where succession leads to a single stage which is stead and terminal
known as the climax stage.

Climax Community
Climax concept is a classical theory concerned with ecology; it states that succession stops
at a stage where the biotic and the physical environment have arrived at an equilibrium
stage or a steady state. This succession will persist indefinitely, facing the major disturbance
and this end point of succession is known as climax.

Some of the features or the characteristics of the climax community are:

 The vegetation of this region is tolerant to the environmental conditions.

 The species diversity is large and the food chains of these species are complex and
with spatial structure.
 It is a balanced ecosystem.
 In the climax ecosystem there is a balance between the primary production, total
respiration and also the energy being used from sunlight and also the energy being
released by the process of decomposition.
 There is also a equilibrium between the nutrients taken in from the soil and the return
of the nutrients to the soil by litter fall.
 The individual organisms in the climax ecosystem are replaced by other organisms of
the same kind. Thus maintaining species equilibrium.
 The life and growth here indicates the climatic types of an area.

 Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a region of land that has its own unique climate and life.
The amount of rainfall, temperature, pressure and sunlight makes each region the way it is.
Each ecosystem is filled with plants and animals that have adapted to that land, all together,
the land and its life is called and ecosystem.
Based on rainfall, temperature, pressure and sunlight, the ecosystems are classified as:
forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem
1 Forest ecosystem
One of the most important areas on the earth.
These ecosystems are homes to thousands animals and plants.
Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees.
These trees are the main factors responsible for changes in weather/ climate of the forest.
This will affect to the animals and plants existing in the forest.
2 Grass land ecosystem
It is a simple example of terrestrial ecosystem.
1/4th of the earth’s surface is covered by grass land ecosystem.
Grass lands are found on every continent except Antarctica.
Grass land receives rainfall more than desert ecosystem and less than forest ecosystem.
Grass lands are filled with grass.
There are many types of grass fields of wheat are considered as grass lands.
It supports all insects, birds, other living and non-living organisms present in the particular
grass land ecosystems.
3 Desert ecosystem
Desert is present in every continent except Europe and Antarctica. Each desert is different in
some ways.
It must receive < 10’’ of water a year and typically very dry and covered with sand.
The desert gets extremely hot during the day because of sunlight. At night, the desert gets
very cold, because there aren’t clouds to keep heat from escaping to the atmosphere.
Some deserts are made up of very fine, red sand, other consists of sand mixed with coarse
particles and rocks.
4 Aquatic ecosystem
About 70% of the world is covered by water. Out of this, 97% of water is available in the
form of oceans and seas. Remaining part of water is in the form of river, lakes and pond.
Ocean and sea consist of salty water and known as salt water ecosystem (marine water
ecosystem) and river, lakes and pond consist of fresh water and known as fresh water
ecosystem. When salty water mixes with the fresh water, a special place called estuary
ecosystem is formed.
There are 4 major oceans available in the world. From biggest to smallest, pacific ocean,
atlantic ocean, Indian ocean and arctic ocean. The pacific ocean is so large. It covers a third
part the total salty water available on the earth.