Managing Innovation Driven Companies

Managing Innovation Driven Companies
Gemünden, Massimo G. Colombo, Thomas Durand, Petra C. de Weerd-Nederhof and Tim Schweisfurth
9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd i 11/26/2010 4:05:50 PM

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd ii 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

Managing Innovation
Driven Companies
Approaches in Practice
Edited by
Hugo Tschirky, Cornelius Herstatt, David Probert,

Hans-Georg Gemuenden, Massimo G. Colombo, Thomas
Durand, Petra C. De Weerd-Nederhof, and Tim Schweisfurth
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Selection and editorial content © Hugo Tschirky, Cornelius Herstatt,
David Probert, Hans-Georg Gemuenden, Massimo G. Colombo, Thomas Durand,
Petra C. De Weerd-Nederhof, and Tim Schweisfurth 2011
Individual chapters © the contributors 2011
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First published 2011 by
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Contents
List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgements xii
Foreword xiii
List of Contributors xix
Part I Strategy
1 Developing Innovation Strategies: How to Start? –
A Systemic Approach Using the Innovation Architecture 3
Hugo Tschirky and Gaston Trauffler
2 Organization of International Market Introduction:
Can Cooperation between Central Units and Local Product
Management Influence Success? 37
Antje Baumgarten, Cornelius Herstatt, and Claudia
Fantapié Altobelli
3 M&A and Innovation: The Role of Relatedness
between Target and Acquirer 56
Bruno Cassiman, Massimo G. Colombo, and Larissa Rabbiosi
4 Revisiting the Firm’s R&D and Technological
Ecosystem – A Case from a Large IT Firm 68
Thomas Durand
Part II Competence
5 Getting Value from Technology: A Process Approach 83
Clare J. Farrukh, David Probert, and Robert Phaal
6 Successful New Product Development by Optimizing
Development Process Effectiveness in Highly Regulated Sectors:
The Case of the Spanish Medical Devices Sector 99
Annemien J.J. Pullen, Carmen Cabello-Medina,
Petra C. de Weerd-Nederhof, Klaasjan Visscher, and Aard J. Groen
7 Roadmapping at Printco: One Company’s Experience 125
Rick Mitchell, Robert Phaal, Clare J. Farrukh, and David Probert
8 Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Collaboration 137
Dilek Cetindamar, Bülent Çatay, and Osman Serdar Basmaci
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vi Contents
Part III Innovation

9 Understanding Discontinuous Technology and
Radical Innovation 161
Gaston Trauffler and Hugo Tschirky
10 Market Research for Radical Innovations –
Lessons from a Lead User Project in the Field of
Medical Products 223
Cornelius Herstatt
11 Relying on Experts: How to Effectively Gather
Information for Innovation Projects from Market Specialists 237
Cornelius Herstatt, Christian Lüthje, and Christopher Lettl
12 Generating Innovations through Analogies – An Empirical
Investigation of Knowledge Brokers 258
Katharina Kalogerakis, Cornelius Herstatt,
and Christian Lüthje
Index 277
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Illustrations
Figures
1.1 “Quadrangle” of Innovation Architecture, Strategy

Morphology, Business Roadmap, and Business Model
representing the core of strategic Technology and
Innovation Planning 6
1.2 Generic concept of Innovation Architecture 7
1.3 From an unstructured to a structured
collectivity of technologies 8
1.4 Generating an Innovation Architecture 9
1.5 Examples of the METI Roadmap Compilation: Robotics 10
1.6 Innovation Architecture: Example from a
workshop in practice 11
1.7 Prof. Kohei Arai from Saga University is
developing software that helps disabled to use computers
by simply blinking at an on-screen keyboard 13
1.8 Innovation Architecture considers “Market Pull”
and “Technology Push” 14
1.9 Innovation Architecture – Structured Creativity 15
1.10 Concept of intersubjectivity 16
1.11 Example “Morphology Matrix”: trip to Fuji san 18
1.12 Distinction between strategic objectives and strategic paths 19
1.13 Applied Strategy Morphology with resulting
two strategy options 19
1.14 Generic concept of the strategic Business Roadmap 21
1.15 Innovation Architecture as a snapshot of a current situation 23
1.16 Generating a Business Roadmap 23
1.17 Elaborating a BRM in practice – the detailed
workshop schedule 27
1.18 Elaborating a BRM in practice – the time
compressed schedule 28
1.19 The nine business model building blocks 31
1.20 Generic structure of a business model 31
1.21 Business Model example: Cerberus AG 32
1.22 From Innovation Architecture to business model in five steps 33
2.1 International market introduction process overview 39
2.2 Research framework 41
3.1 M&A classification based on technological
and market relatedness 60
vii
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viii Illustrations
4.1 A typical Ecosystem of a business unit 69

4.2 Mapping of the Ecosystem 72
4.3 Mapping the external set of world-class potential partners 73
4.4 Competences map 76
5.1 Technology generation exploitation cycle 84
5.2 Technology exploitation process 85
5.3 Identifying opportunities for exploiting technology synergy 86
5.4 Technology identification process 87
5.5 Technology selection process 89
5.6 Technology management process framework,
highlighting selection process 91
5.7 Technology selection portfolio framework 92
5.8 Technology acquisition process 92
5.9 Technology protection process 95
5.10 Technology bank 96
5.11 Technology management process framework 97
6.1 Schematic overview of the constructs
that together build NPD performance 101
7.1 Typical multilayered time-based roadmap,
linking technology to markets, providing an
integrating framework to support alignment of
perspectives across the organization 129
7.2 Cross-impact matrix used in compiling
the first roadmap for the laser division 130
7.3 Printco’s first roadmap for the laser division 131
7.4 First revision of the laser division roadmap,
showing the simplification and reduction of
the number of projects 132
7.5 Kano’s model showing contribution made to
customer satisfaction by increased implementation
of different types of features 133
7.6 The new laser division roadmap after the merger,
the different colored bars in the Product section
indicate the underlying platforms 134
7.7 Stages of the planned convergence of the product
platforms, showing steady development of the key features,
and associated business / market outcomes 135
8.1 Performance measurement system for a SCC in
technology development 139
8.2 Collaboration level of dyers and suppliers 144
8.3 Realization level of the cost reductions in labor,
raw material, and energy costs 147
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Illustrations ix
8.4 Performance contribution of 3T projects to

the dyers regarding the decrease in defect rate
and breakdowns and increase in production capacity 149
8.5 Performance contribution of 3T to its
partners on product quality 149
8.6 Participation frequencies of the partners to 3T meetings 150
9.1 Technology S-Curves 170
9.2 The technology life cycle 171
9.3 Typical course of the industry life cycle 172
9.4 The industry technology cycle 173
9.5 Management tasks along the evolution of a
radical new technology 174
9.6 Intervention path characteristics 185
9.7 Implementation styles 187
9.8 Ambidextrous organization 193
9.9 System “Fuzzy front end of the radical innovation process” 195
9.10 Factors that contribute to the efficacy of
technology-sourcing alliances 200
9.11 Steps in assessing partners in technology commercialization 201
9.12 BASF: different R&D approaches according to
different levels of market and technology newness 204
9.13 IBM: different evaluation of innovation
project ideas according to risk and uncertainty 205
9.14 Degussa: different R&D responsibilities according to different
innovation management foci (Creavis) 206
9.15 ABB: product generation focused R&D structures 207
9.16 DSM: more than just venturing 208
9.17 Clariant: idea management and project realization
adapted to different levels of risk and newness 209
9.18 Topsoe: R&D activities according to different levels
of market and technology newness 210
9.19 HILTI: differentiating four levels of technological risk 211
9.20 Philips: differentiating organizational realization
forms of R&D projects 212
9.21 Bayer: different R&D structures adapted to
different types of innovation 213
9.22 Syngenta: flexible cooperation between corporate
units and business units 214
9.23 Degussa: collaboration of business and
corporate units in project houses 215
10.1 The Lead User process 229
10.2 Selection process for identifying Lead Users 232
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x Illustrations
11.1 Information provided by extreme users tends to be

more relevant for infection control than remarks
from the normal user group 247
11.2 In a random order of interviews a significant
fraction of total information is still provided
during the last interviews 249
11.3 In a random interview sequence the
acquisition of nonredundant information decreases
more significantly with high relevance information
than with the information of low and middle relevance 251
12.1 Project clusters according to primary function
of using analogies 264
12.2 Process model of using analogies in product development 269
Tables
2.1 Correlation of quality of cooperation and success

of international market introductions 43
2.2 Correlation of quality of cooperation and quality of elements 45
2.3 Correlation of quality of elements and success of
international market introductions 45
2.4 Correlation of cooperation and degree of changes
made after launch 46
2.5 Correlation of degree of changes made after launch
and success of international market introductions 47
2.6 Correlation of quality of elements and degree of
changes made after launch 47
2.7 Influence of participation on success of
international market introductions (n=65) 48
2.8 Influence of cultural-geographical distance on
success of international market introductions (n=63) 49
4.1 List of criteria to assess Ecosystem 71
4.2 Systematic diagnosis of the Ecosystem 74
4.3 Competences of the R&D unit 75
4.4 Action plan for R&D 77
6.1 General information of the companies in the dataset 107
6.2 Overview and reliability statistics of the performance scale 109
6.3 Performance scores of the companies in the dataset 110
6.4 Single respondent bias results 111
6.5 Variances in product concept effectiveness (PCE)
and development process effectiveness (NPDpe) 112
6.6 Case summaries of the internal organization of
the companies in the dataset 113
8.1 Supplier selection strategies of the partner dyers 145
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Illustrations xi
8.2 The mean, standard deviation, and the percentage distribution

of partners’ ratings of the reasons for collaboration 145
8.3 Evaluation of 3T regarding innovation, sales,
and productivity performance measures 146
8.4 Comparison of 3T to other suppliers 148
9.1 Four perspectives of defining discontinuous/disruptive
technologies and radical innovations 164
9.2 Generalized management perspective of industry
level focused research and its contribution to the generic
strategy development process 177
9.3 A discovery driven method for managing the
emergent strategy process 183
9.4 Generalized management perspective of company
level focused research and its contribution to
the generic strategy development process 189
9.5 Ambidextrous leadership 191
10.1 Fraction of users who build solution for own use
within different user populations 226
11.1 A Small fraction of total information is shared
by more than one expert group 244
11.2 Shared information is on average more relevant 245
11.3 The expert groups emphasize on different
types of information 246
11.4 The majority of information was not shared
by more than one expert 250
12.1 Overview of interviews 261
12.2 Efficiency projects 264
12.3 Balanced projects 266
12.4 Breakthrough projects 267
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Acknowledgements
This book is the result of the enormous efforts of many colleagues and their
numerous research collaborators. To all of them we would like to express
our deep gratitude for their highly appreciated personal and professional
engagement behind their contributions. Our sincere thanks are directed in
particular to:
● Professor Cornelius Herstatt from Hamburg University of Technology and

his colleagues Antje Baumgarten, Claudia Fantapié Altobelli, Katharina
Kalogerakis, Christian Lüthje, and Christopher Lettl.
● David Probert from Cambridge University and his colleagues Rick Mitchell,
Robert Phaal, and Clare Farrukh.
● Professor Dilek Cetindamar from Sabanci University and her colleagues
Bülent Catay and Osman Serdar Basmaci.
● Professor Massimo Colombo from Polytecnico di Milano and his collabo-
rators Bruno Cassiman and Larissa Rabbiosi.
● Professor Thomas Durand, from l’École Centrale, Paris.
● Professor Petra de Weerd-Nederhof from University of Twente and her col-
leagues Annemien J.J. Pullen, Carmen Cabello-Medina, Klaasjan Visscher,
and Aard J. Groen.
● Dr. Gaston Trauffler, former senior assistant at the Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology.
Our gratitude also extends to Virginia Thorp and Paul Milner at Palgrave for
their most cooperative, as well as vastly constructive, collaboration.
Finally we are deeply indebted to Tim Schweisfurth, assistant to Professor
Herstatt. With extraordinary personal engagement, professional knowledge,
and editorial skill he handled the entire process of arranging the manu-
scripts according to the publisher’s guidelines, which included in particular
the highly troublesome redrawing and reformatting of all texts, pictures
and tables.
xii
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Foreword
In the spirit of EITIM
This book articulates the spirit of the European Institute for Technology and
Innovation Management (EITIM). The Institute was founded in 2000 by
researchers and teachers from leading European universities who shared –
and still do share – a deep concern about Europe’s significant underperform-
ance regarding innovation, compared to the US and Japan. Consequently
the EITIM vision “To contribute to Europe’s improved innovativeness”
expresses the common motivation of the founding members to focus their
professional efforts meaningfully on this issue.
In the context of this overall objective, EITIM aims to enable joint cross-
national initiatives which complement individual activities in the broad
field of Technology and Innovation Management. Such initiatives typi-
cally include conducting joint research projects, joint supervision and pro-
motion of dissertations, joint publications, and joint executive seminars
addressing the interests of those responsible for technology and innova-
tion on top management boards. Currently EITIM consists of the following
universities: University of Cambridge (UK), École Centrale Paris (France),
Hamburg University of Technology (Germany), Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology (Switzerland), University of Technology Berlin (Germany),
Sabanci University (Turkey), University College Dublin (Ireland), Chalmers
University of Technology (Sweden), University of Twente (Netherlands), and
Politecnico die Milano (Italy).
Lessons learnt from current innovation initiatives
In order to pursue the EITIM vision in practice, conclusions have been

drawn from past and current initiatives aiming at reducing Europe’s critical
“innovation gap.” Two major “lessons learnt” resulted.
On the one side, the initiatives taken by the European Union (EU) and
European Commission (EC) have been analyzed. Such initiatives include
the so-called EU Framework Programs. In 2000 on the occasion of the “EU
Lisbon Conference” it was – perhaps over ambitiously – decided to trans-
form Europe within ten years into the “most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy in the world!” To this end the sixth and seventh
programs were launched with over 17 and 72 billion Euros respectively.
They focused on proposed research in knowledge areas such as health, bio-
technology, IT, energy, environment, transport, socioeconomic sciences,
humanities, security, and space. With respect to the enormous amount
xiii
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xiv Foreword
being spent to promote Europe’s competitiveness, the question about the

effectiveness of such programs inevitably arises. Conclusive investigations
do not exist. However it lies in the nature of academic research processes
that it will take considerable time – 5 to 12 years – to provide knowledge
which may be transferred successfully into significantly increased sales.
Moreover, regardless of available knowledge which may qualify for cre-
ating new products, noticeable sales increase due to new products – and
thus increased competitiveness – come up only under the sine qua non
condition, that companies master a qualified management of technology
and innovation (MOT) competence. In other words, the company-internal
innovation process – being the “final mile” of the long path from initiating
knowledge creation to the economically useful utilization of knowledge –
represents the real challenge in order to improve competitiveness. In view
of the European innovation gap, it is not contradictory to conclude that this
MOT competence is far from being a matter of course:
Although this relatively young discipline of company management is
under rapid evolution, it still displays a shadowy existence in textbooks and
education on general management. The emergence of technology and inno-
vation management occurred in connection with the ever increasing pace of
technological change. In the past, the words “innovation” and “technology”
could hardly be found in minutes of top management meetings. This is a very
perilous situation. If top management decisions are taken without an under-
pinning technology and innovation management competence, the chances
are considerable that both new innovative business opportunities as well as
severe technological risks are underestimated or even not recognized at all.
It is amazing indeed that this crucial role of the “final mile” is not appro-
priately dealt with in current competitiveness promoting initiatives such as
the EU framework programs. Instead the prevailing argument expresses the
opinion: “The more available useful knowledge – the higher the competi-
tiveness of companies,” a view which is quite far from the situation in the
real business world.
This leads to the first lesson learnt: it is realistic to admit that exclusively
knowledge research driven initiatives per se will not bring about significant
short- and mid-term innovation driven improvements to Europe’s unsatis-
factory competitiveness in the global markets. Instead, substantial improve-
ments can be expected only under the essential condition that European
managers take hold of their own destiny and consistently worry about the
innovativeness of their enterprises.
On the other side, the general focus of the management discipline MOT
has been reviewed. The rapid emergence of MOT was triggered in the
1980s in the US. This was the time when the US felt seriously threatened
by Japanese technology achievements. For this reason, the leading MOT
document published 1987 by the National Research Council carried the title
Management of Technology – The Hidden Competitive Advantage.
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Foreword xv
In order to take effective counter measures, MOT was created. With the
intention to achieve a higher productivity of the R&D resources deployed,
some first basic tools were developed, for example to identify core technolo-
gies. At that time MOT was referred to as the “missing link” between the
natural sciences and engineering and general management. As a result of
this initial role – outside general management – the subsequent progress of
MOT research kept its focus on managing the technology driven entrepre-
neurial functions such as R&D and production.
This MOT role “outside general management” is not contradicted by a fur-
ther research result. In order to understand the significance of “technology”
and “innovation” in the context of general management, around 30 leading
text books which claim to represent state-of-the-art “general management”
were analyzed. The result was quite sobering, since hardly any substantial
statements and recommendations on technology, innovation and their
management were to be found.
This disappointment came up again from a further analysis. An earlier
literature research of top management meeting minutes of successful and
unsuccessful companies had been conducted. It turned out to confirm that
in these documents of unsuccessful companies the words “innovation”
and “technology” did not appear. These findings may presumably not have
changed dramatically in the meantime.
Both these analyses mirror a perilous situation. If top management deci-
sions are taken without fundamental technology and innovation manage-
ment competence, the chances are significant that both new innovative
business opportunities as well as severe technological risks are either under-
or overestimated or just not recognized at all.
Out of these facts and findings, there is the second lesson learnt: it can be
seen that coping with technological change has become – and will remain –
a fundamental challenge not only for single entrepreneurial functions
but for entire companies as a whole. This means that innovativeness and
basic technology awareness have to become practically embedded qualities
throughout companies at all managerial levels. In other words: they should
constitute integrated values of the company culture.
These two lessons learnt clearly affected the past activities of EITIM and
will continue to do so. At first, their underlying MOT concept and its con-
tent have been fundamentally revised. In the literature sometimes referred
to as “New Generation MOT,” top management of technology and innova-
tion driven companies is the primary focus. This does not mean that the
content of the “old MOT” has been replaced. It rather means that concep-
tual extensions have been developed, which include the entire company
context. This concerns for example the highly sensitive issue of company
culture. In fact the “New Generation MOT” can be considered to repre-
sent a first step towards an as yet missing basic textbook such as Managing
Innovation Driven Companies. This first step is illustrated in an EITIM related
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xvi Foreword
book publication titled Technology and Innovation Management on the Move –

From Managing Technology to Managing Innovation-driven Enterprises.
Then, as a major milestone in the EITIM development, a first joint book
publication appeared in 2004. It carries the title Bringing Technology and
Innovation into the Boardroom. The content attempts to overcome the “splen-
did isolation” of top management bodies from technology and innovation
issues by explaining and illustrating the new role to be played by the upper
managerial level.
Further, in the context of this book publication, EITIM is conducting
yearly seminars addressed at executives from innovation-driven compa-
nies. Typical themes include the CTO function, opportunities from “open
innovation” strategies, taking far-reaching technology decisions and cul-
tural leadership measures in order to promote innovativeness throughout
the entire company.
Finally, several concerted efforts have been made in the past in order to
influence the EU innovation policy towards a more realistic adaption to real
life situations. In brief, concrete suggestions were made on how to mean-
ingfully spend the enormous EU resources. Realizing the crucial role of the
“final mile,” the explicit promotion of the MOT quality of companies as part
of the EU programs would be well justified, in parallel to financing research
in attractive fields such as live sciences, new materials, and so on. The ques-
tion is: How much should be spent on promoting MOT competence? As
a rough calculation, just 1 per cent of the allocated amounts for the EU
programs would be adequate to establish 100 centers of “MOT Excellence”
throughout the EU. This would be a very modest “insurance premium” in
order to provide a basis for taking decisions on “doing the right thing.”
Incidentally, this was the approach taken by the Japanese government.
The advances at the EU level did not bear any fruits thus far. However
on the national level, encouraging progress can be noticed: in Luxemburg,
together with EITIM related colleagues, discussions on the crucial role of
the “final mile” started about two years ago. To our surprise, by June 29
2009, a new law on the promotion of innovation had been released, which
is explicitly aimed at promoting the MOT competence of companies. Truly
a breakthrough.
Content
Coming back to the current book: at its core it represents a continuation of

the first EITIM book mentioned above. However it emphasizes the practical
side of Technology and Innovation Management. The findings presented on
selected topics are research-based, however at the end of each contribution
“managerial implications” cover the recommended implementation of the
research results.
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Foreword xvii
The content follows the same triple structure as in the previous book:
Strategy, Competence, and Innovation.
In Part I “Strategy,” the initial contribution “Developing Innovation
Strategies: How to Start?” presents a conclusive and straightforward pro-
cedure on how to develop an innovation strategy. It demonstrates in par-
ticular two innovative MOT concepts called “Innovation Architecture” and
“Strategy Morphology.”
The following contribution “Organization of International Market
Introduction: Can Cooperation between Central Units and Local Product
Management Influence Success?” deals with the challenge of Multinational
Companies (MNC) on how to best share the responsibilities of central and
decentralized local product management in order to improve local market
impact.
The third contribution to Part I, this “M&A and Innovation: The Role of
Relatedness between Target and Acquirer,” is presenting recommendations
on strategic aspects – such as technological capabilities, product mix, geo-
graphic focus, and customer base – to be observed when trying to improve
the effectiveness of M&As.
The final contribution to Part I “Revisiting the Firm’s R&D and
Technological Ecosystem” contains an innovative approach on how to
systematically analye the network of relationships of a technology-based
organizational unit and to draw strategically relevant conclusions.
In Part II “Competence,” the first contribution “Getting Value from
Technology: A Process Approach” outlines case study based solutions on
how to best integrate technological competencies into business processes.
Chapter 6, “Successful New Product Development by Optimizing
Development Process Effectiveness in Highly Regulated Sectors: The Case
of the Spanish Medical Devices Sector” provides findings on factors of suc-
cessful new product development which challenge traditionally observed
managerial practices.
Chapter 7, “Roadmapping at Printco: One Company’s Experience” dem-
onstrates – again case study based – Roadmapping to be a most powerful
integrating competence for strategic innovation planning.
Chapter 8, “Performance Measurements in Supply Chain Collaborations
(SCC)” outlines practice-based findings on recommended competencies on
how to design a performance measurement system SCC.
In Part III “Innovation,” the initial contribution “Understanding
Discontinuous Technology and Radical Innovation” is focused – based on
“best practice cases” – on managerial implications in order to establish a
system of processes which deal with developing incremental and radical
innovations.
The second article “Market Research for Radical Innovations – Lessons
from a Lead User Project in the Field of Medical Products” sheds light on the
so-called fuzzy front end of the innovation process, in which lead users can
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xviii Foreword
play an eminent role. Referring to field research findings, a four-phase proc-

ess on how to involve lead users in radical innovation projects is presented.
The following chapter “Relying on Experts: How to Effectively Gather
Information for Innovation Projects from Market Specialists” presents rec-
ommendations for the management of external information and the iden-
tification of market experts.
The final contribution to this part “Generating Innovations through
Analogies – An Empirical Investigation of Knowledge Brokers” presents the
appropriate use of analogies in order to increase not only creativity effec-
tiveness, but also to enhance project efficiency and improve communica-
tion throughout the entire product development process.
Professor Hugo Tschirky, PhD, DBA

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
Zurich, October 2010
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Contributors
Antje Baumgarten is a Corporate Advisor at Sydbank, Germany.

Carmen Cabello-Medina is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Business Administration at Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain.
Bruno Cassiman is a Professor in the Strategic Management Department at
IESE Business School, University of Navarra, Spain.
Bülent Çatay is on the Faculty of the Department of Engineering and
Natural Sciences at Sabanci University, Turkey.
Dilek Cetindamar is Director of Competitiveness Forum, Faculty of
Management, Sabanci University, Turkey.
Massimo G. Colombo is Professor of the Economics of Technical Change in
the School of Management at the Politecnico di Milano, Italy.
Petra C. de Weerd-Nederhof is Full Professor in the Institute for
Governance Studies, SRO Innovation & Entrepreneurship at the University
of Twente, The Netherlands.
Thomas Durand is Professor of Business Strategy at École Centrale Paris,
France.
Claudia Fantapié Altobelli is Professor of Marketing at the Helmut Schmidt
University, Hamburg, Germany.
Clare J. Farrukh is a Senior Research Associate in the Department of
Engineering at the University of Cambridge, UK.
Hans-Georg Gemuenden is Professor of Technology and Innovation
Management at TU Berlin, Germany.
Aard J. Groen is Full Professor in the Institute for Governance Studies,
SRO Innovation & Entrepreneurship at the University of Twente, The
Netherlands.
Cornelius Herstatt is a Professor in the Institute for Technology and
Innovation Management at the Hamburg University of Technology,
Germany.
Katharina Kalogerakis is a Research Assistant in the Institute for Technology
and Innovation Management at Hamburg University of Technology,
Germany.
Christopher Lettl is Full Professor in the Institute for Entrepreneurship and
Innovation at Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria.
xix
9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xix 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

xx Contributors
Christian Lüthje is Full Professor in the Institute for Marketing and

Innovation at Hamburg University of Technology, Germany.
Rick Mitchell is a Visiting Fellow in the Institute of Manufacturing,
Cambridge, UK.
Robert Phaal is a Senior Research Associate in the Department of Engineering
at the University of Cambridge, UK.
David Probert is a Reader in Technology Management at the Institute of
Manufacturing, Cambridge, UK.
Annemien J. J. Pullen is a PhD Candidate in the Institute for Governance
Studies, SRO Innovation & Entrepreneurship at the University of Twente,
The Netherlands.
Larissa Rabbiosi is a Lecturer in the Centre for Strategy and Globalization
at Copenhagen Business School, Denmark.
Tim Schweisfurth is Senior Researcher at the Institute of Technology and
Innovation Management at Hamburg University, Germany.
Osman Serdar Basmaci received his MSc in Industrial Engineering at
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istambul,
Turkey.
Gaston Trauffler is a Scientific Collaborator in the Centre for Enterprise
Science at the Federal Institute for Technology (ETH), Switzerland.
Hugo Tschirky is Professor of Technology Management in the Centre
for Enterprise Science at the Federal Institute of Technology (ETH),
Switzerland.
Klaasjan Visscher is an Assistant Professor in the Institute for Governance
Studies, SRO Innovation & Entrepreneurship at the University of Twente,
The Netherlands.
9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xx 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

Part I
Strategy
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 1 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 2 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

1
Developing Innovation Strategies:
How to Start? – A Systemic
Approach Using the
Innovation Architecture
Hugo Tschirky and Gaston Trauffler
Introduction
Coping with the ever stunning development of technological change and

mastering a competitive innovation quality have become primordial chal-
lenges for most companies. However, keeping abreast with the omnipres-
ent reality of technological achievements and threats requires managerial
competencies which differ in many respects from traditional management
of the past. In the first place technology and innovation are no longer issues
of specific individuals or departments but rather of concern for the entire
enterprise. Whereas in the past, Research and Development (R&D) depart-
ments often were considered to be responsible for an appropriate stream
flow of innovative products, today’s “best-in-class” examples of innovative
companies reveal an innovation consciousness which is shared by all pri-
mary entrepreneurial disciplines such as R&D, production, marketing, and
finance.
Being open-minded about new technology and innovation across the
entire company is the expression of a company culture which is character-
ized by management and employees with natural curiosity and willingness
to take risks, and above all by low company barriers of internal and external
communication.
The existence of communication barriers is at first a fact which can be
explained to a large extent by the naturally developed differentness of the
various – separate, though complementary – entrepreneurial disciplines. In
a figurative sense, this differentness is expressed by differing “languages”
which are “spoken” in the various disciplines: In R&D, thinking and speak-
ing in laws of nature, engineering principles, and mathematical rules are
dominating the day’s work. This “language” might be called “RanDish”. In
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 3 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

4 Tschirky and Trauffler
contrast, the production discipline is characterized by the colloquial lan-

guage “Procish” with a vocabulary consisting of specific production tech-
nologies, throughput measures, and quality notions. In marketing and sales,
the situation is different again. Here people speak “Clientish,” dominated by
expressions such as customer benefit, sales prices, and unique selling propo-
sitions. Finally the finance world of a company is quite different in its own
way. Thoughts and operations centre all around profitability, liquidity, and
margins which are basic words of “Financish.”
This Babylonian confusion of tongues is an everyday fact of company life
and represents the main barrier for finding consensus and taking decisions
in due time. In this respect, company management is in particular chal-
lenged to establish and practice innovation management processes which –
on the one hand – consider the large variety of all essential factors which
possibly influence major decisions. On the other hand, the same process
has to provide for mutual understanding of differing professional positions,
accepting changes of such positions, and finally getting to a consensus on
the appropriate singular decision to be taken.
This interplay between variety and singularity reflects one way to cope
with complexity: A situation can be considered to be “complex,” if at a given
point in time, a large number of possible next steps that can be taken is
existing. Deliberately allowing for all essential decision factors to be taken
into account when starting a decision-making process reflects an inten-
tional increase of complexity. In contrast, the subsequent process to estab-
lish consensus on the best suited decision to be taken is equal to a mastered
decrease of complexity.
Successfully managing complexity is a specific challenge for innovation-
driven companies. The ambition to be innovative as an individual or as a
company means per se to conquer new territories of customer needs and
technologies which might enable meeting such needs. Therefore innova-
tiveness relies especially on the competence to initially increase complexity
during the phase of idea gathering and then to reduce it again to a reason-
able number of promising innovation projects.
Typical concepts and measures to willingly increase decision complex-
ity in innovation-driven companies include for example so-called “busi-
ness intelligence systems.” They have become an agenda point dealt with
priority. They aim at providing the appropriate inflow of information based
on the experience that successful innovativeness relies to a large extent on
knowledge which has been gathered outside the company. Such systems
vary considerably in terms of dedicated resources depending on the size
and the knowledge focus of the company. However there are even middle-
sized and small companies which have introduced processes which system-
atically provide relevant outside knowledge based on a coordinated and
knowledge field focused information search by single individuals, often
called “gatekeepers.”
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 4 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

Developing Innovation Strategies 5
A further challenge of emerging significance is the broad-minded aware-

ness of innovation. A still popular understanding of innovation is focused
on new products, new technologies or new services. However, innovative
excellence goes far beyond and also includes organizational and business
innovations as well. Particularly the latter ones require managerial crea-
tivity with perspectives across industries and global economies. Whereas
incremental product innovations are gradually dealt with using dedi-
cated processes, service innovations are still far from being systematically
explored. And above all the deliberate handling of disruptive technologies
and radical innovations is still a very rare managerial competence. However,
good examples of companies which deal with this issue successfully exist.
Yet another leading trend has to be mentioned. Under the terms “open
innovation” and “distributed innovation” reference is made to structural
patterns that are characterized by pooling R&D resources across and beyond
organizational and regional boundaries. In this respect Procter & Gamble
(P&G) is providing an illustrative example. On P&G’s website the chairman
of the board, A. G. Lafley, is personally promoting the initiative “connect
& develop”: “I want us to be the absolute best at spotting, developing and
leveraging relationships with best-in-class partners in every part of our
business.” One of the measures consists of two entries on the website, one
reserved for “ready-to-go products or technology” to be offered to P&G, and
the other installed for the acquisition of technologies from P&G.
Moreover the venture capital scene is providing an attractive potential
for a managed increase of complexity and thus an accelerated innovative
growth. The careful and systematic monitoring of start-up companies for
example enables identifying the “right” technologies to be made available
in a short time and with reduced technological development risks. Finally,
further practices to initiate innovation search include highly interdiscipli-
nary decision groups, external networks of experts, lead supplier, and lead
user concepts of product development, etc.
Despite these ambitious challenges many professional authors have
come to the conclusion that “innovation is not black art.” This means
that innovativeness is not the result of coincidental circumstances but
rather the consequence of responsible leadership which makes use of
already available tools and methods of modern management of technol-
ogy and innovation.
In the following, four selected instruments of innovation management
are presented: The newly developed “Innovation Architecture” (IA), the
Strategy Morphology (SM), the so-called Business Roadmap (BRM), and the
Business Model (BM). They are suited to effectively support the mentioned
interplay between increasing and decreasing management complexity. And,
above all, they represent practical management instruments aimed at ena-
bling mutual understanding across the various company disciplines, func-
tions, and management levels.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 5 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

Innovation Strategy
Architecture Morphology
Business Business
Roadmap Model
Figure 1.1 “Quadrangle” of Innovation Architecture, Strategy Morphology, Business

Roadmap, and Business Model representing the core of strategic Technology and
Innovation Planning
These four instruments are closely interrelated and represent the core of
modern strategic Technology and Innovation Management (Figure 1.1).
Innovation Architecture representing structured creativity
Generic concept of Innovation Architecture

The IA represents a systemic knowledge map. It covers on the one side all
major knowledge which underlies existing and new businesses and prod-
ucts in terms of trends of customer needs and available scientific knowledge
(Figure 1.2). On the other side, it displays plausible combinations of such
knowledge which constitute the basis of existing and new businesses and
products. In this respect it consists of six structural layers: (new) Innovation
Trends, (new) businesses, (new) Products-Systems-Services, (new) Product
Functions, (new) Technology Platforms, and (new) Scientific Knowledge
Fields.
The level of “(new) Innovation Trends” contains all relevant societal, eco-
nomic, and market trends such as aging society, globalization, knowledge
society, technology markets, venture capital, etc. In addition to consider
such singular trends it is highly helpful also to include certified assump-
tions on future processes of activities of individuals, within homes and
within organizations, and in society. On the level “(new) Businesses” ideas
of future businesses are itemized which complement or replace current busi-
nesses. The level “(new) Products-Systems-Services” comprises the existing
and possibly future products which might be part of the current or new
businesses.
On level “(new) Product Functions” we find items or product features
which are shared by more than one product. The implied “thinking in prod-
uct functions” is absolutely key to IA: Product functions describe primary
effects of products and services, such as “print characters” and “process
transparencies” in the case of a printer. In this view product functions consti-
tute “translations” of customer needs without preempting the technological
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 6 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

Current trend New trend

Current trend
(New) New trend
innovation trends Current trend
(New) Current Current Current Current New New New New

businesses business business business business business business business business
(New) product- Current Current Current New New New

systems-services product product product product product product
(New) product Current Current Current New New

functions product function product function product function product function product function
(New) technology Current Current Current Current New New New

platforms technology technology technology technology technology technology technology
platform platform platform platform platform platform platform
Current Current Current New New

(New) scientific
scientific scientific scientific scientific scientific
knowledge fields
knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field
Figure 1.2 Generic concept of Innovation Architecture
solutions. This is essential in order not “to jump to conclusions” too early
before all possible technological solutions for each individual functions has
been investigated.
Finding best-suited technological solutions is subsequent to identifying
major current and new product functions and is assigned to specific tech-
nology platforms. They are visualized on the next level of the IA. Together
with product functions, “Technology Platforms” constitute the other main
focus of IA: The term “Technology Platform” is a strategic term. It itemizes
a group of product and process technologies which are to be mastered in
order to provide competitive solutions for the identified product functions.
Example: A renowned producer of diagnostics instruments identified six
product functions which are shared by more than one product or system of
two independent business units: “to handle objects,” “to control tempera-
ture,” “to process samples,” “to perform analytical measuring,” “to control
systems,” and “to communicate data.” Correspondingly, separate technol-
ogy platforms have been established which are focused on developing best-
suited solutions of the various product functions relevant for quite different
types of products and systems.
Prior to introducing the concept of technology platforms, two separate
R&D departments existed which were assigned to develop pharmaceuti-
cal instruments for various business units. In this organization, each R&D
department was challenged separately to develop entire “product solutions.”
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 7 11/16/2010 6:05:39 PM

This meant that technological solutions for identical product functions were
developed twice which is verbally equal to “reinventing the wheel” several
times. Avoiding this obvious loss of productivity was the main motivation
to introduce the mentioned technology platforms focused – across busi-
ness unit boundaries – on technological solutions for individual product
functions.
Above all, the concept of technology platforms has a strategic significance
as it allows stressing the strategic value of technology: In innovation- and
technology-driven companies the number of technologies to be mastered in
R&D, production, and supply chain management easily amounts to several
hundreds or even thousands. Although each technology represents a sub-
stantial financial value, it is practically not feasible to establish a business
value for each one of these technologies. Therefore creating meaningful
groups of technologies in terms of technology platforms allows manage-
ment to estimate strategic technology values (Figure 1.3). In this respect
the number of platforms is certainly more than one, however, ought not to
exceed half a dozen for SME’s.
On the final IA-level “(new) Scientific Knowledge Fields” are positioned.
They indicate realistically and specifically the origin of the company’s
technology base. The careful treatment of this level has a significant stra-
tegic meaning as well: It reflects the “Strategic Competence Planning” as
an indispensable issue of modern strategic planning. Ambitious marketing
plans based on technology-intensive products remains superficial until the
corresponding fundamental knowledge base has been planned and estab-
lished. Example: A successful producer of specialty chemicals came to the
conclusion that future innovative growth – hopefully as a result of radical
innovations – must be based on knowledge from life sciences, nanotech-
nology, catalysis, and polymers. Having identified these fields as strategic
competences to be mastered in future, five separate midterm projects were
Core technology
− Limited number (3–5+) of strategically structured technology groups – called
Product, process, or support “Technology Platform”
technology
− Structural criteria: core technologies, main product functions, core competencies
− Usually unknown number of product, core, − Each “Technology Platform” represents a coherent group of product, core,
process, and support technologies process, and support technologies – according to selected structural criteria
− Does not allow taking strategic technology − Allows taking strategic technology decisions (i.e. Technology impact
decisions analysis)
Figure 1.3 From an unstructured to a structured collectivity of technologies
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 8 11/16/2010 6:05:39 PM

launched in order to establish the aimed at knowledge bases. Only after-

wards concrete product innovation planning and development was started.
And indeed, several radical innovations using the newly acquired compe-
tences resulted.
Generating innovation architectures

Developing an IA does not have to follow strict rules. However, following
an often practiced procedure, at first, the current business situation is dis-
played. To this end in step 1 the existing businesses are captured (Figure 1.4).
In step 2 those trends are identified which are of influence for the current
businesses. Step 3 deals with the main current products and their affiliation
with the different businesses. Step 4 consists of bringing in the product
functions which are shared by the current products and services and con-
necting them with these products and services.
In step 5 the current technology platforms are displayed and connected
with the product functions, which they are primarily focused on. The pres-
entation of the current business situation closes with bringing in the essen-
tial scientific knowledge fields which had a major influence on product
development in the past (step 6).
The creative part as such of using the IA starts with steps 7 and 8: Resulting
from earlier studies or dedicated workshops, new significant trends which
presumably will influence customer behavior in future and generate new
(New)
2 Current trend New trend
Current trend
New trend
7
(New)
businesses 1business
Current Current
business
Current
business
Current
business
New
business
New
business
New
business
New
business 10
(New) product- Current Current Current

systems-services 3 product product product
New
product
New
product
New
product 11
functions 4 product function product function product function product function product function 9

platforms 5technology
platform
technology
platform
technology
platform
technology
platform
technology
platform
technology
platform
12
technology
platform

(New) scientific
knowledge fields 6 scientific
knowledge field
scientific
knowledge field
scientific
knowledge field
scientific
knowledge field
scientific
knowledge field
8
Figure 1.4 Generating an Innovation Architecture
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 9 11/16/2010 6:05:40 PM

Figure 1.5 Examples of the METI Roadmap Compilation: Robotics
customer needs are introduced. Correspondingly new knowledge fields have

to be brought in, in order to stimulate the minds also from this side.
As a next step, it is recommended not to follow the given IA structure and
to storm brains on future businesses or products. Instead, making step 9, it
is more meaningful to discuss in depth the probable consequences of new
trends and needs and “translate” these assumed new trends and needs into
new product functions.
This procedure may even be a general recommendation on how to
imagine the future: On the one side, quite a number of future trends can
be mentioned which have a high degree of certitude. As already men-
tioned above, they include “aging society,” “knowledge society,” con-
nected society,” etc. Rather than drawing conclusions on future products
and businesses, it is less uncertain – and therefore more reliable – to
illustrate the future with likely new product functions. For example, it
is conceivable that “to provide ubiquitous connections” will become an
essential product feature of the future. Only now it makes sense to have
creativity sessions on new products or businesses, whereas steps 10 and
11 may be well made iteratively.
Having decided on new functions to be included, discussing the neces-
sary technology backup – and thus step 12 – is next. A most useful source
of information for this step has been provided by METI: As a result of an
extensive collaboration with industry and academia METI has elaborated
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 10 11/16/2010 6:05:41 PM

a wealth of industry roadmaps of major technologies and natural sciences.

They cover current and future developments and include the fields of IT, life
science, environment, energy, robotic, aircraft, aerospace, nanotech, and
MEMS technologies. A typical example is given in Figure 1.5.
The outcome of this step might suggest a new technology platform or the
combined development of a new function together with an existing plat-
form. Also during step 12, the question of new knowledge fields is discussed
anew.
Practical example
To illustrate the use of IA in practice, the following example is given
(Figure 1.6). It is a neutralized case of a company which has been active in
the past in the fields of office machines, systems solutions, optical products,
and cameras. Company management has decided to extend business activi-
ties into new markets. In order to carefully select new business options,
some 300 engineers, physicists, and representatives from other sciences are
doing detailed studies on the “world of tomorrow.”
At first the identified trends have to be mentioned, which are in Japan gen-
erally considered to be of future societal influence. For example the govern-
ment has published a “White Book” already some years ago, that expresses
significant developments, among which the trend towards a knowledge-
based society is a main theme. Also it has been decided to acquire new basic
Integration Communication Aging society Ecology

(New)
innovation trends
Industry/SoHo Consumer Quality of life Knowledge society Venture capital
Future individual activities Future home processes Future company processes Future economic processes
(New)
Business Systems Optical Health Silver Techno-
businesses Cameras Life style Security Industry
machines solutions products care market logy
(New) product- Device Micro tissue Knowledge Tele Digital No problem

Visionman
systems-services engineerer engineerer workplace workplace detector communicator
(New) product Deposit microfine Connect man-machine

Visualize data Store data New function
functions droplets “organ-like”
(New)
Ultra System Environ- Information SW Electro- New
technology BJ Optical
precision integration mental & telecom. application photography generation
platforms technology technology
technology technology technology technology technology technology technology
(New)
scientific Microelec- Micro- Mecha- Neuro- Life
Chemistry Physics Engineering
knowledge tronics mechanics tronics sciences sciences
fields
Figure 1.6 Innovation Architecture: Example from a workshop in practice
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 11 11/16/2010 6:05:43 PM

knowledge from scientific fields such as mechatronics, neurosciences, and

life sciences.
Among the new functions, “connect man-machine ‘organ-like’ ” has to be
emphasized. This function “translates” the ultimate customer need to really
have to deal with any kind of technology without any handling difficulties.
Preceding the identification of this function, workshop participants had
to answer the question: “What is more complicated: eating a sandwich or
using a video recorder?” The answer to this rhetorical question was obvious,
since dealing with a video recorder usually is a rather tedious affair.
Having got consensus on the fact that “eating a sandwich” is much less
complex than handling the video recorder, a video was shown on the very
complex process of digesting a sandwich. Therefore the next question came
up: Why is the as such extremely complex process of eating a sandwich
conceived by individuals to be easy and handling the rather banal tech-
nology of video recorders thought to be complex or at least complicated?
The answer was obvious: Whereas the recorder technology is mostly poorly
adapted to human needs, “digestion technology” is – on the contrary – per-
fectly adapted to human needs.
The workshop concluded by establishing a final objective for developing
technology: “Technology has to fit human needs like an organ!” Based on
that thesis, the above mentioned function was formulated. And, without
a discussion on how to realize the new function technologically, a corre-
sponding platform “New Generation Technology” was identified.
Using the new function, the “creativity game” within the innovation
architecture was continued by combing current and the new product func-
tion to come up with all sorts of new products and finally new businesses: As
an example, the product “No Problem Communicator” can be mentioned.
It is a device which is transmitting messages through the internet without
any active computer interaction and therefore relying primarily on speech
recognition technology.
The assumption is that such a product would fit perfectly into the “Silver
Market” which is directed towards elderly people and thus correspond to
the trend “aging society.” But equally, the new function can play the central
role when developing new systems called “Knowledge Workplace” which
indispensably will have to offer much more comfort than just a number of
computers, flat screens, and printers.
Recently the development of a new technology was in the news, which
might fit into the platform of “New Generation Technology”(Figure 1.7).1
Using this technology, disabled people are able to access the Internet using
software to create texts in Japanese that does not require fingers to tap the
keyboard. All they have to do is look at an on-screen keyboard – and blink.
The underlying software – named “Mitsumeru Dake” (“Just Look”) – has
been developed by Prof. Kohei Arai from Saga University.2
One other new product idea may be mentioned: the “Micro Tissue
Engineerer.” This product is supposed to be capable of producing living
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 12 11/16/2010 6:05:44 PM

Figure 1.7 Prof. Kohei Arai from Saga University is developing software that helps
disabled to use computers by simply blinking at an on-screen keyboard
micro tissues such as skin, cartilage, and cornea, and application to other
important organs is anticipated. The production method is called “bioprint-
ing” which is researched for example by Prof. Makoto Nakamura at Kanagawa
Academy of Science and Technology.3 It is based on a bio-specialized print-
ing procedure using a bioprinting machine which compares to color ink jet
and multi layer printing: living cells and proteins are directly and precisely
positioned and arranged at the respective intended position.
The principal product function for this “Micro Tissue Engineerer” has been
named “Deposit Micro-Fine Droplets.” In first versions of the innovation
architecture the spelling of this function was “Print Characters” in order to
refer to ink jet printing machines, which characterize the product range of the
analyzed company. However having realized the possibility of bioprinting, the
new spelling has been chosen which includes printing characters as well.
Highlights of innovation architectures

Market Pull and Technology Push
In literature on technology and innovation management, these two terms
are often used. They refer to two quite different patterns of technology to
become applied in marketable products (Figure 1.8).
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 13 11/16/2010 6:05:44 PM


Current trend
(New) New trend

(New) product- Current Current Current New New New

Pull”
Current
k et
(New) product Current Current New New
functions product function product function product function
ar
product function product function
Techno “M
-
logy
“Technology Push”

technology technology technology technology technology technology technology
platforms

(New) scientific scientific scientific scientific scientific scientific
knowledge fields knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field
Figure 1.8 Innovation Architecture considers “Market Pull” and “Technology

Push”
“Market Pull” on the one side describes situations, in which a specific

market demand or customer need requires a specific technological solution
in order to be satisfied. For example, the development of the 300 mm waver
technology has been a response to strong trends towards production cost
reduction.
“Technology Push” on the other side refers to planned or haphazardly dis-
covered technologies, which require useful applications in the market place.
“Bubble Jet” technology is such an example. The effect of ejected water bub-
bles jetting out of a pipette tip under influence of heat was observed in
1977 by Mr. Endo at the Canon research laboratory. His highly visionary
mind made him imagine a new printing technology. After more than ten
years of tireless R&D work, this vision became a reality. Today “Bubble jet”
or “Ink Jet” technology is a most successful technology used in printers of
renowned companies such as Canon and Hewlett Packard.
The IA allows taking into account both patterns. Be it the challenge to
find product solutions for new customer needs or searching for meaningful
new technology applications, both streams of analysis can be handled using
the IA methodology.
Structured creativity
The IA has numerous independent entries (Figure 1.9).
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 14 11/16/2010 6:05:45 PM

Creativity techniques (100+)
• Analogies
• Brainstorming
• Card story boards
• Delphi
Plausible ideas
• Escape thinking of new products
• Fishbone diagram
and businesses
• Free association
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 15
• Gap analysis New New
• Ishikawa diagram Current trend Current trend
(New) New trend trends
• Dream diary needs innovation trends
• Kepner and tregoe
• Lateral thinking (New) Current Current Current Current New New New New
• Morphology analysis
• Problem inventory analysis (New) product- Current Current Current New New New
• Quality circles
• SWOT analysis (New) product Current Current Current New New
functions product function product function product function product function
• Synectics product function
• Tug of war
(New) technology Current Current Current Current New New Current
• Why why why technology technology technology technology technology technology technology
platforms
• TRIZ
New knowledge fields knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field knowledge field
New
technologies markets
Technology Roadmap
2007
New New
METI sciences knowledge
Figure 1.9 Innovation Architecture – Structured Creativity
11/16/2010 6:05:46 PM
Essential input data such as new customer needs, new societal trends, new
technologies (METI Technology Roadmap (TRM) 2006), etc. typically result
from separate studies or group works. For most of these, input data of one
or more different creativity techniques can have been used. As a matter of
fact, the more independent origin of these input data, the more valuable
outcome can be expected developing the IA subsequently. This characteris-
tic explains the notion “structured creativity”: on the one hand, unlimited
creativity can be applied for developing input data. On the other hand, the
IA concept allows structuring these ideas meaningfully in order to obtain
plausible ideas of new products and businesses.
Consensus building based on intersubjectivity

It is fundamental to any management decision, that they never ever can
be based on exclusively – purely objective – mathematical calculations.
Therefore, in management the question “right or wrong” is out of place.
Management decisions always include – usually to a high degree – subjec-
tive judgments of professionals and experts involved. This holds also for all
IA input data. Therefore the question comes up on the information quality
next best to “objectivity” (Figure 1.10).
“Objectivity” is characterized by the fact that an issue discussed is based
on unquestioned scientific evidence such as mathematics or physics.
Objectivity Subjectivity
• Interpersonally revealed fact • Personally appraised fact
• “Mathematically” evidenced • No “mathematical” evidence
• To be demonstrated by even one person • Interpersonally different appraisal
Intersubjectivity
Consensus between qualified subjective appraisals of:
• Carriers of original information for taking decisions
• Carriers of responsbility for decisions
• Main representatives affected by decisions
Professional
dispute
Figure 1.10 Concept of intersubjectivity
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 16 11/16/2010 6:05:48 PM

Therefore, any expert in the field comes up with the same evaluation, pro-
vided that he masters the relevant scientific knowledge. However, for rea-
sons given above, “objectivity” is no acceptable concept for management
practice.
“Subjectivity” represents the opposed information quality: due to
absence of scientific tools, situational evaluations by individuals dominate.
Therefore evaluations of the same situation by different professionals may
very well result in as many evaluations as people involved. For that reason,
“subjectivity” is certainly not a suitable basis for taking management deci-
sions either.
For these reasons, “intersubjectivity” has become a primary canon for
management decisions. It means a consensus between qualified subjective
evaluations of situations or actualities. “Intersubjectivity” can be reached
as a result from professional disputes. In this respect the selection of the
people which are involved in such disputes is all-dominant. From a social
science perspective it seems to be appropriate if at least three kinds of
participants are selected: (1) professional carriers of original information
for taking decisions, (2) carriers of original responsibility for taking deci-
sions, and (3) main representatives who are affected by the decisions to be
taken.
These reflections underline the strongly recommended development of
IA based on multiple group work and – simultaneously – may support the
constitution of the corresponding groups.
Innovation Strategy Morphology
Generic concept of Strategy Morphology

The “Morphology Matrix” represents a universal schematic for developing
problem solutions. It shall be explained by solving the “problem” of making
a trip to the Fuji san (Figure 1.11):
The matrix has two dimensions. The dimension “Solution Elements” con-
sists of all essential parameters which are part of the problem solution when
travelling to the Fuji san, such the time of year, way of travelling (travel
transport), grouping (participants), guide, duration, and focus. The dimen-
sion “Specifications” contains for each single one of the solutions elements
any conceivable expression. For example: “the time of year” may have the
specifications “January-March,” “April-June” etc. ; “way of travelling” may
have the specifications “bus,” “train” or “private car.”
After having enumerated all essential solution parameters and after hav-
ing enumerated all conceivable specifications of each parameter, solution
options can be developed. The procedure is the following: For each one of
the parameters, one specification is chosen in such a way, that all chosen
specification together constitute a reasonable solution option. For example:
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 17 11/16/2010 6:05:48 PM

Solution element Specifications

Time of the year January–March April–June July–September October–December
Travel transport bus Train Private car
Grouping Alone Family Travel group
Guide No guide With guide
Duration of trip 2 days 3 days One week
Focus of the trip Fuji san only Fuji san + Hakone Fuji san + Jap. Alps
Solution options Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
Figure 1.11 Example “Morphology Matrix”: trip to Fuji san
making the trip during April-June, taking a bus, going with family, taking a
guide, planning for two days, and going to the Fuji san alone seems to be a
reasonable option (option 1 in Figure 1.11). Correspondingly, other options
can be developed.
Developing solution options has to follow two indispensable rules:
Rule 1: The chosen option has to include all parameters without exception.
Rule 2: For each parameter only one specification can be chosen.
This means: When developing specifications for the various parameters,

they have to be formulated in such a way, that they are mutually exclusive.
Developing an Innovation Strategy Morphology (ISM)

The “Morphology Matrix” shall now be applied for developing options of
business (innovation) strategies:
To this end at first the term “strategy” has to be defined. “Strategy” shall
be understood as a “set of mid-term decisions which express the selected
major business activities and emphasize the priorities of the resources to de
deployed.” In this view it is recommended to distinguish between “strategic
objectives” and “strategic paths” (Figure 1.12).
Strategic objectives are for example: financial performance (return on
equity (ROE), return on investment (ROI), etc.), external growth or inter-
nal growth, innovation rate, etc. Strategic objectives are usually inputs
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 18 11/16/2010 6:05:48 PM

Strategic paths
Strategic objective
Today Tomorrow
Examples of strategic paths: Examples of strategic objectives:

• Leadership strategies • Financial performance (ROE, ROI)
• Follower strategies • Expected sales of new products
• Fusion strategies • Innovation rate
• Cooperation / joint venture (JV) strategy • New (radical) innovation / business fields
• Make or buy strategies • (New) core technologies
• Cost leadership strategies • Standard / support / obsolete technologies
• Organizational & process structures • Technology platforms (corporate/division)
• Strategic projects
Figure 1.12 Distinction between strategic objectives and strategic paths
Strategy elements Specifications

Strategy goals
Strategic purpose Internal growth External growth Int. & ext. Growth
Return in equity (roe) 8% 10% 12%
Return on investment (roi) 10% 12% 14%
Annual sales in three years (million Yen) + 5000 + 7000 + 10000
Long-Term sales growth 5% 10% 15%
Innovation rate 10% 15% 20%
Innovation field: polymers Polymer belts Polymer cables Medical polymers
Innovation field: optical fibres Optical switches Optical data transfer
Innovation field: smart materials Acoustic attenuation Smart belts
Innovation field:
Business field: polymers Belting market Electronics market Health care market
Strategy path
Business field: optical fibres Electronics market Automotive market
Business field: smart materials Automotive market Entertainment market
Business field:
Overall market strategy Leader strategy Follower strategy
Regional market strategy Japan Japan + US Japan + US + Europe
Market collaboration strategy No collaboration Majority partnership Minority partnership
Market collaboration partners No partner Freudenberg Schlatterer Company X

Technology strategy No collaboration Product innovation JV competence New strat. Competence
Make or buy strategy In-House R&D Contract research Joint R&D
Technology collaboration partners No partner University X Company Y Company Z
Acquisition candidates No candidate Schlatterer Company A Company B
Strategy options Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
Figure 1.13 Applied Strategy Morphology with resulting two strategy options
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 19 11/16/2010 6:05:49 PM

from the next higher level of management. For example: the overall stra-
tegic plan can decide to aim at ROE values of 15 percent. In that case this
ROE value is a strategic objective for the business units being parts of the
entire company.
The strategic paths in that case represent strategic options for the business
units. They can consist of choosing between different types of new businesses,
make-or-buy strategies, scope of cooperation, priorities on markets, etc.
A typical practical SM is illustrated in Figure 1.13. It shows that among the
parameters of the strategic path the planning business unit had the option
to decide between three innovation fields (polymers, optical fibers, smart
materials) and corresponding business fields, four types of market strategy
(leader or follower strategy, regional options, minority or majority partner-
ships, and different collaboration partners), etc.
According to Figure 1.13, it had finally been decided to focus on two strat-
egies to be studied more in detail, namely a purely external growth strategy
(option 1) and a mixed internal and external growth strategy (option 2).
Business Roadmaps, a strategic timeline

for innovative business planning
Generic concept of Business Roadmaps (BRM)

The philosophy reflected by the roadmap used in strategic management is
inspired from a geographic roadmap. Geographic roadmaps serve as a trave-
ler’s tool providing essential understanding, proximity, direction, and some
degree of certainty in travel planning when moving from a current to a new
location. In analogy, the roadmap in strategic management supports man-
agers as a planning tool when navigating the company (or parts of it) from
a present state to a future state.
As a planning tool the roadmap is in its very essence a graphical chart that
displays the objects to be planned, the relationship between these objects
and the dependence of the latter over time. The activities corresponding to
its elaboration and updating are called roadmapping.
Roadmaps and roadmapping can take a variety of specific forms, depend-
ing on the type (opportunities, capabilities, products, technologies, etc.),
the particular context (industry, science, enterprise), and the time horizon
(short-term, midterm, long-term). This paper focuses on the Technology
Roadmaps, which display for a given enterprise the following three main
objects levels over a mid- to long-term time horizon: Innovation drivers,
Businesses, and Technologies (refer to Figure 1.14).
The level of Innovation drivers includes company-external and-internal
drivers influencing the planning activities within the roadmap as an initial
position. External innovation drivers are factors derived from the compa-
ny’s external environment; they can be formulated as market or customer
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 20 11/16/2010 6:05:51 PM

Time
Innovation
drivers
Businesses
Technologies
Figure 1.14 Generic concept of the strategic Business Roadmap
requirements or needs. Those requirements and needs are initiated for exam-
ple by changing legal regulations, by technology change, by competition,
by social trends, etc. Internal drivers often originate from the company’s
strategic goals, or from company internal constrains such as products release
politics, company strength or weaknesses, cost reduction goals, profit goals,
restructuring programs, etc.
The level of Businesses comprises the company’s strategic businesses and
in its sub-layers corresponding products and services to be delivered in
those businesses. Besides products and services this level can also include
as in additional sub-layers characteristics of the actual planned products or
service.
The third level is dedicated to Technologies. This level is subdivided into a
Technology Platform layer and an actual Technology sub-layers.
All the levels and their corresponding sublevels of the Roadmap, such as
the actual drivers, technologies, products, product characteristics as well
as the content of those level and layers themselves are not to be considered
isolated but only make sense when their alignment represents a holistic and
consistent strategic plan. This alignment is given through scheduling and
interrelating all three levels and their corresponding content in a way to
meet strategic goals within set timelines.
This being said, Roadmaps do not replace strategic analysis and strategic
goal setting. Before starting with Roadmapping, strategic goals must be clear,
else the Roadmap risks to sketch a plan that has nothing to do with strategic
management. As a matter of fact, strategic goals need to be included in the
Roadmap as company internal drivers.
Furthermore, the distinction between a project and a Roadmap is impor-
tant. Projects are highly specified activities, well defined in time, usually
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 21 11/16/2010 6:05:51 PM

over a shorter time period, and with a low level of uncertainty. Also the
content of a project may make sense when considered isolated from other
projects. Planning of projects is of an operational nature and follows the
rules of project management and controlling. BRM are however used as one
progress up the strategic hierarchy in terms of complexity and uncertainty.
Its content only makes sense when it is considered in alignment with itself
and with the whole strategic environment. Thus, a Roadmap is much more
than a mere scheduling tool; it rather supports strategic evaluation and
decision-making from a number of strategic options. These options can be
composed during the Roadmapping process or derived from the IA using
the Morphology Matrix.
The three main levels with its sub-layers of the BRM, as described above,
show major similarities to the levels described in the IA. As a matter of
fact, the Roadmap can be seen as one dynamic form of the IA. It is how-
ever used for a different end. The IA mainly focuses on a snapshot of a
present and future state in order to enhance its author’s creativity when
looking for innovations. It creates transparency of a company’s innovation
assets and shows the relationships between. The Roadmap aims at enhanc-
ing its authors planning and decision-making capabilities by showing the
dynamic relationship of its objects over time. This dynamic way of display-
ing the objects visualizes the strategic options of how planned goals can be
achieved and what needs to be decided about.
The following section will display a method of developing the BRM and
how the IA contributes to the latter.
Developing Business Roadmaps

This paper suggests a practice-proofed procedure to develop a Roadmap. It
is a method to develop the BRM in practice using the IA as a basis. The IA
taken as an example is the one of a company aiming to realize affordable
flying vehicles for individual mobility (Figure 1.15).
Taking the above IA as an initial position, the present section will describe
a step-by-step procedure to generate a BRM (Figure 1.16).
Step 0: Decide about the time horizon of the TRM. A meaningful plan-
ning horizon for a strategic TRM is mid-, to long-term rather than short-
term. Most often, this represents the time range necessary to implement a
technology and innovation strategy effectively. Depending on the indus-
try, the number of years of this planning horizon varies considerably.
Thus, we recommend adapting it individually according to the pace of
each industry.
Step 1: Customer segmentation and Innovation Drivers: Define the cus-
tomer segment for which you wish to sketch the Roadmap. A clear defini-
tion of such a segment is important because it sets the basis for the search
for Innovation Drivers. Discuss who are the key customers of this segment
and why. If there is an IA that covers the chosen market segment, data from
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 22 11/16/2010 6:05:51 PM

Current trend New trend Environmental

(New) protection Hedonism
innovation trends Increasing global
Current trend travels New trend
Short
(New) Current Current Current Long distance Green Mass
distance
businesses business business business flights mobility customization
flights
(New) product- Current Current Current Customized

systems-services product product product Green flight Easy flight
flight
(New) product Current

product function Secure stability Reuse materials Find directions Create image
functions
(New) technology Current Injection

Control Degradable Navigation Network Electronic
platforms technology molding
technology materials technology technology design
platform technology

Figure 1.15 Innovation Architecture as a snapshot of a current situation
Time
Today + 2 years + 5 years
External M&A at competitor Independent mobility Zero emission initiative Review of domestic regulations
Innovation
drivers
Internal New CTO Demonstrator IPO 2nd release

Businesses
Businesses Individual long distance travel Green mobility Mass customization
Products & Easy flight Green flight Customized flight

services
Navigation
characteristics
Intuitive navigation Easy landing Remote flying

Product
Reusable Reusable shell Emission control Reusable electronics
Style Designer look On-line design
Electronic design platform

Technology
platforms
Navigation technology platform Network technologies platform
Technologies
Flow technology FEM
Technologies
GPS Visualization technologies Wide scanning technologies
Digital measuring Com technologies
Resources / Cooperation: electronics maps

Other
New R&D center USA Additional capital
Figure 1.16 Generating a Business Roadmap
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 23 11/16/2010 6:05:51 PM

the level “Innovation Trend” can be used as sources for external drivers. In
general, also include the following aspects while looking for external driv-
ers: market changes, technology changes, competitor moves, cooperations
and alliances in the industry, competencies and financials, legal regulations,
industry norms, or environmental requirements. Usually competitors rep-
resent very strong external drivers. Thus, identify competitors and discuss
their competitive position. Doing so, it is important to stay focused on the
most important competitors and on the chosen market segment. Consider
strength and weaknesses of those competitors, and discuss which the strate-
gic implications of competitor moves for the segment are.
It can be very helpful to perform a SWOT analysis, or a short brainstorm-
ing session to identify further external and also internal drivers. Internal
drivers may result from company strength and weaknesses and from strate-
gic goals. List those entire drivers on a flipchart, group them meaningful,
and finally prioritize them. Include those drivers into the BRM, which are of
major impact for the company and for key customers of the segment in con-
sideration, schedule them according their prospected time of occurrence.
In the example shown in Figure 1.16, we transferred two external diverse
forms in the IA shown in Figure 1.15: the driver “Zero Emission Initiative”
is a derived from the trend “Environmental Protection,” and the driver
“Independent Mobility” from “Increasing global travel.”
Step 2: Defining product characteristics. Product characteristic are to
be selected so that they will be able to respond to internal and external
Innovation Drivers. We recommend defining three to four key characteris-
tics, such as in the example in Figure 1.16: Navigation, Reuse, and Style, and
to further look for specifications within those categories to schedule along
the BRM’s timeline. This scheduling should be designed to match product
characteristic’s specification with the innovation drivers. For the definition
of those key characteristics it is usually helpful to seek for inspiration from the
Innovation Architecture’s “Function level.” As described earlier, functions
constitute “translations” of customer needs without preempting technologi-
cal solutions. Thus, they give excellent hints about what are most essential
product characteristics. In the example of Figure 1.15 and Figure 1.16, the
function “Create image,” “Find Direction,” and “Reuse Material” from the
IA have been translated to key characteristics called “Navigation,” “Reuse,”
and “Style” in the Roadmap.
Further in this step, we suggest to thoroughly discussing risks, feasibility,
and costs necessary for the realization of the chosen product characteristics.
It is often helpful to evaluate the value added and the effect of each product
characteristic including its corresponding specifications with regards to its
respective driver, and the initial customer need behind the driver. A cost-
benefit analysis may be the right tools for this evaluation; it also supports
to identify which key characteristics having highest impact on drivers and
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 24 11/16/2010 6:05:52 PM

which have an effect on multiple drivers. Include those key characteristics

in the BRM, on the Business level’s Product Characteristics layer.
Step 3: Tag the businesses into the BRM according to schedule. Prior to
implementation of this third step, intensive discussions about strategic goals
of the company’s businesses and how/when to achieve them must already
be concluded. When including the businesses into the BRM, they should
be chosen and scheduled in a way to respond simultaneously the prior dis-
cussed strategic business goals, and to the Innovation Drivers. Again, as a
source of inspiration for the businesses to serve in the future, the IA will
certainly help. In example, the three businesses “Long distance Flights,”
“Green Mobility,” and “Mass Customization” have been adapted from the
IA to the BRM as is.
Step 4: Line up the product strategy. This step consists of discussing all
possible product strategies that satisfy at the same time the prior defined
product characteristics and the defined businesses. If discussions in the ear-
lier Steps 2 and 3 have been done thoroughly, usually the definition of the
product strategy can be regarded as a logical consequence. For the discus-
sion about the product design, it is often helpful to write down possible
product concepts in a simple “brochure like” language and make to simple
sketches on a flipchart for innovative product designs. These two simple
methods will enhance the discussions when performing this level as all
involved people will have a more concrete image of the products in discus-
sion. Further aspects to include into the discussion might be: the choice
about fundamental product strategy decisions such as “high-end” or “low-
end” product variants, product family concepts, and platform strategies, the
deadlines for prototypes, timelines for market introductions and for new
product generation releases, etc. In example, the three products “Green
Flight,” “Easy Flight,” and “Customized Flight” have been adapted from the
IA to the BRM as is.
Step 5: Schedule Technological solutions. This step comprises two major
tasks: first, identifying technological solutions, and second, evaluating
these solutions with regards to their contribution to realize all the product
characteristics decided upon in Step 2.
The ultimate goal is to create transparency about potential technology
developments or acquisition activities related to the decisions in the BRM
made so far. The identification of potential technological solutions goes
thus hand in hand with their assessment. The most important questions
to clarify during this assessment are: how suitable are the potential tech-
nologies for the realization of given product characteristics, how is the com-
pany’s own level of knowledge about them and how is the general level of
knowledge about them. These questions give an insight about the effort
and time necessary to accumulate or in-source the technologies in question.
Further discussions about the strategic importance of the technology with
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 25 11/16/2010 6:05:53 PM

regards to the chosen business strategy are also recommended. Such discus-
sion gives hints about the competitive advantage related to a given technol-
ogy, for example its potential to support a differentiation- or cost-leadership
strategy. Experience shows that this level of the BRM is most effectively
processed if only those technologies are included that are new to the com-
pany. Existing and already mastered technologies should not be specified
at this moment in time. Again, the Roadmap can benefit from the insights
already elaborated in the IA, they can be taken as an initial position for all
the discussions necessary in this step.
Step 6: Forming Technology Platforms. The formation of technology
platforms suggests analyzing once again the chosen technologies from the
previous step in order to group them into meaningful strategic entities.
The appointment of technology platforms should be done in alignment
with the strategic discussions from the previous step. Basically speaking,
technology platforms should be clustered according to the ambition of the
company to build up distinct competencies in a certain technology field,
and to be able to take advantage of the platform’s synergetic effects over
multiple business units.
Also, the thoughts and insight gained at the elaboration of the platforms
in the IA are usually a great help. The experience shows that the discus-
sion about the content of possible technology platforms in this step should
include both the new technologies to build up – those were discussed in the
previous step – as well as already existing and mastered technologies. It will
give the most complete image about possible platforms and their impact. It
is, however, still not recommended to include existing technologies in the
BRM, rather the detailed design of platforms should be subject to separated
discussions.
Most often, the identification and evaluation of technologies performed
in Step 5 and the decisions about the technology platforms in this current
Step 6 is an iterative and somewhat time consuming process.
Step 7: Planning implications for resources. Usually, planning activities in
the BRM over a mid- to long-term period will require major efforts at imple-
mentation. Thus, we also suggest including in the BRM the implications
for the company’s unit’s resources. Subjects to be discussed are typically:
addition capital or higher budgets that will be necessary, strategic alliances
in R&D, or in logistics, or the necessity to set up new project- and organiza-
tional structures.
Final step: Only after all the levels of the Roadmaps are properly elabo-
rated do we suggest beginning the linking of items of each level by con-
nectors and arrows showing their direct relationships over time. Doing so
means to definitely set and align market related milestone and development
related timelines. This last step of linking items usually brings great value
to the overall accuracy of BRM’s planning activities because all items are
usually critically reviewed and considered in an overall planning context
including all goals, activities, and timelines and handovers between levels.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 26 11/16/2010 6:05:53 PM

The BRM elaborated according to the above-described steps represents the

technology- and innovation-strategic plan. This strategic plan should not
be confused with the more operational project planning. Once the BRM is
completed concrete technology-, product-, business-, and market develop-
ment projects have to be derived, scheduled, and implemented according to
state of the art project management.
Practical applications in workshops

This section describes the major challenges encountered when practically
applying the BRM – typically in workshops – for strategic planning in a
company.
Getting started: For those who may want to start with a single application
of the BRM, a good occasion is the evaluation and planning of a specific
business opportunity. It is however more beneficial to develop and review a
Roadmap on a regular basis, for example for the periodical strategy update
in every business unit.
Being prepared: Preparations before the first introduction of the BRM
should include the following points: the clarification and communication
of the intention and the ultimate goal of introducing the BRM. This task is
best insured by one of the top managers involved in strategic planning who
has a clear self-interest in the BRM’s implementation.
Furthermore, the object of planning should be well defined and confined, so
that it is clear where to recruit the people from to involve in the BRM process.
Finally, the timeline necessary to develop the roadmap including development
procedure’s main steps should be well communicated to all participants.
Choosing the implementation method, and the people to involve:
Generally speaking, there are two different alternative implementation
Step: 1 Steps: 2, 3, 4 Steps: 5, 6, 7 Final step:

Strategy Generating the
and markets Businesses Technologies roadmap
Strategic analysis, Development of Identification and Setting milestones,

identification of business and evaluation of technological fixing product and
innovation drivers product strategies solutions and platforms; technology development
resources timelines
Workshop 1
Workshop 2
Workshop 3
Workshop 4
Figure 1.17 Elaborating a BRM in practice – the detailed workshop schedule
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 27 11/16/2010 6:05:53 PM

methods that proved to be most effective. They differ in the necessary time
and depth when to develop the BRM.
The first alternative showed best results in the case companies intro-
duced the BRM for the first time as a planning tool. It is the detailed and
more time-consuming workshop schedule shown in Figure 1.17. It allows a
diligent elaboration of the BRM in four different workshops, each of them
developing one of the three main levels of the BRM, and one additional
closing workshop in which the actual Roadmap is generated. For each work-
shop, half a day should be reserved for an interdisciplinary group of a maxi-
mum of ten people. It is emphasized here that it is most critical to compose
this group as an interdisciplinary team of people with different functional
backgrounds. Represented company functions should include R&D, market-
ing, sales, and finances. Such a group elaborating a TRM in an intersubjec-
tive way will realize the most accurate planning results. Best results can be
expected if the composition of the team is the same for all four workshops.
The four workshops should each be prepared, moderated, and revised by
an extra moderator with good communication skills and experience about
the BRM elaboration process.
All in all, the detailed workshop schedule for developing a BRM will take
about two to three months, depending on the time between the workshops.
Experience shows that most of this time is required between Workshop 1
and 2. This is due to the fact that usually the discussions about the basic
strategy in Workshop 1 will raise new open issues that had not been cov-
ered by the initial strategic analysis available at the workshop. The time till
Workshop 2 is thus the opportunity to do this additional strategic analy-
sis, as well as to prepare thoroughly for the development of the business
and product strategy in Workshop 2. More or less one month between each
workshop should be given.
Step: 1 Steps: 2, 3, 4 Steps: 5,6,7 Final Step:

Strategy Generating the
and markets Businesses Technologies roadmap
Strategic analysis, Development of Identification and Setting milestones,
identification of business and evaluation of fixing product and
innovation drivers product strategies technological solutions technology development
and platforms; timelines
resources
Preliminary talk
with executive
managers
Workshop 1
Workshop 2
Figure 1.18 Elaborating a BRM in practice – the time compressed schedule
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 28 11/16/2010 6:05:53 PM

Figure 1.18 shows the second alternative of scheduling and running

through workshops. This procedure will be more rapid to develop a Roadmap.
It is recommended if a company has already gathered some experience with
the BRM process, and in order to update an existing BRM.
Timesaving in this compressed schedule is realized above all by prelimi-
nary talks with executive management. They gather strategy related infor-
mation in a most direct and complete way before starting with the BRM
process as such. Usually these talks are done by concerted interviews; the
corresponding information is collected and reviewed by the moderator. This
way, usually all the information necessary to perform Steps 1 to 4 in one
single workshop can be brought together. At the same time, the generation
of the actual BRM is done as the information and decisions are available,
meaning the actual BRM is generated ongoing and not all together in a final
closing workshop. This is symbolized in Figure 1.18 by the arrows pulled
through to the Final Step. This way, the rapid schedule enables to deliver an
update of an existing BRM within about one month’s time.
Keeping the BRM alive: Once the BRM has been elaborated it is important
to keep it alive and up to date. Thus, at least two meetings per year should
be scheduled where the basic assumptions and decisions of the Roadmap
are critically reviewed and updated. A reliable method to keep the Roadmap
alive is to establish it not only as a planning tool, but also as a communica-
tion tool. For example, in one case we established the BRM – together with
the IA – as the two major communication and reporting tools for the peri-
odical R&D managers meeting with the company’s CTO. Each BU’s R&D
manager first reported their overall plans by using the BRM to show the
current planning status in their BU, and then broke down this image to the
different operational projects. This approach enabled the CTO to not only
review the projects within the various BUs, but also to more easily recog-
nize and initiate measures to align and synchronize strategic R&D activities
across BUs to foster synergies and leverage resource efficiency.
Business Model
The term “model” has its roots in the Latin word “modulus” with transla-
tions like “measure,” “scale,” and “pattern”. It is used in science and technol-
ogy – and even in philosophy – with hardly perceivable diversity. However
one meaning seems to prevail in many cases: “model” to refer to a physical or
conceptual construct of a particular reality. An example in the first case is a
tangible reconstruction of a bridge, downscaled by a factor of 100. A concep-
tual model, for example, is Niels Bohr’s atomic model, the “Bohr Model”. The
models in both cases represent simplifications of the reality in such a way
that on the one side essential characteristics of the reality are still present.
On the other side they allow investigating the model behavior in order to
come up with results which permit conclusions to be drawn for the reality.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 29 11/16/2010 6:05:54 PM

In the first case the model of the bridge can be exposed to varying wind
conditions in a wind tunnel and thus deliver results on how to avoid design
parameters – so-called resonance frequencies – which unavoidably would
cause the fate of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge on November 7, 1940. In the
second case the most primitive concept of the Bohr Model – a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons traveling on
an orbit around the nucleus – allowed nuclear physical calculations which
led to a confirmation of the so-called Rutherford formula which had been
known before only experimentally.
In a similar sense BMs are being created. They follow the purpose to visu-
alize graphically a company where the essential considered characteristics
are still preserved. The almost infinite number of existing and potential
BMs varies primarily in the choice of these characteristics.
The interest in investigating BMs can be exemplified, for example, with
reference to an MIT Sloan School publication which analyzes the BMs of
all 10,970 publicly traded companies in the US economy from 1998–2002
(Malone et al., 2006).
For the purpose of this article the BM suggested by Osterwalder (2004) has
been selected. In a first step four main areas which represent the essential
topics of managerial concern are identified (Osterwalder, 2004: 42):
● Product: What business the company is in, the products, and the value
propositions offered to the market.
● Customer interface: Who the company’s target customers are, how it
delivers their products and services, and how it builds a strong relation-
ship with them.
● Infrastructure management: How the company efficiently performs infra-
structural and logistical issues, with whom, and as what kind of network
enterprise.
● Financial aspects: What the revenue model is, cost structure, and the BM’s
sustainability are.
In a second step these main areas have been split into nine BM building
blocks which reflect a synthesis of the BM literature reviewed. They are pre-
sented in Figure 1.19.
Keeping the basic structure and their underlying reflections of the
BM as suggested by Osterwalder (2004) in mind, for the purpose of this
publication a generic structure has been developed which is presented
in Figure 1.20. On the one side it contains all the nine building blocks
according to Figure 1.19. On the other side, an additional four elements
have been built into the BM: The first element “competition” visualizes the
company in its competitive environment. Next is “Technologies”: This ele-
ment allows expressing essential core competences of strategic significance
for a technology driven company. Third is “Profitability”: This provides
information on the overall financial performance. And, finally, “Growth
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 30 11/16/2010 6:05:54 PM

Main areas Building blocks of Description

business model
A value proposition is an overall view of the company‘s bundle of products and
Product Value proposition services that are of value for the customer.
The target customer is a segment of customers a company wants to offer

Target customer value to.
Customer
Distribution channel A distribution channel is a means of getting in touch with the customer.
interface
The relationship describes the kind of link a company establishes between the
Relationship customer and itself.
The value configuration describes the arrangement of activities and resources

Value configuration that are necessary to create value for the customer.
Infrastructure The capability is the ability to execute a repeatable pattern of actions that is
Capability necessary in order to create value for the customer.
management
A partnership is a voluntarily initiated cooperative agreement between two or
Partnership more companies in order to create value for the customer.
The cost structure is the representation in money of all the means employed
Cost structure in the business model.
Financial
aspects The revenue model describes the way a company makes money through a
Revenue model variety of revenue flows.
Figure 1.19 The nine business model building blocks

Source: Osterwalder, 2004: 43.
Partnerships Competition Relationship
Value Value
Competences configuration proposition Channels Customers
Growth
Technologies Cost structure Profitability Revenue model potential
Figure 1.20 Generic structure of a business model

Source: Osterwalder, 2004: 43.
Potential”: This element illustrates the prospective business development

in coming years.
A practical example of this BM is illustrated in Figure 1.21. It concerns
a company by the name of Cerberus AG, the pioneer and world leading
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 31 11/16/2010 6:05:54 PM

Partnerships Competition Relationship

• Securitas • Contrafeu (Securitas) • Regular professional
(Alarmsystem) sales support
• Hochiki
• Nohmi Bosai (R&D) • Dialog via application
• University of Aachen • ADT / tyco, notifier laboratory
(Aerosol physics) • ABB • Newsletter for
• ETH Zurich • Dräger professionals
Competences
Value configuration Value proposition Channels Customers
• Cutting edge fire
• Longrange-oriented • Leading reliability of • Direct sales • Industrial companies
sensing technology
leadership fire sensing systems • Distributors • Services companies
expertise • Lead users included in • Worldwide unique: • OEM customers (hotels, hospitals)
• Market leadership product development false alarm warranty • Public infrastructures
experience • World’s leading fire • Building automation
• Longstanding customer • Specials (airplanes,
• Competitive mass investigation laboratory contractors
care ships)
production
Technologies Cost structure Profitability Revenue model Growth potential

• Ionization technology • HR: 29% • EBIT: 15% • System installations • Continued innovations
• Scattering light end user (prod. proc.
• Marketing: 18% • ROS: 7% • OEM deliveries service, BM)
technology
• Light beam technology • R&D: 10% • ROI: 15% • Service contracts • Asia, BRIC
• Temp.sensing tech. • Applied research: 1% • ROE: 11% • Patent royalties • “Smart home”
• Wireless transmission
Figure 1.21 Business Model example: Cerberus AG
enterprise in the field of early warning fire detection founded in 1941. Since
1998 this company belongs to Siemens and constitutes the core business of
the Buildings Technologies Division of Siemens.
In addition to the factual content, Figure 1.21 mirrors the exemplary role
of a BM presentation: To provide a descriptive and comprehensive overview
on how the company is “functioning.” At the same time it reflects a signifi-
cant principle of management communication: providing essential over-
view information on a single sheet of A4 paper, rather than many pages of
a long report.
From Innovation Architecture to Business Model
In this last part a summarizing procedure is described, which leads system-

atically from developing the IA, the ISM, and the BRM to the BM in five
steps (Figure 1.22):
Step 1 consists of generating the IA as described in further details above.
The outcome provides a variety of ideas on new products, systems, services,
and corresponding new businesses. These ideas are “plausible” in the sense
that they represent perspicuous matches of trends, needs, available knowl-
edge, and technologies. Being plausible does not yet mean being realistic in
a business sense. Therefore the “plausible” business ideas have to be ana-
lyzed in order to come up with “realistic” options for new businesses to be
subjected to a business decision.
This is the purpose of step 2. Lets assume that the designed IA has come
up with four prospective new businesses A-D (Figure 1.22). In order to
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 32 11/16/2010 6:05:55 PM

1 Generate innovation architecture 2 Evaluate new business options
Current trend New trend New business options
Current trend
(New) New trend
Current trend New trend (Classical)
A B C D Business
Strategic fit?
plan
•Strategy objectives?
•Technology fit?
(New) product-
Innovation strategy morphology •Product functional fit?
Current Current Current New New New
systems-services product product product product product product •Market fit?
Preferred innovation strategy •(Core) competences fit?
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 33
functions product function product function product function product function product function
Net present value?

platforms technology technology technology technology technology technology technology NPV Discounting
platform platform platform platform platform platform platform free cash flows
Current Current Current Current Current R

R
3 Take business decision 4 Develop business roadmap 5 Develop business model

Final business decision
B
D
C
Strategic fit High

Low
NPV
Figure 1.22 From Innovation Architecture to business model in five steps
11/16/2010 6:05:56 PM
take a selective entrepreneurial decision, a strategic and a financial ques-

tion have to be answered. To this end concrete ideas have to be developed
on how to realize the new business options. This requires first building up
appropriate strategies for each one of the prospective businesses. This can
be accomplished, for example, by way of using the presented SM. Its out-
come consists of a limited number of strategy options, among which the
“Preferred Innovation Strategy” is chosen. This provides the basis for a clas-
sical Business Plan (BP), which elaborates the financial consequences of all
operational activities required in order to realize a given business strategy.
It usually closes with a detailed business budget over, for example, the next
five years. Within this time frame the development of the Free Cash Flow
(FCF) is of particular interest.
The outcome of the BP together with the SM helps provide answers to
the two questions mentioned above. The strategic question addresses the
still open issue of whether or not the innovation strategy under considera-
tion does adequately fit the overall business strategy. Criteria which are of
influence in this context are the existence of realistic synergies between
already mastered and newly required technologies, product functions,
market positions, and core competences. In cases of high discrepancies a
risk/return analysis may reveal limits of business risks which can respon-
sibly be taken. The various criteria can be used in order to perform a
so-called Value Benefit Analysis (VBA). This in turn delivers a numeri-
cal Figure 1.22 which expresses the extent of the “Strategic Fit (SF).” The
elaboration of a VBA is a further example of a problem to be solved for
which a qualified group work is best suited in order to accomplish the
indispensible status of intersubjectivity.
A usual approach to answer the financial question follows the discounted
“Free Cash Flow Method” which delivers so-called Net Present Values (NPV)
as a widely used measure of financial attractiveness of projects of any kind.
In step 3, the estimates for the two values – for the extent of “Stategic
Fit” and NPV – are brought into a decision matrix. In the example given
in Figure 1.22, it turns out that the four new business options have quite
different positions in terms of strategic congruency and financial attrac-
tiveness. In this respect, the businesses A & C will no longer be considered.
However, the businesses B & D enjoy positions in the “good” corner of the
matrix and therefore justify being submitted for a final top management
decision.
In business reality, such final decisions are rarely taken by relying exclu-
sively on precise numerical data. Rather the – nonquantifiable – previous
business experience and, thus, the often referred to “gut feeling” finally tip
the scales. In the given example the top management opted for business D.
Steps 4 and 5 are straightforward: Developing the Roadmap and the BM
follows the final decision – in our case for Business D – according to the
guidelines given in Chapters 4 & 5.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 34 11/16/2010 6:05:57 PM

Managerial implications
● Developing innovation strategies for Strategic Business Units (SBUs) rep-
resents a managerial task which requires the integration of all entrepre-
neurial functions – without exception. Usually a corresponding process is
faced with intra-organizational cultural challenges, since each function,
such as marketing, finance, production, and R&D is focused on specific
views of products and services, which at first are impeding the finding of
a consensus.
● In order to cope with these inherent challenges, five managerial tools
can be used which are explicitly suited for working in groups in which all
functions are represented.
● The first tool – the Innovation Architecture (IA) – constitutes as systemic
as well as systematic procedure, which allows merging the function
related perspectives such as innovation fields, new societal and marketing
trends, emerging customer needs, new technologies, newly relevant sci-
entific knowledge in such a way, which results in – at first sight – plausible
ideas for new products, new services, and new businesses.
● The second tool – the Innovation Strategy Morphology (ISM) – allows in
a first step to discuss and display all conceivable strategic elements and
there specifications. For this discussion it is recommended to distinguish
between “strategic goals” and “strategic paths” in order to clearly differ-
entiate between strategic elements which are related to the next higher
hierarchical level (“strategic goals”) and those which represent the “space
of action” within which free decisions can be taken by the SBUs. In a
subsequent step, group discussions can again take place on meaningful
combinations of individual specifications of all strategic elements. Such
combinations represent concrete innovation strategy options which have
to be investigated further with respect to their business attractiveness.
● The result of this investigation is displayed in the third tool – The Business
Decision Matrix (BDM). It allows positioning each innovation strategy of
each business option developed in the IA according to values of the two
dimensions: Strategic Fit and NPV. These two values result from tradi-
tional business plan analysis. In this matrix, final management decisions
can be taken from business options located in the matrix corner with
high values for both variables.
● Having decided on a new business, it is required to consider its timely
realization. The appropriate tool is presented as the fourth tool – the
Business Roadmap (BRM). This tool displays the carefully reflected timely
synchronization of all individual business components such as financial
resources, newly required competences, technologies, and products in
order to enter the selected markets on time.
● The fifth tool – the Business Model (BM) – represents a quite popular way
to explain a business on one singular scheme.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 35 11/16/2010 6:05:57 PM

● In practice, the application of these tools is quite straightforward and

does not require lengthy explanations. Moreover they fulfill an unwrit-
ten principle of management communication: to present business ideas in
a self-explanatory form on one sheet of A4 paper.
● In addition, using these tools facilitates comparing and reporting differ-
ent business options across divisional boundaries.
Notes
1. Daily Yomiuri Shimbun October 13, 2007.
2. With the help of a web camera with a resolution of 300,000 pixels or more, the
computer recognizes three points of the eye: the inner corner of the eye, the inner
extremity of the eyebrow and the center of the pupil. For adjusting the system, the
user has to look at one of the 15 on-screen buttons for one second and blink and
to repeat this procedure for all 15 on-screen buttons.
Having finished the adjustment process, the program is ready to be used. In
operation the 15 on-screen buttons refer to 10 hiragana characters – a, ka, sa, ta,
na, ha, ka, ya, ra, wa – and five function keys such as the “enter” key. When a
user wants to input “u” in hiragana, for example, he gazes at the “a” button for
one second and blinks. The computer then shows the “a” column of the hiragana
syllabary – a, e, i, o, u. Looking now at the “u” button for one second and blink,
the “u” character will be displayed. Hiragana characters are finally converted into
Chinese characters by using a dedicated on-screen function key.
3. http://www.newkast.or.jp/english/projects/pro_nakamura.html.
References
Malone, T. W., Weill, P., Lai, R. K., D’Urso, V. T., Herman, G., Apel, Th. G., and
Woerner, St. L. (2006). Do Some Business Models Perform Better than Others?. Working
Paper: MIT Sloan School of Management.
Osterwalder, A. (2004). The Business Model Ontology – A Proposition in a Design
Science Approach. Doctoral Dissertation: Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales de
l’Université de Lausanne.
9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 36 11/16/2010 6:05:57 PM

2
Organization of International Market
Introduction: Can Cooperation
between Central Units and Local
Product Management Influence
Success?
Antje Baumgarten, Cornelius Herstatt, and
Claudia Fantapié Altobelli
Introduction
Developing consumer winning new products is quite a challenge for every

company, but even more for a multi national corporation (MNC). To take
advantage of synergies and cut costs they need to develop standardized
new products that can be launched homogeneously in as many markets
as possible. Executing its “path to growth programs” Unilever has reduced
its number of brands tremendously and wants to focus solely on so called
“leading brands” – strong brands which can be offered globally (Unilever,
2002). Following this strategy of developing standardized global products
the organization of international market introduction is more and more
centralized: for example, Unilever, Masterfoods, and GlaxoSmithKline have
founded “skunk works.” These are separate units, usually in a different loca-
tion, where a dedicated team is working centrally on innovation for the
European or global market (Murphy, 2003). Once the product and the launch
strategy are finalized, the central unit hands it over to the subsidiaries.
But in reality, consumers are not as homogenous as these central and
standardized approaches wish for. Culture, language, habits, and needs
are still pretty diverse across local markets. Quite often international mar-
ket introductions fail because diverse local consumer needs have not been
taken into account sufficiently. Since the knowledge about local consumer
needs lies within the subsidiaries, it is rather questionable if a central man-
agement of developing and introducing a new product without or just a late
local subsidiary involvement can fulfill local consumer needs sufficiently.
37
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 37 11/16/2010 6:06:03 PM

38 Baumgarten, Herstatt, and Fantapié Altobelli
But if the new product does not meet consumer needs it is doomed to fail.
In addition, a very late or even no involvement of local managers during the
process of an international market introduction can lead to acceptance and
coordination problems. In the worst case they can simply reject launching
the new product in their market.
Assuming that cooperation between the central unit and subsidiar-
ies would positively influence consumer need based international market
introduction of a new product and its local acceptance, the research objec-
tive of this study is to investigate whether cooperation with local subsidi-
aries can improve the success of centrally organized international market
introductions.
First we describe the process of international market introduction and
look more specifically into the definition and impact of cooperation. Based
on a set of hypotheses drawn from recent research we build a conceptual
research framework, which is validated by a quantitative survey. Based on the
survey results we will draw conclusions and give detailed recommendations
on how to improve cooperation in international market introduction.
Research framework
The objective of an international market introduction is a successful launch

of a new product. Thus, the international market introduction process sum-
marizes all strategic and tactical marketing planning and decision-making
processes describing how these processes have to be broken down into con-
sumer, competitor, and company related tasks (Call, 1997; Lach, 2001). The
company decision to develop and launch a new product marks the starting
point of this process. The end point is reached when all objectives that have
been set specifically for this market introduction are achieved (Figure 2.1).
International market introductions usually aim to launch a new product
globally in markets where a company is already present. Assuming that a
standardized and centralized approach is taken, it becomes evident that the
implementation of this process is a complex task. Just one single unit of the
MNC can hardly fulfill it. Therefore roles and responsibilities are usually
shared between central and local units. The central unit is responsible for
initiation of the process, steering, and control. Usually this central unit is
organized as European or global product management, innovation depart-
ment or lead country. At a local unit level the local product management of
the subsidiary usually assumes responsibility. But if roles and responsibili-
ties are shared, a fair amount of coordination and cooperation is required.
In general the term “cooperation” describes a common fulfillment of
a task within a company. It also describes the scope and intensity of this
common fulfillment (Schreyögg, 1999; Zentes, 1992). In the context of
innovation management cooperation is the common term to describe col-
laboration between different functional units, for example Pinto and Pinto
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 38 11/16/2010 6:06:04 PM

Organization of International Market Introduction 39
Decision to start international market introduction
Consumer needs Competition

Analysis
Strategic planning
Definition of
Definition of Definition of Definition of
launch
objectives target group positioning
date
Coordination
Planning
Feedback loop
Tactical planning
Communi-
Product Pricing Distribution
cation
strategy strategy strategy
strategy
Handover to Definition of
Implementation sales force launch budget
Control Measurement of development
Achievement of objectives
Figure 2.1 International market introduction process overview

Source: Sauter, 2001; Meffert and Bolz, 1998.
use cooperation to describe collaboration between R&D and Marketing

(Pinto and Pinto, 1990). Therefore, in the context of international market
introductions cooperation between a central and a local unit shall describe
the scope and intensity with which each task of the process is fulfilled by
both parties together.
Research on cooperation in international market introduction to date is
quite limited. Chryssochoidis and Wong have confirmed that a high degree
of cooperation is positively influencing timeliness of international mar-
ket introductions (Chryssochoidis and Wong, 1998). Further research has
shown that, in particular, communication between central and local units
is positively affecting new product acceptance by subsidiaries (Boutellier
and Lach, 2000; Goshal and Bartlett, 1988). Thus, we can assume that coop-
eration between the central unit and local product management could have
a positive effect on the success of international market introductions. All
local consumer information could be considered early in the development.
This would lead to improved timeliness, better acceptance of the new prod-
uct by the subsidiary, and probably higher acceptance by local consumers.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 39 11/16/2010 6:06:04 PM

Hence we assume a direct influence of the cooperation on the success of

international market introductions:
Hypothesis 1: Cooperation between the central unit and local product
management in terms of all tasks of international market introduction can
positively influence the success of international market introductions.
But cooperation could also influence success indirectly. Successful new
products are based on sufficient market knowledge. Assuming that an
increase of cooperation would lead to an increase of local market knowledge
by the central unit, this could lead to better target group definition, a more
focused positioning, and a more influential communication strategy, thus
to a better overall quality of all elements of the international market intro-
duction. Hence:
management in terms of all tasks of international market introductions
can positively influence the quality of elements of international market
introductions.
An indirect influence on success via the quality of the elements would be
given only, if the quality itself would have an impact on success. The influ-
ence of quality has been confirmed by a number of surveys, for example
Benedetto has proven that the quality of the marketing mix elements is
positively impacting the success of market introduction (Benedetto, 1999).
In this study we look specifically at the impact of the quality of the elements
of market introduction in an international context. Hence:
Hypothesis 3: The higher the quality of elements of international market
introductions, the higher the success of international market introductions.
A key problem of market introductions are changes made late in the proc-
ess. When the new product is designed, 90 percent of the costs required later
are agreed in this early phase. Therefore it is crucial that all information is
available and considered early on in the process. Any changes that have to
be made later on can lead to a cost increase and a delay of the launch. In
addition, if these required changes have to be made under time pressure,
this may lead to half-hearted solutions (Boutellier, Corsten, and Lach, 1997).
Especially when these changes have to be made after launch which can be
very expensive. Examples from the automotive industry show that calling
back cars from the market requires substantial payments of damages, can
lead to losses in image ratings and, more severely, lack of turnover (Boutellier
and Lach, 2000). An intense cooperation with local product management
could make sure that all required local information is taken into account
early on which may prevent costly changes later on in the process. Hence:
management in terms of all tasks of international market introductions can
reduce the degree of changes made after launch.
Thus cooperation could influence success of international market intro-
duction also indirectly via changes made after launch, but only if these
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 40 11/16/2010 6:06:05 PM

International
Quality of
market introduction
H2 elements of H3
international
Analysis
Analysis
market
Cooperation of introduction
Success of
central unit
Planning
Planning international
with local H6 market
product
introduction
management
Implementation
Implementation H4 Changes made to H5
elements after
launch
Control
Control
H1
Figure 2.2 Research framework
changes themselves would influence success negatively. For national market

introductions there is already evidence that successful new products have
shown less problems during production and after launch (Rothwell et al.,
1974; Rothwell, 1985). Hence we propose the following for international
market introductions:
Hypothesis 5: The fewer changes that are made to the elements of inter-
national market introductions after the launch, the higher likelihood of
success in international market introductions.
Yet the degree of changes made after the launch is probably influenced
by the quality of the elements. A high product quality will lead to a higher
acceptance rate by consumers and won’t require any changes and if the com-
munication mix is working, again no changes will be necessary. Hence:
Hypothesis 6: The higher the quality of the elements of international
market introductions, the fewer changes are made after launch.
These hypotheses represent our research framework enabling us to validate
the impact of cooperation between the central unit and local product man-
agement on the success of international market introduction (Figure 2.2).
Since every hypothesis needs to be examined for every task of the process
we have formulated sub-hypothesis respectively (see appendix).
Research methodology
Respondents and industry

To test our research framework we used a key informant sample of local prod-
uct managers at subsidiaries of MNCs in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.
We have chosen MNCs from the consumer goods industry only, first to
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 41 11/16/2010 6:06:05 PM

keep the sample homogenous to enable clear managerial recommendations

(Schröder, 1994) and secondly because this industry has been chosen for
research on NPD success factors just rarely (Haake et al., 2000).
The sample selection was based on the following criteria:
subsidiaries of MNC of the consumer goods industry

with a minimum turnover of 50 Mio. € to ensure a sufficient company
size, and
owning at least 3 foreign subsidiaries to qualify as a MNC.
In addition every subsidiary had to have its own local product manage-
ment that is involved in international market introductions.
Addresses were drawn from the company databases of Hoppenstedt and
Kompass, and member lists from the Swiss Society of Marketing, Society of
Companies Selling Cosmetics and Promarca. In total 211 subsidiaries meet-
ing these criteria were identified. Then every subsidiary was called to iden-
tify the name of its marketing director.
Data collection
In parallel a mail survey questionnaire was developed and pretested. Since
the total number of subsidiaries identified was quite low, we decided to mail
three questionnaires to each subsidiary in order to boost sample size. The
questionnaires were mailed to the local marketing director in March 2004
with a request to distribute it to his local product managers. Every local
product manager was asked to select the latest international market intro-
duction that he has been working on, but which has been initiated and
managed by a central unit (last incident method). In total, 51 question-
naires were returned, each of them representing a distinct international
market introduction.
Measures
Based on the research framework we first asked in general whether coop-
eration between the central unit and local product management took place
or not for each task of the process. If they were cooperating, we let the
local product manager evaluate intensity and quality of the cooperation
(Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967). Similar to Langerak, we used a five-point rat-
ing scale to measure the intensity of cooperation ranging from: one being
very low to five equalling very high. We also measure the quality of coop-
eration ranging from one being very bad to five being very good (Langerak
et al., 1997). The quality of elements was measured from one being very bad
to five being very good. Degree of changes made after launch was measured
with one being very small to five being very extensive. Finally, success of the
international market introduction was also evaluated on a five-point rating
scale ranging from one equalling a total failure to five being a big success.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 42 11/16/2010 6:06:05 PM

Results
Cooperation with local product management as direct success factor

First we looked at every single task of the process and divided the sample in a
group where a cooperation took place and a group where no cooperation was
practiced. A F-Test was performed to test both group for significant difference
Table 2.1 Correlation of quality of cooperation and success of international market

introductions
Correlation
coefficient, r (Quality Hypothesis
of cooperation and confirmed (9)
Hypothesis Task success) rejected (x)
Analysis
H1a Analysis of consumer 0.487** 9
needs
H1b Analysis of competition 0.406* 9
Strategic planning
H1c Definition of objectives 0.496** 9
H1d Definition of target 0.470** 9
group
H1e Definition of positioning 0.490** 9
H1f Definition of launch date 0.396** 9
Tactical planning
H1g Definition of product 0.596** 9
concept
H1h Definition of brand n.s. x
name
H1i Design of packaging n.s. x
H1j Definition of product n.s. x
range
H1k Definition of pricing 0.490** 9
strategy
H1l Definition of 0.383* 9
communication strategy
H1m Definition of n.s. x
distribution strategy
Implementation
H1n Hand over to sales force n.s. x
H1o Definition of launch n.s. x
budget
Control
H1p Measurement of 0.315* 9
development
* Significance at the 0.05 level.

** Significance at the 0.01 level.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 43 11/16/2010 6:06:05 PM

in terms of success of the international market introduction. Results showed

no significant differences, indicating that cooperation as such is not critical
for the ultimate success. This is probably caused by measuring cooperation
on a general level, rather than on its individual dimensions, for example the
number of visits made or number of e-mails exchanged. Even though where
a way of cooperation existed, for example some e-mails were exchanged, the
actual quality might have been quite low. Thus we postulate that intensity
and quality of cooperation significantly influence market success.
When cooperation took place we asked local product managers to evaluate
intensity and quality of cooperation. First we looked at the independence
of both dimensions via correlation analysis. The evaluation of intensity
and quality of cooperation showed a significantly positive correlation with
the exception of definition of brand name, product range, and distribution
strategy. Thus quality of cooperation is evaluated as very good if its intensity
was very high. Therefore we were focussing on quality of cooperation only
for testing our hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1 predicts a direct influence of cooperation on success. To
validate this hypothesis the degree of correlation between quality of coop-
eration and success of market introduction was measured. Correlation
shows significantly positive results for the majority of tasks (see Table 2.1).
Exceptions are definition of brand name, design of packaging, definition
of product range, definition of distribution mix, hand over to sales force,
and definition of launch budget. Hypothesis 1 can therefore be partly
confirmed.
These results show that quality of cooperation has a positive impact on
success for almost all tasks of international market introductions, but espe-
cially for tasks in the early phases of analysis and planning. In the later
phase of tactical planning, and especially in the phase of implementation,
there is almost no influence. Here local product management can probably
decide for itself about tasks and elements. Thus, these are already tailored to
local needs and cooperation with the central unit is not critical for success
anymore. Yet in the phase of control, cooperation becomes crucial again.
Here the central and local unit need to analyze together the new product
performance in the market and have to agree on adjustments needed.
Cooperation with local product management

as indirect success factor
In addition to the direct influence of cooperation on success we also wanted
to test the indirect influence. Based on Hypothesis 2 we looked at the cor-
relation of quality of cooperation on selected tasks and the quality of the
corresponding elements of international market introductions. As results
in Table 2.2 show, Hypothesis 2 can be partly confirmed. The analysis con-
firms that cooperation with local product management when defining the
positioning has a significantly positive influence on the positioning quality.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 44 11/16/2010 6:06:06 PM

Table 2.2 Correlation of quality of cooperation and quality of elements
Correlation Hypothesis
coefficient, r (Quality confirmed
of cooperation and (9) rejected
Hypothesis Task/Element quality of element) (x)
H2a Definition of target group n.s. x

H2b Definition of positioning 0.456** 9
H2c Definition of product n.s. x
strategy
H2d Definition of pricing 0.405* 9
strategy
H2e Definition of 0.328* 9
H2f Definition of distribution n.s. x
strategy

Table 2.3 Correlation of quality of elements and success of international market

introductions
Correlation coef- Hypothesis

ficient, r (Quality of confirmed
element and success of (9) rejected
Hypothesis Element market introduction) (x)
H3a Definition of target group 0.536** 9

H3b Definition of positioning 0.527** 9
H3c Definition of product 0.438** 9
strategy
H3d Definition of pricing 0.448** 9
strategy
H3e Definition of 0.492** 9
H3f Definition of distribution 0.529** 9
strategy

The same is true for pricing definition and communication strategy. Thus,
the quality of these strategies can be improved when the central and local
unit are cooperating. With regard to target group definition, we assume that
target groups are usually fixed – meaning there is a specific definition that
is not changing for every new market introduction. It is just a question of
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 45 11/16/2010 6:06:06 PM

selecting the right target group, which can probably be done by the cen-
tral unit without intense cooperation. The same is true for the distribution
strategy. In the consumer goods industry, distribution is handled via retail-
ers, but the retailer landscaped is quite fixed. Thus the distribution strategy
is basically fixed and can often be decided by the local product manage-
ment only – cooperation between central and local units is therefore not
required.
Again, any indirect influence of cooperation on success via the quality
of the elements would only exist if the quality itself had any influence on
success – as stated in Hypothesis 3. As shown in Table 2.3 we can report a
significantly positive correlation between the quality of elements of inter-
national market introductions and success. Thus Hypothesis 3 is confirmed:
The higher the quality of elements, the bigger the success of an interna-
tional market introduction.
Apart from the indirect influence of cooperation on success via the qual-
ity of elements, we proposed another indirect influence via changes made
after the launch. Based on Hypothesis 4 we assessed the influence of cooper-
ation with local product management on the degree of changes made after
the launch. As the results of the correlation analysis show, a significant cor-
relation between cooperation and degree of changes could not be measured
for any of the activities (Table 2.4). Thus Hypothesis 4 is being rejected.
However, an analysis of the means and standard deviation showed that the
degree of changes made after launch were only quite low.
Hypothesis 5 proposed that the fewer changes that made after launch, the
higher the success of international market introductions. We again applied
Table 2.4 Correlation of cooperation and degree of changes made after launch
Correlation coefficient, r Hypothesis

(Cooperation and degree confirmed
of changes made after (9) rejected
Hypothesis Task/Element launch) (x)

H4b Definition of positioning n.s x
strategy
H4d Definition of pricing n.s. x
strategy
H4e Definition of n.s. x
strategy

9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 46 11/16/2010 6:06:06 PM

correlation analysis to test the influence of the changes made on success

(Table 2.5). We can confirm a significant negative correlation only for the
pricing strategy, concluding that the fewer the changes made to pricing after
launch, the higher the success. However, the correlation coefficient is rather
Table 2.5 Correlation of degree of changes made after launch and success of
international market introductions
Correlation coefficient, r Hypothesis

(Degree of changes made confirmed (9)
Hypothesis Element after launch and success) rejected (x)
H5a Definition of target n.s. x

group
H5b Definition of n.s x
positioning
strategy
H5d Definition of pricing –0.256* 9
strategy
H5e Definition of n.s. x
communication
strategy
H5f Definition of n.s. x
distribution strategy

Table 2.6 Correlation of quality of elements and degree of changes made after
launch
Correlation coefficient, Hypothesis

r (Quality of elements confirmed
and degree of changes (9) rejected
Hypothesis Element made after launch) (x)

H6b Definition of positioning –0.305* 9
H6c Definition of product –0.297* 9
strategy
H6d Definition of pricing –0.422** 9
strategy
H6e Definition of –0.397** 9
strategy

9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 47 11/16/2010 6:06:06 PM

small, indicating a weak influence of pricing strategy. Thus, Hypothesis 5

is rejected.
Additionally, we wanted to look at the impact of the quality of elements of
international market introduction and changes made after the launch pro-
posing a positive impact in Hypothesis 6. Results confirmed that with the
exception of target group definition and distribution strategy, there is a sig-
nificant positive correlation between the quality of elements and the degree
of changes made (Table 2.6). Therefore it can be confirmed for the majority
of elements: the higher the quality, the lower is the degree of changes that
have to be made after launch. As explained earlier, target group definition
and distribution strategy are basically fixed, thus they won’t be changed
after the launch in general even if the product is doing very badly. Thus
Hypothesis 6 can partly be confirmed.
Assessment of additional success factors

In order to explain the degree of influence of cooperation on the success of
international market introductions we wanted to look more closely at two
additional factors of possible influence: participation in decision-making
and cultural-geographical distance.
Participation of employees has been identified as a critical success fac-
tor in implementing global marketing strategies (Belz, Müller, and Senn,
1999). Therefore we assume that cooperation itself might not be sufficient.
Probably it is equally important that local product management can actu-
ally participate in the decision-making process and can truly influence the
diverse tasks of an international market introduction.
Table 2.7 Influence of participation on success of international market introductions

(n=65)
Success of international market introduction

(Mean from 1–5)
Central unit Both Local product

Decision for ... were made by only together management only
Definition of target group* 3.1 3.7 3.9

Definition of positioning* 3.1 3.8 4.0
Definition of product strategy* 3.1 3.7 4.1
Definition of pricing strategy* 2.9 3.5 3.8
Definition of communication 2.7 3.6 3.7
strategy*
Definition of distribution 3.0 3.1 3.6
strategy
One-Way ANOVA, F-Test, *Significance p< 0.05.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 48 11/16/2010 6:06:07 PM

Thus we divided the cases into three groups: in the first group every deci-
sion was made by the central unit only, in the second group both central
unit and local product management were deciding together, and in the third
group decisions were made solely by local product management. We then
calculated mean scores for the success of the international market intro-
duction for each group individually and probed for significant differences
applying a F-test (Table 2.7).
The analysis shows that the mean scores of the success are significantly
different between the groups apart from the distribution strategy. Again,
the distribution strategy is basically fixed and therefore no joint decision-
making is required, but for all other elements it can be confirmed that
participation in decision-making significantly influences success. When
looking at the mean scores for success it becomes evident, that they are
lowest in the group where the decisions were made by the central unit only.
Success of international market introduction was higher when both units
together or the local product management only were deciding. Even though
we were asking only local product managers from the German speaking
area, we were evaluating international market introductions that could have
been initiated and managed in every country of the world. Looking at the
location of the central unit that was responsible for initiation and manage-
ment, almost one third of the evaluated international market introductions
was managed from Germany. In approximately 55 percent of the cases the
location of the central unit was in one or more of the European countries,
including France, the UK, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, Denmark, and Spain.
In about 15 percent of the cases the international market introduction was
managed from overseas, for example from the the US, Canada, and Japan.
Quite often cooperation is influenced by the cultural differences and geo-
graphical distances of the parties involved. Since Austria and Germany share
a common language and cultural background, it is probably easier to man-
age a market introduction for Austria centrally from Germany rather than
from Japan. Thus the cultural-geographical distance between the central
Table 2.8 Influence of cultural-geographical distance on success of international

market introductions (n=63)
Location of central unit
**International market introduction was In Europe Outside Europe
A high/very high success 61% 30%

A failure/total failure 7% 70%
Neither a success nor a failure 32% 0%
One-Way ANOVA, F-Test, **Significance p< 0.01.
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 49 11/16/2010 6:06:07 PM

unit and the local product management might as well have an influence on
the success of international market introductions.
To prove this assumption we divided the sample based on the location
of the central unit in one group where the market introduction was man-
aged from Europe and another group where it was managed from outside
Europe. Using a F-test we looked for significant difference between these
groups with regard to success. The results were positive (Table 2.8). The suc-
cess rate was significantly higher for the international market introductions
that were initiated and managed by a central unit located in Europe.
Therefore we can conclude that cultural-geographical distance between
the central unit and local product management significantly influences the
success of international market introductions.
Summary and conclusion
MNCs generally try to initiate and manage international market introduc-

tions centrally to use synergies and save cost. Yet this central and stand-
ardized approach requires a sharing of roles and responsibilities between
a central unit responsible for initiation and management of the interna-
tional market introduction and local product management responsible for
the actual launch of the new product in its local market. But this approach
bears the risk that local market needs are not taken into account sufficiently,
coordination problems arise, and rejection amongst local managers appears.
Quite often, this leads to an ultimate failure of the new product.
Based on these assumptions this study examined the impact of coopera-
tion with local product management on the success of international market
introductions initiated and managed centrally.
Survey results show that the simple act of cooperation itself is not influ-
encing success. But if cooperation takes place, then the quality of coopera-
tion is critical for the success of the international market introduction. The
quality of cooperation is impacting upon success directly but also indirectly.
The higher the quality of cooperation, the higher the quality of the ele-
ments of international market introduction are and this quality of elements
has a positive impact on success. Both the direct and the indirect influence
were confirmed for almost all tasks of the process, but especially for the ones
in the early phases. Therefore, the central unit should cooperate with local
product management right from the beginning. In addition, participation
of local product management in decision-making has also been identified
as a success factor of international market introductions. Thus, cooperation
with local product management alone is insufficient – local product man-
agement has to be able to take part in the decision-making process, too.
The success of international market introduction was also influenced by
the cultural-geographical distance between the central unit and local prod-
uct management: the higher the cultural-geographical distance the higher
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 50 11/16/2010 6:06:07 PM

the failure rate, probably because local market needs were not taken into
account sufficiently. The closer the central unit, the more likely they can
obtain local knowledge, but the higher the distance the more important
is it to use the local product management as a profound source of detailed
market knowledge.
Thus based on the research results we can give the following recommen-
dations for successful management of international market introduction:
The higher the cultural-geographical distance of the central unit, the
more it should cooperate with local product management;
When the central unit cooperates with local product management, the
cooperation needs to be of a high quality and take place without exception
for all tasks of the process;
Local product management should participate in all decisions with regards
to all elements of the international market introduction.
While this study has shed light on the influence of cooperation on suc-
cess in international market introduction of new products, some poten-
tial limitations exist. First of all the results are limited to the consumer
goods industry in the German speaking area. Further research might want
to expand the framework to other industries and include local subsidi-
aries across a range of different countries. With regard to the sample we
have to consider that the approach to boost sample size by sending three
questionnaires to each subsidiary bears the risk of distorting the sample,
because subsidiaries who send back three questionnaires are slightly over-
valued compared to those who send back only the one. Even though this
research has clearly identified cooperation with local product management
as a success factor of international market introductions we have to point
out that higher levels of cooperation lead to higher levels of coordination
required, for example more travel, more phone calls, more meetings, which
could impact success negatively. Probably an optimum exists and further
research should be looking into this. As a last word of caution we have to
highlight that successful management of international market introduc-
tions may not only focus on cooperation but has to consider all other suc-
cess factors as well.
● Globally active firms typically initiate and manage international product
market introductions centrally in order to use synergies and save costs.
Such a central and often standardized approach requires a well planned
and coordinated sharing of roles and responsibilities between the cen-
tral unit and the local product management in order to fully understand
local market needs and requirements and to avoid acceptance problems or
negative attitudes of local sales staff.
● Our research shows that cooperation as such among central and decentral,
local product management is often insufficient and does not automatically
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 51 11/16/2010 6:06:07 PM

lead to success. A successful market introduction is rather dependant upon

how cooperation is being managed (quality of communication, manage-
ment style, and timing, etc.).
● The higher the quality of these various elements and facets between cen-
tral and decentral units, the higher the likeliness of success of the market
introduction.
● Therefore the central unit should closely cooperate with the local product
management right from the beginning of market introduction project.
● Further close participation of local product management in the decision-
making process has a strong impact on the later success of an interna-
tional market introduction.
● Cultural distance is another important factor of influence: The higher the
cultural distance between the central and local units the more important
it becomes to use local knowledge as a source of information.
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Appendix
H1a Cooperation Analysis of consumer needs ... can positively

H1b between the Analysis of competition influence the
H1c central unit Definition of objectives success of
H1d and local Definition of target group international
H1e product Definition of positioning market
H1f management Definition of launch date introductions.
H1g in terms of ... Definition of product concept
H1h Definition of brand name
H1i Design of packaging
H1j Definition of product range
H1k Definition of pricing strategy
H1l Definition of communication strategy
H1m Definition of distribution strategy
H1n Hand over to sales force
H1o Definition of launch budget
H1p Measurement of development
H2a Cooperation Definition of target group ... can Target group

H2b between the Definition of positioning positively Positioning
H2c central unit Definition of product influence Product strategy
and local strategy the quality
H2d product Definition of pricing strategy of the ... Pricing strategy
H2e management Definition of communication Communication
in terms of ... strategy strategy
H2f Definition of distribution Distribution
strategy strategy
H3a The higher the Definition of target group ... the higher is
H3b quality of ... Definition of positioning the success of
H3c Definition of product strategy international
H3d Definition of pricing strategy market
H3e Definition of communication strategy introductions.
H3f Definition of distribution strategy
H4a Cooperation Definition of target group ... can lower Target group
H4b between the Definition of positioning the degree Positioning
H4c central unit Definition of product of changes Product strategy
and local strategy made to
H4d product Definition of pricing strategy the ... after Pricing strategy
H4e management Definition of communication launch. Communication
in terms of ... strategy strategy
strategy strategy
Continued
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 54 11/16/2010 6:06:07 PM

H5a The fewer Definition of target group ... the higher is the success
H5b changes are Definition of positioning of international market
H5c made to ... after Definition of product introductions.
launch. strategy
H5d Definition of pricing strategy
H5e Definition of communication
strategy
H5f Definition of distribution
strategy
H6a The higher the Definition of target group ... the fewer Target group
H6b quality of ... Definition of positioning changes Positioning
H6c Definition of product are made to Product strategy
strategy the ... after
H6d Definition of pricing strategy launch. Pricing strategy
H6e Definition of communication Communication
strategy strategy
strategy strategy
9780230_245907_03_cha02.indd 55 11/16/2010 6:06:08 PM

3
M&A and Innovation: The Role of
Relatedness between Target and
Acquirer
Bruno Cassiman, Massimo G. Colombo, and Larissa Rabbiosi
Introduction
The number and value of mergers and acquisitions1 (M&As) have continued
to increase over the last years, both in relative and absolute terms, mainly
due to a series of technological, economic, and political changes ranging
from the diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
to globalization of markets, liberalization, and privatization processes. In
addition, as global competition intensifies, innovation has become a more
crucial source of strategic competitive advantage. Within this context, over
the last decades there has been an upsurge of interest among scholars on
the importance of understanding the consequences of M&As on companies’
innovation strategies and performance (Ahuja and Katila, 2001; Capron,
1999; Hagedoorn and Duysters, 2000; Hall, 1990; Hitt et al., 1991). The
results are often conflicting and fail to find any robust evidence (for an
exhaustive survey, see Veugelers, 2006). These mixed findings are mainly
due to the fact that the total effect of an M&A on different measures of
innovation – inputs, outputs, and performance – can increase or decrease
depending on the forces that dominate the M&A. Therefore, it is very
important to identify specific characteristics of an M&A in order to analyze
its relationship with the post-deal innovation activity of the merging firm.
Furthermore, while initial conditions matter for the innovation outcome
of the M&A, we also argue that the management response during the post-
acquisition integration will affect the final outcome of the M&A.
In this chapter, we focus on horizontal M&As (that is M&As between
firms that operate in the same industries). Following the work of Cassiman
and Colombo (2006) we argue that among the above characteristics, relat-
edness between the acquiring and target firms figures prominently. In par-
ticular, following Cassiman et al. (2004) we contend that the impact of an
M&A on the innovative activity of the new merged entity depends on both
56
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 56 11/16/2010 6:06:12 PM

M&A and Innovation 57
technological relatedness and market relatedness. The former can be defined

as the degree of similarity between the merging firms in technological
resources, while the latter is the degree of similarity between the merging
firms in product markets, geographic markets, and customer base. In addi-
tion, social relatedness between the two firms, measured by the existence
of previous collaborative relations between them (that is supplier-customer
relations or other technology or non-technology collaborative relations) is
likely to influence the measurable impact of the M&A on the innovative
activities of the merged firm.
Within the next pages we classify M&As according to their market and
technological relatedness. Specifically, we identify three types of M&A com-
ing out from the interaction of both technological and market relatedness
and we compare the M&A’s impact on the innovation process across the
different M&A types. Then we analyze how premerger collaborative rela-
tionships between the target and acquiring companies might moderate this
impact. Finally, we present empirical evidence based on three in-depth case
studies that fit different M&A types and show how the expected innovation
outcome based on the initial relatedness conditions is enhanced by an appro-
priate response by management during the post-acquisition integration.
Direct and indirect impact of M&As on innovation:

the role of market and technological relatedness
As far as market relatedness is concerned, a distinction must be made

according to whether the acquiring and target firms are rivals or non-rivals.
Acquirer and target firms are considered as rivals when before the merger
they had the same product lines and operated in the same geographical
markets.
As mentioned before, M&As can also be categorized according to techno-
logical relatedness. Specifically, in several horizontal M&As merging firms
were active in overlapping R&D projects before the deal; these M&As are
assigned to the “same technology” category. In contrast with this case there
will be M&As in complementary technology fields: before the deal acquirer
and target firms were active in different technology fields but competences
and knowledge that they had developed can be transferred and combined
in the merging firm so as to obtain synergistic gains. Similar gains can be
obtained in M&As with merging firms that used to operate in the same
technological fields, but in different stages of the R&D process; accordingly
they are included in the “complementary technology” category.2
Following Cassiman and Colombo (2006), combining the above two clas-
sifications it is possible to define four M&A types, as indicated in Figure 3.1.
Quadrant I represents M&As that combine rival firms with overlapping
technology portfolio, while in Quadrant II there are M&As between acquirer
and target firms that were non-rival but had similar technological activities.
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 57 11/16/2010 6:06:13 PM

58 Cassiman, Colombo, and Rabbiosi
Quadrant III captures merging firms that were non-rival and active in com-
plementary technologies, while M&As between rival firms with comple-
mentary technology portfolios emerge in Quadrant IV. As the last scenario
is quite unlikely to occur, we consider the first three M&A types to investi-
gate the effects of M&As on innovation.
We start examining how technological relatedness may explain the effect
of an M&A on the innovative activities of the new merging firm. If the
target and acquiring firms had similar technological operations (column 1,
Figure 3.1) we would expect these operations to exhibit increasing returns
to scale, when they are combined. Moreover R&D rationalization through
the reduction or elimination of common inputs (that is R&D personnel or
R&D laboratories) for the production of innovative output, is likely to occur.
The possibility of exploiting similar competences could increase the scale of
the R&D projects, and R&D tasks between target and acquirer may become
more specialized with this leading to a productivity increase in the R&D
function.
However, it should be recognized that some diseconomies in the R&D
process might surface as the organization grows larger. In particular, it may
be difficult in large and bureaucratic R&D organizations to stimulate the
creativity of the R&D personnel. Moreover, R&D rationalization may be a
source of organizational turmoil in R&D laboratories, with the effort and
attention of scientists and technologists being diverted from productive
technological activities.
Considering the complementary technology category (column 2,
Figure 3.1), we would expect the acquirer and the target companies to be able
to share their competences and knowledge across different R&D projects.
In other words, one is likely to observe resource redeployment leading to
the creation of knowledge and capabilities that did not exist before. M&As
between firms with complementary technological specialization might be a
vehicle for the technological diversification of the merging firm. Therefore,
the latter could exploit economies of scope, increase R&D outputs, and
improve R&D performance.
Let us now turn the attention to market relatedness. In principle, an
horizontal M&A may engender an increase in output in so far as it signifi-
cantly increases the efficiency of the combined firm. In turn, the achieve-
ment of economies of scale and/or scope in production and/or distribution
activities will lead to increased post-merger R&D efficiency, as R&D fixed
costs are spread over more/different output. This effect applies to both rival
and non-rival firms. Nevertheless, a merger between rival firms will also
increase the market power in the output market of the merging firm lead-
ing to a reduction in output (and higher prices); whether this creates greater
or lower incentives to R&D investments is questionable (see Aghion et al.,
2005). However, if the merger creates barriers to entry in technology, we
would observe a reduction in competition in the technology market: for
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 58 11/16/2010 6:06:13 PM

instance, the elimination of a competing innovative product standard that

might lead to both lower R&D investments levels and lower R&D perform-
ance. Accordingly, the a priori predictions are that M&As between rivals
are likely to have a more negative (or less positive) effect on the R&D inputs
and outputs of the merging firm compared to M&As between non-rivals. In
addition, in the latter case we would expect less restructuring activities and
more exploration of new technological fields.
In general, market relatedness and technological relatedness are poten-
tially correlated.3 Therefore, in order to highlight the influence of techno-
logical relatedness on the R&D process of the merging firm, one should
focus attention on M&As between non-rival firms (Quadrants II and III in
Figure 3.1). We expect changes in the R&D process of the merging firm
to be more positive for firms in the complementary technology category
(Quadrant III) than when acquirers and targets are active in the same tech-
nologies (Quadrant II). In fact, in the latter case the organizational costs of
R&D rationalization may offset the benefits arising from R&D scale econo-
mies. Conversely, these costs are absent in the former situation when firms
benefit from the synergistic combination of complementary technological
capabilities. Similarly, the role of market relatedness can be isolated focus-
ing on the subset of firms that before the M&A had R&D operations in the
same technologies (Quadrant I vs. Quadrant II). In both situations, targets
and acquirers are likely to have overlapping R&D processes. Therefore, when
the aggregation of markets induces a larger output, the R&D activities of
the merging firm would benefit from economies of scale both through a
stronger specialization and elimination of duplication (that is a cut in R&D
personnel, termination of concurrent projects, closing of R&D facilities,
etc.). Nevertheless, as mentioned before, when firms are rivals, the greater
market power of the merging firm may hamper technological competitive-
ness, with detrimental effects on the R&D process.
The role of social relatedness

In addition to market and technological relatedness, we need to high-
light the importance of an other dimension for understanding the effects
of M&As on innovation: social relatedness. We mentioned above that the
alleged positive effects of a M&A on the innovation activity of the com-
bined entity may be jeopardized by the need for post-deal restructuring
and the associated organizational troubles. In this perspective, the pre-M&A
collaborative relations between acquirer and target firms play a key role in
facilitating the integration of the merging organizations and the exploita-
tion of the existing knowledge and competencies due to greater trust and
mutual understanding (Porrini, 2004).
In fact, high internal resistance to the organizational changes engendered
by the M&A can slow the decision-making process and damage the inno-
vation potential of the merging firm. When acquirer and target firms do
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 59 11/16/2010 6:06:13 PM

Technology
Same Complementary
QI QIV
R&D rationalization
R&D specialization
Rivals
Reduction of technological competition
Market
QII QIII
R&D rationalization Resource redeployment
R&D specialization New technological fields

Non-rivals
New technological competences
Figure 3.1 M&A classification based on technological and market relatedness

Source: Elaboration from Cassiman and Colombo, 2006.
not know each other before the deal agency problems (Jensen, 1986) are
more likely to influence the motivation of researchers at the new entity, in
turn negatively affecting R&D inputs and performance. As it was mentioned
before, post-merger organizational problems are expected to be more serious
for firms with the same rather than complementary technologies, as well as
for rivals rather than non-rivals firms. Therefore, prior collaborative rela-
tionships would play a prominent role for M&As especially in Quadrant I. In
this case, the fact that the partners had the opportunity to get to know each
other before the deal and to assess ex-ante the merging firms’ competencies
and their fit, would facilitate integration and ensure a more likely success of
the M&A (Gerpott, 1995).
Empirical evidence
In this section we briefly present three case studies of M&As in the chemi-
cal and pharmaceutical industries, based on interviews with firms’ high
level managers. The aim of the following analysis is to better explore the
process that explains the impact of M&As on the innovative activities of
the merging firm for different types of M&As.4 In addition we show how
managerial decisions during the post-acquisition process positively affected
the innovation outcome of the merger. The three cases cover the Quadrants
I–III of Figure 3.1, which is based on technological and market related-
ness. Specifically, the Novamax-Henkel and Solvay-BASF deals allow us to
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 60 11/16/2010 6:06:13 PM

investigate M&As between acquirer and target companies that were rivals
and non-rivals respectively, and were active in the same technological fields.
The DSM and Girst-Brocades case illustrates a deal between non-rival firms
that were active in complementary technological fields.5
The acquisition of Novamax by Henkel

In 1996 the German multinational company Henkel acquired Novamax,
a division of the Canadian Molson Group. Novamax was founded in 1988
and operated in the development of surface treatments for metals. At the
time of the deal, the Henkel Group was organized along the following prod-
uct divisions: Chemical Products, Metal Chemicals, Industrial Adhesives
and Technical Consumer Products, Cosmetics and Toiletries, Detergents/
Household Cleansers, and Industrial and Institutional Hygiene.
As to market relatedness, Novamax operated in the same metal chemical
business as Henkel, but had a different geographical focus. Although Henkel
dominated the surface technology industry, some competitors could have
threatened this dominance with the acquisition of an important player as
Novamax. Therefore, acquiring Novamax permitted Henkel to reduce the
probability of having a competitor much closer in size in this market. The
two firms operated with a common production technology and accordingly
we can place them in the same technology category.
As suggested by the arguments raised in the previous sections, market
relatedness created room for rationalizations in administration, sales, and
manufacturing. Specifically, three out of five Novamax manufacturing
plants were closed and the Novamax administration was shut down. Of the
top management team of Novamax, 50 percent was retained, 30 percent left
voluntarily, and the remainder was forced to leave Henkel after the acquisi-
tion. As a result of the technology overlapping, only Novamax R&D projects
complementary to those of Henkel were transferred to the Henkel R&D labs.
One of the two Novamax R&D labs was closed, about 10 percent of R&D
personnel was cut, and the remaining researchers were transferred to other
locations. About 2000 out of 3500 products resulting from the combined
portfolios of the acquirer and the target firm, were retained.
This rather radical rationalization may have created organizational trou-
bles, hampering the productivity of R&D. However, through the achieve-
ment of critical mass in technological fields already covered by the two
companies, R&D became more focussed on specific technological fields and
scientists more productive. A crucial aspect of the successful post-acquisition
restructuring was also the recognition by Henkel of the know-how of
Novamax and its well-organized R&D approach. For instance, Novamax was
fast and efficient in rolling out new products. After the acquisition, Henkel’s
Metal Chemicals Division attempted to assimilate the above capabilities,
and this integration effort played a prominent role in enhancing motivation
within the R&D personnel of the merging firm.
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 61 11/16/2010 6:06:14 PM

Finally, the combinations of markets allowed to improve the product line,

a renewed focus on the client played an impressive role in attracting new
clients, the increase of strengths in marketing and sales generated efficien-
cies. The merging firm was able to exploit potential economies of scale and
scope, and finally technological performance was not hurt.
The acquisition of BASF’s vinyl activities by Solvay

Solvin started to operate in 1999 as a joint venture between Solvay (75 per-
cent) and BASF (25 percent). Specifically, Solvay acquired the vinyl activities
of BASF and the two companies merged their competencies in polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) under Solvin. Solvay
is an international chemical and pharmaceutical group, headquartered in
Brussels (Belgium). The vinyl products represented approximately 45 per-
cent of the sales of the Plastics Sector before the merger. BASF was founded
in 1865 and at the time of the deal, its activities were divided into five
segments: chemicals, plastics and fibers, colorants and finishing products,
health and nutrition, oil and gas. The vinyl activities resorted under the
plastics and fibers operating division.
Solvay and BASF were active in the same business and in overlapping
geographical markets with a 15 percent and 5 percent market share,
respectively. Nevertheless, they were not direct competitors: BASF focused
more on larger firms, whereas Solvay targeted small and medium process-
ing companies. The product mix was also not really overlapping in the
sense that Solvay was more specialized in commodities and BASF more in
specialties.
In terms of technology relatedness, both companies were operating in the
same technological field. As a consequence, the merging firm exhibited the
expected increasing returns to scale, as well as a consequent R&D rationali-
zation through the reduction or elimination of common inputs. Specifically,
with the realization of Solvin, one BASF plant was closed, more than hun-
dred workers were dismissed, and both companies experienced a cut in R&D
personnel. For Solvay this cut amounted to approximately 20 percent, for
BASF it was larger (about 30 percent). Two BASF teams were transferred from
BASF to Solvin. Mainly on the BASF side nonconcurrent R&D programs were
terminated, while there were no concurrent R&D programs. After the deal,
the research consisted of one centrally managed team in Brussels.
Although a rather drastic rationalization process took place in both merg-
ing firms, Solvin increased its technological performance and enhanced the
efficiency of R&D operations. Since before the deal the vinyl business was a
tiny fraction of the activities of both BASF and Solvay, the creation of Solvin
radically increased the survival chances of the vinyl business for each of the
two companies. Accordingly, the focus on the new core business boosted the
motivation of the R&D personnel working on vinyls, and their technologi-
cal performance improved impressively. Finally, it is worth noting that with
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 62 11/16/2010 6:06:14 PM

the establishment of Solvin, it was also possible for both BASF and Solvay to
increase their total market share in this business.
The acquisition of Gist-Brocades by DSM

In 1998 DSM acquired Gist-Brocades, a group that at the time of the acquisi-
tion developed and manufactured intermediate products for the pharma-
ceutical and food industries. In particular, Gist-Brocades was the world’s
number one supplier of antibiotics. DSM was founded in 1902 as the Dutch
national mining company. However, this company has changed so much
over time, in the attempt to respond to the challenges and opportunities of
the economic and industrial world. As a result of this process, DMS devel-
oped know-how in the fields of value-added processes and products, par-
ticularly products for the pharmaceutical and the food industries, and of
high performance materials. At the time of the deal, DSM’s activities were
grouped into three clusters: Life Science Products, Performance Materials
and Polymers, and Industrial Chemicals.
Since the two companies operated in antibiotics or intermediates neces-
sary for the production of antibiotics with a different product mix, no hori-
zontal overlap in product markets existed before the acquisition. Moreover,
they served the same clients but with different products. Accordingly, the
two firms can be considered as non-rivals. For what concerns technological
relatedness, Gist-Brocades had strong positions in biotechnology – for exam-
ple in enzymatic routes and fermentation processes – and DSM in chemical
processes. Therefore, the two firms were active in complementary fields.
It should be noted that the two firms had previously entered into a 50/50
joint venture (Chemferm). The venture provided mutual access to the
research capabilities of Gist-Brocades and DSM on cephalosporins and other
pharmaceutical products, and allowed the two firms to deeply know each
other before the deal. This premerger collaboration enhanced the mutual
learning and the integration of the merging firms after the acquisition. The
prior experience in Chemferm facilitated the organization and management
of R&D through the combination of the best practices that existed before
within the two companies and the use of an ad hoc integration group.
Overall, it was a successful deal. The aggregation of the two non-rival mar-
kets – DSM became a leading company in antibiotics and also entered into
new activities such as food specialties – had a positive effects on DSM: 18
percent of sales growth and 13 percent of profit growth were attributed by
DSM’s top managers to the acquisition of Gist-Brocades. All corporate activi-
ties of Gist-Brocades were incorporated in DSM and synergies resulted in
total cost savings of approximately €45M. The fact that the two companies
were not direct competitors might explain why there was no need to ration-
alize production activities. The impact of the acquisition on the structure of
the R&D activities of the merging firm were limited. No R&D laboratories
were closed nor was there a cut of R&D personnel. The complementarity
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 63 11/16/2010 6:06:14 PM

in technological fields played an important role for the achievement of

the critical mass in enzymatic and fermentation processes. The exploita-
tion of synergies from the combination of knowledge and capabilities of
Gist-Brocades and DSM resulted in the development of new technological
competencies and the launch of new R&D programs. In both companies the
scope of R&D was broadened.
Conclusions
The aim of this chapter was to highlight how managers of large firms can
improve the technological strengths and innovative performance through
the acquisition of companies that operate in the same business (i.e. hori-
zontal M&As). In particular, we investigated the channels through which
M&As have impact on innovation. As suggested by the management lit-
erature, we developed our analysis based on the idea that the effects of
M&A on innovative activities are contingent on several moderating factors.
Specifically, we focused on different types of relatedness – market, techno-
logical, and social – in the pre-M&A situation of the merging companies
to understand the innovation potential of the new (post-M&A) entity. The
case study design allowed us to uncover how M&A market, technological
and social relatedness are linked to innovative inputs, outputs, and per-
formance. In particular, the three selected case studies offered detailed
information to characterize the specific dynamic mechanisms linking the
effects of M&A on innovation for the following typology of M&As: (1) rival
acquiring and target firms operating in the same technological fields, (2)
non-rival acquiring and target firms operating in the same technological
fields, (3) non-rival acquiring and target firms operating in complementary
technological fields.
We found that M&As between firms that have both complementary tech-
nological capabilities and a non overlapping product mix, geographic focus
or customer base, are likely to be especially beneficial. In fact, the merging
firm can take advantage of the synergistic gains that arise from the combi-
nation of the complementary capabilities possessed by the target and acquir-
ing company before the acquisition, while avoiding the organizational costs
inherent in R&D rationalization. Conversely, when firms have overlapping
technological portfolios the benefits of greater scale and specialization of
R&D operations must be traded-off against the costs of the reorganization
of R&D. In fact, organizational turmoil and voluntary abandonment of key
researchers might reduce the beneficial effects of economies of scale and/
or scope. It follows that under these circumstances an M&A may well have
negative effects on R&D, with this situation reducing the R&D perform-
ance of the combined firm below managers’ expectations. This effect is
exacerbated when the acquirer and target firms are rivals before the deal,
that is, they compete in the same product and geographic markets. In this
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 64 11/16/2010 6:06:14 PM

situation, the deal may create new barriers to entry and reduce technologi-
cal competition.
This study suffers from a number of limitations. Although we used a rich
set of indicators and information to capture changes in the R&D inputs,
outputs, performance, and organization in both the acquiring and acquired
firms, the fact that we considered only three cases has its own shortcom-
ings. The empirical evidence refers to specific industries (i.e. the chemical
and pharmaceutical industries) and the analyzed M&A deals were selected
by the firms’ managers according to general criteria, among which the most
important one was that the M&A had substantial effect on R&D. We consid-
ered only horizontal M&As and we did not include cases of hostile takeover.
In spite of these limitations, we believe that the study offers new insights on
the relationship between M&A and innovation. Accordingly, future works
that analyze large and representative samples of M&As should be strongly
encouraged in order to confirm our results in a multivariate analysis.
● This study showed that M&As with different characteristics have different
effects on the innovative activities of the post-M&A entity. In particular,
managers should take into account that the impact of an M&A on the
R&D activities of the merging firm is greatly affected by both appropriate
ex-ante selection of the target firm and careful management of the post-
M&A integration. The ex-ante selection will be important in driving the
potential synergies that can be realized within the M&A, and it is deter-
mined by the “relatedness” of the merging firms. This relatedness may
have several dimensions: technological; market; social.
● The Solvin and the Hankel-Novamax cases indicated that extensive
rationalization of R&D activities occurs when the pre-M&A firms are
technological related that is they operate in similar technological fields.
The rationalization process can be a source of organizational turmoil; it
can reduce employees’ motivation and increase the lost of key researchers
due to voluntary abandonment. Therefore, a negative effect on the inno-
vative performance of the merged entity is expected. However, managers
can influence these results if the post-integration process is properly man-
aged. Strong motivation of the R&D personnel through the diffusion of a
common culture and the perception of the M&A as a positive sum game
is crucial to smooth the rationalization process, thus positively affecting
R&D performance. Investing in greater communication and coordination
is also decisive. This was clearly a key strength of the creation of Solvin.
● Managerial action and careful attention to the integration process is even
more crucial when the negative effects of technological relatedness are
exacerbated by market relatedness. This is evident in the Hankel-Novamax
case: the decision of Henkel to adopt the market-based strategy of Novamax
9780230_245907_04_cha03.indd 65 11/16/2010 6:06:14 PM

efficiently motivated the employees and avoided the disruption of impor-

tant organizational routines. Accordingly, the adoption of superior best
practices and routines of the target firm might help the integration proc-
ess through the creation of a positive environment and mutual adapta-
tion, in spite of extensive rationalization of R&D operations.
● Our analysis also lend some support to the view that organizational prob-
lems that reduce the realization of potential synergies may be more easily
overcome if merging firms have previously established collaborative rela-
tions between each other. In this perspective, the existence of previous
collaborative links between the two parties of the M&A appears to play
a key role, as it reduces the information asymmetry that makes scout-
ing for the proper target difficult; it also facilitates the identification of
potential synergies of competencies and technologies between the two
merging firms.
Notes
1. In this work we use the term ‘merger’ and ‘acquisition’ as synonymous.
2. In principle, the target and acquiring companies may have unrelated R&D opera-
tions before the acquisition. As a matter of fact, this situation is unlikely to occur
in horizontal M&As. So it is not considered here.
3. The arguments that follow are based on Cassiman et al. (2005).
4. For further empirical evidence on this issue, see again Cassiman et al. (2005).
5. For a more detailed description of these case studies, see Cassiman et al. (2006).
References
Aghion, P., Bloom, N., Blundell, R., Griffith, R., and Howitt, P. (2005). “Competition
and Innovation: And Inverted -U Relationship.” The Quarterly Journals of Economics
(May): 701–28.
Ahuja, G. and Katila, R. (2001). “Technological Acquisitions and the Innovation
Performance of Acquiring Firms: A Longitudinal Study.” Strategic Management
Journal 22: 197–220.
Capron, L. (1999). “The Long-Term Performance of Horizontal Acquisitions.” Strategic
Management Journal 20: 987–1018.
Cassiman, B. and Colombo, M. G. (Eds) (2006). Mergers and Acquisitions: The Innovation
Impact. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Cassiman, B., Colombo, M. G., Garrone, P., and Veugelers, R. (2004). “The Impact of
M&a on the R&D Process. an Empirical Analysis of the Role of Technological and
Market Relatedness.” Research Policy 34: 195–220.
Gerpott, T. J. (1995). “Successful Integration of R&D Functions after Acquisitions: An
Exploratory Empirical Study.” R&D Management 25: 161–78.
Hagedoorn, J. and Duysters, G. (2000). The Effects of M&A on the Technological
Performance of Companies in High-Tech Environments. Working Paper: United
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Hall, B. H. (1990). “The Impact of Corporate Restructuring on Industrial Research
and Development.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Microeconomics: 85–124.
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Hitt, M. A., Hoskisson, R. E., Ireland, R. D., and Harrison, J. S. (1991). “Effects of
Acquisitions on R&D Inputs and Outputs.” Academy of Management Journal 34:
693–706.
Jensen, M. C. (1986). “Agency Costs of Free Cash Flow, Corporate Finance and Take-
Overs.” American Economic Review 76: 323–9.
Porrini, P. (2004). “Can a Previous Alliance between an Acquirer and a Target Affect
Acquisition Performance?.” Journal of Management 30: 545–62.
Veugelers, R. (2006). “Literature Review.” In B. Cassiman and M. G. Colombo (Eds),
Mergers and Acquisitions: The Innovation Impact. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar:
37–62.
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4
Revisiting the Firm’s R&D and
Technological Ecosystem – A Case
from a Large IT Firm
Thomas Durand
Introduction – What is an Ecosystem?
Any organizational entity with some strategic autonomy, typically a busi-

ness unit, has built a set of complex and intricate relationships with its
environment over the years. These relationships and exchanges nurture
the organizational unit, while the unit also feeds its partners in the envi-
ronment in return. The partners who are active in this set of relationships
constitute the Ecosystem in which the entity lives and tries to prosper.
These partners cover a wide range of players. They include the suppliers of
materials, components and services, the clients of the offerings of the unit,
distribution channels and vendors, complementary players in the value chain,
competitors who entered some form of collaboration with the unit, consulting
and engineering firms, designers or public research centers, professional asso-
ciations, professional bodies defining norms and standards, and so on. Some
of the partners may belong to the same legal entity as the focal organizational
unit or may be external to the overall organization around the unit at hand.
One may actually refine this definition of an Ecosystem by deciding
whether all partners, both external and internal to the mother organization
to which the unit belongs, should be included in the Ecosystem or whether
the concept of Ecosystem only applies to partners outside the “legal con-
tour” of the firm. As firms increasingly operate in networks, organizations
increasingly seem to adopt network-like structures, where the contour of
the legal entities is no longer the key base for strategy. Instead, organiza-
tional units in large companies tend to play their game of serving their
mother organization in unexpected ways, leveraging all sorts of connec-
tions with competent players regardless of who owns them. As this blurring
effect seems to be an important feature of recent developments in business
structures, especially in the context of large multinational corporations, we
shall adopt a rather extensive definition here: The Ecosystem encompasses
68
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 68 11/16/2010 6:06:21 PM

Revisiting R&D and Technological Ecosystem 69
all partners of the organizational unit, external and internal to the mother
organization. (for a typical ecosystem see Figure 4.1).
Through its daily activities, the unit keeps rebuilding and shaping its
Ecosystem. This is most often a tacit process, as the management of the
unit is not fully aware of shaping the overall architecture of the Ecosystem.
In fact, decisions to work with a partner are usually made on a case by case
basis to address a specific need when it arises.
The unit and its Ecosystem coevolve as they both influence and
nurture each other while being influenced and nurtured in return.
Yet, the unit aims at leveraging its Ecosystem strategically, to serve its
own goals.
As Reve (1990) puts it: “Strategy is about optimizing the combination
of a strategic core and a set of alliances, aimed at building a competitive
advantage.” From the perspective of an Ecosystem, strategy may be viewed
as managing dynamically the frontier of the unit interfacing with its part-
ners in the environment.
In this sense, there is no ideal Ecosystem. There are Ecosystems that more
or less fit to the strategic intent of a unit at a certain point in time. In fact,
a unit’s Ecosystem emerged over the year to solve issues encountered along
Environment
(All players in the
domain)
Ext
Ext Ecosystem of
Ext BU
Int
(Players
connected to BU)
Ext BU Int
Ext Int
Ext Ext
Ext
Figure 4.1 A typical Ecosystem of a business unit
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 69 11/16/2010 6:06:21 PM

70 Durand
the way. Most organizations haven’t consciously built their Ecosystems.

They have contributed to shape it, though indirectly, through a variety of
day-to-day decisions over the years.
New partners were searched for, selected, tried, retained, and maintained
through a continuous, most often unplanned process of scanning, nego-
tiation, socialization, and retention. In this sense, the Ecosystem is the
result of an emergent process. It was usually not designed and planned in a
rational way. It is a legacy of past activities and issues. Current partnerships
essentially result from past necessities.
This means that the Ecosystem may not fit the needs of the unit today
and, in a changing world, it is unlikely to be fully fit to the issues arising for
the future of the unit. Durand, 1992a and b; 1996a and b; 1998; 2001; 2003;
2004a and b; 2006; 2008; Durand and Stymne, 1991; Durand, Mounoud
and Ramanantsoa, 1996; Durand and Guerra-Vieira, 1997; Durand Farhi
and Brabant, 1997; Durand and Dubreuil, 2001; Gibbert and Durand, 2007;
Gonard and Durand, 1994; Kandel, Remy, Stein and Durand; 1991).
Why analyzing the Ecosystem?
As the Ecosystem may not fit the current and future needs of the business
unit, it makes a lot of sense to review the set of existing and past relation-
ships that the unit established with its environment. In turn the analysis
aims at adapting the Ecosystem to the anticipated needs:
● Are our current suppliers the best available? Are they world class?
● Do we recruit from the best sources of talents, with enough diversity of
profiles?
● Do we collaborate enough with our most demanding clients? Are they
among the “lead clients” in the industry?
● Are our organizational processes to work with partners from our Ecosystem
efficient, dependable, reliable, and fully under control? Do we get enough
from our partners?
● In what sense and to what extent is our Ecosystem relevant to help us face
the challenges that we anticipate for tomorrow? In what sense have our
competitors built an Ecosystem more efficient than ours and better fit to
the anticipated needs of our sector?
● Could we possibly identify a strategic positioning based on our Ecosystem
that would render our business model unique?
This set of questions can be captured in a set of criteria designed to assess

whether the Ecosystem is in fit with the needs of the unit, to what extent it
does and how. Table 4.1 below illustrates a typical list of criteria to assess an
Ecosystem and build an action plan to better leverage the existing Ecosystem
while targeting new potential partners to regenerate the Ecosystem in line
with current and future challenges.
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 70 11/16/2010 6:06:22 PM

Table 4.1 List of criteria to assess Ecosystem
Criteria to assess the Ecosystem
Input to competitive The Ecosystem provides a good access to external

intelligence sources of information and data
Source of innovation The Ecosystem provides a good access to sources of
ideas (world-class partners, innovative start-ups,
etc.)
Influence The Ecosystem helps influence the environment
(e.g. ability to prescribe a specific new technology)
Image The Ecosystem makes it possible to strengthen
the technological image of the unit (events, fairs,
symposia, etc.)
Cost optimization The Ecosystem helps cost cutting (subcontracting,
sharing added value steps, etc.)
Short term vs long term The Ecosystem makes it possible to strike a balance
between long term issues (Research partners,
scientific scouting) and short term matters
(technology transfer, applied R&D)
Geographical coverage The Ecosystem provides a wide geographical
coverage
Quality of internal network Quality and scope of relations with other internal
players in the organization: technology transfer,
shared projects ...
Quality of external network Quality and scope of relations with external
partners, in line with what the unit needs
IPR The rules of the game in the Ecosystem ensures
adequate IPR for the unit as well as for its partners
Strategic fit The Ecosystem is in line with the unit’s strategy
and serves its strategic needs
This is what we exemplify next in the case of the Ecosystem of a R&D unit
of a large firm in the business of information technologies (IT).
Analyzing the Ecosystem of an R&D department
This case is about an R&D department in a large IT company with activi-

ties in a variety of countries. The R&D unit is part of the R&D labs of the
company. It comprises about 100 staff working on a specific topic under the
theme of Cryptology in IT.
The case study presented here results from the use of a method requiring
seven steps to analyze the Ecosystem of an R&D unit, from the description
of the existing Ecosystem to the elaboration of an action plan aiming at bet-
ter leveraging and regenerating the Ecosystem of this R&D unit.
Step1: List all players which may be regarded as members of the unit’s
Ecosystem, cluster these into families of partners (subcontractors, clients
both internal and external to the mother Group, R&D partners, and so on),
assess the intensity of the working relation of each partner to the R&D unit,
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 71 11/16/2010 6:06:22 PM

= Partner or potential
partner (Firm, Lucent Checkpoint
Cryptolog
university, group BU Component VV V providers Symbian
or entities, …) (Firm 257, Firm 259, …) Net screen Cisco
Firm 322
= A community of Firm 59 Firm 34
partners (consortium, Competitor 1
normalization Competitor 2 Firm 33
Firm 70
teams, …) Firm 321
Firm 68 Firm 87
… = World-class players Firm SII Ericsson
(on the theme) / 241 Nokia
Firm 23 Firm 22
main entities Firm 214 Univ 49
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 72
Firm 212
Weak (microelect.) Firm 21 Texas instruments
Firm 256 Lab 37 Univ 54 Univ 154
connection
−
Firm 252 Univ 67 Univ 66 Univ 155
Medium to strong Firm 266
connection Firm 211
Univ (12 & 13)
−+
Firm 210
Subcontractors Partners Public funding for R&D
Group BU1 Group subs 1
Group BU2
+ RNRT RNTL
IST
Group BU3 Oppidum Eurescom
Group BU4 Group BU5 Internal clients DTL / SSR Professional
* R&D Unit A bodies Clubs
Group BU6 Group BU9 (Securite
)
Group BU7
OMA OSSIR
Group BU10 UIT
CLUSIF
Group BU8 JCP Liberty **
Group BU11 Group BU 12 ETSI IETF
3GPP
ISO Lobbying bodies
Internal Clients
Normalization
Group unit a clients
Group BU13
Group unit b RAID Eurocrypt Esorics
Technical assistance Cards
Contracts via BUs. (…, Group unit c (ex.: assessing algorithms …) Crypto RSA conf.
…) Other R&D
Fairs
,
Contracts via Dyyy (… departments in First Asiacrypt
Group unit d Corp
…) the group
R&D Expertise/Task force to contribute
to EU normalization processes
FSE CARDIS Infosec
Contracts via XXX Access to « external clients » XYZ Dxxx
(ex:…,…) Corp
via internal Group contacts Financial crypto
Contracts via other innovation Subsidiary Licensing out and patent selling
R&D units from the
Group Conferences
group Funding from
funding External Clients
operational divisions via Group BUs
Figure 4.2 Mapping of the Ecosystem
11/16/2010 6:06:22 PM
and use this to provide a mapping of the existing Ecosystem. This can be
done after a set of interviews with the heads of the R&D unit plus about two
or three two-hour group sessions to discuss draft mapping generated along
the way, in an iterative process. See the resulting mapping for this R&D unit
on Figure 4.2.
Step 2: List the “world-class” organizations which the R&D unit would
wish to have (or maintain) in its Ecosystem. Identify explicitly those who
are already part of the Ecosystem (and show these on the Ecosystem map-
ping – see the shaded items on Figure 4.2), those with which preliminary
contacts have been established and those with no contact yet. Specify which
specific competences these would bring to the unit, or in the case of clients,
the extent to which they may pull the unit ahead via lead requirements.
Map the external set of world class potential partners beyond the existing
Ecosystem, as shown on Figure 4.3 (where the entire Figure 4.2 was shrunk
into the inner circle identified as “Ecosystem of the unit”). Numbers on
Figure 4.3 indicate world-class players that the unit considers as potentially
interesting partners.
Step 3: List the networks of players throughout the field. Identify where
the unit is not related to some of the key clubs, clusters, and associations and
125
CNRS 134
93 81
CEA
… = Preliminary 1
contacts 42 21
… = World-class 2 61
72 73
21)
3
17
Additional
4 players
32 24
5 25
37
43
24
Low feasbility
45
-
High
feasibility Suppliers Partners
+
External Ecosystem
clients Professional bodies
of unit
Others
Internal clients
8
Figure 4.3 Mapping the external set of world-class potential partners
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 73 11/16/2010 6:06:23 PM

74 Durand
assess when this is an issue. (Part of this is shown under the “Professional
bodies” sector of Figure 4.2.)
Step 4: Conduct a similar analysis (Steps 1 to 3) for the major com-
petitors, thus generating mappings similar to those of Figures 4.2 and
4.3. Although not shown here, this was done for three major competi-
tors, based on readily available information complemented by an inter-
net search and some interviews. Although non exhaustive, these provide
important insights into the structure of competitors’ Ecosystems, their
differences, weaknesses, strengths, connections, and overlaps.
Step 5: Formulate a systematic diagnosis of the unit’s Ecosystem using the
set of criteria shown in Table 4.1. The results of the diagnosis can be reca-
pitulated as shown in Table 4.2.
Step 6: Identify the scientific, technological, and organizational compe-
tences (resources, capabilities, and know how) that the R&D unit has. Also
identify the scientific, technological, and organizational competences that
the unit needs given its objectives and its strategy. (The issue of granularity
in such an analysis of competence is not easy to cope with. It is a matter
of trial and error to reach the appropriate level of analysis for each specific
subtheme of competence) For each piece of competence, assess its stage in
the competence life cycle (emerging, pacing, key, basic, obsolete), the rela-
tive importance for the unit given its strategy, the level of expertise of the
unit on that competence. In addition, identify which players would be the
“best-in-class” on that piece of scientific, technological or organizational
competence. This leads to Table 4.3.
Table 4.2 Systematic diagnosis of the Ecosystem
Input to competitive ++ Good inputs via standardization bodies

intelligence
Source of innovation ++
Influence –/+ Lack of resources to lobby efficiently
Image –/+ Lack of staff to attend events where
visibility can be gained
Cost optimization + Cost optimization via specialized R&D
subcontracting and public R&D funding
Short term vs long term ++
Geographical coverage – Too narrow a focus (within home country
primarily)
Quality of internal network + Fairly well connected internally (despite a
few gaps).
Quality of external network –/+ Subcontractors are pushing to be treated
more as partners
IPR +
Strategic fit ? Strategy needs to be clarified
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 74 11/16/2010 6:06:23 PM

Table 4.3 Competences of the R&D unit
Relative Stage in Expertise

importance for competence level of the
unit’s strategy life cycle unit
L=low, Emerging, L=low,

M=medium, pacing, key, M=medium,
H=high basic, obsolete H=high Best in class
Competence A H Key HH Company S12

Competence B H Key HH Companies B
and F.
Competence C H Key H
Competence D H Key H Labs XX, YY
Competence E H Key H
Competence F H Key HH
Competence G M Key H
Competence H H Key H
Competence I H Key H
Competence J H Key H
Competence K H Key HH Firm VVV
Competence L H Pacing M
Competence M M Pacing M
Competence N H Key H
Competence O H basic H Subcontractor
GGG
Competence P H basic H
Competence Q L obsolete L
Competence R M pacing H
Competence S L key M
In addition, assess which of these competences are too strategic to

be developed in partnership with external partners, regardless of them
being part of the unit’s Ecosystem. Identify those competences where a
subcontractor may be invited to bear the competence development and
maintenance on behalf of the unit, based on specifications defined and
controlled by the unit. Identify those competences where it is accept-
able or inevitable to enter an alliance, thus inviting partners to contrib-
ute whether already part of the Ecosystem or not. Finally identify the
basic and obsolete competences, where there is no longer a potential for
any form of leadership or leverage to differentiate and build a techno-
logical strategic advantage of any sort as these pieces of competence are
widely available to all players in the industry. This leads to Figure 4.4
where competences A1, A2, A3, and so on, are sub-items of competence
A shown in Table 4.3.
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 75 11/16/2010 6:06:23 PM

76 Durand
Enter alliance
N1
rs
cto A7 N7 As
tra se
on s
bc A2 s
su A8 t
o
A5
e
F1-F5
bu
ak
M
y
J1-J8 N2
B1
B2
Mo
nit
SSO
J4
o
C5
r
Competence A1 C3
D
Competence A4
e
Mak
M
Competence B3 D9
Forge
Competence G8
E8
Competence H1
t
Competence H3 A3
Competence J2
Competence L
Figure 4.4 Competences map
Step 7: Draw from the analysis above an action plan to better leverage the
Ecosystem and to reshape it according to the current and future needs of
the unit. The aim is to cover the expected set of competence items where
the R&D unit may not be able to build enough competence on its own. On
the strategic front, identify new potential partners as targets, with explicit
expectations regarding the competence searched for via a potential coop-
eration. This will help those in charge of approaching these targets. On
the organizational front, revisit the process of interacting with members
of the Ecosystem to make the best out of cooperating. This is a matter of
both work process and attitude in the partnerships. Table 4.4 summarizes
the action plan developed in the case of this R&D unit of this large IT
Company.
Such an analysis conducted using the method summarized above via
the seven steps in fact requires limited time and resources. With the
exception of the benchmarking data of Step 4, most of the information
needed is readily available in the unit itself. It is thus mainly a mat-
ter of collecting the information, via a series of interviews and meet-
ing, plus compiling it into formats that can be directly used to discuss
concrete implications for the unit’s management. At the end of the
seven steps, the various mapping and tables generated provide a useful
insight into the Ecosystem of the unit and a concrete action plan to
work on transforming the Ecosystem so it’s a better fit for the strategic
needs of the unit.
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 76 11/16/2010 6:06:24 PM

Table 4.4 Action plan for R&D
Action / Project Objectives Status report
Improve / develop Mutualize competences and Some targets have

linkages to additional share costs been identified
university research
centers (, ...)
Enter partnerships with Mutualize competences and
private R&D / industry share costs
consortia (...)
Enter cooperative Mutualize competences and Preliminary contacts
research agreements share costs with two targets.
with labs from Promising.
noncompeting Firms
Find partners in sector Preliminary contacts
XXX with Firm T et Lab U
Improve how the Group Exploit potential synergies; To be launched
makes use of the R&D enhance technology transfer
unit’s competence across R&D labs within Group
Widen subcontracting Minimize costs First list of activities
scope to subcontract now
available
Enter discussions with Increase our influence via this Contacts ongoing
lead competitor to leading competitor
offer focused R&D
cooperation
Gain access to Avoid R&D costs and speed up
competence A5 access to competence
An Ecosystem tends to appear somehow naturally around the entity as

the unit interacts with players in its business environment. Along the
way, a variety of ties and linkages are formed which constitute the heart
of the Ecosystem. In most cases the Ecosystem was not designed with
a clear, organized strategic intent. Instead it resulted from the many
interactions with the environment developed over the years as the
unit encountered problems and needs that led to find out new external
partners.
● There is thus a need to revisit the Ecosystem of any unit in an organized

and systematic way to question the set of current partners in light of the
unit’s current and anticipated strategic needs. It is suggested to conduct
9780230_245907_05_cha04.indd 77 11/16/2010 6:06:24 PM

78 Durand
such a review of the ecosystem periodically, for example every two years
or so, for instance as part of the strategic review of the unit.
● The review is aimed at describing the existing Ecosystem, list the world-
class players which the unit would dream to be connected to, compare
with the Ecosystem of the main competing units outside, compare the
competence that the Ecosystem covers with the anticipated competence
needs for the unit, target the potential partners to gain access to, identify
ways to improve how the unit leverages its relationship to players from its
Ecosystem.
References
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Significance of Technological Change.” Research Policy 21(4), 361–80.
Durand, T. (1992). “The Dynamics of Cognitive Technological Maps.” In P. Lorange,
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Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers: 165–89.
Durand, T. (1996a). “Strategizing for Innovation: Competence Analysis in Assessing
Strategic Change.” In A. Heene and R. Sanchez (Eds), Competence-Based Strategic
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Durand, T. (1996b). “National Management of Technology and Innovation:
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O’Neal (Eds), Strategic Integration. Chichester: Wiley: SEITEN.
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H. Thomas, and D. O’Neal (Eds), Strategic Flexibility: Managing in a Turbulent
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in C. Cooper, C. Argyris, and B. Starbuck (Eds), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia for
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Durand, T. and Dubreuil, K. (2001). “Humanizing the Future: Science and Soft
Technologies.” Journal of Future Studies, Strategic Thinking and Policies 3(4): 285–95.
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Durand, T., Farhi, F., and Brabant, C. (1997). “Organising for Competitive Intelligence:
The Technology and Manufacturing Perspective.” In W. Bradford Ashton and R. A.
Klavans (Eds), Keeping Abreast of Science and Technology – Technical Intelligence for
Business. Colombus: Batelle Press: 189–212.
Durand, T. and Guerra-Vieira, S. (1997). “Competence-Based Strategies When Facing
Innovation. But What is Competence?.” In H. Thomas and D. O’Neal (Eds), Strategic
Discovery: Competing in New Arenas. Chichester: Wiley: 79–98.
Durand, T., Mounoud, E., and Ramanantsoa, B. (1996). “Uncovering Strategic
Assumptions: Understanding Managers’ Ability to Build Representations.” European
Management Journal 14(4): 389–98.
Durand, T. and Stymne, B. (1991). “Technology and Strategy in a Hitech Industry.”
In L. G. Mattson and B. Stymne (Eds), Corporate and Industry Strategies for Europe.
Adaptations to the European Single Market in a Global Industrial Environment.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishing: 193–215.
Gibbert, M. and Durand, T. (Eds) (2007). Strategic Networks: Learning to Compete.
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Gonard, T. and Durand, T. (1994). “Public Research / Industry Relationships:
Efficiency Conditions.” International Business Review 3(4): 469–89.
Kandel, N., Remy, J. P., Stein, C., and Durand, T. (1991). “Who’s Who in Technology:
Identifying Technological Competence within the Firm.” R&D Management 21(3):
215–28.
Reve, T. (1990). “The Firm as a Nexus of Internal and External Contracts.” In M. Aoki,
B. Gustafson and O.E. Williamson (Eds), The Firm as a Nexus of Treaties. London:
Sage: 133–61.
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Part II
Competence
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9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 82 11/16/2010 6:06:31 PM

5
Getting Value from Technology:
A Process Approach
Clare J. Farrukh, David Probert, and Robert Phaal
Introduction
Technology can represent a major source of competitive advantage and

growth for companies. However, integrating technological considerations
into business processes effectively is a complex task, requiring the consid-
eration of multiple functions (technical, marketing, finance, and human
resources). Technology, combined with highly motivated and properly
trained people, enables a business to respond rapidly to changing customer
demands and to access and develop new market opportunities.
The challenges associated with the management of technology are com-
pounded by a number of factors, including the increasing cost, complexity
and pace of technology advancement, the diversity of technology sources,
the globalization of competition and alliances, and the impact of informa-
tion technology. These challenges also represent a great opportunity for
organizations that can fully harness their technological potential.
To compete successfully, companies must assess their technology manage-
ment strategy and practice, and address how they:
Recognize technological opportunities and threats and convert them into

sales and profit.
Exploit existing technology by the effective translation of strategy into
operational performance.
Differentiate products using cost-effective technological product and proc-
ess solutions.
Identify and evaluate alternative and emerging technologies in the light
of company policy and strategy and their impact on the business and
society.
Reduce the risks inherent in new or unfamiliar technologies.
Harness technology that supports improvement in processes, information,
and other systems.
83
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 83 11/16/2010 6:06:31 PM

84 Farrukh, Probert, and Phaal
New technologies Company

technology
Technology generation base
Technology exploitation
€ Existing products and services
New products and services
Figure 5.1 Technology generation exploitation cycle
Decrease the “time to market” of new products and services through effective
identification and exploitation of technologies that provide competitive
advantage.
Protect and exploit intellectual property.
With reference to Figure 5.1, the following five questions must be answered
if the full potential of investment in technology is to be realized:
How do we exploit our technology assets?

How do we identify technology that will have a future impact on our
business?
How do we select technology for business benefit?
How should we acquire new technology?
How can we protect our technology assets?
These questions form the basis for developing a set of technology man-
agement processes in the firm, and are explored further in the following
sections, illustrated by case study examples.
How do we exploit our technology assets?
Process perspective
In the competitive marketplace, firms that utilize their technological assets
most effectively have a significant advantage. Continued exploitation and
renewal of the technology base is essential for long-term survival. The sys-
tems that support the delivery of products and services to the market need
to be clearly understood, in terms of how technology provides value to the
company and its customers – see Figure 5.2.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 84 11/16/2010 6:06:31 PM

Getting Value from Technology 85
Technologies Products
within the
company
and services
Figure 5.2 Technology exploitation process
Key issues to consider include
Management of the technology base.

Technology planning, including short- to medium-term forecasts of market
requirements and technological capabilities and trends.
Relationships within the customer-supplier network and with other exter-
nal sources (for example, standards-making bodies).
Communication channels and information flow.
Operations and resource management.
A clear understanding of the nature of the core technologies in the

company is required. How do these relate to the key skills and capabilities
of staff, products and services, markets and competitor activity?
The company should be aware of the many options available to exploit its
technology, including:
Selling or licensing its technology.

Joint ventures or collaboration.
Technology fusion, whereby existing technologies are combined in innova-
tive ways to provide new products or services.
Technology transfer processes (internal and external).
Improved business processes and organizational structures to support the
generation and exploitation of technological capability.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 85 11/16/2010 6:06:31 PM

Case study
This example illustrates how cross-business technological synergies were
identified and exploited in a large international electronics systems com-
pany. The corporation is organized into multiple business units, with
an overall turnover of approximately €5 billion, producing high-tech,
electronics-based products for a large number of applications in a wide vari-
ety of military and commercial markets.
A range of concurrent technology planning initiatives was being under-
taken within the organization, with the following aims:
Improving the exploitation of the technological synergies between the

various operating units and sharing of resources in key areas.
Improving technology planning in the context of the business / marketing
objectives of the firm, and more closely integrating the role of central
R&D facilities.
As part of this process, a simple matrix-based method was used to

develop a framework to link technological capabilities with business
objectives (Figure 5.3). This involved segmentation of the business in
terms of technology and business areas in a series of senior management
workshops. By ranking and assessing the impact of each technology area
on each business area, it was possible to identify core technology areas
which are of high value across several business units, and areas of mis-
match between value, effort, and risk. This has enabled the organization
to focus attention on, and investment in, key areas of common interest
and to achieve greater levels of coordination between historically inde-
pendent business units.
Technology areas
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Specific technology-
business interactions
B1
(value, effort, risk) of high
B2 significance are identified
Business areas
Comms Marine
B3
Electro-
Avionics B4
optics
Radar B5
systems
B6
Figure 5.3 Identifying opportunities for exploiting technology synergy
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 86 11/16/2010 6:06:32 PM

How do we identify technology which

will have a future impact on our business?
Process perspective
Maintenance and renewal of the technology base requires that processes
be in place for the identification of new technologies that are, or may in
the future be, important to the business – see Figure 5.4. This is becom-
ing an increasingly challenging task as the complexity and pace of tech-
nological change increase and the sources of technology become more
international.
Key issues to consider include
A thorough understanding of the nature and composition of the firm’s tech-

nology base, in relation to how these capabilities add value to its products
and services.
Access to appropriate external and internal networks and sources of
information.
Knowledge management systems and communication channels, to ensure
that the information is appropriately processed and disseminated.
Technology identification processes include a range of activities:
Systematic scanning of information sources, to develop an awareness of

existing and emerging technologies.
Technology and market foresight and forecasting processes, to support the
identification and appraisal of emerging technologies.
Monitoring of specific technical areas.
Ways of generating new ideas, to identify new product and process
opportunities.
Commun-
Collect Analyze
icate
Figure 5.4 Technology identification process
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 87 11/16/2010 6:06:33 PM

Technical benchmarking to develop an awareness of competitors’

capabilities.
Specific data collection in response to new requirements.
In many organizations, technology identification is undertaken on an ad

hoc basis, based on informal networks, attendance at trade fairs and confer-
ences, subscription to journals, contacts with suppliers, and so on. In addi-
tion to making this more systematic, the challenge is to develop appropriate
systems to collate and analyze the data collected, and to disseminate it effec-
tively throughout the organization.
Case study
This example illustrates how a national postal services organization identi-
fies new technology that will impact its operations. The transfer of technol-
ogy into the business has been assisted by pooling research and expertise
into one unit, the Research Group, which explores and identifies oppor-
tunities for cost reduction, efficiency improvement, and new products or
markets offered by technology.
The Research Group also helps the organization to develop an Innovation
Fund – a fast track, specially supported system which uses “ring fenced”
funding to launch new ideas and pilot projects.
Most of the Research Group’s work is focused on specific areas of iden-
tifiable business benefit, but it also consciously scans the world for any
technology that may be of use or interest. As part of this research, it came
across a revolutionary lighting technology suitable for large open areas,
such as mail sorting offices. The technology uses sulphur plasma excited
by microwaves to create “white” light, which is then distributed using a
“light pipe” that is 20 m long and 25 cm in diameter. To the organization, it
offered the potential of flicker-free, daylight spectrum lighting for its staff
to work under and reduced power consumption, with obvious benefits to
both running costs and the environment. An Innovation Fund proposal
was conceived.
The Innovation Fund requires that submissions have business spon-
sors within the organization who will, ultimately, take the idea into full
utilization if it is successful. End user units must also provide some of
the funds towards the pilot. In general, funding of between €30,000 and
€300,000 is provided for a pilot, although these limits can be extended if
necessary. In this case, the Facilities Manager for the organization spon-
sored the idea.
The Research Group facilitated a small team of interested people from
across the company, who took the project from concept to pilot installation
in a sorting office. This included visits to existing installations and the loan
of a prototype by the chosen supplier.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 88 11/16/2010 6:06:34 PM

The key points to take from this study are
Consciously scan outside the normal areas.

Ensure there is a mechanism to take good ideas forward.
Involve the final users of the technology from the start.
Keep the core team small.
The pilot installation was implemented and there was considerable enthu-
siasm for the technology within the business and it was expected to be used
on a much wider basis.
How do we select technology for business benefit?
Process perspective
Managers are commonly faced with difficult decisions about where to invest
scarce resources. In the long-term it is critical to select the best technologi-
cal option, as mistakes can be very costly by the time products and serv-
ices reach the marketplace. Technology investments must lead to increased
future revenues and profits which can be re-invested in the technology base
for long-term success.
The key issues in resource prioritization are
What are the decision criteria?

How is a visible and repeatable decision-making process achieved?
What are the strategic implications?
How do we compare with our competitors?
Selection of technology is a decision-making process (see Figure 5.5). It

requires an understanding of the technology requirements of the organi-
zation, product, service or project, together with the characteristics of
identified candidate technologies and any constraints that may affect the
selection process. Technology selection involves developing and evaluating
Evaluation of
Specification
technology
of criteria
options
Figure 5.5 Technology selection process
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 89 11/16/2010 6:06:34 PM

alternative solutions, choosing the best alternative, and considering the

most significant implementation factors.
Technology selection decisions can be categorized into two types:
Proactive selection decisions, as a response to future needs:
Technology forecasting (future investment in technology for the next

generation of products).
Technology portfolio analysis (current / future balance of technology for
the near future).
Reactive decision-making, as a response to specific current needs:
Current investments (project selection).

Urgent problem-solving (trouble-shooting).
Tackling these issues in a practical way can be difficult. Companies can

often identify a set of feasible options but find it difficult to prioritize
objectively, especially if there are important qualitative factors and scarce
resources.
Case study
This case shows how an aerospace company prioritizes its research and
development programs, as part of an overall technology management
system.
R&D within the military aircraft sector of industry is extremely diverse,
ranging from short-term demands to satisfy new operational require-
ments to very long-term ones to meet future defense needs. In the cur-
rent environment, the company (like many other firms) cannot resource
all the R&D that the business demands. It therefore looks towards inno-
vative ways of acquiring the technology that it needs through a mixture
of contracts, collaborations, and partnerships with both industry and
academia, in addition to its own internal R&D programs.
The company identified a need to develop an optimum process for the
relative valuation of R&D, to enable selection and prioritization of programs
and give maximum benefit to the military aircraft business. This enabled
the company to make robust decisions on where it should focus its own
funding for R&D, both long- and short-term, for the benefit of the business,
as part of a broader technology management system (Figure 5.6).
A portfolio approach was developed to represent the cost-to-benefit ratio
of each project, together with a measure of customer focus. This enables
resource allocation decisions to be clearly communicated (Figure 5.7). The
approach has been successfully applied for several years, leading to an inter-
nal business improvement award for the approach.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 90 11/16/2010 6:06:34 PM

Company business plan
R&T strategy
Project assumptions
Customer requirements
External funding Technology acquisition

Technology management
opportunity investigation plan
Fully costed aspirational

R&T program
Afford? Funding assumptions
Prioritization process
External funding Affordable

contract bids prioritized plan
Technology management
Figure 5.6 Technology management process framework, highlighting selection

process
How should we acquire new technology?

Process perspective
Organizations need to update and restock their technology base,
which can be depleted by obsolescence and diffusion of technology
(Figure 5.8). Specific business reasons for acquiring new technology
include:
Customers in a changing market demand new features in products or

services.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 91 11/16/2010 6:06:34 PM

Customer
focus
benefit
Technology
cost
Figure 5.7 Technology selection portfolio framework
Develop
Licence
Implementation Assimilation
Buy in
Collaborate
Figure 5.8 Technology acquisition process
External constraints (for example health and safety and environmental

legislation) may require the introduction of new products or services.
Increased competition may demand improvements in technological
performance.
Improved quality requirements may lead to the necessity for upgrading
manufacturing and testing equipment.
Pressures to reduce costs may require more efficient production processes.
Various routes are available for acquiring new technology, including

external purchase or transfer of technology (such as company acquisition,
machine purchase or licensing in technology), collaborative development
(for example, joint ventures, subcontracting development projects, or sup-
porting supplier technology development), and internal technology trans-
fer or R&D.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 92 11/16/2010 6:06:35 PM

Technology acquisition can be seen in terms of a general process:
The choice of route for acquiring the technology should be reviewed and
assessed.
Implementation of the chosen route should be managed so that the technol-
ogy is brought into the organization to meet required time, budget, and
performance level requirements.
Assimilation of the technology should be achieved to ensure that it becomes
a fully accepted and functioning part of the technology base of the
company.
Case study
This case summarizes how an industrial inkjet printing company acquired
a new technology to develop a new range of products.
Satisfying customer requirements for improved products is a key driver for
the acquisition of new technologies in manufacturing companies. The case
study company has been at the forefront of inkjet printing technology for
marking and coding systems for many years. The requirement from custom-
ers for cleaner, more reliable coding technologies encouraged the company
to investigate potential alternatives to serve existing markets and to open up
new market possibilities.
A systematic review of coding technologies was undertaken, leading to
the identification of lasers as a cleaner alternative. Lasers can mark many
materials directly, such as plastics or glass, where surface discoloration acts
as a mark. To survey the laser marketplace, guidance was sought from a
technical consultancy.
The company had a clear strategy for acquiring laser technology. As the
laser would be the main differentiating element in a product coding system,
the company required complete control over the design and manufacture of
the laser. Lasers were too expensive and not sufficiently developed for this
application to buy in ready-made. A program of R&D to produce a low-cost,
reliable laser for use in a coding system was therefore needed, unless a suit-
able development partner could be found.
A company in the US was identified which had laser design and manufac-
turing skills and which had developed a unique, fast, and robust marking
product. This company had good laser technology, technologists, and facili-
ties, but had suffered from poor marketing and was not profitable. Such a
company would provide the case study company with the technical laser
capability it needed to integrate into its next generation marking system.
A successful purchase of the company assets was made, ensuring that key
technical specialists were retained.
In addition to this, a key customer had identified a small laser marking
company in the UK that had developed a high-resolution laser marker. This
company was looking for a bigger company to work with in developing its
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 93 11/16/2010 6:06:36 PM

product. The US laser acquisition was made at the same time as develop-
ing an exclusive licensing partnership with this UK company. The high-
resolution marker was complementary to the US product but could use the
same laser technology.
There was initial concern that laser products would compete with existing
inkjet technology and replace this element of the business. However, it has
been realized that there was a new market waiting in anticipation for the
new product and that, far from competing, both technologies have comple-
mented each other.
How can we protect our technology base?
Process perspective
A key part of technology management is the maintenance of the technology
base. In addition to ensuring that technological resources are renewed, it is
important to minimize unplanned, transfer of technological assets out of
the organization. Protection of technology involves more than just patents
and intellectual property rights – it involves people and the knowledge and
skills they control, together with other issues such as site and computer
security.
Key questions include
Do you consider the protectability of the new technologies you are tak-
ing on? Are these issues included in the criteria for the selection of
technology?
Do you actively manage your technology base so that you are aware of obso-
lescence or the need for renewal?
Do you monitor and manage the technological expertise of staff and have
appropriate reward systems in place to minimize the risks associated with
staff turnover?
Technology protection can involve keeping ahead of competitors by iden-

tifying and appropriately securing your technology assets (defensive strat-
egy), or by keeping competitors behind by neutralizing the effects of their
defenses (proactive strategy).
Protection of technology should be considered systematically, in terms of
an ongoing process (Figure 5.9). The three main stages are
Assessment of protection need, including a review of existing and new tech-

nology assets in terms of their value to the company (now and in the
future).
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 94 11/16/2010 6:06:36 PM

d
ho
et
m
Im
on
ple
cti
m
ote
e nt
f pr
atio
o
Choice
n
Ass
essment of need
Figure 5.9 Technology protection process
Choice of protection routes, based on their suitability for the technology

and company.
Implementation and enforcement of the protection method.
Case study
This case study illustrates how technological knowledge is managed in a
large gas supply company.
Organizations such as this case study company are recognizing that a sig-
nificant part of their value lies in the knowledge that the company and its
employees possess, rather than just in its physical assets. This is particularly
true regarding knowledge of technology. The effective management of that
knowledge can lead to an enhancement in the performance of a company.
However, this can only be achieved by a change in culture and working
methods, whereby the creation and sharing of knowledge is both encour-
aged and rewarded.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 95 11/16/2010 6:06:36 PM

Technology project Technology

information reports
Technology Bank
Business unit
Technology technology
intelligence databases
External
Events
technology
calendar
databases
Staff skills & Visit

contacts reports
Figure 5.10 Technology Bank
The mission of the Knowledge Management Technologies team within

the company is to contribute to and to facilitate the optimization of the use
of their world-leading knowledge base in all aspects of gas technology. The
approach has been to work with the company businesses to define where
knowledge sharing, particularly in the field of technology, can enhance
their performance, and then to design and deliver information systems
which can realize that potential enhancement.
The development of a Technology Bank (Figure 5.10) is an example of
such an activity. The Technology Bank is maintained by Program Managers
within the company’s Technology group. Current and past technology
knowledge is captured in databases within the bank. This then provides
the company with the ability to share this knowledge worldwide between
virtual teams.
Highly advanced tools have also been developed to search for information
simultaneously across all of these and many other databases. Information
in the databases can be made visible to everybody within the company or
only to restricted groups of people, depending on its level of confidential-
ity. It is planned to extend this capability to the sharing of selected infor-
mation with partners outside the company.
This project moved from a development into a pilot phase. The pilot
involved users from around the world and will also involve changing the
way of working within the Technology group, so that as project infor-
mation is created it is automatically captured within the databases. The
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 96 11/16/2010 6:06:37 PM

project is just one example of the company’s move towards becoming a

knowledge-based company, enabling all the knowledge to be accessed
quickly and easily from anywhere in the world.
• There are five generic technology management processes which provide

a framework for understanding how technology management activities
relate to other business processes and to each other (Figure 5.11):
• Identification of technologies that are (or may become) of importance
to the business.
• Selection of technologies that should be supported by the
organization.
• Acquisition and assimilation of selected technologies.
• Exploitation of technologies to generate profit, or other benefits.
• Protection of knowledge and expertise embedded in products and
services.
• Effective technology management requires an integrated approach:
• Technology should be considered in the early stages of strategy formu-
lation and the links with other activities should be clearly understood
(that is marketing and other commercial functions, operations, human
resources, and finance).
• Mechanisms should be in place to ensure that technology strategies are
effectively implemented at the operational level.
• Technology management processes are often embedded in other busi-
ness processes. For instance, new technology is often acquired dur-
ing development projects. It is important to be aware of technology
Protection
Technology
Identification Selection Acquisition
base Exploitation €
Figure 5.11 Technology management process framework
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 97 11/16/2010 6:06:37 PM

management considerations that continue beyond the completion of

the project.
• The interdependence of technology management processes should be
understood, for instance, issues of technology protection are an impor-
tant consideration during technology identification and selection
processes.
• Technology management is a very broad subject, and there are many
particular areas of interest that require specific attention. For instance,
issues of innovation, knowledge management, competence, and per-
formance measurement are large subjects in themselves. The five-
process technology management model provides a framework for
understanding how these issues are linked.
References
Cetindamar, D., Phaal, R., and Probert, D. (2010). Technology Management – Activities
and Tools. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Farrukh, C.J.P., Phaal, R., and Probert, D.R. (2000). Technology Management Assessment
Procedure – a Guide for Supporting Technology Management in Business. London:
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
Farrukh, C., Fraser, P., Hadjidakis, D. Phaal, R., Probert, D., and Tainsh, D. (2004).
“Developing an Integrated Technology Management Process.” Research Technology
Farrukh, C.J.P., Phaal, R., Probert, D.R. Gregory, M., and Wright, J. (2000). “Developing
a Process for the Relative Valuation of R&D Programmes.” R&D Management 30(1):
43–53.
Gregory, M.J. (1995). “Technology Management – a Process Approach.” Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 209 (Part B): 347–56.
Phaal, R., Farrukh, C.J.P., and Probert, D.R. (2004). “A Framework for Supporting
the Management of Technological Knowledge.” International Journal of Technology
Phaal, R. and Farrukh, C.J.P. (2001). “Technology Management Process Assessment:
a Case Study.” International Journal of Operations and Production Management (Special
Issue on Process Research in Operations Management) 21 (8): 1116–32.
Probert, D.R., Phaal, R., and Farrukh, C.J.P. (2000). “Development of a Structured
Approach to Assessing Technology Management Practice.” Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers 214 (Part B): 313–21.
9780230_245907_06_cha05.indd 98 11/16/2010 6:06:38 PM

6
Successful New Product Development
by Optimizing Development Process
Effectiveness in Highly Regulated
Sectors: The Case of the Spanish
Medical Devices Sector
Annemien J.J. Pullen, Carmen Cabello-Medina,
Petra C. de Weerd-Nederhof, Klaasjan Visscher, and Aard J. Groen
Introduction
Innovation is a key driver of sustainable competitive advantage and one

of the key challenges for small- and medium-sized companies (SMEs)
(O’Regan et al., 2006). Therefore, SMEs need to remain active in new
product development (NPD). It is difficult for SMEs1 in regulated sectors
to development new products, because heavy regulatory involvement
imposes a number of difficulties on the NPD process. Products have to
meet these strict regulations in terms of quality, safety, functionality, and
manufacturability, which makes it difficult for SMEs to differentiate in
terms of the effectiveness of the product concepts. However, there are
big differences in the NPD performance of SMEs. Then, the questions are
(1) how do SMEs in regulated sectors distinguish themselves in terms of
innovation performance? And, (2) how can SMEs in regulated sectors be
successful in NPD?
During this research, the Spanish medical devices sector is used as an
illustration of a highly regulated sector. The medical devices develop-
ment process is characterized by a heavy regulatory involvement (Shaw,
1998). Companies in the medical devices sector are experiencing a need
to develop new products more rapidly to satisfy expanding and chang-
ing customer requirements in light of new technologies and intensifying
global competition (Millson and Wilemon, 2000). The ability of organi-
zations in the medical devices sector to develop and commercialize new
products fast is a major competitive advantage (Atun et al., 2002), as speed
is an important driver for NPD performance (Lynn et al., 1999; Calantone
99
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 99 11/16/2010 6:06:45 PM

100 Pullen, Cabello-Medina, de Weerd-Nederhof, Visscher, and Groen
and Di Benedetto, 2002; Takayama et al., 2002; Langerak and Hultink,

2005).
It is important to realize that in highly regulated sectors, such as the
medical development sector, the product concept effectiveness of all acting
companies almost per definition will be high, and variance in this per-
formance measure will be low. This is so because all (new) product (con-
cepts) have to comply with the same strict regulations. In these types of
sectors, and especially for the SMEs in it, the effectiveness of the NPD proc-
ess effectiveness stands a much better chance to make a difference. The
development process effectiveness represent a measurement of the current
NPD performance beyond the requirements imposed by regulations of the
sector. This means that it is to be expected that the SMEs we looked at
in the Spanish medical devices sector would try to achieve competitive
advantage in terms of speed, productivity, and flexibility of their product
development process, rather than in terms of manufacturability, function-
ality, and cost of the product concept, which would be comparable for all
players in the field.
According to DeWeerd-Nederhof et al. (2008) both the current and
future NPD performance are heavily influenced by the way the NPD func-
tion is organized (that is the NPD configuration). The organization of the
NPD function consists of the strategy, structure, climate, and process of
the NPD function (DeWeerd-Nederhof et al., 2007, 2008). Building on this,
and in light of the peculiarities faced by SMEs in highly regulated sectors,
we set out to search for a shared pattern in the organization of the NPD
function of Spanish SMEs in the medical devices sector, which can be
related to high NPD process effectiveness, and ultimately to outperform-
ing competitors.
Thus, our main research goals are first to explore differences in product
concept effectiveness and development process effectiveness among SMEs
in the Spanish medical devices sector, to see whether or not the current
NPD performance would indeed be mainly influenced by the development
process effectiveness; and second, to explore whether a shared pattern in
the organization of the NPD function can be recognized to affect current
NPD performance positively.
In the next section we first provide the theoretical framework on both
the current NPD performance, and the variables that are included in the
organizational configuration of the NPD function (NPD strategy, structure,
climate, and process (DeWeerd-Nederhof et al., 2007). Next we provide the
research design and methodology. We then present the research results
based on a structured survey among 11 SMEs in the Spanish medical devices
sector. The results are further illustrated by two real-life case descriptions. In
the discussion and conclusion results are further elaborated and managerial
implications are explicitly addressed.
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 100 11/16/2010 6:06:45 PM

Optimizing Development Process Effectiveness 101
Theoretical framework
NPD performance
The NPD performance consists of the product concept effectiveness on the
one hand, and the development process effectiveness on the other hand.
The product concept effectiveness is used to define how well a new prod-
uct concept fits with internal and external characteristics of the company.
Whereas the development process effectiveness concept is used to define
how effective the development process is executed (Brown and Eisenhardt,
1995). Figure 6.1 shows a schematic overview of the different constructs
that together build NPD performance.
The NPD performance is a dynamic concept that has both a short-term
and a long-term component. The short-term component is the Operational
Effectiveness and refers to the effectiveness of today’s work, whereas
NPD performance
Product concept Development process

effectiveness effectiveness
Fit with market Speed

demands
Fit with firm Flexibility

competences
Productivity
Figure 6.1 Schematic overview of the constructs that together build NPD
performance
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 101 11/16/2010 6:06:45 PM

the long-term component is the Strategic Flexibility which relates to the

readiness to adapt to, anticipate or even create future NPD performance
requirements (DeWeerd-Nederhof et al., 2008). For this research the focus
is on operational effectiveness as the aim is to measure the current NPD
performance.
Pettigrew and Whipp (1991) studied organizational change and differences
in NPD performance similarly using a content-context-process framework.
Content represents the objectives, purpose, and goals of the organization
(Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991). Context represents the environment of the
company, and process represents the product development process of the
organization. The content and context dimensions of Pettigrew and Whipp
(1991) can be linked to the product concept effectiveness of Brown and
Eisenhardt (1995), whereas the process that Pettigrew and Whipp (1991)
describe is similar to the development process effectiveness that Brown and
Eisenhardt (1995) describe.
Strict regulations are a unique characteristic of the medical devices
sector, and this heavy regulatory involvement characterizes the medical
devices development process (Shaw, 1998). The product concept effective-
ness is highly tied to this regulatory process, which makes it difficult for
companies to differentiate in terms of this dimension. Also, Pettigrew and
Whipp (1991) suggest that companies that operate in the same sector (like
in the medical devices sector) share environmental characteristics such
as regulations, dynamism, and fragmentation of the sector. The medi-
cal devices sector is similar to other industries in that SMEs dominate
the sector. Medical devices companies often don’t compete on price but
rather seek to deliver products with a good quality/price-ratio. However,
the processes these companies use to achieve their goals and develop new
medical devices do differ as does the organization of the NPD function of
these companies.
The current NPD performance of SMEs in the medical devices sector
varies greatly. Since the product concept effectiveness is heavily influ-
enced by the set regulations, we hypothesize that SMEs in the medical
devices sector emphasize on development process effectiveness rather
than on product concept effectiveness to achieve high NPD performance.
Takeuchi and Nonaka (1986) point this out by stating that the higher
the speed with which changes occur and the more the competence in
the field of NPD grows, the more firms must focus their processes on
speed and flexibility (Takeuchi and Nonaka, 1986). Furthermore the
framework of Pettigrew and Whipp (1991) indicates that the content and
context of companies in the medical devices sector does not differ, and
that they can only distinguish themselves in terms of the process. This
supports our previous assumption that companies can distinguish them-
selves more by focusing on development process effectiveness rather than
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 102 11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM

through product concept effectiveness, and leads to the investigation of

our proposition:
Proposition 1: SMEs in the medical devices sector focus on their develop-
ment process effectiveness rather than on their product concept effective-
ness to achieve high NPD performance.
Our study is focussing on the importance of development process effec-
tiveness as part of the current NPD performance. The NPD performance is
influenced by the way the NPD function is organized, also called the NPD
configuration. Contributing to sustained competitive advantage requires a
fit of the NPD configuration with the NPD system and between the NPD sys-
tem and its context (DeWeerd-Nederhof et al., 2007). The way the NPD func-
tion is organized affects both the development process effectiveness, and (to
a lesser extent as we proposed) the product concept effectiveness. Differences
in development process effectiveness therefore might be explained by the
difference in NPD configuration. This leads to the second proposition.
Proposition 2: SMEs in the medical devices sector that achieve high devel-
opment process effectiveness share a pattern in the organization of their
NPD function.
We utilize the concepts of NPD strategy, NPD structure, and NPD cli-
mate to further specify the organization of the NPD function (DeWeerd-
Nederhof et al., 2007). These concepts are further explained in the following
subsections.
NPD strategy
The NPD strategy of a firm can be defined as: “the aggregate pattern of
product introductions that emerge from the firm over time” (Firth and
Narayanan, 1996). The purpose of the new product strategy is to link the
products to the overall objectives of the firm and to assist in the search
for new products (Firth and Narayanan, 1996). SMEs with a clear strategy
perform better than SMEs that lack a clear strategy (Kargar and Parnell,
1996; O’Regan et al., 2006). Clark and Wheelwright (1993) identify three
orientations of the strategy; the technology strategy, the product strategy,
and the market strategy. The technology strategy refers to the acquiring,
developing, and applying of technology for competitive advantage. The
product strategy should contain a clear plan for the development of future
products. Finally the market strategy should focus on the question what
the target customers will be (Clark and Wheelwright, 1993).
Gatignon and Xuereb (1997) propose a similar typology of strategic ori-
entation (technology orientation, competitive orientation, and customer
orientation), and link this to the demand uncertainty in the market. In
the medical devices sector the hospital budgets heavily influence the buy-
ing behavior of the customers. This buying behavior is also strongly influ-
enced by informal communication between buyers. This causes demand
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 103 11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM

uncertainty in the medical devices sector (Biemans, 1989). When demand

uncertainty is high the strategic orientation should be a customer orienta-
tion (Gatignon and Xuereb, 1997). In the field of NPD in Spanish firms,
Varela and Benito (2005) find that firms that are market oriented get better
NPD results than those that do not use this strategic orientation.
Next to the strategic orientation, the project portfolio is an important
part of the NPD strategy (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992). Wheelwright
and Clark (1992) view NPD strategy as the project portfolio of an organiza-
tion. It must be clear which type projects are present in the organization.
Wheelwright and Clark (1992) distinguish between incremental projects
(derivative projects), radical projects (breakthrough projects), and plat-
form projects (between incremental and radical projects) (Wheelwright
and Clark, 1992; Gatignon et al., 2002). Incremental innovation projects
range from cost-reduced versions of existing products to add-ons or
enhancements for and existing production process (Wheelwright and
Clark, 1992). Radical innovation projects involve significant changes to
existing products and processes. It involves the development or appli-
cation of significant new technologies or products to markets that are
either nonexistent or require dramatic behavior changes to existing mar-
kets (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992; Feller et al., 2006).
NPD climate
The second aspect of the organization of the NPD function is the NPD cli-
mate. The climate is regarded as a conglomerate of attitudes, feelings, and
behaviors which characterizes life in the organization, and exists independ-
ently of the perceptions and understandings of the members of the organi-
zation (Ekvall, 1996). In order to operationalize climate we use the ten
climate dimensions of Ekvall (1996) that stimulate the NPD performance.
Cabra (1996) found problems with the challenge dimension by conduct-
ing factor analysis with North American samples. Later Isaksen and Lauer
(2002) found that the dynamism dimension was not discriminating. In this
research we use the dimensions proposed by Ekvall (1996), excluding the
dynamism dimension. In this research, a climate that stimulates innovation
(innovative climate) is a climate with high levels of “challenge, freedom,
idea support, trust, playfulness, debates, risk taking, and idea time” and a
low level of conflicts.
NPD structure
The third concept of the organization of the NPD function is the struc-
ture of the NPD function. This structure refers broadly to the structure
of project teams and the way the people in the NPD function are organ-
ized. This work is based on efforts of (Clark and Wheelwright, 1992) who
showed that effective product and process development requires teams
that integrate people with multiple specialized capabilities. These teams
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 104 11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM

are also referred to as cross-functional product development teams. Cross-

functional development teams have become increasingly important due
to complexities in the pace, diffusion, and the use of multiple technolo-
gies to solve customer problems (Walsh and Linton, 2001) as well as bur-
geoning global competition (McDonough III, 2000). This is also in line
with the research of Sosa et al. (2004) who state that complex product
development requires structuring the organization into groups of cross-
functional design teams to design systems and components, and with
the research of Cooper et al. (2004) who have identified the presence of
cross-functional teams as a common fact in organizations they rated as
best performers.
Clark and Wheelwright (1992) have characterized a number of struc-
tures for project teams. It depends on the environment, organization
size, and innovation type which project structure is best suitable (Clark
and Wheelwright, 1992). They distinguish between the functional, light-
weight, heavyweight and autonomous team structure. The team structure
that is used by the company needs to fit in the context. For new prod-
uct development in the medical devices sector it is very important that
all functional areas are involved in the development of a new product,
because of the rapid changes in technology and competition. However
it should be prevented that a project team gets carried away by its own
ideas and fails to meet regulations, or that senior management looses the
control over the team (which is likely to occur in the autonomous team
structure). Therefore we expect that the heavyweight team structure is
likely to be the most successful in the context of the medical devices sec-
tor. Also the success factors for cross-functional teams (McDonough III,
2000) can be found most clearly in the characteristics of the heavyweight
team structure.
Another aspect of the NPD structure is the formalization of the develop-
ment process (Griffin and Page, 1993). Formalization refers to the degree in
which the process is subject to rules, procedures, and structures previously
specified (Johne, 1984). Walsh and Dewar (1987) link the degree of formali-
zation with the organizational life cycle. They state that the more mature
the organization, the more formalized the processes are (Walsh and Dewar,
1987). For NPD, it is stated that companies with a formal development proc-
ess are more successful in the commercialization of new products (Booz and
Hamilton, 1982).
We investigate both propositions based on the above literature. The
next section describes the methodology we follow to: (1) investigate if
SMEs in the Spanish medical devices sector should focus on develop-
ment process effectiveness to achieve high innovation performance, (2)
explore if there is a pattern in the organization of the NPD function that
these companies share, and (3) what this organization of the NPD func-
tion looks like.
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 105 11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM

Methodology
We utilize a case based method as described by Yin (2003) and Eisenhardt

(1989). We leveraged the international Patterns in NPD project. This project
is aimed at developing knowledge in the NPD area, by describing, exploring,
and analyzing the organization of the innovation journey. We focus on the
population of Spanish SMEs in the medical devices sector.
Sampling process
Consistent with the case study method, we gathered data of a full popu-
lation in one specific sector, to reduce extraneous variation (Eisenhardt,
1989). Data was gathered in the Spanish medical devices and disposables
sector. The medical devices sector is the focus of this research because (1)
differences in innovation performance of the companies depend (due to
strict regulations) on management issues, and not on environmental or
product concept issues, and (2) innovative capability is in this sector of vital
importance (Atun et al. 2002). Data gathering took place in the spring of
2006.
Leveraging the Data Universal Numbering System (DUNS) database we
used the Spanish SIC codes (CNAE) 33100 and 33200 to identify a number
of organizations. A total of 109 companies were selected. These companies
were first screened on origin and number of employees. The companies
with CNAE 33200 were also screened on the fact whether they were active
in the medical devices sector or not. Companies with other origins than
Spanish, organizations with a total number of employees of five or less,
and organizations (with CNAE 33200) not active in the medical devices
sector were deleted from the list. Fifty-seven companies remained and were
contacted to find out whether they had an NPD function. From this 35
companies remained, of which 31 companies were interested in participat-
ing in the study.
Data description
To the NPD managers of the 31 companies that were interested in participat-
ing, a questionnaire about the organization and performance of the NPD
function was sent. This questionnaire was developed as part of the inter-
national “Patterns in NPD project.” We ended up with 12 completed ques-
tionnaires from companies in the Spanish medical devices sector, which
resulted in a response rate of 34,29 percent.
One of the cases was deleted from the sample, as the number of Full-
time Equivalents (FTE) of the particular company was 650 FTE whereas
the focus of this research is on small- and medium-sized companies (FTE ≤
250). This resulted in a dataset of N=11 companies, with which the propo-
sitions were further explored. Table 6.1 gives general information about
the companies in the dataset.
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 106 11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM

Table 6.1 General information of the companies in the dataset
Case# FTE Products Profit Sales Profit/FTE Sales/FTE
1 12 Interventional cardiology products € 113.004,31 € 4.000.000,00 € 9.417,03 € 333.333,33

2 120 Products based in three main lines: € 1.064.975,42 € 10.000.000,00 € 8.874,80 € 83.333,33
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 107
Infusion, Respiratory and Bandages
3 35 Solariums, professional equipment of € 124.263,70 € 7.000.000,00 € 3.550,39 € 200.000,00
aesthetic and aesthetic medicine
4 80 Four product groups: measuring, quality € 5.334.493,30 € 80.000.000,00 € 66.681,17 € 1.000.000,00
and metering, industrial electric
protection, and power factor protection
5 36 Prostheses and implants € 260.478,55 € 5.000.000,00 € 7.235,52 € 138.888,89
6 32 Female protection slips, female hygienic € 44.271,19 € 3.200.000,00 € 1.383,47 € 100.000,00
bandages, and children’s diapers
7 12 Orthopedic elastic products € 64.910,78 € 4.000.000,00 € 5.409,23 € 333.333,33
8 167 Medical disposables for neurosurgery and € 54.000.000,00 €– € 323.353,29
endosurgery
9 80 Wide range of single use and reusable lab € 72.800,98 € 18.000.000,00 € 910,01 € 225.000,00
ware for chemical, clinical, research,
and industrial testing laboratories,
swabs for sample collection and
transport of microbiological material,
sampling containers, blood collection
tubes, test tubes
10 49 Dental equipment and optical units € 683.275,34 € 9.600.000,00 € 13.944,39 € 195.918,37
11 60 Laboratory equipment € 765.986,92 € 18.000.000,00 € 12.766,45 € 300.000,00
11/16/2010 6:06:46 PM
Measurements
NPD performance is a dynamic concept. It is divided in the current NPD
performance (operational effectiveness) which refers to the effectiveness of
today’s work, and the future NPD performance (strategic flexibility) which
relates to the readiness to adapt to, anticipate or even create future require-
ments (see also Figure 6.1) (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1995; DeWeerd-Nederhof
et al., 2005). This research focuses on the current NPD performance, which
consists of the development process effectiveness, and the product concept
effectiveness. Table 6.2 shows the constructs and items that together form
the product concept effectiveness and the development process effective-
ness. Table 6.2 also shows the reliability of the constructs and the litera-
ture that was used to build the constructs. All items are measurement on a
7-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = Not at all achieved” to “7 = Very well
achieved.”
Current NPD performance is measured by using all the scales of the prod-
uct concept effectiveness and development process effectiveness. Product
concept effectiveness is measured as the average score of the constructs “fit
with market demands” and “fit with firm competences.” Development proc-
ess effectiveness is measured as the average of the constructs “speed,” “flex-
ibility,” and “productivity.”
We use the development process effectiveness to determine whether a
company is high or low performing. If the development process effective-
ness of the company is higher or equals the average development proc-
ess effectiveness of the dataset (which is 4,5), then the company is “high
performing.” Else the company is “low performing.” Table 6.3 shows the
scores on product concept effectiveness, and development process effec-
tiveness of the companies in the dataset. Table 6.3 also shows whether
the companies are high or low performing based on the above described
method.
The NPD climate was measured by asking the respondents to indicate
on a 7-point Likert scale to what extent employees have the freedom
to define their own work and to what extent there is time for people
to develop unplanned new ideas (Pullen et al., 2009). This measure-
ment of NPD climate is based on work by Isaksen and Lauer (2002), and
Ekvall (1996), who developed nine items to measure activities related to
the climate of the respondents’ NPD function. A climate that stimulates
innovation is a climate with high levels of “challenge, freedom, idea
support, trust, playfulness, debates, risk taking, and idea time” (Ekvall,
1996).
To measure the variable NPD structure, the team structure types of Clark
and Wheelwright (1992) were used. In the survey, respondents were asked to
indicate whether they use a functional, lightweight, heavyweight or auton-
omous team structure (Pullen et al., 2009).
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 108 11/16/2010 6:06:47 PM

Table 6.2 Overview and reliability statistics of the performance scale
Current NPD performance
Product concept effectiveness (pce) Development process effectiveness (NPDpe)
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 109
Fit with market Fit with firm
Construct demands competences Speed Flexibility Productivity
N of items 6 6 6 6 6
Measurement 7-point Likert scale 7-point Likert scale 7-point Likert scale 7-point Likert 7-point Likert scale
scale scale
Cronbach’s α = 0,788 α = 0,747 α = 0,893 α = 0,645 α = 0,778
alpha
Based on Customer R&D/ Speed relative to schedule Average time and The possibility for lower
satisfaction, Manufacturing (Kessler and Bierly, 2002) cost of redesign, development budget
timeliness, product integration (Swink, Development time (DT), enhancement (Iansiti, 1993)
price, quality (Chiesa 1999; Yam et al., concept to customer time (Chiesa et al., Cost relative to budget,
et al., 1996) 2004) (CTC), total time (TT) 1996; Thomke, competitors (Kessler and
(Griffin, 1997) 1997) Bierly, 2002)
Sales and profit R&D/Marketing
impact (Bretani and integration Speed and commitment of The ability to Engineering hours,
Kleinschmidt, 2004) (Leenders and the NPD decision-making change specs late cost of materials, cost
Wierenga, 2002) process, (Griffin and Page, (Thomke, 1997) of tooling (Clark and
1993) Wheelwright, 1993)
11/16/2010 6:06:47 PM
Table 6.3 Performance scores of the companies in the dataset
Product concept Development process High/ Low

Case # effectiveness effectiveness performing
1 5,9 2,5 Low

2 4,3 4,0 Low
3 4,0 4,1 Low
4 5,3 4,7 High
5 4,3 3,3 Low
6 4,8 4,5 High
7 5,3 5,3 High
8 6,4 5,1 High
9 5,7 4,9 High
10 6,1 5,9 High
11 4,8 4,7 High
Average 5,2 4,5
The level of formalization and presence of cross-functional teams was

measured by presenting multiple descriptions of development processes of a
business unit. Based on descriptions of the NPD system by Griffin and Page
(1993), the respondents were asked to indicate which development process
most closely describes the development process that is used in their business
unit (Pullen et al., 2009).
The strategic orientation was measured with a seven-point Likert scale
ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree.” Respondents
were asked to indicate the level of agreement with statements considering
the technology strategy, product strategy, and market strategy (Clark and
Wheelwright, 1993).
To measure a company’s NPD portfolio the respondent was asked to indi-
cate the percentage radical, incremental and next generation projects in the
portfolio (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992). The percentages had to sum up to
100 percent.
Data analysis techniques

For analysis of the data we first rely on a theoretical proposition (Yin, 1994).
We are interested in (1) the variance of both the product concept effec-
tiveness and the development process effectiveness, and (2) the organiza-
tion of the NPD function that the companies in our dataset possibly share.
The variances are calculated in the statistics program SPSS. We conducted a
structured survey in 11 SMEs in the medical devices sector. In line with the
methodological suggestions of Eisenhardt (1989) we made case summaries
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 110 11/16/2010 6:06:47 PM

Table 6.4 Single respondent bias results
Test statistics casestudy 1b Test statistics casestudy 2b
NPDmanager_1 NPDmanager_2
Minisurvey_1 Minisurvey_2
Z –,178a Z –1,244a
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) ,859 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) ,214
a. Based on positive ranks. a. Based on positive ranks.
b. Wilcoxon signed ranks test b. Wilcoxon signed ranks test
and analyzed each case individually. In addition to the structured survey,

we conducted 2 in-depth case studies: one in the highest performing com-
pany, and one in the one but lowest performing company of our dataset.
These case studies (1) show if there is single respondent bias or not (see next
paragraph), and (2) give background information and enlighten the results
we found with the structured survey.
Single respondent bias

One of the problems of response in survey research is single respondent
bias. We compensated this by controlling for single respondent bias. From
our dataset of 11 companies we selected two companies for case studies on
the climate variable. The companies were selected on their scores on devel-
opment process effectiveness and current NPD performance (highest scor-
ing company and lowest scoring company). Besides the full questionnaire
that was filled in by the NPD manager, at least five employees in both com-
panies filled in a mini survey that was solely focused on the NPD climate.
In this way we could compare the filled in answers of the NPD manager to
those of different employees in the company. For both cases we found no
significant difference (Sign. p> 0.00 for both cases) between the answers
of the NPD manager who filled in the full questionnaire and the answers
that were given by the employees in the mini surveys (see Table 6.4). This
excludes single respondent bias.
Results
We have presented two propositions which we tested. Our first proposition

was that SMEs in the medical devices sector focus on their development
process effectiveness rather than on their product concept effectiveness to
achieve high NPD performance. Table 6.5 shows the results of the variance
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 111 11/16/2010 6:06:47 PM

Table 6.5 Variances in product concept effectiveness (PCE) and

development process effectiveness (NPDpe)
N Mean Std. deviation Variance
PCE 11 5,1523 ,78841 ,622

NPDpe_real 11 4,4693 ,95286 ,908
Valid N (listwise) 11
in both the product concept effectiveness and the development process

effectiveness.
We calculated the variances in both concepts to see whether the scores
of the product concept effectiveness indeed vary less, or are more stable,
than the scores of the development process effectiveness. When the vari-
ance of the product concept effectiveness between the companies is low,
the product concept effectiveness is not the construct that makes it possible
for companies to distinguish themselves in terms of current NPD perform-
ance. Instead, the development process effectiveness is what distinguished
companies in terms of current NPD performance. It becomes apparent from
Table 6.5 that (1) the variance of the product concept effectiveness is low and
(2) the variance of the development process effectiveness is high (see Table
6.5). This indicates that the development process effectiveness is indeed the
variable that distinguishes between the NPD performances of SMEs.
Our second proposition was that SMEs in the medical devices sector
that achieve high development process effectiveness share a pattern in the
organization of their NPD function. We divided the dataset in high and
low performing companies based on the standards described and shown
in Table 6.3 in the measurements section. The case summaries in Table 6.6
show the organizational patterns of the NPD functions amongst the high
performers and amongst the low performers.
At first glance, the case summaries in Table 6.6 show a lot of variety in
the organization of the NPD function. However, when taking a closer look,
a number of patterns in the organization of the NPD function become
apparent.
NPD strategy
A first pattern can be found in the project portfolio of the companies. The
high performing companies focus in general on incremental innovation
projects, whereas the low performing companies focus more on radical
innovation projects. This might be explained by the highly regulated sec-
tors in which these companies operate. The NPDs must meet fixed stand-
ards which leaves little room for radical innovations. It is safer to focus
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 112 11/16/2010 6:06:47 PM

Table 6.6 Case summaries of the internal organization of the companies in the dataset
Development
process Team_
effectiveness Case# Portfolio structure Formalization Climate
Low 1 Main focus Heavyweight No formalized No

on radical team structure process innovative
innovation climate
5 Main Heavyweight No formalized No
focus on team structure process innovative
incremental climate
innovation
2 Main focus Heavyweight Formalized Innovative
on radical team structure process climate
innovation
3 Main focus Functional team No formalized No
on radical structure process innovative
innovation climate
High 6 Main focus Heavyweight No formalized Innovative
on radical team structure process climate
innovation
11 Main Functional team No formalized Innovative
focus on structure process climate
incremental
innovation
4 Main Functional team No formalized Innovative
focus on structure process climate
incremental
innovation
9 Main Functional team No formalized No
focus on structure process innovative
incremental climate
innovation
8 Main Heavyweight No formalized Innovative
focus on team structure process climate
incremental
innovation
7 Main focus Autonomous Formalized No
on radical team structure process innovative
innovation climate
10 Main Functional team No formalized No
focus on structure process innovative
incremental climate
innovation
Total N 11
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 113 11/16/2010 6:06:48 PM

on incremental innovation projects, since these types of projects can easier

meet regulations than radical innovation projects.
NPD structure
The second pattern is found in the link between team structure and portfo-
lio. The high performing companies 4, 9, 10, and 11 combine an incremental
project portfolio with a functional team structure. These findings suggest
that the combination of an incremental project portfolio with a functional
team structure leads to high development process effectiveness. This is also
in line with the research of De Visser et al. (2009) who find that “firms that
manage to apply a cross-functional integration structure for their radical
NPD processes and a functional integration structure for their incremental
NPD processes will be the most successful in terms of balancing derivative
and breakthrough innovation performance” (De Visser et al., 2009).
Furthermore our findings suggest that the combination of a radical project
portfolio with a heavyweight or autonomous team structure (as seen in case
companies 6 and 7) can also lead to high development process effectiveness,
when combined with an informal NPD process and innovative climate, or
with a formal NPD process and climate that is not innovative.
NPD climate and NPD process

From the (low performing) case companies 1, 3, and 5 in our dataset, it
seems that lacking both a formalized NPD process and an innovative NPD
climate doesn’t lead to high development process effectiveness, unless com-
bined with a functional team structure like in the high performing case
companies 9 and 10. In these two latter cases, the functional team structure
compensates the lack of formalization to some extent. Also having both
a formalized NPD process and innovative NPD climate, like in case com-
pany 2, doesn’t lead to high development process effectiveness. Combining
a formalized NPD process with a NPD climate that isn’t innovative and vice
versa, seems to lead to high development process effectiveness. This can
be seen in the high performing case companies 4, 6, 7, 8, and 11 and is the
third pattern we find.
The above results show that, companies in the Spanish medical devices
sector indeed share a pattern in their NPD function. This supports our
second proposition. To summarize, we found a number of patterns in the
organization of the NPD function of high vs. low performing companies.
First of all, indeed the companies in the dataset which focused on the
effectiveness of their development process, stood out in NPD performance.
Further, the higher performing companies did have a number of common-
alities in the organization of their NPD function:
1. The majority of the higher performing firms had an NPD strategy charac-
terized by a predominantly incremental project portfolio.
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 114 11/16/2010 6:06:48 PM

2. a) Successful firms with an incremental project portfolio combined this

with a functional team structure.
3. b) Successful firms with a radical project portfolio combined this with a
heavyweight or autonomous team structure.
4. A negative reciprocal relationship exists between formalization of the
NPD processes and the climate of the NPD function, in that a formal-
ized NPD process and an innovative climate do not seem to reinforce
each other. Innovative climate combined with an informal NPD process
does however contribute positively to NPD performance. This effect was
stronger in combination with a radical project portfolio.
What the above summarized research results mean in everyday business

practice is illustrated in the following two cases. Both companies are part
of our dataset of Spanish medical devices companies. Company 5 is the last
but one lowest performing company, Company 10 is the highest performing
company.
Case company 5: a low performer

Company 5 is a low performing company that focuses on the develop-
ment, production, and commercialization of prostheses and implants.
They want to offer a complete range of products to their clients (surgeons)
even though a number of these products are not profitable. In addition,
time is not regarded the most important. Over the years, the company
has focused more and more on R&D, and they also work on their image
of an innovative company. The role of senior management in this is to
set an example to the employees and improve the work where possible.
However, employees are not stimulated nor compensated to come up with
new ideas or new developments. When employees come up with new
ideas, the management listens to the ideas of the employees and approves
or disapproves and gives advice about other possibilities. Most of the time
these new ideas are shared only among fellow employees, as employees
are not stimulated (nor compensated) to come up with innovative ideas
or new developments. Conflicts between R&D and commercial functions
arise when a time plan and quality are promised to customers which are
not feasible in practice. Risk taking in NPD by the employees and the
management is low.
The level of risk taking in company 5 is low and, as described in text box
1, the focus is on incremental new products (in line with pattern 1). The
focus on incremental innovation projects is combined with a heavyweight
team structure in which project teams are to a large extent autonomous
and project team leaders have the authority to decide about the division
of the budget and people within the project. This type of team structure
is more applicable to radical innovation projects, since these projects need
more freedom to think “outside-the-box,” without being constrained by
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 115 11/16/2010 6:06:48 PM

everyday company boundaries. In incremental innovation projects this

heavyweight team structure is often too heavy in that in incremental inno-
vation projects the project team should remain close to everyday company
business, without getting carried away. A functional team structure is in
the case of incremental innovation better applicable. However company
5 combines a focus on incremental innovation with a heavyweight team
structure (conflicts with pattern 2). From text box 1 it becomes clear, that
the climate in company 5 is not innovative, since employees are not stimu-
lated nor compensated to come up with new ideas or new developments.
Management decides about new product development projects, which are
executed in a development process that isn’t formalized. This combination
of a process that isn’t formalized and a climate that isn’t innovative con-
flicts with pattern 3.
Only pattern 1, a focus on incremental innovation projects, can be found
in company 5. Neither pattern 2 (the presence of a functional team struc-
ture in combination with an incremental product portfolio), nor pattern 3
(the reciprocal relationship between formalization of the NPD process and
the climate of the NPD function) are present in company 5. The fact that
the majority of the organizational patterns that were found to positively
contribute to NPD performance miss in company 5 might explain its low
NPD performance.
Case company 10: a high performer

Our second case company, company 10, is a high performing company
that focuses on dental equipment and optical units. They offer solutions
to other companies (they work for) and increase patient comfort with their
products. They want to concentrate on further exploitation of the mar-
kets they currently serve, instead of focussing on radically new products.
They want to grow, but also stay a medium-sized company. It should be
a controlled increase. Part of the products are developed for other com-
panies and part of the products are developed for the market. Meeting
the – tight – time schedules is of highest importance. The senior manage-
ment coordinates all the work and ideas in a functional team structure.
Every three months product meetings are organized which people from
every department must attend. In these meetings ideas are shared with
the management, and are selected. The selected ideas are tested by the
technical department and if the idea fits within the current technologies
and products it will be further explored. However, the final decisions are
made top-down. Risk taking is only accepted if it is in line with current
technologies and products.
Case company 10 clearly focuses on incremental innovation projects
(in line with pattern 1). Text box 2 explains that company 10 wants to
exploit their current market further and new product development
projects should fit with current technologies and products. This focus on
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 116 11/16/2010 6:06:48 PM

incremental product development projects is combined with a functional

team structure (in line with pattern 2) in which management coordi-
nates all the work. The climate is more innovative than in case company
5, because employees in company 10 have room to discuss their ideas
in organized informal product meetings (see text box 2). However the
climate in company 10 is not that innovative since only incrementally
new ideas are appreciated and final decisions are all made top-down. The
go/ no go decision about the development project is formal. However,
the development process itself is not formalized. The combination of a
development process that is not formalized with a climate that is not
innovative is compensated in company 10 through the functional team
structure (in line with pattern 3).
The organizational patterns 1, 2, and 3 that were found to contribute posi-
tively to NPD performance are all present in case company 10. The fact that
all three patterns are present in company 10, and the fact that the majority
of these patterns is missing in company 5 might explain the difference in
NPD performance between both companies.
Discussion
Our findings raise some questions about the organization of NPD in highly
regulated sectors. We find that companies in the highly regulated medical
devices sector should focus on incremental innovation projects for high
current NPD performance. Does this mean that these companies have to
neglect radical innovation projects? The fact that our research findings
state that a majority of incremental projects should be present can be
explained by our focus on current NPD performance, which reflects the
NPD performance on the short term. To be able to also achieve high future
(long-term) NPD performance a company should not only be operational
effective, but also strategically flexible (DeWeerd-Nederhof et al., 2008).
To achieve high future NPD performance the project portfolio should also
contain projects that gain future revenues even though they aren’t profit-
able at first glance. This is often the case with radical innovation projects.
We expect that when the focus is on future NPD performance, radical
innovation projects should be more dominantly present in the project
portfolio. When the focus shifts from current to future NPD perform-
ance we expect that the organization of the NPD function shifts from an
operational effective organization with a focus on incremental innovation
projects, to a strategically flexible organization with a focus on radical
innovation projects.
With regard to the formalization of the NPD process and innovativeness
of the NPD climate, we found a negative reciprocal relationship, in that a
formalized NPD process and an innovative climate do not seem to reinforce
each other. Innovative climate combined with an informal NPD process does
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 117 11/16/2010 6:06:48 PM

however contribute positively to NPD performance. These findings conflict

with theory. On the one hand, theory stated that a climate that stimulates
innovation is a climate with high levels of “challenge, freedom, idea sup-
port, trust, playfulness, debates, risk taking, and idea time” (Ekvall, 1996).
On the other hand, theory states that, companies with a formal develop-
ment process are more successful in the commercialization of new products
(Booz and Hamilton, 1982). Now, is theory wrong, or not applicable? Theory
is not wrong and is also applicable, but the theoretical approach towards
these variables should be more subtle. Companies do not consist of only one
variable or characteristic, but of a multitude of variables and characteristics
that are all interrelated.
Finally, we focused on a highly regulated sector and found that compa-
nies in this sector can only compete on development process effectiveness.
This is caused by the fact that the product concept effectiveness is to a great
extent predetermined by the set regulations. The product concept effective-
ness of companies in sectors that are not highly regulated is not predeter-
mined, which means that companies in nonregulated sectors have not only
the possibility to compete on development process effectiveness, but also on
product concept effectiveness. Then, to what extent do our research find-
ings also apply in nonregulated sectors?
The short-term/ long-term effects of the project portfolio on the NPD
performance also apply in nonregulated sectors. Incremental innova-
tion projects lead to higher revenues on the short term, whereas radical
innovation projects lead to higher revenues on the long term. The other
patterns we found (pattern numbers 2 and 3) are strongly related to the
achievement of high development process effectiveness. We expect that
these patterns also apply in nonregulated sectors. However only increas-
ing the development process effectiveness in companies in nonregulated
sectors has probably less effect on the NPD performance as increasing the
development process effectiveness in highly regulated companies. In non-
regulated sectors, also the differences in product concept effectiveness
are heavily influencing the NPD performance and need to be taken into
account.
Conclusions
The contribution of the research outlined above is that it shows SMEs in

regulated sectors how competitive advantage in terms of NPD performance
could be achieved, namely by optimizing their development process effec-
tiveness and by choosing an appropriate organization of the NPD function.
The research explicitly focused on the combination of organizational vari-
ables instead of focusing only on one variable, which adds value to other
scholarly work on the same topic.
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 118 11/16/2010 6:06:49 PM

In line with our theoretical proposition, we find that small- and medium-
sized companies in the Spanish medical devices sector can indeed improve
the performance of their NPD function by focusing on the speed, flex-
ibility, and productivity of their NPD function. Furthermore we find that,
companies with high current NPD performance in terms of development
process effectiveness have a number of commonalities in the organization
of their NPD function. These companies either combine an incremental
project portfolio with a functional team structure, or they combine a radi-
cal project portfolio with a heavyweight or autonomous team structure.
It should be noted that most of the firms with high development process
effectiveness employed an NPD strategy focusing on incremental innova-
tion. Further, a reciprocal relationship between formalization of the NPD
processes and the climate of the NPD function was found, in that a for-
malized NPD process and an innovative climate do not seem to reinforce
each other. Innovative climate combined with an informal NPD process
does however contribute positively to NPD performance, especially for the
minority of firms in the set with an NPD strategy focusing more on radical
innovation.
It should be noted however, that as was explained in the theoretical
framework section, the NPD performance is a dynamic concept that has
both a short-term (Operational Effectiveness) and a long-term (Strategic
Flexibility) component. For this research the focus is on operational effec-
tiveness as the aim is to measure the current NPD performance. Although
the results of our study might lead one to believe that in highly regulated
sectors the only way to innovate is in incremental steps, this is some-
what misleading because of the short-term operational effectiveness view
employed in the research. For radical innovation to lead to competitive
advantage some organizational characteristics also have been found, but
the beneficial effect on both development process and product concept
effectiveness might be subject to considerable time delay, especially in the
medical devices sector.
For further research we strive to conduct longitudinal research in this
field. The data of this research was gathered at one point in time, but since
NPD is dynamic, longitudinal research might be interesting. Furthermore,
it could be worthwhile to test our research findings in other countries and
other strictly regulated sectors. We specifically looked at the context of
the Spanish medical devices sector, but since the strict regulations for new
medical devices are comparable in most countries, our findings might be
applicable in other countries. Also, there are a number of other sectors
that have similar characteristics in terms of regulations. Although fur-
ther research is needed, we expect to find a similar pattern in the internal
organization of the NPD function of successful companies in other highly
regulated sectors for a larger dataset. Suggestions for other sectors are the
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 119 11/16/2010 6:06:49 PM

biotechnology (Senker, 1991) and commercial space sector (Carayannis and

Samanta Roy, 2000).
So, what do the research findings mean in everyday business practice? It’s
not possible to give a full recipe for successful NPD, but we can demon-
strate the value of certain ingredients, and, just as importantly, warn for the
excessive use of some other ingredients. There are several myths about the
organization of NPD that are among CTOs and managers of NPD. In this
research we tackled four of these myths.
• Myth 1: First, focus on the quality, safety, and manufacturability of the

product, then take a look at your NPD process.
We have shown that, in a regulated sector, the quality, safety, and manu-
facturability standards are predetermined through regulations. High qual-
ity, safety, and manufacturability of products are a precondition, regardless
of the company, and not leading to competitive advantage. As a manager,
you should focus on your NPD process. The development speed should be
high (don’t waste time), the development process should be flexible (be able
to change fast if specifications change), and the development process should
have high productivity (don’t exceed costs nor budgeted hours).
• Myth 2: The more innovative, the better.
Managers are often confronted with the idea that radical innovation is
just it. We have shown that taking little steps in the innovativeness of new
products is – at least in regulated sectors – more successful. Managers should
take a look at the portfolio of different innovation projects in their com-
panies. How is the balance between incremental and radical innovation
projects? If the portfolio mainly contains radical innovation projects and
lacks incremental innovation projects, they should try to shift this balance
by attracting more incremental innovation projects. However, keep in mind
that the pursuit of radical innovations should not be fully abandoned, since
they are needed for future profits.
• Myth 3: Project teams should be autonomous and not restricted by

organizational procedures.
There is not one best way to structure your NPD teams. The best way
to organize projects heavily depends on the type of development projects.
As a manager you should take a look at your project portfolio and at the
team structure you use. In an incremental project portfolio, the projects are
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 120 11/16/2010 6:06:49 PM

not so new and unknown that you need self-steering project teams. Rather,
project teams are required that remain close to the company and do not get
carried away. For incremental innovation, you should create project teams
in which members remain on their current locations, in which different
functions coordinate ideas through detailed specifications, in which occa-
sional meetings are organized to discuss issues that cut across groups, and in
which the responsibility passes sequentially from one function to the next.
The more radically new the project is, the more the final project responsibil-
ity shifts towards the project leader and the more responsibilities the project
team should get in general.
• Myth 4: The NPD climate should be innovative and the NPD process
should be formal.
We have shown that the innovativeness of the climate and the formaliza-
tion of the NPD process do not reinforce each other. It is either-or, not both.
This means that, there are two roads to success: you, as a manager, either
work on an innovative climate, or you work on a well formalized NPD proc-
ess. Considering the NPD climate, questions you need to pose to yourself are:
how much time, freedom, support, and trust do employees get to develop
new ideas? Are employees challenged? Are employees allowed to take risks?
If you answer most of these questions positively, the climate in your NPD
function can be considered innovative. If you answer most of these ques-
tions negatively, you haven’t got an innovative climate. Considering the
formalization of the NPD process ask yourself if your organization follows
a formally documented NPD process or not. For high current NPD per-
formance either an innovative climate or a formalized process should be
present.
Acknowledgement
The research described in this article is part of the European research project
“Patterns in New Product Development: consistent NPD configurations for
sustained innovation,” which was founded at the University of Twente, the
Netherlands. “Patterns in NPD” is funded by RADMA and the University of
Twente (The Netherlands).
The case studies were conducted thanks to the enthusiastic cooperation
of the NPD managers, CEOs, and employees of two Spanish medical devices
companies in the Barcelona and Valencia region in Spain.
Note
1 According to European standards, SMEs are defined as companies that have 250
or less full time equivalents, Commission of the European Communities (2003),
9780230_245907_07_cha06.indd 121 11/16/2010 6:06:49 PM

“Commission Recommendation of 6 May 2003 Concerning the Definition of

Micro, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (notified under document number C
(2003) 1422) 2003/362/EC.” Official Journal of the European Union 46 (L124):
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7
Roadmapping at Printco:
One Company’s Experience
Rick Mitchell, Robert Phaal, Clare J. Farrukh, and David Probert
Overview
Printco develops and manufactures printing solutions for industrial appli-

cations, operating in more than 150 countries. The company headquarters
are in Europe, colocated with core design and manufacturing operations,
with regional centers and sales and support organizations based around the
world. Printco employs 1500 staff, with a turnover in 2006 of more than
£200M. The company is 30 years old, and has a strong technology heritage.
As the company has grown in size and complexity, new technologies have
been acquired and the product range expanded, with a need to establish
methods to manage the effective acquisition and integration of technology
into the core new product introduction process.
This chapter describes how technological considerations are crucial to
the ongoing development of innovative and successful products in the
company, focusing on a recent technology acquisition associated with
the creation of a new business unit. This highlighted the need for an
effective business planning approach to ensure integrating technology
and product development. The implementation of roadmapping in the
organization over a period of five years is presented, summarizing key
learning points.
The search for new technologies
In the early 1990s Printco’s management started to be concerned about the

restrictions that their core technology would place on the growth of the
company. Their core technology was a flexible “continuous ink jet” print-
ing process, ideal for printing simple information such as date codes onto
products moving on a production line. But it had serious limits: the reso-
lution was relatively low compared with most printing methods and it was
limited to relatively small characters. At that time there were also other
disadvantages such as reliability and some environmental concerns. There
125
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126 Mitchell, Phaal, Farrukh, and Probert
was a clear demand in the market for larger characters as well as images
such as bar codes and logos, which could not be met by any existing flexible
printing method.
The board recognized that the fundamental limits on the performance
of their core technology posed both a threat and an opportunity for the
company. Without a new technology the company’s rapid growth could
soon come to an end. But there was obviously a demand for better per-
formance if only it could be achieved. The big danger was that if a com-
petitor moved in with something better, Printco would not only miss
out on a new business opportunity but could lose many of its existing
customers.
During the 1990s Printco’s technical staff looked for ways to print
larger, higher-definition images onto moving products. One option was
to build a more sophisticated (and much more expensive) version of the
core product that would give great printing speed and could be expanded
to large printing widths. The equipment would be much more complex
than their existing products but there would be good applications in the
commercial printing industry in which the company already had some
presence.
Another possibility was to adopt a variant of the “drop on demand” tech-
nology used in desktop printers. This was a high-resolution technology and
the print-heads could be stacked together to print large images. But it was
slow, very sensitive to the distance from the print-head to the surface, and
could print only onto paper or cardboard.
A final possibility was laser marking. This works by rapidly scanning a
small spot of laser energy over the product. It makes a mark by removing
a layer (for example of printed ink) and exposing the surface beneath,
or by changing the color of the surface itself. This technology is fast, re-
liable, and environmentally friendly but is not suitable for all surfaces.
One further drawback was that laser marking requires no ink, so Printco
would forgo a very important source of revenue. Another was that no-
body in the company knew much about lasers, either from a technical or
marketing perspective.
The board soon realized that there was no simple solution to their problem.
There could be no single replacement for their core technology; instead they
would have to enter several new fields at once. The easiest decision was to
develop the expensive and sophisticated version of their mainline printing
system because it was within the technical capabilities of the in-house R&D
team, and there was a clear demand for higher speed and higher resolution
printing in the commercial printing market where the higher price would
be acceptable. Developing this technology proved more of a challenge than
expected but Printco eventually launched a product which became success-
ful and substantially replaced the existing technology in the commercial
printing sector.
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Roadmapping at Printco 127
Laser was clearly a case for acquisition and Printco bought a small laser
company in the USA that had a unique small high-power laser tube already
used in marking equipment. Printco’s international distribution and know-
ledge of the marking market together with the new subsidiary’s technical
expertise allowed them to take a leading position in the expanding laser
marking market.
However, it proved more difficult to find a suitable form of the drop on
demand inkjet technology. Printco’s technical team surveyed all the avail-
able examples in the early 1990s and found none that met their require-
ments. Eventually, however, suitable print-heads did come onto the market
and Printco began to build them into products that could print high-resolu-
tion images onto paper and cardboard packaging.
Each of the new technology areas posed its own unique set of problems
and opportunities so in the first instance each was established as a sep-
arate division to give the maximum autonomy to develop in its own way.
Divisional managers had considerable discretion over distribution, product
policy, and commercial strategy.
Printco’s need for a technology planning process
Printco first recognized the need for an improved technology and product
strategy in the late 1990s. A few years earlier a planning process had been
introduced that for the first time documented short, medium, and long-term
strategies for the company up to ten years ahead. This process achieved its
aims of providing a vision of the future but it exposed gaps that demanded
attention. Most critically, it showed that some important objectives existed
in a vacuum: they were identified as important but did not necessarily have
programs in place to make them happen.
As a technology-based company, Printco was particularly aware that
developing new technologies – or other competences – could take a long
time. The company had had experience of including new technologies in
product development projects before they were fully tried and tested. The
result had always been delay and disappointment. To avoid this it was clear
that they needed a coherent product-technology strategy so that innova-
tions could be developed in advance and then brought to market quickly
and securely when required.
Selecting the process

The need for better product-technology planning was felt in different ways
in different parts of the company. The core technology – used by the lar-
gest and most profitable part of the company – was known to be near the
limit of improvement in terms of the key printing parameters: resolution,
speed, and print size. A host of peripheral improvements were possible, but
there was little opportunity for dramatic impact on the core functions of
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 127 11/25/2010 2:56:04 PM

the product. The result was a feeling of drift. What was the right way to go,
and was there in fact any viable strategy other than cost reduction?
The laser division, by contrast, had slim resources and a technology that
was still improving rapidly. Their problem was to choose the right path
through a multitude of opportunities.
The other two divisions, however, were very much occupied at the time
with a mix of operational problems and opportunities and their manage-
ment had little appetite for long-term planning. However, everyone knew
that this situation would change, so any new process would have to be suit-
able for these divisions too.
The company needed to find a method for developing the product and
technology strategies that would be suitable for all four divisions despite
the fact that their technologies and markets were at very different stages
of maturity. These strategies would initially be separate but there would
certainly be synergies between them which might be important in the
longer term.
After a period of searching, Printco’s directors chose “roadmapping” as
a likely candidate for their technology strategy process. The most imme-
diately attractive feature for them was that the physical product would
be quite literally at the centre of the plan. This fitted well with the way
all parts of the company approached the business. Technologists, pro-
duction staff, marketers, and salesmen all thought about it in different
ways but the product was the shared medium of discourse for the whole
company.
Technology roadmapping
Technology roadmapping, and its many derivatives, has become one of
the most widely used approaches for supporting innovation and strategy,
at firm, sector, and national levels. The roadmapping approach, first
developed by Motorola more than 25 years ago, has been adopted (and
adapted) by many organizations, initially within other large technolo-
gy-intensive firms in the consumer electronics, aerospace, and defense
sectors.
A key benefit of roadmapping is the communication associated with
the development and dissemination of roadmaps, particularly for align-
ing technology and commercial perspectives, balancing market “pull” and
technology “push.” Roadmaps can take many forms, but the most general
and flexible approach comprises a time-based, multilayered chart, illus-
trated in Figure 7.1, enabling the various functions and perspectives within
an organization to be aligned, and providing a structured framework to
address three key questions: Where do we want to go? Where are we now?
and How can we get there?
The type of roadmap illustrated in Figure 7.1 emphasizes the need to
take a multifunctional view, as technology without application has limited
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 128 11/25/2010 2:56:05 PM

Functional perspectives Roadmap framework Knowledge Information

(Roadmap (Supports integrated and aligned types types
architecture) strategic and innovation planning) Time When?
Typical Past Short-term Medium-term Long-term Vision
viewpoints
Market Route(s) forward Drivers
Commercial Why?
Strategy
& strategic
Business Needs
perspectives Pull
Design,
Product
Form
development, What? Function
& production Service Performance
perspectives
System
Push
Technology Technology
Solutions
& research How?
Science Capabilities
perspectives
Resources
Resources
Three key questions: 2) Where are 3) How can we 1) Where do

we now? get there? we want to go?
Figure 7.1 Typical multilayered time-based roadmap, linking technology to markets,

providing an integrating framework to support alignment of perspectives across the
organization
value. Thus, describing this as a technology roadmap is somewhat limiting,

and other terms such as strategic, business or innovation roadmapping are
becoming more widespread.
Workshops are an important element of any roadmapping process, pro-
viding a forum for strategic dialogue across functions and business units,
using the roadmap to structure the discussion. The University of Cambridge
Centre for Technology Management has been developing workshop-based
approaches for supporting the initiation of roadmapping processes since
1998, in collaboration with industry. This Chapter describes the first such
collaboration, where the “T-Plan fast-start” approach (Phaal et al., 2001) was
first piloted, and the subsequent evolution of the technique in the firm.
The T-Plan workshop approach focuses on integrated product-technology
planning, bringing together 8–12 participants from across the organiza-
tion to develop a “first-cut” roadmap for a product area, in four half-day
workshops:
Market: identify and prioritize external market and internal business driv-
ers, and review business strategy.
Product: identify potential product features, functions, and attributes,
and prioritize these with respect to how strongly they address the
drivers.
Technology: identify and prioritize potential technological solutions for
developing the product features.
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 129 11/25/2010 2:56:05 PM

Charting: based on the outputs from the first three workshops, de-
velop a “first-cut” roadmap, linking market, product, and technology
perspectives.
Rolling out the roadmapping process

The roadmapping process was first applied in the largest division of Printco,
which is based on the mature continuous inkjet printing technology. This
was the first full pilot of the T-Plan method, and constituted an experiment
for both the firm and the university research team. The process was applied
over a series of four weekly half-day workshops, and a first draft roadmap
emerged without too much difficulty.
The divisional manager’s reactions were immediate and surprising: “First
of all, it’s too complicated,” she said, “there are too many projects on it and
we don’t have the time or resources to do them all effectively. We must con-
centrate on doing fewer things better. And anyway, now that I see the whole
picture, I’m not sure that our assumptions about the drivers in this market
are up-to-date.”
She launched a concerted review of customers’ requirements using
cross-functional teams helped by outside market research consultants.
Prioritization (P): 7 3 0 2 6 5 1 8 10 8 9 5 (out of 10)

Market Company
Score = ticks x P
2. Market driver 2
3. Market driver 3
4. Market driver 4
5. Market driver 5
6. Market driver 6
7. Market driver 7
8. Market driver 8
1. Market driver 1
A. Business driver 1
D. Business driver 4
B. Business driver 2
C. Business driver 3
Market / =1 =2 =3 X=−1
business (N) = normalized
Product drivers
feature Score
concepts Market Company
(N) (N)
1. Feature area 1 ? 1 0 25 4
2. Feature area 2 16 4 39 6
4. Feature area 4 ? X 20 5 37 6
5. Feature area 5 ? ? 40 10 18 3
6. Feature area 6 ? 16 4 31 5
8. Feature area 8 X X 8 2 9 1
9. Feature area 9 X 35 9 27 4
10. Feature area 10 20 5 65 10
11. Feature area 11 23 6 33 5
12. Feature area 12 X X 9 2 27 4
13. Feature area 13 36 9 59 9
Figure 7.2 Cross-impact matrix used in compiling the first roadmap for the laser
division
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 130 11/25/2010 2:56:08 PM

This took several months, and showed that Printco had been over-
emphasizing some features that were now less important to customers
than they had previously been; but more importantly, some signifi-
cant new needs were being overlooked. A revised roadmap was drawn
up incorporating the new information, and a series of new product
initiatives followed.
The laser division produced its first roadmap in two working days. This
concentration of effort was necessary because some of the key staff worked
in different sites in Europe and the USA, and it would have been inefficient
for them to travel in and out repeatedly for shorter meetings. Figure 7.2
shows the cross-impact matrix used to relate the market drivers to the key
product features. Figure 7.3 shows the roadmap itself (commercially sensi-
tive information has been removed).
The divisional manager’s initial reaction to the roadmap was the same as
for first application: that the division was trying to do too many things (this
pattern was later repeated in each of the other divisions). The first review
of the roadmap, after 6 months, produced a simplified version (Figure 7.4)
that formed the basis for several more iterations. The key product features
also evolved over a few iterations before settling down to a stable pattern
that remained, and was used as a starting point for roadmapping in other
divisions. Interim reviews were generally done every 6 months, with more
fundamental reappraisals at longer intervals.
1998 1999 1999 2000 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2003
Product development
Service 2
Service 1 Equip. 1
Service 3
Equipment 2
Equipment 3 Product 3 gen. 1 ProductFenix
3 gen.
32
Product 2 gen. 1 Product 2 gen. 2 Product 2 gen. 3
Component 2
Equipment 4
Eq. 5
Equip. 6
Component 1 gen. 2 gen. 3
Product 1 gen. 1 Product 1 gen. 2 Product 1 gen. 3 gen. 4
Program A 1 2 3
Prog. B
Prog. C Key prog. D
Research programs
Prog. E
Key prog. F
Prog. G
Prog. H
Prog. I
Key prog. J
Core prog. K
Core prog. L
Core prog. M
Figure 7.3 Printco’s first roadmap for the laser division
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 131 11/25/2010 2:56:09 PM

1998 1999 1999 2000 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2003
Equipment 1 & Services
Product development
Equipment 3
Product 2 gen. 1 Product 2 gen. 2 Product 2 gen. 3
Eq. 5
Comp. 1 gen. 2
Product 1 gen. 1 gen. 2 gen. 3 Product 1 gen. 4 gen. 5
Program A 1 2 3
Prog. B
Research programs
Prog. H
Prog. I
Prog. I
Core prog. K
Core prog. M
Core prog. N
Special proj. I
Special proj. 2
Figure 7.4 First revision of the laser division roadmap, showing the simplification
and reduction of the number of projects
At the major reviews managers took particular care to plot the future for
the key product features and to check whether continued improvement was
likely to give competitive advantage. In this analysis they used the Kano
analysis (Kano et al., 1996; see also Goffin and Mitchell, 2005) of product
features (Figure 7.5). This model shows how the individual features of a
product contribute to customer satisfaction (the vertical axis of the model)
and fit into three categories:
Basic features: are attributes, without which a product would simply be
unacceptable. The customer takes them as prerequisites and may not even
mention them, though they are essential. Failure to provide them causes
great dissatisfaction; however, putting effort into enhancing basic features
leads to no extra customer satisfaction and may add unnecessary cost and
complexity to the product.
Performance features: are features that provide a real benefit to the cus-
tomer, and the more highly implemented they are, the more satisfied the
customer will be. An example is the fuel economy in a car – the more effi-
cient the better. Lower price is another example.
Excitement features: are features that give the customer unexpected value
and may be attractive out of all proportion to the objective benefits they
give. The problem is that traditional market research (surveys and focus
groups) is unlikely to identify the requirements for excitement features.
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 132 11/25/2010 2:56:09 PM

Customer
satisfaction
Delight
Excitement needs
(Seldom expressed:
new to the world)
Immediate Performance needs
happiness (Generally expressed.
e.g. miles per gallon)
Degree of feature
Poor Good implementation
Not
unhappy
Basic needs (hygiene)

(Not always expressed.
Disappointed e.g. safety, car will start,
food non-poisoned)
Figure 7.5 Kano’s model showing contribution made to customer satisfaction by

increased implementation of different types of features
It is often observed that features that start as delighters tend to be-

come performance features as time goes on. Correspondingly, perform-
ance features often reach the point when further improvement is of little
interest to customers, so they no longer provide competitive advantage.
Examining their roadmaps in this light led Printco to reduce their effort
on some product features and concentrate on new sources of competitive
advantage.
Embedding the roadmapping process

When the roadmapping process had been in use for some time Printco
purchased another company, and with it a number of product lines
that were complementary, but overlapping, with their existing ones.
The design of the new subsidiary’s products was fundamentally dif-
ferent from Printco’s and offered a different range of benefits. There
was room in the market for both types but it would be inefficient and
wasteful not to use a common electronics platform, and especially not
to use Printco’s proprietary printing elements as far as possible in all
product lines.
Meanwhile, however, in a dynamic and competitive market both
sets of products would have to continue to improve even as they were
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 133 11/25/2010 2:56:09 PM

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
BUSINESS
Services
Product line 1
Product line 2
Dev’t Product line 2, gen. 2
PRODUCTS
Product line 3
Dev’t Product line 3, variant b
Dev’t Product line 4

Dev’t Product line 4, variant b Dev’t PL 4, v d
Dev. 1 Dev’t Product line 4, variant c
Dev. 2 Dev. 3 Dev’t PL 4, gen 2
Study 1 Dev. 4 Dev’t PL 4, platform
Performance w Perf. x Perf. y Perf. z OEM product

Prog. 1 Study A Study B
Prog. 2 Prog. 3
TECHNOLOGIES
Prog. 4 Prog. 5
Prog. 6
Prog. 7 Prog. 8
Prog. 9
Prog. 10
Figure 7.6 The new laser division roadmap after the merger, the different colored
bars in the Product section indicate the underlying platforms – the key purpose of
the new map is to bring all products to the same platform, which is finally achieved
in year 5
brought together onto a common platform. This would require sev-

eral steps, so a new roadmap was required that would show how the
product lines could be unified without losing competitive advantage
on the way. The roadmapping process proved well able to achieve this.
The restructured roadmap is shown in Figure 7.6. This convergence
took four years and several product updates, during which time the
key performance features identified in the roadmapping process were
steadily updated and improved – see Figure 7.7 (commercially sensitive
detail has been removed).
The T-Plan “fast-start” process was used in all Printco divisions and proved
an effective way to create initial roadmaps efficiently and quickly. In all
cases the first roadmap showed that the existing plans and intentions were
too ambitious and had to be scaled back – a valuable early result and a useful
benefit from the work.
Nevertheless, managers and staff usually treated the first versions of the
roadmaps with caution and only really trusted them after they had been
through several iterations. These reviews, typically every six months, were
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 134 11/25/2010 2:56:10 PM

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Benefit 1 Benefit 5 Benefit 8 Benefit 12
Benefit 2 Benefit 6 Benefit 9
Benefit 3 Benefit 7 Benefit 10 BUSINESS
Benefit 4 Benefit 11
Services
FEATURES PL 4 PL 4, var. b PL 4, var. c PL 4, gen. 2 PL 4, platform
Product Line 1
Feature 1 a ??? ??? ??? ???
…………………. Product line 2
………………….. ………………….. ………………... ………………… ………………….
Feature 1 b Dev’t b− Productb−−
line 2, gen. 2 b− b−
…………………. …………………. ………………..
PRODUCTS
………………….. ……………….. ………………...
Product line 3
Feature 3
Dev’t c c+ c++ b
Product line 3, variant c+++ c++++
…………………. ………………… ………………….. ……………….. ……………….. ………………...
Dev’t Product line 4
Feature 4 d d+ d++ d++ d++
Dev’t Product line 4, variant b Dev’t PL 4, v d
………………….
Dev. 1 ………………... …………………..
Dev’t ……………….. ……………….. ………………….
Product line 4, variant c
FeatureDev.
5 2 e Dev. 3 e+ e++ Dev’t
e+++ e+++ PL 4, gen 2
…………………. ……………….. …………………. ………………. ……………….. ………………...
Study 1 Dev. 4 Dev’t PL 4, platform
Feature 6 f
Performance w f+ Perf. x f+ Perf. y f+ f+
Perf. z OEM product
…………………. …………………. …………………. ………………... ………………... ………………..
Prog. 1 Study A Study B
Feature 7 g g+ g++ g+++ g++++
TECHNOLOGIES
Prog. 2 Prog. 3
…………………. ………………….. …………………. ……………….. ………………. ………………...
Prog. 4 Prog. 5
Feature 8 h
Prog. 6 h+ h++ h+++ h++++
…………………. ………………. Prog. 7

…………………. Prog. 8
……………….. ……………….. ………………...
Feature 9 i i+ i+ i++ i+++
…………………. …………………. Prog. 9
…………………. ……………….. ………………... ………………….
Feature 10 j J− J−− 10
Prog. J−−− J+−
Figure 7.7 Stages of the planned convergence of the product platforms, showing
steady development of the key features, and associated business / market outcomes
(the level of increase (+) or decrease (-) in function and performance in each feature
as the products evolve is shown schematically, relative to product line (PL) 4)
crucial. They gave time for participants to gather extra data and to reflect
on what had been done. Inevitably the maps evolved and stabilized with
repeated discussion but the process of debate also cemented understanding
and support. The roadmaps became a useful and valued tool for communi-
cating the emerging strategy to the board of the company and to others in
the division. The next stage for the company will be to bring the divisional
roadmaps together to expose the synergies between them that can lead to
further efficiencies.
● Roadmapping is a powerful and flexible technique that is being increas-
ingly adopted in industry as a core integrating mechanism for strategic
planning and innovation.
● A principle benefit is the communication that is engendered, both dur-
ing the development of the roadmap and afterwards, using roadmaps as
a common reference point and language to support the ongoing dialogue
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 135 11/25/2010 2:56:11 PM

that is essential for effective innovation and strategy development and

implementation.
● However, roadmapping can be challenging, due to a combination of the
broad scope and complexity of the issues being addressed, uncertainties

associated with the future, and gaps in available knowledge.
● The following success factors should be considered when embarking on a
roadmapping initiative:
• Establish a clear business need
• Ensure commitment from senior management
• Plan carefully and customize the approach to suit the circumstances
• Phase the process to ensure that benefits are delivered early
• Ensure that the right people and functions are involved
• Link the roadmapping activity to other business processes and tools
• Provide adequate support and resources
• Keep it simple
• Iterate and learn from experience
• The company case described in this chapter reinforces these key success
factors, providing a detailed account of how roadmapping was introduced
in one company, and how the process evolved over a number of years.
References
Goffin, K. and Mitchell, R. (2005). Innovation Management: Strategy and Implementation
Using the Pentathlon Framework. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kano, N., Saraku, N., Takahashi, F. and Tsuji, S. (1996). “Attractive Quality and
Must-be Quality.” In J. Hromi (Ed.), The Best on Quality 7(10). Milwaukee: ASQC:
165–86.
Phaal, R., Farrukh, C. J. P., and Probert, D. R. (2001). T-Plan: The Fast-start to
Technology Roadmapping – Planning Your Route to Success. Cambridge: Institute for
Manufacturing, University of Cambridge.
9780230_245907_08_cha07.indd 136 11/25/2010 2:56:11 PM

8
Performance Measurement in
Supply Chain Collaboration
Dilek Cetindamar, Bülent Çatay, and Osman Serdar Basmaci
Introduction
Collaboration is an advantageous strategy for technology-based competi-

tion. The management of collaboration involves the mutual efforts of sup-
ply chain partners to design, implement, and manage seamless value-added
processes (Johnson and Johnson 1989). The development and integration of
people and technological resources as well as the coordinated management
of materials, information, and financial flows underlie successful supply
chain collaboration (SCC). As the competition among firms is shifting from
company versus company to supply chain versus supply chain, managers
should not only adopt SCC whenever needed but also manage it success-
fully (Gomes-Casseres, 1994; Pagh and Cooper, 1998; Salcedo and Grackin,
2000). This necessitates, among others, a measurement system that is useful
for the management of decision-making in various issues such as planning,
control, alignment, and improvement of collaboration (Landeros et al.,
1995; van Hoek, 1998).
Even though collaborations or alliances are widely applied, they are not
studied extensively at the empirical level (Cahill et al., 1998). Studies about
industrial networks, production clusters or complexes are numerous but
they are, by and large, at the regional or industry level (Cooke and Morgan,
1993; Saxenian, 1994; Staber, 1996). Supply chain studies concentrating
on the performance measurements in inter-firm relationships are scarce
in the literature (Gulati, 1998; van Hoek, 1998). Mechanisms such as value
co-production, collaborative/extended enterprises, virtual enterprises are
addressed (Childe, 1998; Ramirez, 1999; Bititci et al., 2005); however the lit-
erature particularly lacks in innovation driven collaborations where tech-
nologies are developed and diffused through collaboration (Benfratello
and Sembenelli, 2002; Carlsson et al., 2002; Chang, 2003). Moreover, the
majority of studies are in advanced countries, ignoring the practice of inter-
firm collaborations in developing countries (Caloghirou et al., 2003). If the
collaborative form of management is advantageous for competition, it is of
137
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 137 11/16/2010 6:07:13 PM

138 Cetindamar, Çatay, and Basmaci
high concern to understand mechanisms behind the success of collabora-

tions. By studying collaboration experiences, it might become possible to
develop and improve its management both in developed and developing
countries. This paper is motivated by an interesting collaboration model in
the Turkish textile dyeing and finishing industry. The collaboration under
investigation is a joint venture aiming at developing and diffusing new
technologies. This study presents an empirical study addressing the dynam-
ics of this collaborative effort and develops performance metrics to measure
the performance of the strategic partnership.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: The next section
introduces the theoretical background by reviewing the literature about
collaborations with a particular emphasis on their performance measure-
ment. The third section presents the empirical study and the forth section
introduces the results. Finally, the findings of the study are discussed in the
conclusions section.
The performance measurement of

a technological joint venture
Supply chain oriented measures should facilitate greater inter-firm collabora-

tion. However, most firms are experiencing difficulty in devising and imple-
menting supply chain measures (Lapide, 1998; van Hoek, 1998). Measures
need to provide an accurate picture of supply chain performance as a whole
but also highlight opportunities for improvement at both the individual
firm and the overall supply chain levels (Lapide, 1998). Considering the
inherent complexity of the supply chain, selecting appropriate performance
measures for SCC is critical.
Supply chain models have predominantly utilized cost and financial
measures as performance metrics while some studies also indicate a com-
bination of cost and customer responsiveness such as flexibility and qual-
ity (Neely et al., 1995; Beamon, 1999; Tan, 2002). In some cases, empirical
studies examine the termination of an alliance to measure the performance
of alliances (Gulati, 1998). Due to increased importance of technologies
in competition, recent literature attempts to widen performance meas-
ures by suggesting new metrics such as new product development, knowl-
edge transfer, patents, and productivity (Womack et al., 1990; Hagedoorn
and Schakenraad, 1994; Reuer and Miller, 1997; Das, 2000; Kotabe et al.,
2003; Chung and Kim, 2003; Kale et al., 2002). However, there is no widely
accepted set of measures in the literature, since technological partnerships
are particularly difficult in defining and measuring performance metrics
due to the uncertain and complex nature of knowledge and innovation
developed in collaborations (Hagedoorn and Cloodt, 2003).
In the manufacturing literature it is often argued that performance
measures should be derived considering strategic objectives; that is, they
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 138 11/16/2010 6:07:13 PM

Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Collaboration 139
should be used to reinforce the importance of certain strategic variables

(Neely et al., 1995; Freeman and Soete, 1997). Further, given the mul-
tifaceted objectives of many alliances, performance can be difficult to
measure with financial outcomes alone (Hagedoorn and Schakenraad,
1994; Benfratello and Sembenelli, 2002). That is why following the
model of a recent study that develops measures on the basis of strat-
egy of alliance and the operational contribution of players in the supply
chain competitiveness (van Hoek, 1998), this study will focus mainly on
strategic objectives in deriving performance measures for a technology
collaboration.
In addition, measures are in general used as individual performance
criteria, while few studies combine them in a framework. These frame-
works, such as the balanced scorecard (Kaplan and Norton, 1992) and
the performance prism (Kennerley and Neely, 2000) have been proposed
with the objective helping organizations to define a set of measures that
reflects their objectives and assesses their performance appropriately. The
frameworks are multidimensional, explicitly balancing financial and non-
financial measures. Following this system idea, as shown in Figure 8.1,
this study proposes a model where the performance measures for an alli-
ance includes metrics for (1) internal performance, (2) perceptions of part-
ners regarding the alliance performance, and (3) the degree of inter-firm
relationship.
Internal performance
Innovation
Percentage of the number of new products developed
Sales
Percentage of partner project proposals that are accepted by the alliance
Percentage of alliance projects proposals that are approved by the partners
Percentage of projects that are done for partners
Productivity
Average project time
Percentage of projects that are completed on time
Average time to respond to partners’ project proposal
Response time of alliance compared to other suppliers in the cases of breakdowns
Frequency of project offers of alliance to the partners
Average cost reduction percentage o falliance projects that is suggested by the alliance (labor / raw material / energy costs)
Percentage of projects on which the price proposal has been revised
Average suggested payback time of the projects
Perceptions of partners about the performance of alliance

Comparison of the alliance performance to other suppliers
Contribution of the alliance about the defect rates of th eproducts that partners supply to the market
Contribution of the alliance about the unplanned breakdowns of the machines of the partners
Contribution of the alliance about the production capacity of the dyers
Contribution of the alliance about the product quality of partners
The degree of inter-firm relationship

Frequency of regular meetings
Average participation percentage to the meetings
Figure 8.1 Performance measurement system for a SCC in technology development
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 139 11/16/2010 6:07:13 PM

While internal performance might be considered the static part of the

performance measurement system, second and third measures of the model
brings dynamic evaluation into the system as suggested in the literature
(Bititci et al., 2000; Kennerly and Neely, 2002). It becomes a need to have
a performance measurement system that is dynamic enough to reflect
changes in the internal and external environment as well as helps to review
and prioritize objectives as the environment changes.
In the model, internal performance is measured with productivity,
innovation, and sales (Neely et al., 1995; Beamon, 1999; Chung and Kim,
2003; Kotabe et al., 2003). Productivity is measured with a number of
indicators related to product quality, project time, and so on as shown
in Figure 8.1. As the goal is to measure the performance of a collabora-
tion to develop high value-added products and technologies, innovation
performance becomes a core measure and it is measured with percentage
of the number of new products developed (Das, 2000; Gunasekaran et al.,
2001). Sales performance might be measured with sales or purchasing vol-
ume generated through partnership.
As mentioned in the literature, partners might have a different perform-
ance perception about the alliance (Dollinger and Golden, 1992; Medcof,
1997). Different members of the supply chain team consider performance
of alliance on the basis of their own individual perceptions. The typical
result is channel conflict and perhaps even the dissolution of the relation-
ship. Thus, it is important to know what is truly valued and then put the
right measure in place (Lambert and Cooper, 2000). Without disregarding
the objectives of individual partner firms and the alliance itself perform-
ance metrics should be used for mutual benefits (von Hippel, 1988; Heide
and Stump, 1995; Neely et al., 1995; Olk, 1997; Caloghirou et al., 2003).
Perceptions of partners regarding the alliance performance aim at
capturing the performance improvements gained in partners (Landeros
et al., 1995). These perceptions are measured with comparison of the per-
formance of the alliance with other suppliers, the performance contribu-
tion of the alliance to its partners (about defect rate, breakdowns, and
production capacity), and low performance areas of the alliance (Das,
2000).
In this study, communication metric is used to measure performance
related to the degree of inter-firm relationship (Beamon, 1999; Kotabe et al,
2003; Chen and Paulraj, 2004). Communication metric is derived from the
frequency of regular meetings and average participation percentage to the
meetings.
The next section introduces a joint venture company as an explora-
tory study to exemplify a collaborative effort in the textile dyeing and
finishing industry and then applies the performance measures for the
collaboration.
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 140 11/16/2010 6:07:14 PM

The empirical study
The textile and apparel sector has been the backbone of the Turkish econ-
omy with a vital role to play in the industrialization process and market
orientation of the economy in the last two decades. The textile sector
continued to be one of the major contributors to the Turkish economy,
being one of the fastest growing sectors in the 1990s with an average
12.2 percent annual growth, while the Turkish economy had an average
growth of 5.2 percent per year (Foreign Economic Relations Board, 2002).
The sector has great significance in terms of economic development with
a share of GNP above 10 percent, industrial production around 40 per-
cent, manufacturing labor force around 30 percent and exports around
35 percent.
The advantages of Turkish textile industry are numerous like its geo-
graphic position, low labor costs, growth of high quality cotton, and so on
but those advantages are insufficient in this highly competitive environ-
ment. In addition to these advantages, Turkey must also acquire the compet-
itive strengths like high quality, high technology, quick service, dynamic
structure, production flexibility, high productivity, high R&D accumulation
and innovative product development talents (Foreign Economic Relations
Board, 2002).
Here comes the importance of our exploratory study firm: Textile Dying
Technologies (3T). Four companies (namely, Pisa Textile, Ekoten Dyeing,
Eliar Electronics, and Vega Machinery) felt responsible to undertake the mis-
sion of improving the Turkish dyeing and finishing industry and decided
to make an industry-wide collaboration by founding a joint venture at the
end of 2000.
In 2003, 3T had six technology supplying and ten dyeing and finishing
partner companies, each having one-sixteenth of a share of 3T. Technology
firms are suppliers to dyeing and finishing firms that represent buyers in
a typical supply chain. This is interesting regarding 3T because of two rea-
sons. First, it is more than a buyer-supplier relationship since it involves col-
laborative development of technologies. Second, 3T is formed by large and
small companies together contrary to many examples seen in the literature
where alliances are formed among small firms (Malecki and Tootle, 1996)
or among one large company and many small firms as the case of Toyota
supplier network (Dyer, 2000).
Collaboration has become an established aspect of innovation strategy
(von Hippel, 1988; Harris et al., 2000; Caloghirou et al., 2003). Literature
identifies that technological complementarity of partners, concrete devel-
opment of innovations, and the need for technology monitoring are impor-
tant motives for forming strategic alliances (Hagedoorn and Schakenraad,
1994; Dyer and Singh, 1998). This is also observed in our example. The
first aim of 3T is to help the enterprises increase the productivity and
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 141 11/16/2010 6:07:14 PM

efficiency. Integrated automation systems are supplied to the textile dyers

by 3T. It conducts feasibility studies and offers after sales services as well.
Starting out from the idea that the textile dyers and finishers have to pro-
duce innovative and high-tech products, it is concluded that the systems
which allow production flexibility, high productivity and efficiency, high
technology, and dynamic structure must be implemented at dyeing and
finishing facilities in Turkey to remain competitive in global markets. So,
the mission of 3T is to help the dyers, which possess this vision, with all
their efforts and opportunities. It develops and implements automation
solutions not only to its ten partner dyers, but also other dyers in Turkey
by utilizing the technology of its six supplier partners as well as other sup-
pliers, when needed.
This also enables 3T to expose a collaboration model that is built on tech-
nology development, technology intelligence, and technology diffusion
among firms in a supply chain (von Hippel, 1988; Chung and Kim, 2003).
In order to realize this sharing and diffusion, 3T meets with its partners
regularly. In these meetings, partner dyers share customer needs and fash-
ion trends they have determined with other partners and partner suppliers
share their technological innovations and capabilities. Then, 3T matches
these customer needs and fashion trends with the supplier capabilities and
develops new products and/or solutions by the help of suppliers. First, 3T
uses the products of its partner suppliers. However, it also uses additional
foreign and domestic resources for the products that it cannot supply from
its partner suppliers.
In early 2003, several semi-structured interviews were conducted with
the managers of 3T, Pisa Textile (dyer), and Eliar Electronics (supplier) to
obtain some insights about the collaborative model and to understand its
mechanisms. Then, three questionnaires were prepared based on the infor-
mation gathered from these interviews and the literature review. The first
was for 3T, as the collaboration unit; the second was for the partner and
non-partner dyers; and the third one was for the partner suppliers. After
three questionnaires were conducted during the period of May and July
2003, a set of interviews was conducted again with the managers of 3T,
Pisa Textile, and Eliar Electronics to discuss the results. The results were
also presented in a board meeting to all partners of 3T to receive their
comments.
The questionnaire for dyers was conducted to 70 dyers and they were
sent and received via fax and e-mail. Out of 70 dyers, only ten are the part-
ners of 3T, the remaining ones are customers of 3T. All questionnaires were
originally addressed to the general manager of the company or to the direc-
tor of manufacturing and were mostly completed and returned by a con-
tact person holding a managerial position in the manufacturing area. To
increase the response rate, follow-up phone calls were also made. In total
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 142 11/16/2010 6:07:14 PM

30 responses (of which ten are partners of 3T) were received from the dyers
with a response rate of 42.8 percent.
The questionnaire for suppliers was prepared for six partner suppliers of
3T. These questionnaires were also sent and received via fax and e-mail. The
response rate of this questionnaire is 100 percent.
The total respondents for the questions regarding performance meas-
ures were 16 companies, all partners of 3T, while 36 companies altogether
answered questions regarding collaboration in general (Tables 8.3 through
8.5 in Section 8.4).
The results of the empirical study

General data
Our data show that the six partner suppliers are mainly small firms employ-
ing 7 to 68 employees. Half of (52 percent) all dyeing firms are small and
medium sized enterprises with less than 250 employees, while the rest
are large companies with 9 percent of them employing more than 1000
employees.
We observe that the sales figures of the dyers are relatively low compared
to the employment levels. 65 percent of the dyers have total sales of less
than 20 million USD in 2002 and only 15 percent achieved more than 60
million USD in sales. The reason might be the fact that the sector is try-
ing to recover the economic crisis of 2001 in Turkey. A similar reasoning
may be claimed for the low level of R&D expenditures. The dyers spent
on average 2.1 percent of their sales to R&D in 2002. On the other hand,
a significant difference between the partners of 3T and other respondents
to the questionnaire is observed in the ratio of the R&D budget to total
sales: while other companies (20 dyers) allocate more budget to R&D, the
partner companies (10 dyers) have transferred their R&D works to 3T and
its suppliers.
Figure 8.2 depicts the current level of collaboration of the 30 dyers that
responded the questionnaire. While 32 percent of the companies collabo-
rate with more than five companies, 56 percent do not practice any sort of
collaboration at all (that is, only three out of 20 non-partner dyers claim
collaboration). An important issue that the partners and other compa-
nies differ from each other is the number of companies they collaborate
with. Collaboration is a new concept for the textile industry as it also is
for other industries in Turkey. Collaboration requires a high level of trust
and information sharing, but it is not very easy to build such a trustworthy
atmosphere in this business environment. So, companies are reluctant to
collaborate. Since 3T has 16 partners, it is not very surprising that there is
a significant difference about this variable between the partners and other
companies. 68.4 percent of the other companies do not collaborate with
any company; however 83.3 percent of the partners collaborate with more
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 143 11/16/2010 6:07:15 PM

Companies
collaborating
with more than
5 companies
Companies 32%
that do not
collaborate
with any other
company Companies
56% collaborating
with 1–5
companies
12%
Figure 8.2 Collaboration level of dyers and suppliers
than five partners. This may certainly be due to their partnership to 3T,
but the most interesting fact is that 16.7 percent of the partners stated that
they collaborate with between one and five companies, although 3T has 16
partners. This means that they do not see all of the partners of 3T as their
partners and it may be a significant problem for the future of this collabora-
tion model.
Table 8.1 shows that the bid evaluation, which is the strategy where the
bids are evaluated only for that single purchasing, has been the most widely
used strategy among the dyers in the past. However, the technological capa-
bilities of the suppliers and strategic collaboration appear to gain importance
in supplier selection. It may be claimed that the importance of collaboration
is well understood by 3T dyer partners as 90 percent stated that they would
seek collaborative strategies in the next two years. Thus, collaboration is a
new but rapidly developing concept for the dyeing and finishing industry
in Turkey.
Even though collaboration is a new approach for the textile industry,
dyers and suppliers formed 3T. When the partners are asked why they have
decided to collaborate, we observe in Table 8.2 that the “necessity to com-
pete with the foreign textile industries” is the most important reason for
collaboration. Since the competition in the textile industry will increase
in the world after the removal of the quotas in year 2005, companies have
to increase their productivity and produce high value-added products to
survive. The partners of 3T seem to be aware of this fact, since 75 percent of
them see “producing high value-added products” as an extremely important
production target, while other companies do not see this target as impor-
tant as the partners do.
This result is in fact very significant considering the fact that the foreign
trade quotas will be removed at the beginning of 2005. Therefore, Turkish
dyeing and finishing industry has to reach a level at which it can compete
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 144 11/16/2010 6:07:15 PM

Table 8.1 Supplier selection strategies of the partner dyers
Supplier selection strategy Last 2 years Next 2 years
Bid evaluation 45% 20%

Technological capability 27% 60%
Common value creation 18% 20%
Strategic collaboration 36% 90%
Table 8.2 The mean, standard deviation, and the percentage distribution of part-
ners’ ratings of the reasons for collaboration
(%)*
Reasons Mean Std. dev. 1 2 3 4 5
Necessity to compete with the 4.20 0.94 7 13 33 47

foreign textile industries
Willingness to increase 4.13 1.25 20 7 13 60
supply chain and company
productivity
Existence of a beneficial 4.07 0.80 27 40 33
collaboration opportunity
* The percentages may not add up to 100 because of rounding.
with the foreign textile industries. The road to this level certainly passes
through the collaboration that leads companies to high productivity, high
quality, high innovation, and responsiveness. Thus, collaborative networks
such as 3T are very crucial and necessary for Turkish textile industry as well
as for other industries.
Performance of 3T
As mentioned in Figure 8.1, the performance results of 3T is grouped
under three categories (1) internal performance, (2) perceptions of part-
ners regarding the alliance performance, and (3) the degree of inter-firm
relationship.
Internal performance
3T aims at increasing the productivity and efficiency of the dyeing and
finishing companies through integrated automation systems to produce
innovative and high-tech products. In the past two years, 3T has facili-
tated the development of six new products in 17 projects. Although it is a
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 145 11/16/2010 6:07:15 PM

Table 8.3 Evaluation of 3T regarding innovation, sales, and productivity performance

measures
Innovation
Percentage of new products developments among all 35%
projects conducted (in 2 years)
Sales
Percentage of dyer project proposals that are accepted 100%
by 3T
Percentage of 3T projects proposals that are approved 11% (by 15 dyers)
by the dyers (in 2 years)
Percentage of projects conducted with partner dyers 43%
(in USD)
Productivity
Average project time 6 months
Percentage of projects that are completed on time 75%
Percent delay in the duration estimate) 20%
Average response time to dyers’ project proposal 2 weeks
Response time of 3T compared to other suppliers in Same
case of breakdowns
Frequency of project offers to the dyers (in 2 years) 158 projects (to 70 dyers)
Average cost reductions
Labor costs 30%
Raw material 10%
Energy costs 20%
Average estimated payback time 12 months
Number of projects for which price proposal has been None
revised
short period of time to observe performance results, 35 percent new prod-

uct development performance is well in accordance with the company’s
objectives.
In Table 8.3, we observe that 3T has never refused any proposal from the
dyers in the past two years and it responds to the dyers’ project proposals in
two weeks on average. On the other hand, only 11 percent of the 3T project
proposals (158 proposals in total) have been approved by the corresponding
dyers. This shows that 3T has been extensively marketing its services and
solutions in an attempt to create awareness in the industry. It appears that it
has been successful in these attempts since more than half of its project vol-
ume (in USD) has been with non-partner dyers (57 percent). This also shows
that the partners are more reluctant in doing projects with 3T compared to
other dyers.
The average duration of the 3T’s projects is six months. 25 percent of
the projects have been delayed and the delay is about 20 percent of the
estimated duration. Considering the fact that 3T is a new company with a
different collaboration model in the industry, this is an acceptable flaw in
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 146 11/16/2010 6:07:16 PM

the performance. The price offer has not been revised in any of the project
proposals. This shows that 3T offers realistic and reasonably low prices to
the dyers.
We have observed that 3T makes a cost/benefit and payback analysis
of the project and presents it to any potential customers in their project
proposals. When we analyze the projects proposed in the past two years,
we observe that 3T estimated reductions of 30 percent, 10 percent, and
20 percent in labor, raw material, and energy costs, respectively. We do
not have data regarding the exact reductions in these cost items, but
Figure 8.3 depicts a comparison of the realization levels to the estima-
tions of 3T based on the perceptions of partners. The most accurate esti-
mations are seen in the labor costs (in nine out of 11) followed by the
energy costs (in seven out of 11). Regarding the raw material and energy
costs, actual reduction is never realized more than the estimate. We also
observe that in seven out of 11 projects 3T overestimated the reduction in
raw material costs. The accuracy of 3T’s projections is an important factor
for its reliability and credibility for future projects. Therefore, keeping in
mind there is also a learning curve effect, 3T should place more care in
its cost estimations.
11
10 2
9 4
Number of dyers that worked with 3T
8
7
7
6
Estimated reduction > Actual reduction
7
5 Estimated reduction = Actual reduction
4 Estimated reduction < Actual reduction

7
3
2 4
1 2
0
Labor cost Raw material cost Energy cost
Figure 8.3 Realization level of the cost reductions in labor, raw material, and energy
costs
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 147 11/16/2010 6:07:16 PM

Perceptions of partners regarding the performance of 3T

We used a 5-point Likert scale in order to compare 3T’s performance in
terms of technical experience, price, quality, service, and financial support
(credit terms, advance payment amount, and so on) to other suppliers of the
partner dyers. As observed in Table 8.4, the only criterion other suppliers
outperform 3T is “financial support.” In terms of “technical experience”
and “service,” 77 percent of the partner dyers think that 3T is better/much
better than other suppliers. Also, all of the partner dyers consider other sup-
pliers no better than 3T in “technical experience,” “quality,” and “service”
criteria.
In what follows, we will discuss the partners’ perception of the 3T’s con-
tribution to partner firms’ defect rates, breakdowns, production capacity,
and product quality. Figure 8.4 provides the data to evaluate the perform-
ance contribution of 3T to its partners. Five of 11 dyers stated that their
defect rate of their products decreased up to 5 percent after 3T projects and
the remaining six did not see any contribution. The reason behind this rela-
tively low performance might be the different scopes of different projects
since the goals of implementing automation systems may differ from one
dyer to another. Regarding the contribution of 3T projects to the break-
downs of the machines and automation systems of the dyers, six out of 11
dyers stated that the percentage of breakdown duration of the machines
in total production time reduced after the implementation of automation
system supplied by 3T. Three of 11 projects decreased the breakdown per-
centages by more than 5 percent. This result is not very surprising since 3T
supplies automation systems to the dyers. Regarding the production capaci-
ties, four of the dyers realized an increase of more than 10 percent while two
realized an increase up to 10 percent after 3T projects.
Table 8.4 Comparison of 3T to other suppliers
(%)*
Criterion Average superiority 1 2 3 4 5
Technical experience 2.00 22 55 22

Price 2.44 22 22 44 11
Quality 2.22 22 33 44
Service 1.89 33 44 22
Financial support 4.11 89 11
* The percentages may not add up to 100 because of rounding.

Note: The scale is “1=3T is much better,” “2=3T is better,” “3=equivalent,” “4=other suppliers are
better,” and “5=other suppliers are much better.”
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 148 11/16/2010 6:07:17 PM

Number of dyers that

Number of dyers that
9 6 5
worked with 3T
4
worked with 3T
6
6 5 5
3 3 3 2
3
0
0 0
> 5% 1–5% None > 10% 1–10% None
Defect rate Breakdowns Production capacity
Figure 8.4 Performance contribution of 3T projects to the dyers regarding the

decrease in defect rate and breakdowns and increase in production capacity
Number of partners
9 8
6 5
3 2
0
Big contribution Little contribution No contribution
Figure 8.5 Performance contribution of 3T to its partners on product quality
In evaluating the performance contribution of 3T, we used a 5-point

Likert scale. “Launch of high quality products and services” and “increase
in productivity” are the top performing contribution areas as perceived by
66.7 percent and 58.3 percent of the partners, respectively, to achieve big/
very big contribution. This is not a surprising result since 3T aims at let-
ting its partners to produce high quality and value-added products through
technology sharing and increasing their productivity. However, these per-
centages seem to be rather low. The reason might be the fact that 3T has
completed a small number of projects so far.
Regarding the quality of the products 13 out of 15 respondent partners
stated that they have experienced improved quality in their products after
having initiated collaboration with 3T (Figure 8.5). This result has great
significance considering the goals of 3T. Further, there is a strong correla-
tion (coefficient is 0.813) between the firms’ performance target “increasing
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 149 11/16/2010 6:07:17 PM

the conformance to quality standards” and 3T’s performance improvement

area “launching of high quality products and services.” This shows that the
companies aiming to increase the quality level reach their targets by being
a partner of 3T.
The degree of inter-firm relationship

3T organizes regular bimonthly meetings with its supplier and dyer
partners. These meetings are important for the success of the collabora-
tion since partner dyers share information about customer requirements
while partner suppliers share their technological innovations in these
meetings. Technology and information sharing is the main infrastruc-
ture of this collaboration model. Thus, these meetings play a significant
role in facilitating partners building trust on each other and increasing
their understandings about the collaboration concept. However, while
3T attends to all meetings, partners do not show such a high perform-
ance, which appears to be a barrier in building high-level trust and shar-
ing information among partners. We collected data on how frequent the
partners participate to the meetings. We observe that only a quarter of
the partners “participate all” meetings while another quarter “partici-
pate most of them.” Figure 8.6 shows the participation frequency of the
dyers and suppliers separately. Actually, the geographic locations of the
partners have a significant effect on this fact. We also observe that the
attendance of the suppliers to the meetings is more frequent than the
attendance of dyers.
Participants that give high importance to “willingness to share infor-
mation with partners” also participate to most of the regular meet-
ings of 3T. These companies are able to comprehend the importance
of the meetings for information sharing and building trust among the
partners.
When the frequency of the participation in the meetings increases, the
level of the trust and information sharing between companies increases.
Participate
Never frequently
Participate all
participate 0,0% 55,6%
50,0%
Do not
participate most Participate most
of them 0,0% of them 22,2%
Participate
rarely 0,0% Participate all
Participate most Participate
Do not Never 11,1%
of them 33,3% rarely 16,7%
Participate participate most participate 0,0%
frequently 0,0% of them 11,1%
Figure 8.6 Participation frequencies of the partners to 3T meetings
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 150 11/16/2010 6:07:18 PM

While the coefficient of correlation between participation frequency to the

meetings and trust level among partners is 0.982, it is 0.945 between partici-
pation frequency to the meetings and information sharing level.
In order to understand the effect of trust, information sharing, and
communication on the performance of collaboration, an additional vari-
able is used to keep track of the average of the answers of each participant
to the question about performance contribution of 3T. Then, the corre-
lation analysis was executed between this variable and variables about
level of trust, information sharing, and communication. The coefficient
of correlation between the statement “there exists a high level of trust
between the partners” and average performance contribution of 3T is
0.810. This shows that as trust among partners increases, performance of
the collaboration also increases. The correlation between the statement
“we share the information regarding the requirements of the customers
with our partners” and the same additional variable is also very strong
with a coefficient of 0.989. Lastly, according to the analysis, the correla-
tion coefficient is 0.887 for the average performance contribution of 3T
and the participation frequency of the partners to the regular meetings.
Consequently, all these results show that as the trust, information shar-
ing, and the communication between the partners increase, the perform-
ance contribution of collaboration to the partners also increases (Sako
and Helper, 1998).
Conclusions and further research directions
SCC is increasingly becoming an organizational form even for technological

development (Gulati, 1998; Das, 2000). Therefore, managers should develop
their managerial skills needed to manage alliances. Companies might fur-
ther reposition themselves as time passes, so it is crucial to evaluate the
performance contribution of SCC to alliance firms as well as its own per-
formance. The process of developing a performance measurement is not an
easy task as the example of 3T shows.
Similar to the Turkish textile producers, many firms in developing coun-
tries are challenged to produce high value-added and innovative products
instead of low quality and cheap products and export them to the world
(Yoshino and Rangan, 1995). Our study firms target “producing high val-
ue-added and high quality products” and try to realize this through a col-
laborative network, namely the establishment of a joint venture. This is a
successful collaborative venture with 3T as it enables the development of new
technologies and products by bringing the resources of partners together.
As well, 3T is a financially successful venture since it has become profitable
after two years of its initiation. Such collaborations might be a tool for firms
in developing countries in order to gain competitiveness in their respective
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 151 11/16/2010 6:07:18 PM

industries at the global level. In fact, the success of Japanese firms is a good
example of this (Chung and Kim, 2003).
On the other hand, it is not easy to build such collaborative networks
and manage them well. This study attempts to identify the barriers to col-
laboration, where the lack of confidence to the partners and unwillingness
to share information with the partners are of particular concern. This study
also reveals that as the level of trust between the partners increases the per-
formance of the collaboration and the benefits that the partners gain from
the collaboration also increase. Besides trust, our study clearly shows that
the existence of a performance measurement system is an extremely impor-
tant element for an effective SCC.
Even though each alliance should attempt to develop its unique set of
performance metrics depending on its specific characteristics, the case of
3T helps us to see how a performance measurement system can be applied
where three metrics are used, namely (1) metrics related to internal perform-
ance, (2) perceptions of partners regarding the alliance performance, and (3)
the degree of inter-firm relationship.
Overall, 3T is a successful venture. It satisfies its main goal by creating
technologies that lead into the production of high value-added products
at the industry. It is a profit making joint venture with expansion of new
partners joining to the SCC. Its success is not limited to the creation of new
technologies but also it covers the creation of positive perception of part-
ners regarding the 3T’s performance.
Even though 3T is successful, there are some potential improvement
areas, particularly in its internal activities and its relationship with the part-
ners. Internal performance can be further improved with small changes.
For example, 3T should improve its performance either in estimating the
duration of the projects more accurately or by completing the projects on
time. It might improve its cost/benefit and payback analysis in its proposals
since it tends to overestimate the reductions in labor costs, energy costs, and
particularly in raw material costs.
The real benefit seems to come from the improvement of the degree of
inter-firm relationship, in other words communication. Our study shows
that as the level of information sharing and communication among the
partners increase the performance and the benefits of the collaboration also
increase. As the degree of inter-firm relationships affects the performance
of SCC at a significant level, 3T should pay attention to develop its commu-
nication capability. This can be done in two ways. First, we observed that
the involvements of the suppliers in the projects are not evenly distributed.
The suppliers that take part in the projects less frequently may be included
in the future projects by extending the scope of projects. More participa-
tion will help 3T build better integrated and higher value-added systems
for its customers. Second, from the performance measurement analysis, we
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 152 11/16/2010 6:07:18 PM

observe that the efforts of each partner to improve the collaboration are not
at the same level. More frequent attendance of the partners to the meetings
will also improve the communication and information sharing level among
the partners.
It is not easy for SCCs such as 3T to measure its performance and evalu-
ate its partners’ performance in a comparative manner since the examples
of such collaboration models are rare, preventing a benchmarking study.
The continuous evaluations can bring revisions in performance systems,
making it dynamic and flexible. For example, new performance metrics,
especially in the area of resource sharing, may be developed when 3T
extends its collaboration model to the area of resource sharing in the
future.
One weakness of the study is its reliance on one joint venture for testing
a performance measurement system. It would be useful to have more stud-
ies about technological collaborations in a supply chain. Moreover, having
different technological collaboration forms might be another extension of
this work that will help to compare the advantages of various governance
structures besides joint ventures.
However, as the case of Turkish textile industry shows, SCC among
small and large firms can be a successful tool in creating and diffus-
ing innovation. Further, SCC can have long-term goals like continuous
product innovation as experienced in 3T and this might increase overall
performance of an industry, again as experienced in 3T (Chung and Kim,
2003). That is why SCC might be a particularly important tool for devel-
oping country firms that lack both financial and human resources. This
in turn might increase the competitiveness of firms and the industry as
a whole.
● Technology collaboration is an advantageous strategy for competi-
tion, so it is of high concern to understand mechanisms behind the
success of collaborations. Performance measurement system is one of
these mechanisms that help not only to develop but also maintain
collaborations.
● Considering the inherent complexity of the supply chain, selecting
appropriate performance measures for supply chain collaboration is criti-
cal. Measures need to provide an accurate picture of supply chain per-
formance as a whole but also highlight opportunities for improvement
at the overall supply chain levels. Textile Dying Technologies (3T) is a
collaborative model in the Turkish textile dyeing and finishing industry
that struggles to establish a performance measurement system for effec-
tive supply chain collaboration. This is a joint venture of six technology
9780230_245907_09_cha08.indd 153 11/16/2010 6:07:19 PM

supplying and ten dyeing and finishing partner companies, each having
a one-sixteenth share of 3T. It aims at developing and diffusing new
technologies.
● Based on the analysis of 3T’s practices, three critical performance meas-
ures are summarized below:
(1) Managers should choose their internal performance metrics along
the lines of innovation, sales, and productivity. Some examples are
as follows:
Innovation
Percentage of the number of new products developed
Sales
Percentage of partner project proposals that are accepted by the
alliance
Percentage of alliance projects proposals that are approved by the
partners
Percentage of projects that are done for partners
Productivity
Average project time
Percentage of projects that are completed on time
Average time to respond to partners’ project proposal
Response time of alliance compared to other suppliers in the cases of
breakdowns
Frequency of project offers of alliance to the partners
Average cost reduction percentage of alliance projects that is suggested
by the alliance (labor/raw material/energy costs)
Percentage of projects on which the price proposal has been revised
Average suggested payback time of the projects.
(2) Managers should find out perceptions of partners about the perform-
ance of alliance by measuring them with metrics such as:
Comparison of the alliance performance to other suppliers
Contribution of the alliance about the defect rates of the products
that partners supply to the market
Contribution of the alliance about the unplanned breakdowns of the
machines of the partners
Contribution of the alliance about the production capacity of the dyers
Contribution of the alliance about the product quality of partners.
(3) Managers need to identify solid measures to explore the degree of
inter-firm relationship, including:
Frequency of regular meetings
Average participation percentage to the meetings.
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Part III
Innovation
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9
Understanding Discontinuous
Technology and Radical Innovation
Gaston Trauffler and Hugo Tschirky
Introduction
There is a great variety of terms used to describe the phenomenon of tech-

nological discontinuity and radical innovation (Green et al., 1995: 203;
Garcia and Roger, 2002: 110). Both terms are often used synonymously
without any differentiation (Lehmann, 1994: 10). Besides the term radi-
cal innovation (North and Tucker, 1987: 11; Damanpour, 1988: 546; Leifer,
2000: 4; O’Connor and Veryzer, 2001: 233), and breakthrough innovation
(Nayak and Ketteringham, 1986: 181; Mascitelli, 2000), authors speak of
breakpoint (Strebel, 1995: 11) or revolutionary innovation (Abernathy and
Clark, 1991: 61). Since a few years Christensen (1997; 2003) introduced the
term disruptive technology in the context related to radical innovation
changes. The present article will focus on the most popular terms used in
literature – which are discontinuous technology, radical innovation, and
disruptive technology – in order to differentiate them and to show how they
are related. Doing so, it will also shed light on how the research community
commonly understands the phenomenon described by these terms.
Based on this common understanding scholars derived a set of generally
accepted implications that describe the challenges related to the manage-
ment of discontinuous technology and radical innovation.
General understanding
Terminology and phenomenon

A discontinuous technology is a technology that is the result of a scien-
tific breakthrough achieved through a long-term research effort. It builds
on newly acquired scientific knowledge that usually does not follow the
expected evolution of existing technologies. It is the deviation from what
was expected by forecasting experience that makes the technology discon-
tinuous (Lehmann, 1994: 8ff). Thus, it represents a breakpoint within a
given technological paradigm1 that initiates a change to a new technology
161
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162 Trauffler and Tschirky
trajectory (Dosi, 1982: 152). Tushman and Anderson (1997: 5) point out
that technological discontinuities can be competence enhancing as well
as competence destroying.2 As a consequence, not all discontinuities affect
companies in the same way. For some companies the same technological
discontinuity might be helpful to sustain competitive advantage as the
discontinuity enhances its existing competencies while for the other com-
pany it might mean the debasement and destruction of its competencies
(McKelvey, 1996: 108ff). As a consequence, this company has to substitute
the greater part of its technological knowledge in order to follow the dis-
continuity. Thus, there are discontinuities that affect only a few companies
while other discontinuities affect a whole industry.
From a market perspective discontinuous technologies often provide the
basis for a new product with an order of magnitude improvement (actual or
potential) in price/performance3 ratio, caused by a substantially changed
technology4 base (Anderson and Tushman, 1990: 604; Ehrnberg and
Jacobsson, 1993: 28).
The successful commercialization of a discontinuous technology can lead
to either a radical innovation or to an incremental innovation (Brodbeck
et al., 2003: 137). Concretely speaking a radical innovation involves the (1)
application of significant new technologies often emerging from a discon-
tinuity, or (2) significant new combinations of existing technologies to new
market opportunities (Tushman and Nadler, 1986: 74f). Radical innovation
“departs dramatically from the norm” (Anderson and Tushman, 1990: 604)
and “transforms the relationship between customers and suppliers, restruc-
tures marketplace economics, displaces current products, and often creates
entirely new product categories” (Leifer et al., 2000: 2). It can lead to either
a new product class life-cycle, or a discontinuity in an existing life-cycle,
initiating the substitution of an old product or process for the new one
(Lambe and Spekman, 1997: 102). Radical innovations bring forth whole
product lines that are not only new for the company that creates it but that
are also new for the market place. Often such radical innovation addresses
an urgent customer need that had yet not been articulated, or it notice-
ably improves the price/performance ratio of existing products (O’Connor,
1998: 151).
Beside these definitions of radical innovations that are primarily focused
on a market perspective, a few authors only give definitions or rather descrip-
tions of radical innovations from a company perspective. Green et al. (1995:
203ff) for example consider innovations radical if the four following dimen-
sions apply: (1) technological uncertainty, (2) technical inexperience, (3)
business inexperience, and (4) high technology cost. Shenhar et al. (1995:
179) classify technologies according to their uncertainty at the time the
project is initiated at the company. With regard to the fact that most tech-
nological projects employ a mixture of technologies, some are emergent
and highly uncertain and some more mature and less uncertain he suggests
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 162 11/16/2010 6:07:31 PM

Discontinuous Technology and Radical Innovation 163
defining four types of innovations according to the overall uncertainty

of the project: low-technological uncertainty over medium- to high-up to
super-high technology uncertainty.
Similarly to radical innovations, disruptive technologies address the com-
mercialization of a discontinuous technology. As a matter of fact techno-
logical discontinuities are considered a subset of technological disruptions
(Ehrnberg and Jacobsson, 1993: 44). A discontinuity is considered a disrup-
tion if it has a restructuring effect on an established industry (Christensen,
1997: 13ff; Porter, 1998: 253; Rafii and Kampas, 2002: 116; Vojak and
Chambers, 2004: 123). Ehrenberg and Jacobsson (1993: 44) hypothesize
three causes that might play a role when a discontinuity turns into a dis-
ruption. As a first cause they suggest the destructive character of the tech-
nology. The more the discontinuity destructs or renders obsolete existing
technological knowledge, the more it might have a disruptive effect on the
industry. Second, the more new technologies from a distinct generic area
are added to the existing technology base of the industry, the higher the
probability for a disruption. As a third cause, these authors name the rate
of diffusion of the technology. It is stated that the faster the diffusion of
the discontinuity the more disruptive its effect will be. This is due to the
fact that the time companies have at their disposal to detect and to react to
a discontinuity is determined by the speed of diffusion of that technology
between users.
Although disruptive technologies are seen to be a threat to an established
industry they usually create growth in those industries they penetrate. They
might even create entirely new industries by introducing new products and
services (Kostoff et al., 2004: 141). Typically, disruptive technologies emerge
in industries different from the ones they finally disrupt. In their initial
industry they first appear in niche markets from which they grow to pen-
etrate other industries with more attractive markets in terms of margin and
volume (Christensen, 1997; Gilbert, 2003: 28).
The above-mentioned definitions of disruptive technologies and discon-
tinuous technology focus mainly on changes and the consequences of these
phenomena from a product, market, and customer view within the industry
as a whole5 and within a company in particular. In sum, a discontinuous
technology or a radical innovation initiates major changes within a given
structure of an industry while a disruptive technology triggers changes that
restructure a whole industry. Descriptions and definitions of radical inno-
vations are also considered from a market view, based on their degree of
newness compared to existing products or through their price/performance
competitiveness. This most common understanding of discontinuous and
disruptive technologies and radical innovation is emphasized in Table 9.1
adapted from Kassicieh et al. (2002: 385). It shows from which most common
perspectives different authors define the three terms. These perspectives are
related to a specific characteristic of change – (1) change in technology, (2)
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 163 11/16/2010 6:07:31 PM

Table 9.1 Four perspectives of defining discontinuous/disruptive technologies and
Corroad & Abernathy Meyers Bower &

Corroad & Clark Foster & Tucker Moore Mckee Christensen
1982 1985 1986 1989 1991 1992 1995
Perspective 1: change in technology
Change in
technology base
Technology learning ▪
curve
Perspective 2: change in technology and products
Technology / product ▪
paradigm
New industry ▪
architectural
technology /
product paradigm
New industry ▪
revolution
technology /product
paradigm
New product families
Perspective 3: change in markets
Newness of ▪
technology /
product / market
New firm technology/ ▪
product / market
paradigm
Perspective 4: change in customer benefits
Change in customer ▪
benefits
Order of magnitude
improvement in cost
or performance
Increase in user ▪
benefits
Competitive ▪
advantage
Source: Adapted from Kassicieh et al., 2002.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 164 11/16/2010 6:07:31 PM

radical innovations
Lynn,
Morone & Lambe & Leifer
Ehrenberg Paulson Walsh Spekman Veryzer Rice et al. et al. McDermott Clark
1995a 1996 1996 1997 1998 1998 2000 et al. 2002 2003
▪ ▪
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
▪ ▪
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 165 11/16/2010 6:07:31 PM

change in technology and corresponding products, (3) change in markets,

and (4) change in benefit of the customer – through which authors define
discontinuous/disruptive technology or radical innovation. It is apparent
from this Table 9.1 that most authors focus on perspectives 2, 3, and 4.
Implications: challenges for management
With this basic understanding being set, this section presents the implica-
tions of the above described phenomenon for the management of a company.
The implications shown in this chapter represent the common understand-
ing within the whole community of researchers – industry focused and
company focused – that are investigating in this field.
There is a broad agreement among researchers that management usually
handles the emergence of discontinuous technologies and radical innova-
tion with a low sense of urgency (Lambe and Spekman, 1997; Rafii and
Kampas, 2002: 102). This is due to the long-term perspective of the research
and development projects of these technologies. Generally such projects last
up to ten years and more (Rice et al., 1998: 58) which makes it difficult for
managers to see the applicable outcome of these efforts right from the begin-
ning. Thus, such projects are often run with low priority having a minor
sense of urgency. However, these projects require a great deal of resources
and management attention (McDermott and O’Connor, 2002: 425) before
they can eventually be transferred into marketable products. These contra-
dictory characteristics – low priority and minor sense of urgency compared
to the high degree of resource and management requirement – results in
conflicts. Furthermore, the progression of radical innovation projects start-
ing from basic research via development to the first stages of commercializa-
tion is an endeavor accompanied by a high level of uncertainty (Abernathy
and Utterback, 1978: 45; Rice et al., 1998: 58; Veryzer, 1998a: 318). Such
uncertainty is of multiple dimensions (Milliken, 1990; Leifer, 2000: 18ff).
For instance, it is due to a lack of technological and market knowledge as
no previous technological or reliable market insight exists in the company
(Christensen, 1997: 209; Jolly, 1997: 7ff). Market data is seldom available
and customer requirements are often vague6 (Wieandt, 1995: 450; Song and
Montoya-Weiss, 1998: 132; Veryzer, 1998: 149). Veryzer (1998: 147) brings it
to the point: “for discontinuous new products customer input may not nec-
essarily be relied upon as heavily to guide the product development process
as it is in developing incremental new products.” All of this lack of informa-
tion leads to uncertainty making strategic planning of radical innovation
projects very difficult.
It is the people within the existing organization, meaning managers, that
are most concerned by the uncertainty inherent to a discontinuous tech-
nology or radical innovation project. Often managers have difficulties see-
ing the business opportunity targeted with such projects as they do not fit
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 166 11/16/2010 6:07:32 PM

in their existing mindset formed through the present portfolio of projects.

Many companies view business opportunities too narrowly through the lens
of their existing assets and capabilities (Kim and Mauborgne, 1997: 106).
This cognitive filter is referred to as dominant logic. It is the set of biases,
beliefs, and assumptions – about the markets to enter, technologies to use,
competitors to watch, people to hire, and businesses to run – that is rooted
within an organization (Afuah, 1998: 97ff). Dominant logic is defined as
“a mind set or a world view or conceptualization of the business and the
administrative tools to accomplish goals and make decisions in that busi-
ness. It is stored as a shared cognitive map (or set of schemas) among the
dominant coalition” (Prahalad and Bettis, 1986: 491). The dominant logic of
an existing company hinders organizations from recognizing the opportu-
nity behind a totally new technology. Thus, it may provide at least a partial
explanation for the uncertainty organizations encounter when confronted
with discontinuous technology or radical innovation.
In addition to the existing organizational hurdles described above there
are resource uncertainties that complicate the decision for and the imple-
mentation of radical innovation projects. Resource uncertainties are the
result of the probability of a major loss of funding because of an overall
decrease in corporate performance or a change in senior management spon-
sorship (Leifer, 2000: 23). In sum many of these uncertainties coupled with
a high level of resource assignment make discontinuous technology and
radical innovation projects very risky. This is why many organizations are
reluctant to engage in such projects (McDermott and O’Connor, 2002: 425)
and tend rather to further develop their competencies within a relatively
narrow scope and range (McKelvey, 1996: 109) focusing on short-term rev-
enues. Thus, once a discontinuous technology is ready for the market, it is
often commercialized by outsider companies instead of established industry
leaders (Utterback, 1994: 160; Strebel, 1995: 11; Christensen, 1997: 85).
In general, there is broad agreement between scholars that discontinu-
ous technologies and radical innovations have a very specific character
that is distinct from continuously evolving technologies and incremental
innovation (Lynn et al., 1996: 11; O’Connor, 1998: 162; Rice at al., 1998:
57; Song and Montoya-Weiss, 1998: 132; Kessler and Chakrabarti, 1999:
231). This distinction of technologies and innovations asks for different
styles of management including differentiated types of strategic actions
and organizational capabilities (Kessler and Chakrabarti, 1999: 235). Thus,
conventional management techniques are not suitable until the techno-
logical innovation has reached a certain maturity level so that it can fit the
pattern of incremental innovation (Abernathy and Clark, 1985: 20; Rice
et al., 1998: 58; Veryzer, 1998a: 319; Kessler and Chakrabarti, 1999: 231;
Leifer et al., 2000: 11). Authors (Tushman and Anderson, 1986; Tushman
and O’Reilly, 1996a; McDermott and O’Connor, 2002) agree that sus-
tainable growth requires specific management skills for both types of
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 167 11/16/2010 6:07:32 PM

innovation – incremental and radical – at the same time. Thus, Tushman

and Anderson claim (1986: 734) that companies have to overcome the
dilemma to master “evolutionary and revolutionary change” simultane-
ously. Tushman and O’Reilly (1998: 40) emphasize that on the one hand,
companies have to plan and align their activities along a relatively stable
and evolutionary change. On the other hand, they have to eliminate these
achievements once the competitive environment changes radically know-
ing that new technologies will substitute the foundations underlying their
present products.
These understandings that reflect the very different nature of radi-
cal versus incremental innovation represent the initial positions for all
researchers active in this field. They commonly acknowledge that the
inherent uncertainty and risk of radical innovation needs a distinguished
management from the one used for incremental innovation. However
important this distinction is, scholars agree that the dilemma lies in the
necessity for the simultaneous management of both types of innovations.
This simultaneous consideration is called sustained innovation manage-
ment, it manages the combination of changes initiated by radical innova-
tion and followed by continuous incremental improvement innovation.
The dilemma is initiated by the requirement to fulfill conflictive criteria
in one and the same innovation management concept. Thus, implica-
tions for management are not intuitively clear. It needs to adopt a “sus-
tained innovation” perspective. This perspective requires following three
criteria:
The capability to simultaneously manage long-term and short-term issues in

differentiated ways.
The capability to simultaneously manage issues with different levels of risk
in differentiated ways.
The capability to align management issues of long-term and shot term char-
acter, as well as management issued with different risk levels to one single
strategic planning purpose.
Taking the common understanding of this section as a basis the next sec-
tions will show different solution approaches suggested by the two clusters
of research – industry focused and company focused – mentioned earlier.
Solution approaches
Building upon this overview the present section will analyze which solu-
tion approaches scholars suggest that contribute to successful management
of discontinuous/disruptive technologies and radical innovation. Thus, the
two clusters of research – industry focused and the company focused – will
be analyzed and presented in more detail. Some of the authors that will be
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 168 11/16/2010 6:07:32 PM

presented have already been mentioned above in the context of description

and definition of the phenomenon and its implications for management.
These authors’ research will now be presented from a solution-providing
perspective.
Industry level focused research

Research focused on the industry level builds on the common understand-
ing of discontinuous / disruptive technologies and radical innovation.
Starting from this understanding it aims to describe the consequences
of a technological discontinuity on the macro economic level within a
given industry structure. Thus, scholars collect empirical data over long
periods of time within one or more specific industries. Analyzing this
data, they look for patterns that emerge whenever a discontinuity hap-
pens. The benefit of this research is twofold: on the one hand, it allows
the dynamics of the phenomenon of discontinuous technologies to be
studied and on the other hand, modeling and generalizing observed pat-
terns helps to develop planning approaches for the management of future
discontinuities.
First a group of researcher’s work will be presented that focuses on devel-
oping life-cycle models out of their observations. In a second part of this
section a group of researchers’ work will be presented that, based on their
observed pattern directly discuss approaches and models describing how to
handle the observed pattern from a generalized management perspective,
finally a market commercialization perspective will be presented.
Life-cycle perspective
A first well-known life-cycle model is the technology S-Curve. First pre-
sented by Foster (1986) it visualizes how technology performance evolves
with cumulating R&D expenses (or time) along an s-shaped curve (see
Figure 9.1) (Foster, 1986: 31). The performance growth curve in a first phase
is low as the technological progress of an emerging technology is typically
slow. However, with accumulating expenditures in R&D this performance
can be continuously increased. In this second phase the R&D yield per
invested unit is high due to a good basic knowledge. In its third phase the
model of the technology performance curve shows a decreasing increment,
approaching a certain limit. The curve flattens increasingly down as the
model is based on the assumption that every technology has a certain per-
formance limit that cannot be exceeded. This limit often represents the end
of this technology as further R&D investments will no longer increase the
technologies’ performance significantly and eventually R&D investment
will be stopped in favor of an a new technology with the potential to exceed
the performance of the old technology. At this moment the S-curve of this
old technology stops, it is discontinued. Technology that is now invested in,
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 169 11/16/2010 6:07:32 PM

is called “discontinuous” compared to “the old technology”; it initiated the

discontinuity of its predecessor technology.
Analyzing Foster’s work from the perspective of its contribution for the
purpose of this research there are two criteria fulfilled: first the require-
ment for a strategic perspective and second the requirement for supportive
tools and techniques. As a matter of fact Foster promotes the S-curve as a
strategic planning tool. He argues that it can forecast when and how fast a
technology will attain its performance limits. Following the shape of the
curve would allow the prediction to of which extent present products can
be improved and what their cost would be. However some scholars disa-
gree with the usefulness of the S-curve as a strategic planning instrument
(Osterloh and von Wartburg, 1998: 141). There are two main augments why
the contribution of the S-curve for strategic planning is limited: first the
actual progression of the technology performance curve is often not in the
course of a predicted S-curve. It is especially the limit of the technology
performance that is hard to forecast with accuracy. Many cases showed that
the technology that is predicted to be discontinued would at the moment
of distress boost its performance to a higher limit than had been expected.
Such unexpected performance boosts at the end of a technology S-curve are
described by the term “sailing-ship effect” (Foster and Kaplan, 2002: 140ff).
A second criticism of the S-curve is that it is in the first place of a descriptive
nature. It does not give any strategic recommendation of how to proceed
in a given situation. It is particularly criticized that the concept does not
show any relationship between technological evolution and product/market
opportunities. Taking these two points of criticism into account, Foster’s
contribution for the purpose of this research is limited.
Technology performance
Discontinuity
Performance limit
Accumulated R&D expenses
Figure 9.1 Technology S-curves

Source: Foster, 1986: 111.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 170 11/16/2010 6:07:32 PM

A second model is the technology lifecycle model.7 It is based on the

observation that over time, technologies run through different stages of
market diffusion similar to the product life cycle model. Typically four
stages can be differentiated. The first stage describes the emergence of
the technology, it is characterized “by basic discovery, scientific turbu-
lence and highly uncertain potential” (Roussel, 1984: 29). During this
stage the technology is called pace maker technology. In the second stage
of market penetration, the technology is referred to as key technology.
This stage is characterized by increasing diffusion until the third stage
of maturity begins, where the technological advance slows down. In this
stage the technology is referred to as basic technology. In its last stage,
the technology slowly disappears from the market. This stage is called
degeneration or the aging stage of the now named threatened technology.
According to experience the technologies’ competitive capacity declines
with progression through its lifecycle. While the progression through
the lifecycle is driven by incremental innovation, the emergence of a
new technological lifecycle will be generated by a radical innovation (see
Figure 9.2).
The use of the technology life cycle in strategic planning is similar to the
S-curve model. Theoretically the visualization of two successively follow-
ing technology lifecycles can indicate the emergence of a technological
discontinuity. However, it is generally hard to predict how market diffu-
sion of a technology will be over time. Thus, the technology life cycle
model is purely descriptive and is difficult to use for strategic planning
purposes.
A third model is the industry lifecycle model. It originates from the
observation that structures and competition within many industries are
influenced to a great extent by the technological paradigms applied in it
(Abernathy and Utterback, 1978: 43; Abernathy and Clark, 1985: 13). Thus,
a discontinuous change of a technology paradigm, even initiated by a single
Maturity Degeneration
Basic Technology Threatened technology
Technology diffusion
Penetration
Key technology
Introduction
Pace maker technology
Time
Figure 9.2 The technology life cycle
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 171 11/16/2010 6:07:33 PM

Dominant design
Area of ferment Consolidation of the industry

Number of firms
Time
Figure 9.3 Typical course of the industry life cycle
company, has considerable affect on the whole industry (Tushman and

Anderson, 1986: 460).
The observed pattern is that a radical innovation enlivens the innovation
rate in an industry during the so-called area of ferment which is characterized
by two distinct selection processes: “competition between technical regimes
and competition within the new technical regime” (Anderson and Tushman,
1990: 606). In this competition, the number of innovations and the number
of firms competing in the industry rises until a so called dominant design
emerges that establishes a new technical regime that is most accepted in
the market (see Figure 9.3). The dominant design focuses technology change
on a specified and widely recognized incremental improvement trajectory
(Stoelhorst, 2002: 265). With the dominant design established, a new tech-
nology cycle begins (see Figure 9.4). The number of innovations compet-
ing decreases and the industry consolidates, which means that number of
companies in the industry decreases. During the creation of the dominant
design, the industry is usually totally restructured. New players enter in the
industry; established ones vanish, with them the customers’ constellation
alters as well as the set of suppliers to the industry changes.
Although this model is just as descriptive as the previous two, it has the
power to serve as a basis for strategic planning. There is one main differ-
ence in this model compared to the two previously described ones, that is,
it does not make any statement that is critically time dependent. While the
previous models described one single pattern which only becomes valuable
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 172 11/16/2010 6:07:33 PM

Era of ferment initiated by a radical Era of incremental change

innovation • Elaboration of dominant design
• Design competition
• Substitution
Time
Technological Dominant Technological

discontinuity 1 design 1 discontinuity 2
Figure 9.4 The industry technology cycle

Source: Anderson and Tushman, 1990: 606.
when considered in the course of time, the present model describes the
alternation of two successive patterns over time. It is the statement that two
patterns alternate whenever a technological discontinuity happens that is
valuable for strategic planning. Now companies know what pattern they
have to be prepared for although they still do not exactly know when these
preparations need to be ready. As a consequence, management approaches
are developed in order to describe how to prepare companies for discontinu-
ous change that now make it clear what pattern to prepare for.
The first management approaches developed in the course of this research
date from 1985 (Abernathy and Clark) and 1986 (Tushman and Anderson).
Based on the observations made on industrial change as a consequence
of technology change, these researchers claimed that there are differenti-
ated organizational environments needed according to the type of tech-
nology change encountered. Later in 1990 (Anderson and Tushman) and
1994 (Utterback) when the above shown model was developed and tech-
nology change was related to an alternating pattern within the industry
the requirement for approaching discontinuous technology change became
more distinct Anderson and Tushman (1990: 629) claim that organizations
“must develop diverse competencies both to shape and deal with techno-
logical evolution.” First, firms have to build up capabilities to either ini-
tiate or respond rapidly to discontinuities. Second, inter-organizational
dynamics are required meaning that organizations must be able “to com-
bine technological capabilities with the ability to shape inter-organizational
network and coalitions to influence the development of industry standards”
(Anderson and Tushman, 1990: 629). Finally, companies need to master the
ability to produce incremental innovations for the time after the dominant
design has been established. These three approaches has been further devel-
oped and adapted to a more strategic perspective. In Tushman and O’Reilly
(1996), Tushman and O’Reilly (1998) and recently in 2004 O’Reilly and
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 173 11/16/2010 6:07:34 PM

Tushman they were published under the approach named “Ambidextrous

Organizations.” The main message of these publication being: “The real test
of leadership [ ... ] is to be able to compete successfully by both increasing
the alignment or fit among strategy, structure, culture, and processes, while
simultaneously preparing for the inevitable revolutions required by dis-
continuous environmental change. This requires organizations and man-
agement skills to compete in a mature market (where cost, efficiency, and
incremental innovation are key) and to develop new products and services
(where radical innovation, speed, and flexibility are critical” (Tushman and
O’Reilly, 1996a: 726).
Evaluating the above course of research with regards to the requirement
for a solution approach targeted in the present research context, at least two
requirements are fulfilled. There is a distinct strategic perspective recogniz-
able in the solution approaches described as well as a sustained innovation
perspective promoting simultaneous management of radical and incremen-
tal innovation. To some extent there are also statements that include the
structural aspects of the organization, although these statements generally
remain quite vague.
Hopeful Dominant
monstrosity design
time
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Embryonic First commercial Emerging Established
technology applications consensus on standard
standards
Main activities Strategic R&D Design competition Coalition building Normal competition
Objectives Have access to Be in the game Be in the lead Orchestrate the

knowledge base supply chain
Management Manage portfolio Manage portfolio Manage portfolio Manage portfolio

focus of technologies of applications of alliances of products and
and design linkages
CSFs Technological
competencies
Organizational
capabilities
Strategic
maneuvering
Complementary
assets
Figure 9.5 Management tasks along the evolution of a radical new technology
Source: Stoelhorst, 2002: 278.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 174 11/16/2010 6:07:35 PM

A forth model is developed by Stoelhorst (2002: 278ff). He models the

process by which a radically new technology evolves through different
phases into a regime that is, subsequently only incrementally improved. As
an initial position to an innovations’ evolution process, he uses the term of
“hopeful monstrosity” adopted from Mokyr (1990). In terms of Anderson
and Tushman the appearance of a hopeful monstrosity slowly initiates the
area of ferment. It is the moment in time when a first application of a tech-
nology is visible however it is still in the phase of a “crude and expensive
principle of device” (Stoelhorst, 2002: 264). Along the process started by the
hopeful monstrosity, he describes the competitive effects of discontinuities
observed in an industry according to four phases. For each of these phases
he further describes management’s main activities, its objectives, and its
focus. For each of the phases he additionally indicates critical success factors
(CSFs) that need special emphasis (see Figure 9.5).
Analyzing Stoelhorst’s contribution from the beneficial perspective
for this research it can be said that the described model and especially
the management activities assigned to each of the phases respond to
two requirements: the one calling for a planning process and the other
for a strategic perspective. However the tasks enumerated under each of
the phases do not yet result in a process although their structure and
assigned listings bring some clarity in how a process could be approached
systematically.
Christensen (1997) models his macroeconomic finding on the dynamics
of the hard disc industry using the S-curve (1997: 41). Analyzing how the
hard disc industry changed over a period of 40 years, he then elaborates
why companies that were well managed and positioned at the top of the
industry failed when faced with a discontinuous/disruptive technology
change. Based on this analysis he then elaborates the four main reasons
for this failure (Christensen, 1997: xix ff). The first one is that established
companies are sticking too much to their known and existing technolo-
gies. Christensen calls them “sustaining technologies.” The main goal of
this approach is to improve and sustain proven products for the main-
stream markets in order to achieve, through learning and economies of
scale the revenue that is expected from large, well established companies.
Concentrated fully on such sustaining technologies these companies do
not pay attention to the emergence of a discontinuous/disruptive tech-
nology and the need to change their sustaining technology in favor of a
new one. The second reason, as consequence of the first approach is that
for established companies that are looking for growth, the small markets
that are typically opened by emerging technologies are not attractive.
The market size is insufficient for a big company to invest in it. Third, is
that emerging markets are hard to assess. Relying on conventional market
research, good planning can assess growth rates of existing markets as cus-
tomer needs are known and trajectories of technologies can be estimated.
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However, these same approaches do not fit when assessing markets cre-
ated by disruptive technologies, as there is no historical data available on
such emerging markets. This makes its assessment extremely difficult. As
a fourth reason, Christensen indicates the technological supply overshoot-
ing the present market expectation. This is due to the fact that established
companies in their efforts to increasingly improve existing products in
order to stay competitive might overshoot present market expectation
in terms of price/performance causing customers to look for alternative
products with a lower level of performance and price. Often this is the
opportunity for disruptive technologies to enter the market very rapidly as
they typically provide lower performance at reduced prices. Their inferior
price/performance characteristics that formerly used to handicap disrup-
tive technologies from entering the market may become their argument
for competition.
Christensen summarizes all these reasons that cause well managed
companies to stumble over discontinuous technology under the term
of the “innovator’s dilemma.” Although the dilemma as such is well
described, solutions to it are scarce. Some approaches to solving it are
developed using the case of an electronic vehicle as a disruptive technol-
ogy (Christensen 1997: 187ff). The most applicable approach, however
presented entirely from an operational perspective, is an organizational
one. Recommended for the commercialization of a disruptive technology
in an established company is the creation of an independent organiza-
tion spin off from the established mother company. Three main justifi-
cations for this recommendation can be interpreted from Christensen’s
explanations. First an independent organization spin off from the mother
company is more resource independent. Second, it allows a small sized
organization to exploit an equal sized market without having to respond
to revenue expectations of its mother company and third, as an inde-
pendent organization it is more likely to be able to create an appropriate
attitude to failure.
Generalized management perspective

There are a number of authors such as Christensen and Raynor (2003), Clark
(2003), etc. (see Table 9.2) in the industry-focused research that handles the
challenge of discontinuous technologies from a generalized management
perspective. Based on their finding they describe management approaches
that in a generalized way apply to managing the subject of their research.
The range of aspects covered by these researchers is broad and heterogene-
ous. In order to provide a structured overview nevertheless, the following
section structures the different aspects of generalized management per-
spective from an industry focused research along the six generic strategy
development process steps often used in general management which are (1)
definition of strategic objectives, (2) environmental analysis, (3) Company
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Table 9.2 Generalized management perspective of industry level focused research and its contribution to the generic strategy devel-
opment process
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 177
a. Strategic b. Environmental c. Company d. Strategic f. Strategy
Authors Year objectives analysis analysis options e. Strategies implementation
Strebel 1992 ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Bower & Christensen 1995 ▪ ▪ ▪
Bower & Christensen 1995a ▪ ▪ ▪
Suarez & Utterback 1995 ▪
Floyd 1996 ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Kusunoki 1997 ▪
Song & Montoya-Weiss 1998 Global statements over whole process
Clark & Bower 2002 ▪ ▪
Clark 2003 ▪
Christensen & Raynor 2003 ▪ ▪
11/16/2010 6:07:35 PM
analysis, (4) evaluating strategic options, (5) strategy formulations, and (6)
Strategy implementation.8 Such a structure leads to a table that opposes
the six steps of the generic strategy development process to all but one of
the authors presented in this section (see Table 9.2). The assignment of an
author to a step in the strategy process shows the author’s general contribu-
tion to that specific step of strategy development.
Strategic objectives
Strebel (1992: 227ff) is the only author who explicitly describes aspects of
strategic objectives in the context of managing discontinuities. He points
out that those organizations with the capability of initiating discontinuities
are often oriented towards long-term objectives that exceed their present
competencies and expertise. Strong strategic goals for such organizations
serve as guidelines in order to achieve their objectives in competence exten-
sion. These goals, if well formulated, provide companies with set bench-
marks along which continuous change of capabilities is oriented in order
to create options that have the potential to trigger discontinuities. Besides
its importance in strategic management, strong goals that are well commu-
nicated in an organization help to make people aware that all changes are
focused in one direction. These goals stand for top management’s persist-
ency and resolution. This is an aspect not to be neglected, as in the case for
most people; changes are generally encountered with skepticism and evoke
uncertainty.
Environmental analysis
The environmental analysis is quite well described in the context of dis-
continuous technologies. Generally speaking, all five authors handling
this aspect of the strategy development process recommend companies
to open their mind wider to look for signs outside their usual fields of
interests. Strebel (1992: 25ff) describes a procedure of three steps to
identify the dynamic in the environment. First to assess are the forces
for change. By these forces general trends, cyclical pattern and emerg-
ing turning points in the political, technological, economic, and social
environment are meant. Second is to assess the forces of resistance. Such
forces can be found in structures and systems within the organization,
within the industry, with the stakeholders or generally in society. They
usually reflect the impact of change on values and to what extent behav-
ior and skills have to adapt to the forces of change. Examining to what
extent the various forces of resistance correlate can assess the overall
strength of resistance. Third is to build scenarios based on the analysis
from steps one and two. Such scenarios can map what the consequences
will be when forces of change and forces of resistance evolve and eventu-
ally collide. They help to identify which part of an industry is most likely
to change.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 178 11/16/2010 6:07:35 PM

Floyd (1996: 8) also suggests a scenario approach. He applies scenarios to

a more narrowed analysis focused on the evolution of the market. These
scenarios should be looking into a far distant future that is 20 years and
more ahead. It should build on extrapolations of today’s market trends and
give an image of how a distant future might look. The accuracy of such
scenarios is usually weak in hindsight; however their main purpose is not
to predict the future but to sketch a desired one that helps the company to
imagine and discuss probable futures. Even if accuracy in scenarios is not
a primary goal, including customer views in the scenarios might give them
a false image as customers tend to think in the frame of a present view
(Bower and Christensen, 1995; 1995a: 93). This present view is often too
limited to correctly assess technological discontinuities that might emerge
in the distant future. The customers of such a future will probably have
totally different needs from the ones today. Thus, the identification of
future customers is not an easy task, as the products that they want to buy
are not yet imagined, not to mention that the need they want to have sat-
isfied through them is often not even articulated. Clark (2002: 29) based
on finding from Christensen et al. (2002) suggests that in order to find
new customers the new markets have to be identified first. He proposes to
check three criteria in order to find out whether a radical innovation has
potential for a market. First, the innovation “must be undervalued by cur-
rent customers. Second, it must compete against non-consumption, that
is, it must allow people to do things they could not do in the past due to a
lack of money or skill. And, third, it must help people accomplish things
that they are already trying to do but can not with the available products
or services” (Gilbert, 2002: 31). Once those new customers are found it
is important to stick with them to learn how to keep them by providing
them with solutions driving improvement in the way of their changing
needs. This is often only possible if new business models are developed,
as most discontinuous technologies open possibilities that cannot fully be
studied with existing business approaches.
Company analysis
In the step “company analysis” the discontinuous technology is strategi-
cally analyzed in relation to the company. According to Floyd (1996: 5ff)
it is important here to assess first the company’s internal vulnerability.
This assessment helps to detect which of the internal technologies are
running out of “steam” and are most likely to be substituted with an
emerging discontinuity. Bower and Christensen (1995) suggest similar
procedures: A check of exactly what threat and what strategic meaning
a specific discontinuous technology represents for the company, is sug-
gested, extrapolations of technology performances and tracking of tech-
nology S-curves are suggested as supporting management tools for these
considerations.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 179 11/16/2010 6:07:36 PM

Objectively seen, the action proposed in the previous paragraph does

not differentiate much from a well-known and generally accepted stra-
tegic approach, that of the SWOT analysis developed by the General
Management group at the Harvard Business School and published in the
basic textbook Business Policy: Text and Cases by Learned et al. (1965). Thus,
the approaches presented so far, which contribute to “company analysis,”
have only limited character that is specific to the management of discon-
tinuous technologies.
More specific are the propositions from Clark and Bower (2002: 4ff),
which note that, in order to direct the necessary management attention to
an upcoming radical innovation it is best framed first as a threat. Their find-
ings indicate that the way a challenge is perceived – in this case a discontinu-
ous technological innovation – influences an organization’s behavior when
approaching it. When a radical innovation is only seen as an opportunity,
resources are allocated too scarcely. “Framing the innovation as a threat will
generate a serious commitment in the form of funding and other resources
because mangers, worried that the innovation will weaken their position
in the marketplace, will suspend traditional investment screening criteria”
(Clark and Bower, 2002: 4). Once the initial resource allocation is secured
and the innovation acknowledged as being important, it is then in a second
step, time to reframe the innovation from a threat to an opportunity. This
is typically the time when a new business model needs to be created and the
identification of the demand for the radical innovation should be evaluated.
According to Clark and Bower, it is important to reframe the innovation
because now managers need to find new and unique applications associated
with the innovation. This is best done under the assumption of dealing
with an opportunity. If at this moment in time the innovation were still
perceived as a threat, managers would react rigidly and apply old models
and approaches because comparison and benchmarking to existing innova-
tions has been done.
Strategic options
Floyd (1996: 15ff) and Strebel (1992: 203ff) both handle the problem of
uncertainty inherent to the anticipation of discontinuities in the context of
creating strategic options. Bearing in mind that forecasting is imprecise and
that detected discontinuities might influence the business in a way other
than was predicted, it is important to think in options. This means first, that
besides investing effort in more than only one of the predicted discontinui-
ties it is recommended and, second, to maintain business as usual. Investing
in more than one emerging technology is what Floyd calls “placing side
bets.” It is the approach of building up competencies and learning what
effect specific technologies might have on the existing and future business
of the company. This procedure allows a company to react quickly once
one of the technologies has demonstrated advantages over an existing one.
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The required reaction is twofold: first, the company must change internally
from one technology to another as a basis for its products and services and,
second, it has to bring this new product and services to the market. There
is usually not a lot of time for both of these activities. Experience shows
that once a technology is accepted and acknowledged as a challenger in the
market, 80 percent of the market can switch within five year, provided that
there are no regulatory barriers (Floyd, 1996: 17).
Strebel (1992: 206ff) describes in detail the three steps of building up and
exploiting strategic options. They are summarized here:
Preparing the options: Sourcing new competencies, for example techno-
logical competencies, that are regarded as crucial for the future. This step is
a pre-selection of technologies that have been found to be interesting for the
future. They emerge from intelligence work, from continuous improvement,
innovation, and from traditional R&D.
Selecting the option: Choosing options to explore potential payoff or
promising competencies in the form of new products and processes. Most
valuable are considered those options that provide sustainable leverage by
projecting existing organizational capabilities and functional competencies
into new areas. This advantage can be sustained if the achieved leverage is
hard to imitate or buy by competitors and stable against substitutions.
Timing the options: Committing resources fully to the exploitation of the
new products and processes. Timing is one of most difficult bets in manag-
ing strategic options. A premature commitment risks the initiated projects
to run out of resources too early while a late commitment means signifi-
cant loss of market share in the emerging market. The best clue for timing
an option’s commitment is a good environmental analysis that constantly
monitors industry forces.
Strategies
Suarez und Utterback (1995) analyze the relationship between technology,
firm strategy, industry structure, and the competitiveness of firms in an
industry in six different industries. Findings from this analysis have impor-
tant implications for companies entering an industry. They suggest that
strategies to enter an industry are most successful in the period of pre-dom-
inant design. The probability of failure for companies entering a number
of years before a dominant design is established in an industry, was clearly
lower than when entering in the post-dominant design period (Suarez and
Utterback, 1995: 428). The authors explain the success of the early entering
companies by the time they have had to learn and experiment with the new
products during a period when demand changes were rapid.
Christensen and Raynor (2003) describe the need to master two funda-
mentally different strategy processes simultaneously when coping with dis-
continuous technologies. This twofold approach is based on the concept
of strategy making involving a coexistence of a deliberate and emergent
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 181 11/16/2010 6:07:36 PM

strategy process. This approach was originally described by Mintzberg

and Waters (1985). The deliberate strategy aims to organize actions in an
organization. It represents a top-down, forward directed strategic approach
that fixes goals and coordinates their implementation within the collective
interest and intention of the company. The emergent strategy represents a
bottom-up approach that emerges from within the working organization
doing its daily job. The nature of emerging strategy is more tactical and
operational than strategic. Together both approaches eventually determine
how a company is going to act strategically, which is finally the realized
strategy.
Christensen and Raynor (2003) suggest that success in managing discon-
tinuous technologies depends on the right interplay between both kinds of
strategy – deliberate and emergent. Depending on the stage in the lifecycle
of a discontinuous technology, one specific approach might lead to success
while the other to failure.
At the emerging stage of a discontinuous technology, a deliberate strat-
egy is the approach to avoid. Companies that try to manage their organi-
zation according to deliberate strategies in this stage will eventually fail.
All the resources spent to find and implement the right strategy will be
in vain as the right strategy cannot be known at this stage. In the early
stage of a nascent technology, it is the emerging strategy approach that
applies best, as the whole dynamics around the technology is discovery
driven.
However, once the market for the technology and its applications become
clear, companies should change their approach to a deliberate strategy.
This change is critical because in this stage, companies have to focus their
resources on one common goal, enter, and position itself in the newly opened
market. “The switch from an emergent to a deliberate strategy mode is cru-
cial to success in a corporation’s initial disruptive business” (Christensen
and Raynor, 2003: 222).
The authors suggest a discovery-driven planning method for the man-
agement of disruptive innovations as opposed to deliberate planning for
sustaining innovations (see Table 9.3). As a first step in discovery driven
planning, doing targeted financial projections is suggested. The purpose of
this rather unexpected beginning of planning is explained by the following
logic: do not lose time in the “cycling charade” of sketching, revising, and
tuning assumptions on financial targets, if it is known anyway how good
the numbers must look in order to win funding. Instead, first make the tar-
geted financial projections then, in a second step, work out which and how
the assumptions can be proven to come true in order for the project to reach
the numbers that are expected. In a third and fourth step, implementation
is spurred on in order to realize implementation.
Floyd (1996) and Strebel (1992) describe strategies or alternative proce-
dures for those companies that face a discontinuity as latecomers. Floyd
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Table 9.3 A discovery driven method for managing the emergent strategy process
Sustaining innovations: deliberate disruptive innovations: discovery

planning driven planning
1. Make assumptions about the future. 1. Make the targeted financial projections.
2. Definea strategy based on those 2. Determine what assumptions must
assumptions, and build financial prove true in order for these projections
projects based on the strategy. to materialize.
3. Make decisions to invest based on 3. Implement a plan to learn – to test
those financial projections. whether the critical assumptions are
reasonable.
4. Implement the strategy in order to 4. Invest to implement the strategy.
achieve the projected financial results.
Source: Christensen and Raynor, 2003: 430
proposed a choice of alternative procedures for actions rather than real strat-
egies, as they do not relate the company environment to the choice to take.
Suggested are five different alternatives (Floyd, 1996: 18):
“Exit,” suggests that once a discontinuity has happened it might be worth-
while to consider abandoning the present business and allowing the substi-
tution to happen. This is especially the case when the new technology has
by wide margin already become a key selling criteria satisfying costumer
needs better that the existing technology.
“Defend the established technology” considers that substitutions do not
always prevail and that incumbent technology often can liberate hidden
potential. This latter phenomenon is known as “the sailing ship effect” (see
also Section 4.1.0. – Life cycle). A further way to defend your own business
is to acquire the substitution technology and to bury it. However in most
cases this alternative will not work, as driving forces behind a technology
that has already proven to represent a threat to existing ones are often very
strong.
“Build,” better known as the strategic term “make.” It is the alternative
for a company to develop the substitution technology itself and to catch
up with the technological and market knowledge of its competitors. This is
often difficult as it involves a great capital investment, time pressure, and
the condition to overcome set market barriers.
“Buy” and use the technology is an alternative that includes the possi-
bilities of licensing, acquiring a company, or purchasing components and
equipment. Buying is especially advantageous if the technology is not a core
technology and not strategically critical as it is probably the fastest way to
access a new technology. Its disadvantage however is that the knowledge
underlying the technology is hard to transfer to the existing organization
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 183 11/16/2010 6:07:36 PM

so that its development for strategic use for example as a basis for a new core
competence will be difficult.
Strebel (1992: 107) goes a step further than to merely describe alternative
choices to managing discontinuities as a latecomer. He suggests a catalog of
strategies that can be used according to the environmental circumstances
that drive the change in the competitive environment of the company.
These strategies, called an intervention path include all the efforts to close
the deficiencies in functional skills and organizational behavior needed for
dealing successfully with the forces of change that could culminate in a
discontinuity. The environmental circumstances are described as combina-
tions of forces of change and resistance (see also “Environmental Analysis”
in this section) in the company environment. Figure 9.6 displays manage-
ment intervention paths to choose as a result of the interplay between com-
pany external forces of change and resistance. For each intervention path
a scope and a pace of change are suggested as well as the approach to close
the competence gap in the pursuit of catching up as a latecomer. Scope
of change describes how much the organization is involved in the process
of acquiring new competence and the pace of change describes the time
needed to do so. Strebel (1995: 113ff) depicts the four intervention paths as
follows:
Intervention path 1: Resistance. The resistance path assumes that
the company can resist or avoid the discontinuity by working on its
environment to create more stable conditions where change forces are
weakened.
Intervention path 2: Revitalization. Revitalization is appropriate when
there is resistance that is still open to change. The goal of this intervention
path is to try to lower resistance and to open the way for change forces.
Doing so converts the status quo into strong change forces. The scope of
change affects the whole organization.
Intervention path 3: Renewal. Renewal is applied when resistance that
is open to change must be adapted to a strong but declining change force.
Under these conditions, reducing the resistance usually dampens the change
force. The scope of the change is limited to parts of the company and the
pace is sporadic.
Intervention path 4: Restructuring. Restructuring is appropriate when
a strong and growing change force confronts strong resistance that is
closed to change. On this path the organization is given a sharp shock to
adapt it to the environment. The scope of the change is highly focused,
typically on organizational “hardware” such as strategy, structure, and
systems.
Strategy implantation
Strategy implementation in the context of discontinuous technologies is
described in great detail by Clark and Bower (2002: 6ff). They suggest an
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 184 11/16/2010 6:07:36 PM

Interplay between forces Management Scope of Pace of change Approach to closing

of change and resistance intervention path change process competence gap
1 Change force strong but Resistance No internal change Depends on ability to No competence gap
declining; resistance contain change force
closed to change
2 Change force strong and Revitalization Ongoing change throughout Slow continuous Long-term investment in
growing; resistance the organization adaption organizational learning
open to change
3 Change force strong and Renewal Change limited to parts of Periodic stepwise Incremental investment
growing; resistance the organization change over intermediate period
closed to change
4 Change force strong and Restructuring Intense change on Sudden change Focused investment
growing; resistance a few dimensions jumps over a short period
closed to change
Figure 9.6 Intervention path characteristics

Source: Strebel, 1992: 112
approach derived from insights of corporate venture research. Out of this

research, five major points to follow when implementing a strategy with
discontinuous technology are:
Separate for better performance: Research findings prove that independ-
ent organizations perform better in the implementation projects of a discon-
tinuous technology than projects conducted in the regular parent company.
Organizations separated from the core business are usually more innovative
and score higher market-penetration rates.
Fund in stages: According to venture capitalists, when financing start-ups
in stages a company should also fund its discontinuous innovation projects.
Capital is deployed only as the business model takes shape and the market
understanding grows. Such an approach demands the project team to seri-
ously perform in order to receive the next round of funding. For the parent
company it helps to limits the risk of its commitment to the project as it has
the power to stop the project more rapidly when things are not turning out
as expected.
Cultivate outside perspectives: The creation of an independent organiza-
tion is the first right step in providing the initial position for a successful
implementation of a strategic discontinuous technology project. However, it
does not guarantee that the organization will be managed as an independ-
ent one. Crucial for this to happen, is the choice of people selected to carry
out the project. Relying exclusively on people from the core organization
might thus be the wrong approach as their work processes, decision-making
pattern, and focus might be too strongly attached to the core business of
the parent organization. Thus, it is suggested to include managers with an
outside perspective and a certain distance from the core organization in the
project team.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 185 11/16/2010 6:07:36 PM

Appoint an active integrator: In order to insure that the independent

organization does not shift too much from the interests and positions of
the parent company, an active integrator is needed. The person in this posi-
tion needs to have a great deal of credibility in both organizations so that
he can act as a mediator between the two of them. The role of this person
is especially important for synchronizing the interests and motivations of
both organizations in terms of resources.
Modularize integration: When creating a new organization in order to
explore a discontinuous technology there is often the tendency of the par-
ent organization to overemphasize the potential for integration and syn-
ergy. Overemphasizing these two aspects might limit the new organization
right from the start to fully investigate all of its possibilities as discontinu-
ous technologies typically emerge in new markets and for customers with
initially low margins. As time passes and the technology develops, its ben-
efits should then be converged with the core business.
Many aspects of strategy implementation with discontinuous technolo-
gies that are covered by the above five points are discussed in a similar
way by the other authors. For example many agree with Clark and Bowers
proposition that the creation of a separate organization is absolutely criti-
cal to the success of a strategic discontinuous technology project. Kusunoki
(1997: 381) goes even further than mere organizational separation of dis-
continuous type technology projects from improvement type projects. His
findings suggest that different problem solving approaches are appropriate
within these organizations depending on the type of project. In improve-
ment types of projects that rely on evolutionary pattern of technology a
product problem solving approach should be applied. However when target-
ing radical innovation through a discontinuous technology type of project,
a technology problem solving approach should be applied. In a nutshell,
Kusunoki proposes that organizations carefully separate product develop-
ment from technology development in order to generate radical innovation.
Without contradicting these approaches Tidd (1995: 308ff) points out that
the development of complex product systems is likely to require manag-
ing across traditional product division boundaries and inside the company.
Outside the company strong inter-firm networks are supportive as they can
offset missing internal competencies.
Strebel (1992: 143ff) describes different management styles of implement-
ing radical change according to the interplay of forces of change and resist-
ance (see paragraph “Environmental Analysis” in this section) found in the
organization and according to the chosen strategic intervention path (see
Section 5, Strategies in this chapter). He suggests that especially the forces of
resistance determine to which extent the employees, middle management
or top management should be involved in the change process. According to
their involvement and depending on the pace of change he determines four
general management styles: committee style, cultural style, collaborative
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 186 11/16/2010 6:07:37 PM

Resistance
force
Strong
Committee Commander
Discuss, decide, clarity, Provide specific
and supervise instructions and monitor
(Resistance) (Restructuring)
Collaborative Cultural
Share ideas and facilitate Turnover responsibility for
decision making decision and implementation
(Renewal) (Revitalization)
Weak Change
force
Weak Strong
Figure 9.7 Implementation styles

Source: Strebel, 1992: 146.
style, and commander style. Figure 9.7 shows when these styles of manage-
ment apply and what they mean.
The general perspective over the whole process is delivered in research
conducted by Song and Montoya-Weiss (Song and Montoya-Weiss, 1998).
This perspective provides empirical support for the notion that different
types of projects require different types of management. In a study analyz-
ing 163 radical innovation projects and 169 incremental innovation projects
it is shown that radical new product development benefits from careful stra-
tegic planning while incremental product development is rather hindered
by excessive efforts in strategic planning.
Market perspective
At the industry level, focused research cluster market commercialization
issues seem to be less popular only one analysis was found covering this
area of research. It is the analysis from Ehrnberg and Sjöberg (1995) looking
at the relationship between technological discontinuity and changes in the
market shares of companies. Testing a theoretical framework, modeling the
variables affecting this relationship in three different industries they find
that the faster the diffusion of a discontinuous technology, the greater the
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 187 11/16/2010 6:07:37 PM

probability that early movers will gain initial advantage. Furthermore, the
faster the diffusion is, the greater the possibilities that early movers can
build sustainable, volume-related entry, and mobility barriers.
The implication of these findings from a strategic management perspec-
tive of a company is that “the time available for detecting the need to change
and to act is limited by the market growth of the new product” (Ehrnberg
and Sjöberg, 1995: 93).
Industry level focused research: seven management recommendations

All authors presented above describe strategic approaches for the manage-
ment of discontinuous technologies and radical innovation.
Five of the authors give recommendations for organizational structures.
All of them suggest a separation of the discontinuous technology project
from the core business and its development in an independent organiza-
tion. In this context Kusunoki even shows evidence that a separation of
technology development from product development in separately man-
aged organizations are most helpful in order to successful promote radical
innovation.
In its essence the findings from industry focused research on strategic
management with discontinuous technologies and radical innovation can
be summarized in the following seven management recommendations:
Create an organization separated from the core business for the manage-
ment of discontinuous technologies and radical innovation.
Differentiate the management of technology development and the manage-
ment of product development.
Manage early endeavors with discontinuous technology and radical innova-
tion as a portfolio of strategic options with the aim of long-term compe-
tence learning.
Build and foster firm internal and cross firm boundary spanning net-
works to (1) eliminate uncertainty, and (2) influence emerging industry
standards.
Let the organization perceive a discontinuous technology as a threat. Let the
organization implement a discontinuous technology as an opportunity.
Enter competition with a discontinuous technology based product in a pre-
dominant design phase to ensure higher success rate in the market.
Master the interplay between both strategies: deliberate and emergent,
according to the life cycle of the discontinuous technology.
Company level focused research
Generalized management perspective

The generalized management perspective on research at the company level
is structured in the same way as research on the industry level focus (see
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Table 9.4 Generalized management perspective of company level focused research and its contribution to the generic strategy
development process
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 189
a. Strategic b. Environmental c. Company d. Strategic f. Strategy
Authors Year objectives Analysis Analysis Options e. Strategies Implementation
Maidique 1984 ▪ ▪
Strebel 1995 ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Rice 1996 ▪
Rice 1998 ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Leifer 1998 ▪ ▪
Veryzer 1998a ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪
Markham & Giffin 1998 ▪
Kessler 1999 ▪ ▪
Lois 2000 ▪
Rice 2000 ▪
Rice 2001 ▪
Savioz 2002 Describes an own strategic process
Salavou and Lioukas 2003 ▪
O’Reilly & Tushman 2004 ▪ ▪
11/16/2010 6:07:38 PM
Section 4.1.0). Along the generic six steps of the strategy development proc-
ess as shown in section each author’s contribution to a specific step is pre-
sented. Table 9.4 shows the overview of authors presented in this section as
well as their contribution to strategy development when managing discon-
tinuous technology and radical innovation.
Strategic objectives
The majority of the authors in this cluster dedicate one focus of their
research activity to the issue of setting strategic goals (see Table 9.4). Most
agree implicitly with Maidique and Hayes’ (1982) argument that strate-
gic alignment through strong leadership is essential when the future is
uncertain and changing rapidly. When managing discontinuous technol-
ogies and radical innovation, the future typically has such characteris-
tics. In this situation hands-on top management is needed that promotes
an entrepreneurial culture and that creates trust within the organization
for these most often quite visionary projects (Maidique and Patch, 1982:
23; Salavou and Lioukas, 2004: 101ff). However, in order to strategically
manage visionary projects successfully, clearly setting boundaries for the
project, defining its strategic intent, and indicating the business field to
enter are critical tasks to manage during strategic goal setting (Rice et al.,
1998: 54). Besides these tasks that create the premises for a project start
it is often the initiation of the latter that encounters difficulties. Thus,
Rice et al. (2001: 54) suggests a set of questions that, used as a tool checks
the “radicalness” of a project. It includes questions concerning technol-
ogy, market, and corporate strategy related issues. It helps the technolo-
gists that are most often the initiators of radical innovation projects, to
argue in favor of such projects more easily when confronted by middle
management. In many cases the initiation of radical innovation projects
fails as technologists are not familiar with strategic language. They have
a hard time convincing management of the strategic impact of projects.
Although the bottom-up initiation of radical innovation projects car-
ried from a technologist up to management might be well prepared, it
still needs a member of senior management who is creative and sensitive
enough for a project to be started. As Strebel puts it: “top-management
cannot abdicate its entrepreneurial role” (Strebel, 1995: 20). This is espe-
cially the case as radical innovation projects take considerably longer to
develop than incremental projects. Without a certain protection from top
management, such projects have no chance to survive strategic project
management meetings over years and years (Leifer, 1998: 134).
Kessler and Chakrabarti (1999: 239) found that the long development
time of radical innovation projects can be shortened considerably by set-
ting clear goals for such projects, in contrast to incremental innovation
projects, where the reverse was observed. These and other fundamental
differences in the management of radical and incremental innovation are
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Table 9.5 Ambidextrous leadership
Alignment of: Exploitative business Explorative business
Strategic intent Cost, profit Innovation, growth

Critical tasks Operations, efficiency, Adaptability, new products,
incremental innovation breakthrough innovation
Competencies Operational Entrepreneurial
Structures Formal, mechanistic Adaptive, loose
Controls, rewards Margins, productivity Milestones, growth
Culture Efficiency, low risk, quality, Risk taking, speed, flexibility,
customers experimentation
Leadership role Authoritative, top down Visionary, involved
Source: O’Reilly and Tushman, 2004: 80
the initial position for O’Reilly and Tushman (2004: 80) that make a claim
for an ambidextrous leadership. This approach is based on the heritage
of the research conducted since the late 1980s by a group of researchers
from Stanford and Harvard University. This leadership focuses its strate-
gic goals on two types of businesses – those concerned with exploiting
existing capabilities for profit and those concerned with exploring new
opportunities for growth. Table 9.5 summarizes the essence of this leader-
ship approach from different management aspects that need to be directed
despite the twofold focus.
Environmental analysis
Veryzer (1998a: 319) suggests that before going into a detailed environ-
mental and market analysis, it is especially important in the case of dis-
continuous technology and radical innovation to formulate beforehand
initial applications of the technology. The explanation of this procedure
is due to the nature of such technologies and innovations; they tend to
be further removed from the market and are more technology rather than
market driven. Thus, it is good to have a target application before going
into market research for opportunity recognition. According to Rice et al.
(1998: 57) and Strebel (1995: 19) this opportunity recognition is best done
by first line or front line managers – not by senior managers. In his study
it was first line managers that were most successful in initially identifying
future market opportunities. These are people with entrepreneurial char-
acter, who are leading improvement teams. Aided by an informal network
operating between R&D and business-units and between R&D and outside
constituents like customers, suppliers, and governmental agencies they can
eliminate uncertainty inherent to radical innovation and discontinuous
technology can best be eliminated (Rice, 1996: 531). Despite their good per-
formance in recognizing business opportunities, front-line managers did
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 191 11/16/2010 6:07:38 PM

not always get the attention necessary to push the opportunity through in
the organization.
Once a market opportunity is found and an application is set, compa-
nies need a corporate intelligence system for collecting and analyzing
data from the relevant environment with regard to the planned discon-
tinuous technology or the radical innovation to commercialize (Strebel,
1995: 15). Such intelligence systems should include formal and informal
systems, such as “environmental scanning systems, benchmarking sys-
tems, information systems for gathering and distributing information
and insight, and an integrated intelligence consciousness that involve
all executives in learning from the past success and failure to project
how alternative decisions might play out in different environments ... “
(Strebel, 1995: 15).
Company analysis
For the step describing company analysis only one contribution could be
found in literature: Veryzer (1998a) suggests that measures, which evaluate
the impact of a discontinuous technology or a radical innovation are impor-
tant for the company and this evaluation fundamentally differs from that
of incremental projects.
Veryzer (1998a) however could not find in any of the analyzed compa-
nies a deliberate evaluation process for the purpose of radical innovation
and discontinuous technologies. Rather he found that such evaluations are
part of the normal evaluation process of incremental innovation projects
or treated in an “ad hoc fashion” (Veryzer, 1998a: 55). In some cases when
traditional evaluation criteria and methods were used they were generally
not recognized as relevant to the decision.
Strategic options
Rice et al (1998) do not explicitly refer to strategic options in this article
however the approach described can be interpreted as an options building
approach. They call for an assessment of discontinuous technologies and
radical innovation that is “market learning more that market evaluation”
(Rice et al., 1998: 56). They point out that it is not primarily to assess the
impact on sales but rather how the market records the “value-in-use.” He
argues that, at a stage where prototypes are still quite primitive, getting an
idea of what the technology could look like in the future is mainly a stage
of learning. It is learning about whether and how the market will receive
the technology. Thus, with this learning several strategic options can be
built-up. These options in learning are predecessors to future company
competencies. They still leave the choice of further investment or no fur-
ther investment depending on the development of the overall uncertainty
inherent in the discontinuous technology. This choice is reflected by the
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 192 11/16/2010 6:07:38 PM

name “option.” Options are one very effective way of managing through
times of uncertainty (Peter and O’Connor, 2002: 616).
Strebel (1995: 19) describes organizational issues within the context
of building up and managing strategic options. As already described in
the previous section front-line managers are best suited for identify-
ing opportunities that can be explored as strategic options. Then mid-
dle managers should manage the portfolio of options generated by
the frontline managers. Middle management has the task of bringing
together the vision of top management and the uncertain reality of the
market place by deciding with the front-line managers in which options
to invest.
Strategies
There are no contributions of the authors presented in this chapter for the
“strategy” step.
Strategy implementation
In strategy implementation most authors seem to agree that radical
innovation and incremental innovation need different implementation
approaches. Maidique and Patch (1982: 26ff) explain this necessity by the
conflict triggered through the different kinds of innovations. The conflict
is based on contradictory goals that have to be managed simultaneously:
on the one hand, continuity sought by incremental innovations, on the
other hand, chaos triggered by radical innovation. They speak of a para-
dox of continuity and chaos in managing stability and change. In order to
avoid this management paradox a separated management of radical inno-
vation and discontinuous technologies on the one side, and incremental
innovation and continuously evolving technologies on the other side is
needed. In this context Strebel (1995: 18) speaks of the necessity to manage
directed and spontaneous innovation. By directed innovation he refers to
systematized capabilities of mass production and continual improvement
General management
Existing Emerging
business business
Manufacturing Sales R&D Manufacturing Sales R&D
Figure 9.8 Ambidextrous organization

Source: O’Reilly and Tushman, 2004: 79
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 193 11/16/2010 6:07:38 PM

while by spontaneous innovation he means the breakthroughs in tech-

nology that lead to discontinuities and radical innovation. In this context
Maidique and Patch (1982: 27) refer to management that extends the past
and management that breaks with it. O’Reilly and Tushman (2004: 79)
suggest a separated organization according to the type of business call-
ing it an ambidextrous organization: “established project teams that are
structurally independent units. Each having its own process, structures
and cultures, but are integrated into the existing management hierarchy.”
Figure 9.8 shows the core idea of an ambidextrous organization.
Within such an ambidextrous organization, where incremental innova-
tion projects are separated from radical innovation projects, the latter is
best supported if champions9 are involved (Leifer, 1998: 134). Champions
are people that “are entrepreneurial in accessing resources to accomplish
a mission, and are action oriented and focused” (O’Connor and Veryzer,
2001: 239).
Kessler and Chakrabarti (1999: 241) show that development speed in
radical innovation projects is dependent upon its staffing. Their findings
suggest that a greater number of champions than usual deployed in incre-
mental innovation projects speed up the development of radical inno-
vation projects. Further they show a relationship between the speed of
radical innovation development and the choice of the project leader and
project members. For a radical innovation project, speed increases the
higher the project manger is positioned and the shorter his tenure. For
project members however, longer tenure most speeds up the development
of the project. As an origin to this observation, Kessler and Chakrabarti
(1999: 241ff) make the following assumptions: the greater number of
champions needed to navigate a radical innovation project through the
organization might be due to the broader focus of such projects affecting
a wider rage of different units in an organization. Thus, such projects
require more people for an effective information exchange that is spread
throughout the whole company instead of just being concentrated in one
location. Concerning the higher position of the project leader, there is
the assumption that it might be the uncertain character involved in a
radical project that needs greater company political influence in order to
promote and control information, co-opt management, and build coali-
tions. One explanation of the advantage of shorter tenure of project lead-
ers is that they are supposed to feel a lower degree of “not invented here
syndrome,”10 whereas longer tenure of project member might bring more
insider knowledge together with greater ranges of technical and other
relevant information to the project.
Main targets to achieve in radical innovation projects should be directed
towards early prototyping, conducting pilot processes, and carrying out test
marketing (Strebel, 1995: 13; Veryzer, 1998a: 319). The organizational ele-
ments for such goals to achieve are incentive structures that reward people
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 194 11/16/2010 6:07:39 PM

for identifying opportunities and encouraging them for calculated risk tak-
ing (Maidique and Patch, 1982: 24).
While all authors describe the necessity for radical innovation to be
separated from the core business Rice et al. (1996: 587) examine how to
transfer (separated) discontinuous innovation projects to operational status
once technological and market challenges are know. They suggest seven key
points for transition management: (1) create a transition team, (2) assess
transition readiness, (3) develop a detailed transition plan, (4) identify tran-
sition senior management, (5) establish a transition team oversight board,
(6) provide transition funding and commitment, and (7) lay the ground-
work for a big market.
A prescriptive strategy development process
Savioz et al. (2002) are the only group of authors modeling a prescriptive
process model for the strategic management of discontinuous technology
and radical innovation. However, their model exclusively concentrates
on the “fuzzy front-end” of innovation. The fuzzy front-end of innova-
tion refers to the very early stage of the innovation management process
which decides which development projects should or should not be car-
ried out. The process is understood as a gradual process with the eventual
target of strategic goal definition. It is considered an open system with
input and output. Input is information about technology and market
change as well as of all competencies existing in the company. Output
is selected projects assigned with resources. The cases conducted in this
research work suggest five distinct tasks to be executed in the process.
These tasks should be considered as tasks to process stochastically and in
Fuzzy front end of innovation
Technology
information Technology monitoring
Idea
Information about Idea
Information evaluation Project Project Selected
corporate strategy generation
need defintion and formulation selection projects
and resources & storage
selection
Market Market monitoring

information
Figure 9.9 System “Fuzzy front end of the radical innovation process”
Source: Savioz et al., 2002: 400
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 195 11/16/2010 6:07:39 PM

parallel rather than sequentially. Those tasks are: (1) Definition of infor-
mation need, (2) idea generation and storage, (3) idea evaluation and
selection, (4) project formulation, and (5) project selection. A continuous
technology and market scanning support these five steps. The process is
illustrated in Figure 9.9.
Many of the management aspects named in this article (Savioz et al.,
2002) have already been mentioned in the previous sections. Thus, instead
of reviewing the whole article, this section will emphasize only two addi-
tional new management insights: First, that the above shown process should
be a continuously conducted process. It should not be executed as a project
for example for the annual update of the strategy. It is rather meant to con-
tinuously identify and deliver radical innovation ideas. Second, in order for
such a process to work as designed, a well-defined and long-term corporate
strategy is needed as an initial position for the process. Only a visionary
and far-sighted corporate strategy is able to set guidelines for the definition
of information need and to set criteria for evaluation and selection of ideas
and projects.
Market commercialization perspective

Almost all authors dealing with market commercialization of discontinuous
technologies and radical innovation agree that the challenges to master are
different from those dealing with continuous technologies and incremen-
tal innovations. Before looking at the solutions described in market com-
mercialization of discontinuous technologies and radical innovation, a brief
overview of the main challenges related to this subject is given.
McDermott and O’Connor (2002: 427ff) observe in a longitudinal multi-
disciplinary study of radical innovation projects the challenges associated
with such projects. Their findings are grouped into three high-level strategic
themes:
Market scope: discusses the challenges associated with the choice of plac-
ing radical innovation in familiar versus unfamiliar markets. Radical inno-
vations that enter familiar markets aim to strengthen the firm’s position in
this particular market. The main challenges that such innovations encoun-
ter – within and outside of the company – originate from either encounter-
ing resistance and/or breaking down barriers. These include (1) ensuring
delivery of a perceptible benefit, (2) managing the threat of cannibalization,
and (3) overcoming market resistance to the technology. Radical innova-
tions that enter or create unfamiliar markets require in proactive invest-
ment in building and creating new areas both within and outside of the
company. Tasks related to achieving this are (1) the identification of the
operational home of the new business given that there is no obvious link
to existing units, and (2) the creation of an effective business model that
include the potential the innovation offers.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 196 11/16/2010 6:07:40 PM

Competence management: discusses strategic challenges related to the

extension of existing company competencies into new domains. The chal-
lenges related to the extension of competencies imply primarily the man-
agement of the risks associated with destruction, enhancement or stretching
of competencies.
People issues: discusses the consequences of people and teams trying to
move radical innovation projects forward in an organization that is not pre-
pared to support the uncertainty inherent to these projects.
As overall management implications from these challenges, the authors
suggest that the role of project management in dealing with radical innova-
tion is less important than the management of uncertainties. Uncertainties
of technological, market, and organizational nature have to be managed.
Furthermore, the beneficial role of informal networks was emphasized as
well as the role of people willing to identify and promote high risk and high
potential projects within the firm. The importance of reintegration plans
for radical innovation that is developed outside an established core business
was also mentioned.
Walsh et al. (2002) examine which type of firms – established large firms
or small new ones – are best at taking the challenges of commercializing
radical innovation. They empirically show that established firms rarely
commercialize disruptive technology, and only when pulled by the mar-
ket (2002: 349). New firms commercialize primarily discontinuous tech-
nologies and perform better in it than established companies. Their time
to market is about one fourth of that of the established firms. It is this
time advantage as well as their flexibility in marketing that is the root of
their success. Marketing flexibility means the freedom new firms enjoy by
not having existing customers that influence the innovation efforts of a
company into a direction preventing them from commercializing radical
innovation.
The main difference in commercializing discontinuous technology and
radical innovation compared to continuous technology and incremental
innovation is related to the objective of the innovation. According to most
authors (Lynn et al., 1996; O’Connor, 1998; O’Connor and Veryzer, 2001;
Kassicieh et al., 2002; McDermott and O’Connor, 2002) presented in this
section the primary objective established companies should have when
entering discontinuous technology development is learning new compe-
tencies. Thus, O’Connor (1998: 162) points out that the assessment of mar-
ket potential, size, and growth is no issue during the early stage of a radical
innovation endeavor. It is rather the assessment of what competencies the
company can build up in order to position itself well strategically in the
long-term (Kassicieh et al., 2002: 385). In most of the cases, the uncer-
tainty evolved with discontinuous technologies and radical innovation
prevents traditional quantitative market assessments. In such cases math-
ematical models of market diffusion such as those presented by Linton
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 197 11/16/2010 6:07:40 PM

(2002: 371) might be hard to apply as the data to feed the models are not
readily available.
Often it is even unclear which market applications a technology should be
best used, as even customers have a hard time evaluating the benefit of such
applications. In his study, Veryzer (1998: 143) analyzes key factors affect-
ing customer evaluation of discontinuous new technology application. He
shows that six main factors were at the origin of the difficulties customer
have evaluating new products: (1) lack of familiarity with the product, (2)
irrationality in evaluation, (3) user-product interaction problems, (4) uncer-
tainty and risk concerning the benefit of the product, (5) accordance, refer-
ring to the compatibility of the new product with the customer’s life or
business situation as well as the amount of accommodation or adjustment
required by the innovation, and (6) aesthetics influencing customer reac-
tion to discontinuous products in the same way it influences their reaction
to continuous products.
In order to bring clarity to an uncertain market situation where neither
quantitative assessments nor customer insight is available O’Connor and
Veryzer (2001: 232) suggest a process of market visioning. Analogous to
the innovation management step “imagining” proposed by Jolly (1997: 3),
visioning aims to mentally relate a discontinuous technology to a poten-
tially attractive market opportunity. According to the findings of O’Connor
and Veryzer (2001: 234ff) there are a number of drivers that initiate and
sustain the vision, such as: the participation of senior management as a
promoter of a company wide focus for innovation and as a communica-
tor of goals, or scientists with an understanding for business that could
act as opportunity recognizers. The process is best conducted when cham-
pions, “implementers” and “ruminators” are involved. Champions have
already been mentioned in this thesis (for example, see the section Strategy
Implementation), implementers are people that enjoy participating in
projects and have the potential to trigger major changes in the organi-
zation, ruminators are contemplative, and experienced people who spend
their time thinking about the future and that have the ability to break with
the bounded company view.
Once the link between a discontinuous technology and a potentially
attractive market application is found, Lynn et al. (1996) suggest to pro-
ceed according to the “probe and learn process.” “Probe” means experi-
menting with prototypes and introducing early versions of products into
the market. However, probing only makes sense if it is done with a higher
strategic goal. The goal is typically to “learn” in order to enter into or to
build up a market that is new for the company. It has nothing in common
with a trial and error approach as it is done within a strategic context
with defined corporate goals. It can rather be compared with an online
and stepwise learning procedure as the feedback generated from a first
“probe” or attempt can instantly be used for a second one. Doing so, the
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 198 11/16/2010 6:07:40 PM

discontinuous technology is usually first commercialized in applications

other than the finally targeted one and in a market still familiar to the
company. The idea behind this procedure is to apply the technology in
products that do not yet require a performance as high as the final one
and to learn how the market will react. Instead of merely developing the
technology’s performance until it has reached the final level required in
order to enter an unfamiliar market, it is better to commercialize it first
in familiar markets with lower performance requirements as early as pos-
sible in order to learn about its acceptance and technological possibilities
step by step and then to approach an unfamiliar market. This way the
technology is commercialized as soon as its performance level fits to a
first application. Besides reducing the total risk of a new market entry in
manageable risk entities, this procedure is also favorable to the approach
of “fast failure.” Fast failure describes the approach of companies that
try to stop projects immediately as soon as their failures become visible.
The “probe and learn” approach allows failure to become visible much
faster than if a technology is held back from its eventual customers until
it reaches the level of performance necessary to enter its finally targeted
market.
The “probe and learn” process however bears one disadvantage not to be
underestimated: it is the risk of commercializing a technology in a stage
that is too early to be already enough well developed or known. Such a tech-
nology might reveal side effects or have consequences unpredictable in an
early commercialization. At a latter moment in time these undesired effects
could have been relieved and patched. Thus, the probe and learn process
bears the inherent risk of scattering a potential future market before it has
even been created.
Beside the probe and learn process Wood and Brown (1998: 182) describe
a process of commercializing nascent discontinuous technologies in a three
step process:
Approbation: nascent technologies are monitored, assessed, and captured
based on the anticipated needs of development. As premises for the appro-
bation step, the authors require ideally a small loosely structured research
organization where the coordination between the research organization and
the development organization is well managed. This coordination should
help focus research on the problems most important to development; it
keeps development sensitive to emerging technologies and eventually facili-
tates the knowledge transfer from research to development. In order to facil-
itate the transfer some methods are suggested such as: research exhibitions,
internal conferences, and career paths spanning research, development and
operations.
Implementation: a technology is refined to the point where it can be pro-
duced and controlled, at which point the technology is incorporated into
development projects. At this stage, an effective transfer from research to
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 199 11/16/2010 6:07:40 PM

development is required in order to get the technology to a maturity level

where it is reproducible, testable, and documented. To ease technology trans-
fer to development, it is suggested to create explicit project teams charged
with achieving implementation readiness. Such teams can be transferred
along with the technology from the research organization to the develop-
ment organization.
Manufacture: large-scale production systems for products using the new
technology are developed and refined in response to changing volume and
cost requirements. For this stage an internal production engineering func-
tion is suggested especially for the commercialization of nascent technol-
ogy. Such a function is recommended as a special set of skills, different from
tradition skills in research, development or operations are needed in order
to design, construct, and refine new production systems.
Collaboration and acquisition perspective

An increasing number of established firms consider collaborations or
acquisitions as a reaction to a technological discontinuity (Lambe and
Spekman, 1997: 107). The popularity of this reaction can be explained
by two main requirements that emerge when a discontinuity occurs: first
the need for a rapid reaction and second the need to eliminate the trig-
gered uncertainty in the industry. Collaborations or acquisitions are one
Industry attributes Alliance infrastructures

• High level of uncertainty • Top level commitment
• Speed to market important • “Absorptive” capacity
• Extensive alliance experience
Alliance efficacy
Technology attributes Alliance competence

• Expensive to develop • Partner scanning skill
• Time-consuming to develop • Selectivity in the use of alliance
• Tacit • Selecting and negotiating skills
• Delineation of roles/responsibly
• Continual review and modification
• Ability to develop capable alliance managers
• Commitment to ongoing alliances
Figure 9.10 Factors that contribute to the efficacy of technology-sourcing alliances

Source: Lambe and Spekman, 1997: 112
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 200 11/16/2010 6:07:40 PM

of fastest ways to adopt a discontinuous technology and the joint works

they promote between companies are an effective way to respond to gen-
eral uncertainty. The most common form of collaboration to respond to
a discontinuity is a strategic alliance (Lambe and Spekman, 1997: 108).
Such strategic alliances are especially attractive as they require much
lower overall investment and pose considerably less risk than potentially
failed acquisitions or mergers.11 Lambe and Spekman (1997: 111) describe
four premises to enhance the efficacy of alliances to source technology in
the face of a discontinuity (see Figure 9.10): (1) the creation of an infra-
structure as a part of corporate technology strategy that supports both
strategic partnering and the development of an alliance competence, (2)
an alliance competence, which includes extensive partner scanning capa-
bilities and the ability to selectively use alliances to source technology,
(3) technology acquired through alliances should be tacit, expensive, and
time-consuming to develop, and (4) managers should anticipate and plan
for uncertainty effects of technology irrelevance and diminish alliance
motivations.
The assessment of potential alliance partners is also analyzed by Hruby
et al. (2000). They suggest a five step procedure for selecting partners (see
Figure 9.11). Unfortunately the procedure has only been validated in one
case and might not be suitable as generic procedure.
Once these premises are set and a suitable alliance partner is identi-
fied and selected, the timing of the collaboration with regard to the life
cycle of the discontinuity should be carefully chosen. Peters (1996: 473)
points out that the starting time of most such alliances is only after the
Determine economic
viability of firm
Examine resources
available to partners
Focus on firms with

high potential
Examine strategic
intent of firms
Identify areas of use

within industries and
within firms
Figure 9.11 Steps in assessing partners in technology commercialization

Source: Hruby et al., 2000: 339
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 201 11/16/2010 6:07:41 PM

established company has initially developed its key technology-product

concept itself. He describes the benefits of alliances as multiple: alli-
ances bring credibility as well as reduced risk to an established firm’s
discontinuous innovation project. Alliances leverage a firm’s technol-
ogy capability to extract the highest possible value from the technology
investment and it can enable entrance into new markets. Furthermore,
the networking activities as a consequence of the alliance appears to be
important for building up corporate commitment to commercialization
(Peters, 1996: 473).
Besides collaboration between companies Peters (2000) points out
that industry university collaborations are very successful in developing
discontinuous technologies. In his study he empirically shows that as a
focus of activity in radical innovation, universities are the most often
mentioned partners outside of the firm. However, the role of universi-
ties is most often discussed as an afterthought. He develops a hypothesis
suggesting opportunities for a more effective exploitation of academic
research in radical innovation. Unfortunately these hypotheses remain
unverified.
Company level focused research: seven management recommendations

Similarly to research conducted on industry level, most authors focusing
research on the company level claim that discontinuous technology and
radical innovation should be handled differently and separately from con-
tinuously evolving technologies and incremental innovation. Thus one
major recommendation confirming findings from the industry focused
group of researchers is to separate and manage organizations differently
according to their innovation focus: incremental innovation or radical
innovation. Concretely speaking the recommendation is to take out of the
core business a group of highly qualified researchers in order to create a
separated group responsible for the realization of a given radical innova-
tion project.
Summarizing the specific findings from the research conducted on com-
pany level also leads to seven distinct management recommendations:
Set clear strategic goals to shorten radical innovation projects’ durations.
Design imagining and visioning processes to facilitate the link between
discontinuous technology and its potential market application.
Involve a high number of champions in projects who are willing to pro-
mote high risk and high potential projects.
Assign highly positioned project leaders with short company tenure, and
experienced team members with long-term tenure in the company.
Realize early prototypes, process pilots, and market tests, probe and
learn within a set strategic context with a long-term competence building
perspective.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 202 11/16/2010 6:07:41 PM

Collaborate through strategic alliances with industry and academia in

order to eliminate uncertainty and influence industry standards, leverage
credibility, and reduce risks.
Ensure that front line managers are charged with opportunity recogni-
tion to achieve the greatest success.
Conclusion
This article first gave an overview of the common understanding of

what scholars call disruptive technologies and radical innovation. It also
showed the various research directions those scholars are investigating
and presented their management solution approaches. Despite those
many valuable insights on how to manage the challenges of discontinu-
ous technologies and radical innovation, none of the authors showed how
their solution approaches should be integrated into existing management
practices alongside the majority of companies more usual incremental
innovation efforts. The research community acknowledges that major
challenges of radical innovations not only lie in its own nature but, also
to a great extent, have conflicting innovation management goals created
by the necessity to manage both kinds of innovations – radical and incre-
mental – at the same time (refer to 0).
Best practice cases
A possible selection of practice cases can be added in a second chapter relat-

ing to the findings of this article that show how the distinction between
radical innovation management and incremental innovation management
can be implemented in practice.
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 203 11/16/2010 6:07:41 PM

BASF: different R&D activities according to different levels of market and

technology newness
BASF classifies innovation activities according to different levels of technology and
market newness.
Plant biotechnology
Technology newness for BASF
research
Exploratory research Future business
Corporate innovation
scouting
Technology platforms
R&D
Divisional new
business development
Business units
Market newness for BASF
Technology platform research and development refers to R&D activities focusing on

technologies andmarkets that are established within BASF. The three technology plat-
forms in the fields of specialty chemicals, chemicals and engineering, and polymers,
perform research and development activities in order to strengthen and extend the core
competencies of the company.
Exploratory research is a strategic instrument to secure BASF’s technological and
methodological competence in the long-term. With that, the potentials from scientific
and technical progress for the existing portfolio as well as for new attractive business
areas are exploited. Basic research activities are left up to universities to which BASF’s
research units have good contacts. Most of the BASF exploratory research is carried
out in Germany.
New business development is conducted in the operating divisions of BASF. It aims to
identify new markets outside the current businesses that are based on existing and already
mastered technologies. The focus lies on the development of new partnerships with custom-
ers, start-ups or universities, utilizing the expertise available in-house.
Plant biotechnology research is conducted within BASF Plant science GmbH, a spin-
off company of BASF founded in 1998. It focuses on “young” technology in the area of
consumer-oriented and value-adding development of plants.
Corporate innovation scouting is conducted within Strategic Planning, a unit with tasks in
product area strategy definition, mergers and acquisitions, strategic controlling, competi-
tive intelligence, and macroeconomic analysis. They cooperate with Corporate Research
Planning on planning and reporting on corporate financed research as well as division-
based R&D. Innovation Scouting is a global platform for the entire BASF group used to
identify new cross-divisional business opportunities, evaluate those, and propose an
appropriate model of how to address these new opportunities. The understanding of the
term “innovation” is not limited to new products, but also to new business models based
on existing products from more than one division. So-called “innovation scouts” will trigger
and support the idea creation process, work on business opportunities, leverage existing
and develop the future product portfolio, as well as create innovative business solutions.
BASF Future business GmbH is a 100% BASF subsidiary with the task to identify and
develop new business areas for BASF group.
Figure 9.12 BASF: different R&D approaches according to different levels of market
and technology newness
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 204 11/16/2010 6:07:41 PM

IBM: Differentiated evaluation of innovation project ideas
Horizon 3 (H3) Horizon 2 (H2) Horizon 1 (H1)

Opportunities
EBD feeds IPD IPD feeds

H3 to H2 IPD H2 to H1
Plan Availability
Availability Concept
Plan
Concept
Transfer
Investigation
Quick Scan
• High uncertainty/risk • Managed uncertainty/risk • Uncertainty/risk adverse
• Market creation • Market development • Market growth
• Market potential – metrics • Market share – metrics • Margins/productivity – metrics
• Technology experiments • Standards emerging • Industry standards
• Few/selected customers • Customer acquisition plan • Legacy customer base
• Offering/solution prototypes • Offering/solution • Standard offerings
• Minimal revenue • Revenue plan • Mature business plan
• Learning plan
Similarly to the differentiating analysis in the subprocesses “Investigation” and

“Evaluation” of the suggested strategic planning model in this research, IBM uses
different types of measures to assess different types of innovation project ideas.
After having clustered project ideas according to three different horizons (see Best
Practice Case 1), IBM uses differentiating priorities according to various horizons.
Using an integrated portfolio development (IPD), the ultimate goal is to filter an
initially great number of emerging business opportunities (EDO) step by step from
horizon three to horizon one and to build up new core businesses managed in H1.
Figure 9.13 IBM: different evaluation of innovation project ideas according to risk
and uncertainty
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 205 11/16/2010 6:07:42 PM

Degussa: different R&D responsibilities according to different innovation

management foci
R&D responsibilities at Degussa are assigned to three different organizational

structures according to their innovation management focus: business units’ R&D,
corporate innovation management, and Creavis.
Innovation management in Degussa’s business units pursue low risk technology
development and enhancement of existing core competencies following the
business unit strategies.
The corporate innovation management unit leads research coordination and
strategy at Degussa. It diffuses best practice management processes elaborated
in business units, directs communication among researchers, and coordinates
collaborative projects.
Creavis Technologies and Innovation is run as a unit within Degussa that is
in charge of Degussa’s strategic research and development and a corporate
venturing. It manages moderate and high risk innovation projects.
Business unit innovation management

• Allocation of BU´s R&D budgets according to BU strategy
• R&D portfolio management
• R&D project management
Corporate innovation management

• Corporate guidelines (best practice)
• Allocation of corporate R&D funds according to corporate strategy
• Check and balance process of BU´s technology positions
• Support of BU innovation through coordination of internal/external
R&D-networks and R&D-information systems
Creavis Technologies and Innovation

• Strategic radar, technology watch
• Idea management
• New business development (outside existing portfolio)
Figure 9.14 Degussa: different R&D responsibilities according to different innovation

management foci (Creavis)
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 206 11/16/2010 6:07:43 PM

ABB: product generation focused R&D structures
ABB basically structures its R&D activities on the divisional as well as on the
corporate level according to their two main segments: (1) Automation technologies
and (2) Power technologies.
The divisional R&D activities in these two main segments are further structured
according to business areas such as automation products, manufacturing automa-
tion, etc., in segment automation technologies and power systems, medium-voltage
products, high voltage products, etc. in the segment power technologies. Each of
theses business areas has a Business Area R&D Manager that focuses and coor-
dinates activities for the development of present and next generation products.
They define their own product and systems strategies. Local R&D representations
of the Business Area R&D in countries are Business Area Units (BA-U. R&D).
The corporate R&D activities led by the CTO are conducted in ABB’s two global
labs: one focusing on automation technologies, the other on power technologies.
These labs, locally represented in research centers around the world, develop the
technologies for the second next and beyond product generations. Those tech-
nologies are explored within interdisciplinary research programs that cover areas
of emerging technologies.
ABB group
Divisional R&D Global labs

Automation Power Automation Power
technologies technologies technologies technologies
Automation products Power systems
center
Research
center
Research
center
Research
center
Research
center
Research
center
Research
BA R&D BA R&D
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D

Research program A
Automation products Medium voltage prod.
Research program B
BA R&D BA R&D
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D Research program C
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D D
E
BA R&D BA R&D
Research program F
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D
BA-U. R&D BA-U. R&D
Figure 9.15 ABB: product generation focused R&D structures
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 207 11/16/2010 6:07:43 PM

DSM: more than just venturing
Evaluation and
Scanning and monitoring validation
Business creation
Licensing and IP- DSM venturing and
management new business development
Business development
Reevaluation and realization of
canceled business unit projects
Venturing of internal
start-ups and spin-offs
DSM’s venturing and business (V&BD) development organization is a best practice example
showing which variety of functions such an organization can cover in order to foster innova-
tion, especially radical innovation in an established company. It is run similarly to a business
unit as an autonomous entity of 100–150 people within the company. The following describes
the main activities of this unit.
• Scanning and monitoring: V&BD support intelligence work by gathering information in wider
fields than the ones covered by the business units. This information originally comes from
three main sources: First, from participations in external venture funds that have young
technology driven start-up companies in their portfolio. Second, from all kinds of external
technology and business ideas proposed by entrepreneurial people as V&BD is positioned
in DSM as a drop-in center for external ideas. Third, by recognizing company internal ideas
that are interesting but do not fit into the existing businesses of DSM.
• Evaluation and validation: Ideas that have been captured by the scanning and monitoring
routines are evaluated and validated for their business potential by feasibility projects con-
duced within V&BD. Technology and market feasibility studies are conducted with the goal
to check the proof of concept for emerging technologies and novel business ideas. For such
analysis business unit specialists are contracted to V&BD.
• Business creation: V&BD supports the elaboration of business plans for ideas with a high
business potential.
• Business development: Once the business plan is approved, V&BD support the implemen-
tation of the first steps of business development. For this purpose projects are launched, for
example for the elaboration of prototypes.
• Venturing of internal start-ups and spin-offs: After a successful business development
phase, projects are transferred into an independent organizational form for their realization.
This is done by founding internal start-ups for company related opportunities or spin-offs for
less related opportunities. Additionally, venturing is involved in external venture funds and
external start-ups.
• Licensing and IP-management: Selling internal knowledge from business units that is avail-
able for externalization as well as procuring knowledge that is needed in the company.
• Reevaluation and realization of canceled business unit projects: Projects that have been
dismantled in the business units are picked up by V&BD for a second reevaluation and a
possible realization.
With all these activities, V&BD represents a unit within DSM that embodies technology
change. It not only procures and develops radically new technologies and business ideas
for the company by scanning, monitoring, assessing, and finally developing them for their
deployment in existing and new businesses. It also helps the company to “get rid of” tech-
nologies and businesses by externalizing them through licensing and selling them.
Figure 9.16 DSM: more than just venturing
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 208 11/16/2010 6:07:44 PM

Clariant: idea management and project realization adapted to different

levels of risk and newness
Within Clariant’s business divisions there are two distinct treatments by which
innovation ideas are generally managed and realized in projects.
Technology and business opportunities related to the divisional core business
and representing a moderate level of risk are assessed within the business divi-
sions. The realization of such ideas in concrete projects are executed in the cor-
responding divisions, without any interference from the corporate level or another
divisions.
Opportunities formulated by the divisions that are however out of the scope of
existing divisional fields and implying a higher degree of risk are forwarded to
an R&D Council to be discussed. This council is further provided with innova-
tion opportunities of corporate concern gathered by the technology and innovation
management entity on the corporate level.
Realization: business
division
Moderate risk
Core business
related ideas
Innovation ideas
Core business
unrelated ideas High risk
Evaluation/Pre-selection:
R&D council
Realization: corporate
division
The R&D council is composed of R&D managers of the divisions, the repre-
sentatives of the different technology and innovation management related corpo-
rate units, and leading representatives of the regional R&D centers. Its task with
high risk innovation opportunities is twofold: on the one hand it preselects the
interesting projects to be pursued and on the other hand it suggests if the project
realization should take place on a divisional or corporate level, possibly with the
involvement of further divisions.
Upon the suggestions of the R&D Council, the final decision of major projects to
realize is up to the Board of Management.
Figure 9.17 Clariant: idea management and project realization adapted to different
levels of risk and newness
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 209 11/16/2010 6:07:44 PM

Topsoe: R&D activities according to different levels of market

and technology newness
At Topsoe the distribution of R&D activities is fixed according to the level of

technology and market newness*:
40% of R&D projects are run in existing markets on the one hand by foster-
ing existing technologies and on the other hand by researching in emerging and
new technologies. Research in emerging and new technologies is very goal ori-
ented with specific deliverables and performances to achieve. These are set based
on known weakness and problems of the existing technologies in their existing
markets.
7% of the projects are conducted for existing markets. There are no reviewed
deliverables or performance measurements. Thus research in this cluster is less
problem solving focused.
30% of the projects are done in the field of so-called focused new ventures. The
business opportunities behind these projects have been identified as highly inno-
vative and market relevant. For most of the technologies developed in this cluster
the proof of the concept is already done. They are focused toward deployment of
a new market application.
10% of the projects are conducted in order to build up competencies in novel
markets with novel technologies in exploratory, non-focused research.
The remaining 13% of the projects support the previous ones. They are con-
ducted in the fields of licensing, patenting, etc.
7%
Novel Not reviewed 10%
deliverables no Exploratory
technologies performance research
measurement 30%
Reviewed Focused new
deliverables & ventures
Emerging / new
performance
technologies measurement
Existing 40%
Technology
technologies maintenance
Existing markets Emerging / new Novel markets

markets
* Percentages are approximate figures, they are meant to provide an impression of

the project’s distribution and are subject to variance
Figure 9.18 Topsoe: R&D activities according to different levels of market and
technology newness
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 210 11/16/2010 6:07:45 PM

HILTI: Differentiating four levels of technological Risks
In Hilti’s innovation process the level of technological risk is one major criteria
whether to realize/continue or to reject/stop an innovation project. Furthermore
project goals and project realization forms in the innovation process differ depend-
ing on the level of risk.
When assessing risk in innovation projects Hilti applies four different risk meas-
ures with corresponding probabilities of success: Very high risk, high risk, moder-
ate risk, and low risk.
There are fundamental uncertainties in the physical processes
on which the technology is based. It is for the moment unknown,
Very high whether a solution can be found.
risk level Probability of success: ca. 50%
The principal physical aspects are known, but it is not fully clear,
whether the mechanisms can be applied. It is open, whether a
High solution, transferable into a commercial product can be found.
The technological feasibility is verified in principle, but a limited

number of problems are open and it is not fully clear, whether a
Moderate solution for all of them can be found.
The concept of the technology is clear. The functional prototype

is available.
Low risk There are some technology engineering / design questions to be
level solved. It is, however, quite certain, that a solution can be found.
Probability of success: ca. 90%
Figure 9.19 HILTI: differentiating four levels of technological risk
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 211 11/16/2010 6:07:46 PM

Philips: differentiating organizational realization forms of R&D projects
Philips differentiates the organizational realization of R&D projects according

to a market criterion and a research type criterion. The market criterion distin-
guishes between existing markets and new markets. The research types are
differentiated according the their application focus in products. There are three
types: an early stage applied research, advanced stage applied research and
product oriented research, and development. The matrix below visualizes the
choice of the organizational realization depending on the combination of both
criteria.
Early stage
Corporate research project Corporate research project
applied research
Advanced stage Joint Project: corporate

Create a start-up company
applied research research & product division
Product oriented
research and Product division project --
development
Existing markets New markets
Figure 9.20 Philips: differentiating organizational realization forms of R&D

projects
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 212 11/16/2010 6:07:46 PM

Bayer: different R&D structures adapted to different types of innovation
Bayer holding
Board of management
Corporate
center
Subgroups Service companies
Bayer Bayer Bayer Bayer business

services
healthcare cropscience materialscience
Bayer technology
services
R&D R&D R&D
Bayer industry
services
Bayer innovation
GmbH (BIG)
Since the latest corporate reorganization in 2002, Bayer has been structured in a hold-
ing organization hosting three market oriented subgroups: Bayer healthcare AG, Bayer
cropscience AG, and Bayer materialscience AG. All three subgroups are fully owned
by the holding organization. Beside the subgroups, there are three service companies,
also entirely owned by Bayer. They provide different kinds of functional services to the
subgroups and to strategically relevant external customers. Bayer business services,
Bayer technology services, and Bayer industry services are legally incorporated with
their headquarters in Leverkusen. Furthermore, Bayer innovation GmbH is a subsidiary
with headquarters in Düsseldorf, Germany. Its aim is to market concepts and innovative
products to supplement Bayer's business portfolio, and to access new markets with
strong growth potential, such as medical and security technology.
Directly subordinate to Bayer’s Board of management, the so-called Corporate center
comprises a number of staff functions. Among the staff functions within the Corporate
center, Corporate development deals with the management of the current business
portfolio elements and the planing of strategic innovation.
As R&D is performed decentralized, all three subgroups of Bayer, healthcare, crop-
science and materialscience follow their own R&D activities. These are in the first place
focused on applied research and (product)development fostering the existing core busi-
nesses, but have also new business areas like “New Business Ventures” in Bioscience
or the “New Business” center for materialscience. R&D efforts regarding the devel-
opment and implementation of technology platforms spanning several subgroups that
support the advancement of the company’s core technologies and processes are taken
care of by Bayer technology services.
Bayer innovation GmbH develops business ideas that cannot be related to existing
businesses. The underlying technology of those businesses should however correlate
with Bayer’s existing competencies. Bayer innovation GmbH’s mission is to develop new
business opportunities by evaluation of possible new portfolio elements to fit with the
corporate vision. The declared objective is to enrich and complete the holding’s busi-
ness portfolio and to penetrate into potential growth markets.
Figure 9.21 Bayer: different R&D structures adapted to different types of innovation
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 213 11/16/2010 6:07:47 PM

Syngenta: flexible cooperation between corporate units and business units
At Syngenta, many management activities, and among others, R&D activities,

are run in interdisciplinary projects teams that are composed of people from the
corporate level and from people from the business unit level.
The project team is typically created on the business unit level run by the business
unit people.
These people form the core project team, they have the responsibility of the
project.
The core project team has the possibility to access specific expertise from the
corporate level. This expertise is organized in knowledge silos that comprise
six global function pooling experts of specific knowledge backgrounds, such as
research, regulatory, marketing, intellectual property, traits & genetics, and health
assessment & environment safety.
People from these global functions can be assigned to temporarily support a core
project team according to the required expertise.
Board of directors
Executive committee
Knowledge exchange
RESEARCH
Global functions
REGULATORIES
MARKETING
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
TRAITS, GENETICS
HEALTH ASSESS. & ENVIRONM. SAFETY

Business units
Core Core
Project Project
Crop protection Seeds Team A Plant science Team B
Pooling the experts at the corporate level in global functions has two signifi-
cant advantages: first, various degrees of intensity in cooperation between the
business unit level and the corporate level is facilitated as corporate experts
can be deployed flexibly across the whole organization in one or more projects
allowing a rapid compilation of project structures. Second, there is a great deal
of knowledge exchange on the corporate level that the whole company can
benefit from.
Figure 9.22 Syngenta: flexible cooperation between corporate units and business
units
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 214 11/16/2010 6:07:47 PM

Degussa: collaboration of business and corporate unit in project houses
At Degussa the collaboration

between business units and the cor-
porate unit for high risk innovation
projects exploring new technologies
is processed through an organiza-
tional structure called the “project
house”. Project houses are a joint
effort of business units together
with Creavis, the operational arm
of the corporate unit responsible for
high risk innovation projects. It is a Project house
physical group of people composed
of 20–30 company internal special- 20–30 Specialist
ists collaborating with academia Physical group
and external research institutions.
Team members are delegated from Own budget/incentive plan
their business units into a central
3 Years limited period
location away from their organiza-
tional home unit. The participation
as a team member is promoted by External cooperations
incentive plans.
The project is managed and coordinated by Creavis. It has its own budget funded
50% by the participating business units and 50% by the corporate unit.
The primary goal of a project house is to develop new knowledge as a basis
for new competencies in emerging technology areas that are of long term benefit
for all participating business units. The newly developed knowledge as well as
the infrastructure used in the project house is accessible company wide. One
condition to start a project house is the participation and commitment of a signifi-
cant number of Degussa’s business units. This condition not only splits the finan-
cial commitment of the participating units, it also secures the market relevance
of the endeavor as the interest of business units is a clear indicator of market
relevance.
Project houses are run no longer than three years. After the end of this period,
the team members including the corresponding infrastructure are reintegrated into
their operational home ensuring the transfer of the newly elaborated knowledge.
For newly developed knowledge with high market potential that does not fit into the
existing businesses of the parent organization, there is the possibility for a new
business.
Figure 9.23 Degussa: collaboration of business and corporate units in project

houses
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 215 11/16/2010 6:07:50 PM

● Coping with the indispensible business need to permanently innovate
products, services, technologies, and entire business models is a highly
demanding managerial task per se. Whereas the awareness and compe-
tence of companies to cope with incremental innovations is increasing,
the capability of business organizations to handle radical innovations is
still far less developed.
● However, from observing “best in class” companies in this respect, a
number of lessons learnt can be derived which allow to be transferred to
other business situations.
● A first lesson is telling, that – despite popular stories such as the unplanned
discovery of the “post-it” product by 3M – the successful application of
radical innovations does not result from coincidental circumstances, but
rather from well reflected activities. And, such activities cannot be com-
bined with ordinary product development processes.
● The reason for this is, given by the fact, that for product development
and developing radical innovations two different time perspectives are
relevant. Whereas product developments are ruled by a rather short time
constant, discovering radical innovations consists of activities which are
directed by a longer term time constant.
● Therefore, a second lesson learnt telling, that for the development of
incremental and radical innovations two different – however related –
processes have to be established.
● Both processes as such rely on the indispensible input from business intel-
ligence systems. The process for radical innovations however contains at
least two specifically new elements.
● The first element – and this is the third lesson learnt – can consist of
being concerned with new competences. Example: the strategic plans of
the Degussa company – being a chemicals company and therefore a “com-
modity producer” – contains explicitly the issue “competence planning”.
This issue is dealing with future innovation fields of strategic significance
and correspondingly new areas of knowledge, such as nanotechnology,
catalysis, polymers, fermentation, etc. Having decided on the priorities
of these areas, so-called “Project Houses” are established. They represent
projects which assemble internal and external professionals who deepen
their knowledge and expertise in the new field in a location separate from
their usual work places. Such projects are limited to exactly three years
and are financed by equal resources from corporate and divisional origin.
After the three years, the internal professionals return to their original
work places and now try to apply the newly gained knowledge for funda-
mentally new applications.
● The second element – to be considered as fourth lesson learnt – consists
of including venture capital activities. This can mean a variety of options,
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 216 11/16/2010 6:07:51 PM

such as participation or even ownership of venture capital companies,

establishing internal start-up companies, and in particular running
“start-up watch lists”. This element of modern innovation management
is aiming at providing transparency of the relevant external “start-up
scene” in order to be in the position to conduct so-called “trade deals”
which means buying suitable start-up companies.
● This engagement in the “start-up scene” is indeed a highly recommend-
able strategic option for established companies: From the point of view
of such companies, start-ups do represent first “outsourced” technology
risks, second, “outsourced” marketing risks, and third gained developing
time – all three factors being significant business advantages. They all are
in direct contrast to efforts which are directed towards operating internal
R&D structures focused on developing radically new technologies and
innovations. In other words: a proactive and systematic involvement in
the “start-up scene” provides most valuable strategic flexibility.
Notes
1. A technological paradigm is a model and solution approach of specific techno-
logical problems. It is based on determined principles of scientific disciplines
and specific material technologies (Dosi, 1982: 152).
2. Recently authors have suggested differentiating further the competence destroy-
ing and competence enhancing concept stating that they are composed of two
distinct constructs that, although correlating, separately characterize an inno-
vation: new competence acquisition and competence enhancing / destroying
(Gatignon et al., 2002: 1103).
3. Projects with a 5–10 times improvement in performance, 30–50 percent reduc-
tion in cost and/or new-to-the-world performance (Rice et al., 1998: 52).
4. A product’s technology base includes all the technologies – specific areas of
technical competence – which are needed to design and produce the product
(Ehrnberg and Jacobsson, 1993: 28).
5. Exception to this market perspective is the description from Green et al. (1995:
203ff).
6. Not all the findings point in the same direction, for example: Herstatt and Lettl
(2004) describe a case where customers were successfully involved in the devel-
opment of radical innovation products, see also von Hippel (1988).
7. Different authors developed technology life cycle models: Little, A. (1998),
Roussel, P. A. (1984), Ford and Ryan (1981).
8. For more details on the generic strategy development process please refer for
example to (Tschirky, 2003: 59).
9. Markham and Griffin (1998: 436ff) have evidence that questions the generally
positive influence of champions for innovation projects. For further reading
about champions refer also to Howell and Higgins (1994), Maidique (1980) and
Markham (1998).
10. The ‘not invented here syndrome’ is an attitude of employees that prevent them
from accepting ideas and innovations that have been developed outside of their
own company (Servatius, 1988: 14).
9780230_245907_10_cha09.indd 217 11/16/2010 6:07:51 PM

11. For a detailed description of corporate acquisitions in innovation driven indus-

tries see Bannert (2004).
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10
Market Research for Radical
Innovations – Lessons from
a Lead User Project in
the Field of Medical Products
Cornelius Herstatt
Introduction
In order to ensure their long-term growth, companies require a balanced

portfolio of both incremental and more significant innovations. In the
ideal situation, the continuous improvement of the existing product/service
range would provide the financial support for the ongoing development of
the more significant innovations.
In successful companies, the development of incremental innovation
projects belongs to the day-to-day routine work. Management possesses
an arsenal of methodologies, with which these projects can be systemati-
cally planned, steered, and controlled. Traditional market research therefore
offers many possibilities to determine the needs of the customer and to test
the developed concepts in the target markets prior to market launch.
However, it is a very different situation for so-called “breakthrough” inno-
vation projects. In such cases, the results from market research studies contin-
ually evoke disappointment, since it mostly appears impossible to determine
the demands of tomorrow’s markets applying classical need-assessment meth-
ods. This may be due to certain methodologies providing customers with
only limited opportunity to articulate innovative ideas. It can however also
be due to the typical customer involved in market research studies. It is rare
that sample testing of the current market leads to the identification of poten-
tial starting points for innovations due to the average customer not being
capable of looking beyond what is currently on offer in the marketplace.
Leading companies such as 3M, HILTI, Nortel Networks or Kelloggs are
increasingly working with Lead Users in the early phases of innovation
projects (Herstatt and Lüthje, 2003). Lead Users are especially well- qualified,
advanced users who are both sufficiently well motivated and qualified to
223
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224 Herstatt
make significant contributions to the development of new products or serv-

ices (von Hippel, 1988). Their identification and involvement is supported
through a specific process. This approach was originally sketched by MIT
Professor Eric von Hippel, has been used successfully in various innovation
projects and was further developed by von Hippel and his scholars since
then (www.leaduser.com).
The Lead User approach and its implementation in commercial innova-
tion practice forms the basis of this paper. After a short description of Lead
Users, we will show that innovative customers exist in numerous product
fields. Following this, the process steps of the Lead User Approach will be
outlined briefly. Additionally, the functionality and effectiveness of the
approach will be shown and discussed. Further we describe the findings of
a case study in which innovation concepts for surgical hygiene and sterile
products are developed through the involvement of Lead Users. Finally, we
discuss the experience collected with the Lead User approach.
What are Lead Users?
Even an intensive integration of customers for the purpose of innovation

often results in disappointment, as the outcomes from such studies are
reported to be only of marginal value. But why? These studies often pri-
marily result in individual ideas for smaller, incremental improvements of
the existing product program and only rarely in applications for significant
new innovations. Companies that depend exclusively on the results of such
studies run the risk that their products will become outdated and over the
long-term lose market share.
Most of the typically “representative” customers involved in such need-
assessment surveys just appear to be unable to free themselves from the
current situation and to imagine the needs of the future that foreshadow
market development. Their experience with the current market products
on offer prevents them from thinking creatively about future possibilities
(“functional fixedness”) (von Hippel, 1988).
According to von Hippel, it appears to make much more sense to seek the
cooperation of Lead Users (von Hippel, 1988) for such projects. Lead Users
are identifiable predominately through two characteristics:
● Lead Users anticipate the future needs of the market and do so signifi-
cantly earlier than the majority of other customers.
● Lead Users profit strongly from innovations that solve their problems or
enable new opportunities.
The first characteristic is the basis for the qualification of the Lead User
to possess the ability to make valuable contributions to the development
of new products. Through their prominent role in the recognition of new
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Market Research for Radical Innovations 225
challenges and application problems, manufacturers can use them as predic-

tors of the needs of the “market-of-tomorrow.” As opposed to representative
customers, Lead Users are much better in the position to imagine them-
selves in the future application compared to ordinary users. They are able to
achieve this from their day-to-day experience and their strong dissatisfac-
tion with current market offers.
The second Lead User characteristic is about the motivation for innova-
tion. The expected benefits associated with an innovation can become so
strong that the Lead User become innovators themselves, since they can not
be satisfied by manufacturers and the existing product offers on the market.
This “forced” entrance into innovation can occur quite often due to manu-
facturers either not being aware of, or not appreciating, the importance of
the emerging needs of smaller customer groups.
Examples of Lead User innovations

The existence of Lead Users can be observed in numerous examples of inno-
vations that were initiated by users of products and services, often without
any involvement of a manufacturer. Such User innovations occur in both
consumer and in industrial goods markets.
Consumer goods
A well-known example of an innovation that stemmed from a consumer is
“TipEx,” invented at the end of the 1950s by a secretary. The invention was
later taken over by 3M and implemented on an industrial scale. The sport’s
drink “Gatorade” was developed by the trainer of a college football team.
In general, the recreation and sport markets are rich in User innovations.
Newly developed sports usually stem from the participants themselves. In
an investigation of innovations in skate boarding, snow boarding, and surf-
ing it was shown that practically all of the basic product development was
carried out by the participants and not sports article manufacturers (Shah,
2000; Tietz, 2003). In a study in the area of outdoor and trekking prod-
ucts, a high level of innovative product users was also confirmed (Lüthje,
2000).
Industrial goods
In some industrial goods markets users are also responsible for important
innovations. For example, it was shown with semiconductor and capaci-
tor manufacturing that significant advances in technology were made by
the semiconductor manufacturers themselves and not from the developers
of the respective process technologies (von Hippel, 1977). Similar results
were found for other process technologies such as CAD and CAM systems.
Innovative product users were likewise found in the medical field. Clinics
and doctors in many different fields are responsible for many new devel-
opments (Shaw, 1985), and the market for medical products is rich of user
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 225 11/16/2010 6:07:56 PM

226 Herstatt
innovations (Lüthje, 2003b). Further, we could prove the existence of Lead

Users for the fastening industry in construction (Herstatt, 1994).
Even in the dynamic IT industry there are numerous examples of innova-
tions to be found that have been developed by Lead Users. The operating
system “Linux” or the server software “Apache” are two prominent exam-
ples of the “Open Sources Movement.” These projects were initiated by indi-
vidual software users – Linus Tovalds in the case of Linux or Rob McCool
at Apache – and accepted later from important user groups. These “User
Communities” improve and test the programs and decide independently
over the recording of new program codes in the software. Even today when
the marketing of the products is partly taken over by companies (for exam-
ple Red Hat Inc., VA Linux Systems), the manufacturers are rarely involved
in the development of the software.
Existing research shows that innovation activities are not limited to a
small section of users in a market. It can be shown that the percentage of
Table 10.1 Fraction of users who build solution for own use within different user
populations
Users % of users who

sampled developed solution
Study Field of innovation (n) for own use
Lüthje (2003b) Medical surgery 261 22%

equipment (Germany)
Lüthje (2003a) Equipment for outdoor 153 10%
sports (Germany)
Franke and Shah (2002 “Extreme” sporting 197 38%

equipment (Germany)
Tietz (2003) Kite surfing equipment 157 26%

(Australia)
Lüthje, Herstatt, and von Mountainbike 287 19%

Hippel (2002) equipment (USA)
Morrison, Roberts, and von Library information 102 18%
Hippel (2000) search system OPAC
(Australia)
Herstatt and von Hippel Pipe hangers hardware 74 36%
(1992) (Switzerland)
Urban and von Hippel PC-CAD for the design 136 24%
(1988) of printed circuit
boards (USA)
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 226 11/16/2010 6:07:56 PM

users in different industries who improve prototypes or develop completely

new solutions is considerable. The numbers vary between 10 percent and
nearly 40 percent. When manufacturers make concerted efforts to search
for users who have already developed solutions for their needs, a rich source
of innovative ideas can be the reward. Table 10.1 shows some of the recent
studies carried out in the field of user innovation.
The examples of User innovations in different industries and product
fields raise the question of how a manufacturer can best profit from these
activities for the purpose of innovation. If Lead Users are identified and
included in innovation projects early, manufacturers have a good chance to
profit from the immense potential of such users.
Targeting Lead Users and their involvement in innovation projects

In the 1980s von Hippel developed a systematic approach to search for Lead
Users. The so-called Lead User process has since, on the basis of numer-
ous applications, been detailed and developed further (Herstatt, 2002). The
methodology is based on a four-phase process that begins with the delinea-
tion of a search field and ends with the development of a product concept.
Applications of the methodology by leading manufacturers until now have
lasted for periods of between four and nine months.
The Lead User process

Phase I: Start of the Lead User project
A Lead User project is too demanding for it to run within a company’s func-
tional area alongside routine duties. Hence, the creation of a dedicated,
interdisciplinary team consisting of people from marketing, sales, R&D,
and production is required. The team can encompass three to six members
where a minimum of 50 percent of their work time should be available for
the project.
The project team begins with delineation, as accurately as possible, of the
search field that is a market, product field or service area in which innova-
tive ideas could be found. Goal formulation then follows with the determi-
nation of the basic demands required to satisfy the development (desired
degree of innovation). Both internal and external influences on the project
should be considered at this stage.
Phase II: Trend prognosis

The identification of critical trends and developments in the search field
is important in order to confirm that the Lead Users detect market needs
earlier than other customers. These include technology and market trends
relating to each search field as well as the predicting of economic, legal, and
business developments. When such trends are known, Lead Users who lead
these trends can be searched for. In this sense the identified trends turn out
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 227 11/16/2010 6:07:57 PM

228 Herstatt
to be a key input-variable for a project, since these will guide the direction
of all the activities that will follow.
There are many different sources of information available for trend
analysis. In addition to the analysis of secondary source information (for
example academic publications, data banks, internet), presentations by
experts have proved to be especially valuable. The choice of experts should
include a wide variety of expert knowledge in order that important devel-
opments are not missed (for example concurrent technologies, newly cre-
ated markets). Often, organizing a few interviews with experts can allow
a good overview of important developments of the investigated markets.
At this point the first concrete indications of suitable Lead Users appear as
often the interviewed experts are a good source for identifying advanced
customers.
Phase III: Identification of Lead Users

In order to ascertain who the Lead Users are, the project team must first
determine the indicators that will allow for their correct identification.
Amongst other considerations, it is important that the Users actually
do lead the trends that were chosen as being important in the previ-
ous phase. Further indicators that have proved worthwhile in previous
applications of the methodology are; the dissatisfaction with the current
market offerings, high understanding of problems in the search field in
question, and the ability to develop their own product improvements or
solutions.
The process of searching for the Lead Users itself is a creative one that
must be tailored to the specific conditions of the relevant search field. It is
possible to follow three basic process types for this search:
Screening Approach: For a large number of product users “screening” for
the presence of the previously identified indicators can be carried out for
Lead Users. As well as the information freely available about companies
from customer data banks, customer complaints or externally produced
reports, telephone interviews can also be used. This approach is practical
when the number of customers in the market is overseeable and a complete
screening of all users possible.
Networking Approach: This approach involves a small number of cus-
tomers who are asked if they know of other product users, who have new
needs or are innovatively active. These kinds of recommendations usually
lead very quickly to interesting Lead Users. A significant advantage of this
methodology lies in that the team is often exposed to analogous fields in
which similar challenges are present as in the search field in question. An
example for this is the Lead User project for “medical imaging” for the
recognition of small tumors. The search process here didn’t just involve
leading radiologists but also experts from the military field as Lead Users.
The identification of minute details by the military (for example weapons)
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 228 11/16/2010 6:07:57 PM

on satellite images is achieved through pattern-recognition software that

is capable of very good results when the resolution is particularly poor.
The idea of using a pattern-recognition system for “medical imaging” was
completely new as previously the focus had always been on improving
resolution.
Phase IV: Development of product concepts

With the identification of a Lead User group, the project team has often
already collected some ideas for innovations, albeit vague ones. The Lead
Users are then brought together in a workshop that typically lasts two to
three days in order to develop the ideas further and to combine them. The
workshop serves as an efficient discussion platform where the product users
as well as some of the company staff should also be involved.
Depending on the search field, the issue of Intellectual Property Rights
will probably need to be addressed. It is sensible, as a minimum, for the
parties involved to sign a confidentiality agreement and also to determine
the rights of ownership and use. From experience, Lead Users are gener-
ally prepared to absolve the rights to ideas without any significant form of
compensation.
The workshop revolves around the development of problems associated
with existing market offerings and the challenges of future solutions. The
results of these discussions, aided by creativity and workshop techniques,
serve as the basis for the subsequent development of concrete innovation
ideas in teams of three to five people. Throughout these processes, the ideas
are fleshed out such that by the end they form a basic sketch, concept out-
line or model.
After completion of the workshop, the ideas are subjected to a prelimi-
nary evaluation via their presentation to the respective decision maker
from within the organization. The team members act as product champions
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Identification of Identification of Lead

Start of project Concept design
needs and trends Users
• Building an • Interviews with experts • Networking based • Workshops with

interdisciplinary team (market/technology) search for Lead Lead User to
• Segmentation of the • Scanning of literature, Users improve or generate
market Internet, databanks • Investigation of product concepts
• Defining the target • Selection of most analogous markets • Evaluation of such
market attractive trends • Screening of first concepts and
• Defining the project ideas and solutions documentation
generated by Lead
goals
Users
Figure 10.1 The Lead User process
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 229 11/16/2010 6:07:57 PM

230 Herstatt
during this process. When the decision is made for the further development
of a concept, the normal development and evaluation processes that the
organization uses to pursue innovation ideas are applied. The Lead User
approach is therefore no substitute for traditional innovation management
or market research techniques.
Figure 10.1 summarizes the various steps of the Lead User approach.
Lead Users create new product lines: the example of Johnson &
Johnson Medical, Germany
A recent Lead User project was carried out by the German subsidiary of
Johnson & Johnson Medical (referred to as J&J). The management staff of
surgical hygiene products, including disposable articles used during surgery
(gowns, masks, and garments), saw the Lead User approach as a promis-
ing approach for the development of ideas for completely new products. An
additional motivator for this decision was that a successful application of
the Lead User approach at 3M-Medical division was reported about in the
literature (Thomke et al., 1998). J&J Management was curious to find out if
the Lead User approach was helpful to identify concepts for breakthrough
innovations.
Phase I: Start of the Lead User project

The key decision maker at J&J chose the patient coverings and the protective
clothing of operation personnel as the search fields for which innovative
ideas should be sought. This product area is in the very mature phase of the
product life cycle. Significant differences between competing products are
today not really present, so that the customer’s choice is based basically on
the price only. It is likely that the price competition increases further due
to the increasing cost pressures being experienced by hospitals and clinics.
Knowing this, there was only a little hope at the beginning of the project
that the Lead User approach would allow the generation of really new ideas
for this specific product field, helping J&J to significantly win additional
market share.
The project team was composed of staff from marketing, sales and prod-
uct management. The author of this paper served as the facilitator of the
process.
Phase II: Trend prognosis

In order to determine future trends in the search field, discussions with
experts from a variety of areas were held:
The largest expert group consisted of users from the target market that
includes surgeons and leading OP nurses. Those questioned included sur-
geons who were leaders in their fields and had implemented new technol-
ogy in their surgery (“leading edge users”). Also included were “extreme
users.” This group consisted of doctors who worked under particularly
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 230 11/16/2010 6:07:58 PM

difficult conditions such as in the tropics (poor hygiene controls, poor

product availability) or burns surgeons (long operations with large, moist
wounds).
In addition to current product users, other experts from the target mar-
ket were involved in the discussions (a second expert group). This included
hygiene experts, buyers in clinics or logistics personnel from hospitals.
The third group was made up from experts in analogous application
fields, primarily from semiconductor production. This is due to the condi-
tions required in the “clean rooms” of chip factories being similar to opera-
tion rooms (free from dust or particles).
From these expert discussions alone a large number of ideas for the
improvement of the coverings and protective clothing resulted. This out-
come, due to the incremental nature of those ideas, whilst not the key
target of this project, was however considered to be a useful byproduct
by J&J. The discussions also resulted in a deeper understanding about
developments that would play an important role in this search field for
the future. The bandwidth ranged from economical trends (the need for
the reduction in hospital inventory), to medicinal developments (the
increase of particular infections) to concrete technological trends (new
surgical techniques). In light of this great range, focusing on one idea was
required.
After this, The project team decided to concentrate on one specific
technological trend, “surgical robotics.” In some surgical fields (like hip
and knee prosthetics, minimally invasive heart surgery, brain surgery)
surgical robots are already applied today. They support the surgeon in the
tasks that require the highest precision possible such as with exact drill-
ing of bones. Therefore associated with the increasing use of this technol-
ogy are completely new demands for the protection against infection in
OP that in turn allow the possibility for offering new hygiene products. It
is here that a great chance for innovations was seen. For this project, hip
and knee prosthetics were chosen from the aforementioned application
field. Due to the robotic systems developed for this field, “CASPAR” and
“ROBODOC,” already having some distribution, any product improve-
ment in these systems, at least in the middle term, promised a high mar-
ket potential.
Although another J&J branch is active in the field of surgical robotics
as they design components, the hygienic problems of these had not been
considered as an attractive field for innovation by J&J. This was a positive
surprise and created confidence that the Lead User approach was also valu-
able in the context of this project.
Phase III: Identification of Lead Users

Lead Users were sought after in surgeons that primarily operate in
hip surgery. Within this field users were identified who worked at the
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 231 11/16/2010 6:07:58 PM

232 Herstatt
Overview from publications,

1120 People internet, congress lists
1. Selection
Leading players in the field of

120 People surgical robots
2. Selection
Fulfilled the Lead User criteria

(Dissatisfaction with existing
24 People solutions, experience, interest
in improved solutions, own
innovation ideas)
10 3 Hygiene 3 4
Surgeons experts OP nurses Engineers
Figure 10.2 Selection process for identifying Lead Users
forefront of technology, identified serious hygienic problems, reported

making use of improvements made in this field, and even possibly made
their own attempts to solve these problems. At this point an exhaus-
tive screening process was applied. Through research of relevant publica-
tions and in the internet, as well as attending conferences and interviews
with experts, around 130 people were identified who play a critical role
in robotic surgery today. These people were contacted via telephone or
visited in their clinic and questioned. Furthermore, those selected were
asked to name any other people that were leaders and active in an inno-
vative way in robotics or similar fields. These people were also contacted
(“networking approach”). The systematic selection process of Lead User
is outlined in Figure 10.2.
During the selection process, a group of 20 people were identified who
matched the Lead User criteria. The members of this group stemmed
from four fields displaying varying competencies; the surgeons as users of
robotic systems, the OP personnel as the people responsible for hygienic
conditions in OP (for example covering of the robot and patient), the
clinical engineers as being responsible for the technical maintenance and
the clinical hygiene experts for infection-related questions.
Phase IV: Development of the product concept

From these 20 Lead Users, 18 were present for the subsequent two-day Lead
User workshop. This number of participants reflected the high degree of
involvement of the group in the development of the product concept. The
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 232 11/16/2010 6:07:58 PM

group of Lead Users was complemented by three robot-manufacturing repre-

sentatives, three employees from J&J, and through the author of this paper.
An initial priority of the workshop was the agreement of the participants to
surrender any user rights to J&J.
The group started the workshop with the aim of developing concrete
concepts for innovative hygiene products in the field of robot-assisted
surgery. Initially the participants involved themselves with hygiene prob-
lems in current OP applications with surgical robots (“as-is” analysis) and
the evaluation of future ones (trend prognosis). This process lasted a half-
day and resulted in the workshop’s search field being divided system-
atically into unique and clear subfields. From these four concrete fields,
the participants chose those that needed to be solved with the highest
priority. In order to develop these further, four subgroups were formed
consisting of five to six participants and a moderator. In the remain-
ing one and a half days, the group worked intensively on developing
innovative solutions and in doing so produced numerous sketches and
simple models from a variety of materials. The makeup of the groups
varied throughout depending upon the interest of the participants. The
work of subgroups was shared between all groups via presentations and
discussions.
At the end of the second workshop day, four complete and detailed con-
cepts developed from the numerous individual ideas and solutions. One
was the development of a new type of foil to cover the surgical robot that
could remove the current sterility and handling problems. The second sub-
group suggested a total solution for the stifling of the mist that is produced
during the operations (so-called aerosols, moisture of water as well as bone,
and blood particles). The third solution consisted of a new, integrated sys-
tem for the sterile storage of the patient’s leg during a hip replacement sur-
gery. The forth group developed a process for the cleaning of the surgical
robot after the completion of the procedure.
In a subsequent evaluation of the developed concepts by the partici-
pants of the workshop, the results of the first three groups performed
outstandingly with respect to the criteria of originality, problem solving
capacity, and its ability to be realized. It should not be forgotten however
that the participants of the workshop were made up of leading surgeons,
OP nurses, engineers, and hygiene experts. The evaluation of the ideas
was based on a broad as well as a deep knowledge in the field of robot-
assisted surgery.
The workshop provided J&J with the beginnings for the development
of new product lines. All four of the concepts included products that were
not currently in the J&J product program. Some of the product ideas are
still not available from any manufacturer in the market, making them
world firsts.
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 233 11/16/2010 6:07:59 PM

234 Herstatt
Discussion
The deliberate alignment with the customer and the desire to make compat-
ible, significant, and innovative jumps belong to the greatest challenges of
innovation management. Companies that are able to do both increase the
probability that their new products and services will perform successfully in
the market. As shown here, leading companies depend upon the intensive
cooperation with Lead Users who are ahead of their time in both their needs
and demands from products.
The effectiveness of the Lead User methodology has been proved in
some first applications. A investigation within 3M, who have great expe-
rience with Lead Users to date, supports this emphatically. In a compari-
son between Lead User projects and traditionally carried out development
processes, the degree of innovation, turnover, market share, ability to be
realized, and strategic importance were all measured as being significantly
superior in the Lead User projects. From these Lead User projects, new prod-
uct lines resulted that without exception were responsible for a large pro-
portion of the turnover. It has been shown that concepts developed with
Lead Users have, on average, the potential to produce turnovers eight times
higher than ideas produced via traditional innovation projects (Morrison
et al., 2001; Lilien et al., 2002).
The Lead User application at J&J described above resulted not just in the
possibility for the further development of the existing market offer but also
the chance for the expansion of their program as well as the development of
completely new product lines. Beginning with conventional patient cover-
ings and OP garments, a mature field with few possibilities to develop deci-
sive competitive advantage, the starting points for significant innovations
were developed.
Comparing one of the 3M and the J&J Lead User application reveals
another interesting aspect. Even when companies start a Lead User
project in more or less the same product arena (“Surgical drapes and
related hygiene products”), the chances that they will end up with the
same ideas for radical innovations are very limited. Why? The direction
of the search fields is closely linked to the trends a company identifies
and believes in to be most relevant. Since very often a high number of
trends exist for a given product field, the chances that competitors would
choose one and the same trend are at least not very likely. The key ques-
tion for a company applying the Lead User approach therefore is, what
is a relevant trend to fully concentrate on for the last two phases of the
Lead User project.
In addition, with all the positive results, it should not be forgotten that
the Lead User approach is no substitute for proven methods of innovation
management and market research. It leads companies primarily to new
ways to develop innovative products and services. As a result it produces
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd 234 11/16/2010 6:08:00 PM

“market-fit” ideas for innovations that must be advanced further with tra-
ditional methods of market research and engineering for the development
and evaluation of concepts and prototypes.
● Leading companies depend more and more on an intensive cooperation
with Lead Users, individuals or organizations that are ahead of their time
with regard to both needs and demands for future solutions (products and
services).
● Lead Users can systematically be identified by companies, willing to
open up for a close and trustful cooperation with market partners (“Open
Innovation”). The five step phase approach presented in this paper has
already proven useful in a number of projects in different product con-
texts (consumer as well as industrial product settings).
● Concepts developed with and by lead users have, on average, a higher
“breakthrough” potential compared to concepts generated by traditional
market research approaches.
● In our work together with J&J, presented here, we could further demon-
strate that closely working together with lead users can lead to incremen-
tal product improvements and product line extensions, as well. Therefore,
working together with lead users supports development teams to create
different qualities of innovation (from small, incremental to large, break-
through innovations), depending on the scope and objectives of the
project.
● Our work further shows that large steps forward (breakthroughs) are more
likely if the teams expand their search for lead users to analogous search
fields.
References
Franke, N. and Shah, S. (2002). “How Communities Support Innovative Activities:
An Exploration of Assistance and Sharing among End-users.” Research Policy 32(1),
(January 2003): 157–78.
Herstatt, C. (1994). “Realisierung der Kundennähe in der Innovationspraxis.” In T.
Tomczak and C. Belz (Eds), Kundennähe realisieren. St. Gallen: Verlag Thexis: 291–
307.
Herstatt, C. (2002). “Search Fields for Radical Innovations Involving Innovation.”
International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management 2(1):
473–84.
Herstatt, C. and Lüthje, C. (2003). “The Lead User Method. Theoretical-Empirical
Foundation, Key Issues for Research and Practical Implementation.” R+D-
Management 2003 Conference Proceedings. Manchester (UK).
Lilien, G. L., Morrison, P. D., Searls, K., Sonnack, M., and Hippel, E. von (2002).
“Performance Assessment of the Lead User Idea Generation Process.” Management
Science 48(8): 1042–59.
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236 Herstatt
Lüthje, C. (2000). Kundenorientierung im Innovationsprozess. Eine Untersuchung zur

Customers-Hersteller-Interaktion auf Konsumgütermärkten. Wiesbaden: Gabler.
Lüthje, C., Herstatt, C., and Hippel, E. von (2002). The Dominant Role of “Local”
Information in User Innovation. The Case of Mountain Biking. Working Paper:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Morrison, Pamela D., Lilien, Gary L., Searls, Kathleen, Sonnack, Mary, and Hippel,
E. von (2001). Performance Assessment of the Lead User Idea Generation Process for
New Product Design and Development. Working Paper: Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Morrison, Pamela D., Roberts, John H., von Hippel, E. (2000). “Determinants of User
Innovation and Innovation Sharing in a Local Market.” Management Science 46(12)
(December 2000): 1513–27.
Shah, Sonali (2000). Sources and Patterns of Innovation in An Consumer Products Field.
Innovations in Sporting Equipment. Working Paper: Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Shaw, Brian (1985). “The Role of the Interaction between the User and the Manufacturer
in Medical Equipment Innovation.” R&D Management 15(4): 283–92.
Tietz, R. (2003). “The Significance of User Innovations – An Assessment from a
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Urban, Glen L. and von Hippel, E. (1988). “Lead User Analyses for the Development
of New Industrial Products.” Management Science 34(5) (May 1988): 569–82.
von Hippel, E. (1977). “The Dominant Role of the User’s in Semiconductor and
Electronic Subassembly Process Innovation.” IEEE Transactions on Engineering
9780230_245907_11_cha10.indd Sec1:236 11/16/2010 6:08:00 PM

11
Relying on Experts: How to
Effectively Gather Information
for Innovation Projects from
Market Specialists
Cornelius Herstatt, Christian Lüthje, and Christopher Lettl
Introduction
The ability to successfully develop and market innovative new products is

critical for corporate growth and sustainable competitive advantage. For
innovations projects, firms need to collect, process, and filter a substantial
amount of information: innovation management is therefore to a high
degree information management. Particularly in the early phases of the
innovation process, the so called “fuzzy front end,” firms need to develop
an understanding of various topics: What are current and future customer
needs? Which trends and technological developments are going to have
an impact on the business? What might be promising avenues for new
solutions? Information with regard to these questions is essential in the
early phases of the innovation process since they provide hints for ideas
and concepts that are both, customer and future focused (Khurana and
Rosenthal, 1997; Reinertsen, 1999). Due to the fact that most of this infor-
mation is located externally rather than internally, secondary sources of
information need to be screened intensively. Besides the internet, writ-
ten documents and electronic databases, external experts appear to be a
key source of information in the fuzzy front end. An expert is someone
who can perform, in a specific domain, at a level that exceeds ordinary
individuals (Lunce et al., 1993). The advantage of experts as information
providers is twofold: Firs, experts can deliver state-of-the-art information
about the field of interest. Second, by interviewing experts, the type and
amount of information gathered can be matched to specific information
needs (Arken, 2002).
When planning to incorporate experts during the early phases of
innovation projects, firms are confronted with the question: how is
237
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 237 11/16/2010 6:08:06 PM

238 Herstatt, Lüthje, and Lettl
knowledge distributed among relevant experts? Do all experts share

the same knowledge about a particular field of innovation? Or does
each expert develop a unique knowledge base that differs substantially
from those of his expert colleagues? In other words: is knowledge dis-
tributed homogeneously or heterogeneously among a given pool of
experts?
The type of knowledge distribution has direct implications for the
involvement of experts in innovation projects. In particular, knowl-
edge distribution impacts on the efficiency of the information gath-
ering process. Due to time and budget restrictions, firms need to
perform a thorough analysis of how many experts need to be inter-
viewed to develop a comprehensive and current understanding of the
search field. In the case of a homogeneous distribution of knowledge
we assume that any expert provides similar information. Therefore,
only a limited number of experts need to be interviewed. If knowl-
edge were allocated heterogeneously however, the chances are high
that any expert would provide distinct information. This implies
that innovation teams might be forced to interview a larger group of
experts.
To shed light on the question of how knowledge is distributed among
experts we conducted an empirical study in the field of surgical hygiene
products. Market experts in this product area were interviewed in order
to analyze the type of information that could be provided by different
experts.
We found that knowledge is distributed rather heterogeneously. The
information provided, was very seldomly shared by more than one expert.
Experts appear to focus on particular knowledge corridors that are not nec-
essarily congruent with the knowledge field of others. The findings sug-
gest that this is mainly due to the volume and complexity of information
within one product field, hence forcing experts to focus on specific knowl-
edge areas. We also found that the knowledge focus of a given expert is
closely linked to his specific (professional) background and largely depends
on the relationship that the expert has with the product area in question.
As a result of our study, it seems risky during the early stages of the inno-
vation process to restrict external information gathering to only a small
group of experts. However, clearly the number of interviews could possibly
be reduced by gathering information about relevant experts prior to starting
the interviews.
This chapter is organized as follows. In the next paragraph we intro-
duce theoretical perspectives relevant for the research question. In the
third section we introduce the context and research methodology of our
empirical study. Finally, we present the results of our study and discuss their
implications.
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 238 11/16/2010 6:08:06 PM

Relying on Experts 239
Distribution of expert knowledge within a search

field – theoretical framework
Are experts arbitrarily exchangeable in the information gathering process

given that they have roughly the same kind of knowledge? Or is an expert
unique in the way that they possess a proprietary knowledge base? There are
theoretical arguments for both views.
Neoclassical theory of perfect competition is based on the assumption of
perfect information. Under this constellation any agent within a market sys-
tem has access to absolutely all relevant information that is needed to make
rational decisions. In other words: neoclassical economists assume complete
information transparency. Therefore the market system is characterized by
information symmetries, as every agent possesses the same knowledge and
information base (Demsetz, 1997): in the neoclassical framework knowl-
edge is distributed homogeneously among the agents of the market system
(Deligönül and Cavusgil, 1997; Demsetz, 1997).
Advances in information and communication technologies support the
idea of complete information transparency. Enabling a vast and intensive
exchange of information on a global scale, these new technologies lead
to a comprehensive diffusion of knowledge within the agents of a market
system in a short time. Particularly individuals that work on the forefront
of a certain issue can benefit from the new technologies as state-of-the-art
knowledge can easily be transferred around the globe. Experts of a certain
community can discuss important issues online via chat rooms; alterna-
tively they can exchange e-mails, transfer documents, and conduct video-
conferences. Therefore, new information and communication technologies
contribute to the extensive transfer of information and thus to a shared
knowledge base among experts (Detmer and Shortlife, 1997).
Drawing a sharp contrast to neoclassical theory, there are two theoretical
frameworks that claim a heterogeneous distribution of knowledge among
the agents of a market system: market process theories and new institutional
economics.
The basic assumption of market process theory is that information within
a market system is dispersed in a way that any agent possesses different
knowledge. Market process theory therefore presumes a decentralization of
knowledge within a society (Hayek, 1945; Ikeda, 1990). If knowledge is allo-
cated differently among the agents of a market system, we would expect
that experts, even within the same search field, develop a proprietary
knowledge base that differs from the know-how of other experts within the
same field.
Similar to market process theories, also new institutional economics aban-
don the neoclassical assumption of perfect information (Palermo, 1999).
This becomes evident in the key assumption of new institutional economics
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 239 11/16/2010 6:08:06 PM

that the rationality of individuals is not perfect but rather “bounded.” The
concept of “bounded rationality,” which was first introduced by Simon
challenges the neoclassical concept of the homo economicus. While the
latter acts under perfect rationality (full knowledge of goals, alternatives,
and outcomes) and is thus able to identify the optimal decision in a given
environment. Simon’s decision maker is restricted in terms of mental capac-
ity (Simon, 1957). The expression “bounded rationality” is used to denote
a type of rationality that people resort to when the environment in which
they operate is too complex relative to their limited mental capabilities
(Dequech, 2001). According to Simon’s concept, agents are not able to gather
and process absolutely all of the accessible information within a market sys-
tem. Every agent perceives only a limited but unique set of information.
Consequently, information and knowledge asymmetries emerge among the
agents of a market system. Experts of a certain domain might need to focus
their information gathering and processing activities on a fraction of the
entire search field due to limited cognitive receptivity. As individuals are
not able to perceive their domain as a whole, they focus on the specific con-
text in which they operate. Information processing and knowledge develop-
ment therefore can not be separated from the context. According to Fleck,
the context is defined by three elements:
Domains: (the more or less defined areas or “parts of the world” to which
the particular expertise applies. Thus the domain is similar to the search
field of an innovation project.)
Situations: (components, people, domains, and other elements present at
any particular instant of expert activity.)
Milieux: (essentially the immediate environments in which expertise is
exercised: comprising set of situations occurring regularly at particular
locations, for example laboratories, offices.)
As the development of knowledge is always embedded into a specific domain,

a specific situation, and a specific milieux, the expertise of individuals is
never quite the same. This holds true even for the knowledge development
within a specific domain as the distinct situation and milieux lead to the
development of a unique knowledge base (Fleck, 1997). Therefore, “bounded
rationality” together with its implied focus on the specific context suggests
the development of specialized know-how and thus a heterogeneous dis-
tribution of expert knowledge. This assumption is supported by a recent
study of Franke/Hippel. They focus their analysis on users of opensource
software who can be seen as experts for market needs. The findings reveal
that these users develop highly specialized needs due to their specific use
context (Franke and von Hippel, 2002).
There is, however, a counterargument about the implications of “bounded
rationality” on the knowledge distribution among experts. As experts can
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 240 11/16/2010 6:08:06 PM

only absorb a limited amount of information they might focus their infor-
mation gathering and processing activities on only the most significant
information. Examples of such significant information are the most urgent
problems, the most significant trends and the topics with the highest priority
in the search field. If every expert were able to identify this highly relevant
information, we could expect a high consensus among experts regarding
the information they would provide in interviews. Consequently, “bounded
rationality” could also imply that knowledge about the most important
issues is homogeneously distributed among experts. There is empirical evi-
dence that supports that argument. In their study Griffin/Hauser address
the question of how many customers are to be interviewed to identify the
customer needs in a particular market. Results of their study reveal that the
interviewing of relatively few customers is sufficient to achieve a compre-
hensive understanding of current and presumably the most important cus-
tomer needs (Griffin and Hauser, 1993). This implies that customers share a
common understanding about the most important topics related to a given
product.
To sum up, there is theoretical and empirical support for both types of
knowledge distribution. While neoclassical theory of perfect competition
implies a homogeneous allocation of knowledge among experts, market
process theories and new institutional economics propose a heterogene-
ous distribution. The present study therefore aims to develop insights into
knowledge distribution in the specific context of external information
search for innovation projects. To explore which types of knowledge dis-
tribution can be found among external market experts we conducted an
empirical study in the field of medical products. The research context and
methods are described in the following section.
Research context and methods
Research context: Lead User study in the field of medical hygiene

products
The topic of this research is the distribution of knowledge among experts
that are to be used as an external source of information during the early
stages of innovation projects. We explore this question in the context of an
application of the so called “lead user method” (von Hippel, 1988).
Lead users are advanced product users who are both motivated and quali-
fied to make significant contributions to the development of radically new
products. Lead users’ qualifications evolve from the fact that they antici-
pate the future needs of the market and do so significantly earlier than
the majority of other customers. Lead Users therefore benefit significantly
from innovations that meet their emerging needs. Manufacturers can use
lead users as “need forecast laboratory” for emerging markets (von Hippel,
1986).
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 241 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

The identification of advanced customers is supported by the lead user

method. The methodology consists of a multiphase process aiming to
develop product ideas and concepts by integrating lead users into a work-
shop. Since it is an axiom that lead users are one step ahead of critical issues
that will impact future markets, the process starts with determining those
issues. To find out, innovation project teams try to identify urgent problems,
ideas for solutions, and, most importantly, critical trends in the particular
search field. Interviewing experts has proven to be especially valuable for
gathering this type of external information. Thus, lead user teams usually
talk to people in the field who have a broad view of emerging trends and
are leading edge with respect to the topic being studied (Herstatt and von
Hippel, 1992).
This stage of the lead user method – the interviewing of experts to get
external information for idea generation – is the context of the present sur-
vey. The information gathered in the course of expert interviews forms the
basis of our analysis on how information is distributed among experts.
The focus of our empirical work in the medical market is the research
field of surgical hygiene products. This product category encompass all
disposable articles aimed to prevent infections of the patient and the med-
ical staff during surgery, such as surgical drapes, gowns, masks, and other
garments. The lead user project had the objective of finding advanced
users in order to develop completely new products that would capture
significant market share in existing markets or would create totally new
markets.
Expert interviews
In order to determine actual problems, ideas for solving problems and future
trends in the field of surgical infection control, interviews with experts from
three areas were held:
Normal users: The first expert group consisted of users from the target
market that is from surgeons and surgical nurses. Those questioned included
doctors who were leaders in their fields and had implemented new technol-
ogy in surgery.
Extreme users: Also included were “extreme users.” This group consisted
of doctors who worked under particularly difficult conditions such as in the
tropics (poor hygiene controls, poor product availability) or burns surgeons
(long operations with large, moist wounds). In contrast to their counterparts
in the “normal user” group, they are confronted with extreme challenges to
prevent infection of their patients.
Hygiene experts: In addition to the actual product users, experts in the
subject of clinic hygiene were also interviewed. Hospitals have to employ
medical staff in charge of ensuring that hygienic standards are met in all
areas of clinics and hospitals. Frequently, hygiene experts have their aca-
demic background in bacteriology and virology.
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 242 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

The experts were identified by screening different sources of information

like the internet (for example web pages of leading clinics, research insti-
tutes, and medical associations) and magazine publications. We contacted
the identified experts and, were able to carry out interviews with 12 normal
users, 6 extreme users, and 6 hygiene experts, making 24 interviews in total.
The chronological order of interviews was not consciously determined by
the authors, but was mainly determined by finding the earliest opportunity
to fix an appointment to interview the experts.
Subject to geographical spread, we conducted either one-to-one or tel-
ephone interviews. To ensure a consistent interview structure, open ques-
tions about problems, solutions, and trends in the search field were fixed in
an interview guideline. However, the interviewers had the opportunity to
ask further questions in reaction to the remarks of the respondents (semi-
structured). All interviews were recorded in writing.
Coding and evaluation of the information

To analyze the information provided in the interviews, we performed a con-
tent analysis of the interview protocols (Berelson, 1971; Krippendorf, 1980).
In the context of the present survey, the expert interviews aimed to identify
hints for new product development and lead users who are ahead of the
market. We therefore distinguished three categories of information:
Actual usage problems,

Solution ideas for usage problems, and
Trends having an impact on product use.
Each information category was specified by an operational definition. In a

preliminary analysis of a sample of interviews, this category system proved
to be free of overlaps and exhaustive to categorize the information provided
in the protocols. The unit of analysis was one remark which provided a com-
plete description of a problem, solution or trend. In the main, one informa-
tion unit encompassed from one to three sentences from the interviewees.
The information units within the protocols were screened and coded by
one author of this article. Four additional coders went through a random
sample of ten of our interviews and were asked to identify the information
units in the protocols. The four coders were members of the research team
and were therefore familiar with the search field of infection prevention.
To test reliability between the coding of the first author and the other four
coders, we calculated the Cohen’s Kappa coefficient for each of the three
information categories (Cohen, 1960). This measure takes into account that
a certain percentage of corresponding assignments can already be expected
in a random coding. Thus, this coefficient is stricter than the simple pair
wise inter-coder reliability. Cohen’s Kappa was on average 84.9 percent for
all three categories (0.86 for usage problems, 0.88 for solutions, and 0.72 for
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 243 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

trends). This is a very satisfactory value that indicates a high reliability of

the coding procedure. Thus, the coding of the first author formed the basis
for the analysis of information heterogeneity.
In order to be able to prioritize the experts’ remarks, the information
units were rated according to their relevance. Relevance in the context
of the present innovation area stands for the impact of the particular
problem, solution or trend regarding the hygiene situation in the oper-
ation room, for example: (1) Problems with direct and serious conse-
quences for wound infection, (2) solutions that would directly result
in major improvements in infection prevention, and (3) trends with
clear and substantial future impact on hygiene are to be rated as the
most relevant information units. Since a five-point-rating scale proved
to put too big a strain on the discriminatory ability of the rating peo-
ple, we made use of a three-point-rating scale (high, middle, and low
importance). Again, all information units provided were initially rated
by one of the authors. The same four coders mentioned above rated ten
randomly selected information units. On average 77.5 percent of the
ratings matched between the author and the four other rating agents.
When the rating was not consistent, the difference was never more than
one scale point. In essence, the reliability of the relevance rating was
satisfactory.
Findings and future research
Distribution of information between different expert groups

A pattern of heterogeneous information distribution among the three expert
groups “normal users,” “extreme users,” and “hygiene experts” emerged. In
Table 11.1 A Small fraction of total information is shared by more than one expert
group
Fraction of total information units that was revealed by ...
Type of
information unit ... One group ... Two groups ... Three groups Total
Notions of 84.7% (50) 11.9% (7) 3.4% (2) 100% (59)

problems
Notions of 95.0% (19) 0% (0) 5.0% (1) 100% (20)
solutions
Notions of trends 87.5% (14) 12.5% (2) 0% (0) 100% (16)
Total 87.4% (83) 9.5% (9) 3.1% (3) 100% (95)
Numbers in brackets stand for the absolute number of information units.
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 244 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

Table 11.1 it is shown whether the information that resulted from all expert
interviews was revealed by only one, by two, or by all three of the expert
groups.
The findings indicate that for all types of information, most units of
information were provided by one expert group only (87.4 percent). The
problems, solutions, and trends mentioned by one expert group do not usu-
ally correspond with the notions of the experts in the two other groups.
Consequently, a particular piece of information is rarely mentioned by mem-
bers of two (9.5 percent) or even all three groups (3.1 percent). It appears
that different expert groups do not have access to the same information and
do not share a common understanding/opinion about the issues affecting a
particular product field.
However, the heterogeneity of knowledge seems to decrease when
focusing on the most relevant and important information. As mentioned
above, problems, solutions, and trends were rated on a three-point-
rating scale (high, middle, low relevance) with respect to their impact
on infection control. The results in Table 11.2 indicate, that the infor-
mation units that were provided by more than one expert group are, on
average, more relevant than the knowledge held exclusively by one of
the three groups of interviewees (1.93 versus 2.34; 1 = high importance,
3 = low importance). In other words, the knowledge that is distributed
throughout many different types of experts tends to be more important.
However, this does not imply that every piece of significant information
on a given subject could be provided by any expert somehow related to
a particular search field. The most information units that were rated as
being highly relevant for infection control is still exclusively mentioned
by the members of one expert group (75 percent of all highly relevant
information).
Strong indication exists that the information held by an expert is linked
to his specific relationship to the product category in question. Again, this
becomes obvious by comparing the three expert groups; “normal users,”
“extreme users,” and “hygiene experts” (see Table 11.3).
Table 11.2 Shared information is on average more relevant
Information revealed Information revealed

by one expert group by two or three expert
only (n = 87) groups (n = 14) Sig.b)
Relevance (mean)a) 2.34 1.93 p < 0.05
a)
Relevance was measured using a three-point-rating scale (1 = high, 2 = middle, 3 = low
relevance); n = 95.
b)
Two-tailed t-test for independent samples.
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 245 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

Table 11.3 The expert groups emphasize on different types of information
Type of information unit
Type of expert Notions of Notions of Notions of

group problems solutions trends Total
Normal users 64.4% (38) 28.8% (17) 6.8% (4) 100% (59)
Extreme users 80.0% (12) 20.0% (3) 0% (0) 100% (15)
Hygiene experts 58.3% (21) 5.6% (2) 36.1% (13) 100% (36)
Total 64.5% (71) 20.0% (22) 15.5% (17) 100% (110)
Chi-Square = 21.19; df = 4; p<0.001; numbers in brackets stand for the absolute number of infor-
mation units.
When the information units are segregated into problems, solutions, and
trends, we find that “normal users” primarily mention problems that they
face when using the products. To a smaller extent they suggest solutions for
problems and even more seldom they mentioned trends in the search field
(see first row of Table 11.3).
“Extreme users” showed a much stronger emphasis on usage problems.
More than three out of four remarks made by members of this expert group
were centered around a problem in product usage. Accordingly, the per-
centage of solutions and trends is much smaller than in the group of “nor-
mal users” (second row of Table 11.3). The difference is probably due to
the much more challenging usage situations that the extreme users are
confronted with. This group of doctors works under particularly difficult
conditions (for example in the tropics) or have to treat extremely diffi-
cult cases (long operations with large, moist wounds). In this context the
probability of problems in the application of products for infection preven-
tion increases. Consider for example the adhesive strip that is necessary for
attaching the surgical drapes to the patient. In most surgeries the existing
products offered by the medical industry can guarantee reliable adhesion
and, at the same time, avoid harming the patients’ skin. Both requirements
are much more difficult to ensure in the case of burn surgery since long
operations with moist wounds and the application of large amounts of
cooling water endanger the adhesion of the stripes. In addition, large areas
of burned skin hamper a risk of less adhesion of the drapes to the skin of
the patient.
The “hygiene experts” were able to indicate more trends than the respond-
ents in the other two groups (third row of Table 11.3). They seem to focus
more on the general context of product use and are able to take a forward
thinking perspective on the broader field of hospital hygiene. Surgical
hygiene products such as drapes, masks, and gowns are only one aspect of
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 246 11/16/2010 6:08:07 PM

hygiene-related issues. The experts in this group seem to perceive a certain

amount of problems in product usage as they endanger infection preven-
tion. However, they seldom thought about specific solutions for these prob-
lems probably because they do not use the hygiene products themselves.
Instead, they are in a much better position to report about developments
and trends that might have an impact on the future demands on surgical
hygiene products. For instance, changes in the norms and standards for
hospital hygiene are an important issue that clearly falls into the responsi-
bility of hygiene experts, but are hardly known by the nurses and surgeons
as the product users. Not surprisingly, this “trend” information was mostly
provided by the hygiene experts.
Another indication for a strong association of the information provided by
experts and their usage context is presented in Figure 11.1. Again, this anal-
ysis differentiates the information according to their relevance for infection
control on a three-point-rating scale (high, middle, low relevance). Extreme
users mentioned more problems, solutions or trends with a high and direct
impact on infection control than their counterparts in “normal” surgery
fields. Similarly to the line of reasoning above, this might be explained by
the more challenging product usage by the doctors working in fields like
tropical and burn surgery. The problems that they encounter seem to be
more severe and consequently their suggested solutions have a clearer and
50% 48,3%
43,3%
40,0%
Fraction of total information units
40%
33,3%
30% 26,7%
20%
10% 8,3%
0%
High relevance Middle relevance Low relevance
Normal users n = 75
Chi-square = 4.83; df = 2; p < 0.1
Extreme users
Figure 11.1 Information provided by extreme users tends to be more relevant for
infection control than remarks from the normal user group
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 247 11/16/2010 6:08:08 PM

more direct impact on the prevention of infections during the course of

operations.
In total, the type and relevance of information provided by the respond-
ents is determined by the particular relationship that an expert group has
to the product field. The different experiences and usage of the experts
explains why knowledge and information is rather heterogeneous. Expert
groups stress different topics because they deal with the products in a dif-
ferent way. However, with respect to the most important information, the
knowledge is slightly more homogenous. The relevance of information tends
to be somehow associated with its distribution.
Distribution of information within expert groups

In summary, the findings in Section 5.1 suggest that knowledge about prob-
lems, solutions, and trends in a particular product field is in the main not
shared by different expert groups. Of course, one could argue that while this
is comprehensible when analyzing different types of experts, this might not
be the case when comparing the interview outcomes within a given expert
group.
To test this possibility we analyzed the redundancy of information within
the three expert groups “normal users,” “extreme users,” and “hygiene
experts.” More precisely, we explored how many additional information
units were provided by each interview when compared with the interviews
that have been conducted in the same group before. For this analysis, it was
necessary to bring the interviews within each expert group in an interview
sequence. Since the amount of information varied significantly between the
experts of the same group, the chronological order of the interviews influ-
ences the amount of additional information gained during the course of
the interviews. For instance, if the sequence started with the most inform-
ative talks, information redundancy would be comparatively high in the
interviews that followed and vice versa. The particular order of interviews
that was realized in the present survey is incidentally and mainly due to
time restrictions and availability of the experts we contacted. It seems
therefore inappropriate to base the analysis on this particular sequence of
interviews.
In the following analysis we assume a setting where no preliminary
information about the knowledge and the cutting edge status of poten-
tial interviewees exists. We therefore also assume that any sequence of
interviews within an expert group has the same probability to occur. The
interviews are interpreted as a finite set of events with an equally dis-
tributed probability. Consequently, a particular order of interviews can be
seen as one permutation that is equally probable as any other permutation
of interviews.1
The analysis was based on six talks in each group leading to 6! different
permutations for the interview sequence in each expert group. Since this is
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 248 11/16/2010 6:08:08 PM

a large number, we randomly simulated 700 orderings. For each permuta-

tion, the amount of nonredundant information units gained in interview
to interview was calculated and averaged over all permutations. The results
in Figure 11.2 stand for the expected net information gain per interview as
a percentage of all information gathered in the six interviews – the percent-
ages within each group therefore add up to 100 percent. It is important to
note, that the findings are based on the assumption that no preliminary
selection of the experts is possible.
As indicated in Figure 11.2 the trend seen in the graphs is similar for all
three groups of experts: The number of new information units decreases
during the course of the interviews. Interviewing more experts leads to
more useful information. However, the decline is not substantial. More
than 40 percent of all information is provided within the second half of the
sequence of interviews. At least 10 percent of the total information can still
be expected in the last interview.
To identify most of the problems, solutions, and trends that are known in
a particular expert group, it is not sufficient to interview one or two experts.
Even the experts in the same category don’t seem to share the same core of
knowledge. Instead, knowledge seems to be heterogeneously distributed due
to different personal experiences of the experts – even if they are experts in
the same field.
This finding is supported by another analysis of information redundancy.
We investigated how many information units exclusively one expert within
a group mentioned and what fraction of total information was jointly
30%
Percent of total information
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of interviews
Normal users Extreme users Hygiene experts
Figure 11.2 In a random order of interviews a significant fraction of total informa-

tion is still provided during the last interviews
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 249 11/16/2010 6:08:08 PM

Table 11.4 The majority of information was not shared by more than one expert
Fraction of total information that was revealed in altogether ...
1 2 3 4 5 6
interview interviews interviews interviews interviews interviews Total
Normal 78.3% (47) 11.7% (7) 6.7% (4) 1.7% (1) 1.7% (1) 0% (0) 100% (60)
users
Extreme 66.7% (10) 26.7% (4) 6.6% (1) 0% (0) 0% (0) 0% (0) 100% (15)
users
Hygiene 80.6% (29) 8.3% (3) 5.6% (2) 2.8% (1) 2.8% (1) 0% (0) 100% (36)
experts
Total 77.5% (86) 12.6% (14) 6.3% (7) 1.8% (2) 1.8% (2) 0% (0) 100% (111)
Chi-Square = 4.17; df =10; n.s.; numbers in brackets stand for the absolute number of information
units.
revealed in two, three, and more interviews (see Table 11.4). These percent-
ages do not vary significantly among the three different groups of experts. It
becomes obvious, that in all three groups a large fraction of the total infor-
mation was exclusively provided by one interviewee (77.5 percent). Only
12.6 percent of all information units were shared by two interviewees and
even less were mentioned by three (6.3 percent), four (1.8 percent) or five
experts (1.8 percent). No single information unit was mentioned by all six
interviewees within a particular group of experts.
To illustrate the link between the particular use context and personal
experience of any expert and his information input, consider the case of
one member of the expert group “hygiene experts” who had been work-
ing for many years as a surgery nurse before taking on the task of hygiene
agent in a hospital. This person noted many hygiene problems directly
associated with the use of hygiene products in surgery since she had
made personal usage experiences. The problem remarks provided by the
other experts were more focused on logistics, storage of products, and the
general hygiene discipline of the medical personnel – issues that usually
form the core of hygiene agents’ tasks. Problems relating to product use
were hardly mentioned by these experts without personal experience in
surgery.
Similar to the analysis in Section 5.1, the general finding with respect
to information distribution differed between the most relevant informa-
tion on the one hand and the information of middle and low relevance on
the other hand. In Figure 11.3 the findings show that the net gain of non-
redundant information decreases more significantly for the most relevant
information. This means, that the knowledge with the strongest impact on
infection prevention is, again, more widely shared among the members of
an expert group than other, less important information. However, neither
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 250 11/16/2010 6:08:09 PM

30,0%
28,8%
Percent of total information
21,7%
20,0%
20,1% 17,2%
18,8% 15,9%
16,8% 14,7% 13,3%
13,9%
10,0% 10,9%
7,8%
0,0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of interviews
Low and middle relevance information High relevance information
Figure 11.3 In a random interview sequence the acquisition of nonredundant infor-

mation decreases more significantly with high relevance information than with the
information of low and middle relevance
of the graphs shows a substantial difference in terms of percentage values.

The findings therefore do not at all imply that the important knowledge can
be elicited by interviewing one or two experts of the same type. Even in the
last interview, very relevant remarks are made that were not mentioned by
the other respondents in the interview sequence.
Conclusions
The results of the present survey show high heterogeneity of expert knowl-
edge. Experts in our sample vary in terms of the problems identified, pro-
posed solutions, and trends in a particular product field. This is equally
valid for the group based analysis between the expert groups as well as in
the individual based analysis within each expert group. In essence, the
homo economicus that is acting in contexts of transparent and perfectly
distributed information is not reflected by the findings.
The difference of information held by different parties can probably not
be explained by a lack of information exchange between experts in the
present product field. The medical community is a close knit community
that is very open to the exchange of the latest knowledge via conferences,
journals, internet forums, and informal networks.
This exceptional situation might initially be due to the common sense of
obligation to diffuse information that might be necessary to save lives and
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 251 11/16/2010 6:08:09 PM

reestablish the health of patients. In addition, by freely revealing personal

knowledge, manufacturers of hygiene products can be prompted to real-
ize product improvements that the users can benefit from Harhoff et al.
(2000).
Second, the apprehension to loose proprietary knowledge – a potential
barrier to the free sharing of information – seems not to be relevant for
the product field in question. Hygiene products, such as surgical drapes,
gowns, and masks, while indispensable for preventing infection do not
improve competitive advantages in surgery. Doctors interested in pushing
their field will innovate in surgical methods and complex instruments
instead. Furthermore, most surgeons, due to geographical spread or dif-
ferent specializations, are not necessarily direct rivals in the same area.
To reveal information about problems, solutions, and trends in a prod-
uct field will therefore not compromise competitiveness (Harhoff et al.,
2000).
If it is not the lack of information exchange, then it seems reasonable that
the heterogeneity of knowledge is a matter of information complexity and
volume (Hayek, 1945). The sheer volume of information that has been gen-
erated for a given product field seems to exceed the mental capacity of indi-
viduals – even the capacity of experts. Cognitive limits and specialization
of knowledge inhibit that a single experts can provide all of the information
relevant to a particular subject. As a consequence, in alignment with the
concept of “bounded rationality,” individuals gather only a limited subset
of relevant information.
For our sample it was shown that the specific knowledge base of a par-
ticular type of experts can be explained by their unique use context and
relationship to the search field. As proposed by the theory of contextual
development of knowledge, information gathering depends on the specific
context in which the expertise is built on. Extreme users, when asked, stress
problems in product usage to a greater extent than their counterparts in
hygienically less challenging surgery fields. Hygiene experts – generalists
without a large amount of personal usage experience – mention more trends
and less concrete product solutions than the experts in product use. Also,
for experts of the same type, anecdotic evidence indicates that the knowl-
edge differences are associated with the personal experiences and usage pat-
terns. The different domains and Milieux that the people are working in
and the different situations with which they are confronted, in fact, drive
knowledge development.
This pattern can be understood in terms of costs and benefits of informa-
tion gathering. With respect to information costs, consider that experts will
often acquire information without additional effort in the course of their
work activities. If an expert decides to engage in an information search out-
side his own scope, higher investments in time and financial resources are
usually required. The costs of information gathering are particularly high
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 252 11/16/2010 6:08:10 PM

in cases where the information is “sticky” (von Hippel, 1944). Information

stickiness can be due to attributes of the information such as how easy it
is for information seekers to encode the information. For the expert users
interviewed in the survey, it seems reasonable that a considerable part of
their knowledge is rather tacit, since it is acquired in the course of product
use (Polanyi, 1958). Often it is a problem for customers and users to clearly
articulate the problems they face when using the products and to suggest
how these problems could be solved.
The same can be argued for the benefit of information. Information
relating to their specific working context should have the highest per-
sonal benefit for the experts. Through the “in-house” use of this infor-
mation they can directly enhance their working situation. In contrast,
the anticipated reward of information that is rather relevant for others is
lower. As mentioned earlier, monetary gains by licensing or selling this
information are quite improbable, particularly in the search field of this
survey.
Strongly connected to the issue of local knowledge variations is the ques-
tion of how many experts need to be interviewed in order to identify most
of the relevant information about problems, solutions, and trends in a prod-
uct field. It becomes apparent that the present research has a direct practical
implication for the information gathering during the early stages of product
development. First, the pattern of heterogeneous knowledge among experts
implies that it is risky for an innovation team to restrict external informa-
tion search on one type of experts. We found, that only a small fraction
of the total information was provided by experts in all three of the inter-
viewed expert groups. Second, it also seems risky to narrow interviews to a
group of similar experts on a very small number of interviewees. Our data
suggest that interviews with two to three experts of a particular knowledge
field should identify less than 60 percent of the information that would
be obtained by asking six experts in the same key field. Even though the
most relevant information on a subject is distributed slightly more homog-
enously and is more often shared among experts of different groups as well
as among experts of the same type, the risk of missing very relevant infor-
mation remains high.
At first sight these results imply that there are clear benefits for a high
number of interviews. However, this implication only holds true under the
assumption of no preliminary information about the amount of knowledge
and information base of any particular expert. The experts in our sample,
for example, vary with respect to the amount and quality of information
input. To reduce the number of interviews, an innovation team could try
to interview the individuals with the highest amount of knowledge as
early on as possible in the process of information search. One approach
is to track down especially promising experts by networking through the
expert communities. In a network search the innovation project team
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 253 11/16/2010 6:08:10 PM

would begin to interview one expert with apparent knowledge in the field
and then ask them if they know of other experts who might be able to
provide even more valuable information. The advantage of this approach
is that experts tend to know others who are at the cutting edge of the sub-
ject (von Hippel et al., 1999). A team should therefore quickly identify the
most attractive experts and, hence, should be able to reduce the number
of interviews without loosing much of the most important information on
a particular topic.
However, the networking search process is less promising in fields where
it is difficult for one expert to assess the leading edge status of other experts.
This might be the case if no tight networks between individual experts
exist and therefore no direct interaction takes place. At the same time, the
lack of close interaction would imply that the knowledge and information
is more heterogeneous among experts. Therefore, it seems reasonable that
an innovation team should explore the ties between experts, before decid-
ing to take the networking approach and before assessing the number of
interviews. For instance, answers to the following questions can serve as
indicators for the ties between experts and the homogeneity of knowledge
distribution:
Are there institutionalized platforms for a formal information exchange

between experts (for example conferences, publications, chat
rooms)?
Are there active informal networks activities (for example on the basis of
mutual trust)?
Are there strong interdependencies between the works of different
experts?
Can experts benefit from formal and informal information transfer?
Given that an expert population is rather heterogeneous with respect

to the knowledge and information in stock, it seems risky to inconsid-
erately restrict external information search to a very small number of
experts. To reduce costs and time delays in the early stages of innovation
projects the project teams needs to gather preliminary information about
the expert community and, if possible at reasonable costs, about indi-
vidual experts. On the basis of this information it can be decided how
many experts need to be interviewed and which search strategy should be
followed. Moreover, our findings suggest that it is possible to predict the
type of information provided by experts on the basis of the background
and personal experience of the interviewee (contextual knowledge). This
paves the way to efficiently gathering knowledge of any specified type if
personal information about the experts is available before starting the
search process.
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 254 11/16/2010 6:08:10 PM

● First, the pattern of heterogeneous knowledge among experts implies that
it is risky for an innovation team to restrict external information search
on one type of experts.
● Even though the most relevant information on a subject is distributed
slightly more homogenously and is more often shared among experts of
different groups as well as among experts of the same type, the risk of
missing very relevant information remains high.
● At first sight these results imply that there are clear benefits for a high
number of interviews. However, this implication only holds true under
the assumption of no preliminary information about the amount of
knowledge and information base of any particular expert. The experts in
our sample, for example, vary with respect to the amount and quality of
information input.
● To reduce the number of interviews, an innovation team could try to
interview the individuals with the highest amount of knowledge as early
on as possible in the process of information search. One approach is to
track down especially promising experts by networking through the
expert communities. In a network search the innovation project team
would begin to interview one expert with apparent knowledge in the field
and then ask them if they know of other experts who might be able to
provide even more valuable information.
● However, the networking search process is less promising in fields where it
is difficult for one expert to assess the leading edge status of other experts.
This might be the case if no tight networks between individual experts
exist and therefore no direct interaction takes place. At the same time, the
lack of close interaction would imply that the knowledge and informa-
tion is more heterogeneous among experts. Therefore, it seems reason-
able that an innovation team should explore the ties between experts,
before deciding to take the networking approach and before assessing the
number of interviews.
● Given that an expert population is rather heterogeneous with respect to
the knowledge and information in stock, it seems risky to inconsider-
ately restrict an external information search to a very small number of
experts. To reduce costs and time delays in the early stages of innovation
projects the project teams needs to gather preliminary information about
the expert community and, if possible at reasonable costs, about indi-
vidual experts. On the basis of this information it can be decided how
many experts need to be interviewed and which search strategy should
be followed.
● It is often possible to predict the type of information provided by experts
on the basis of the background and personal experience of the interviewee
9780230_245907_12_cha11.indd 255 11/16/2010 6:08:10 PM

(contextual knowledge). This paves the way to efficiently gathering knowl-

edge of any specified type if personal information about the experts is
available before starting the search process.
Note
1. We conducted 12 interviews in the group of “normal users,” and respectively six
interviews in the group of “extreme users,” and “hygiene experts.” To simplify the
interpretation of the findings we standardized the data on six interviews in each
group. For the “normal users” each permutation was created as a random selection
of six out of 12 interviews.
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12
Generating Innovations through
Analogies – An Empirical
Investigation of Knowledge Brokers
Katharina Kalogerakis, Cornelius Herstatt, and Christian Lüthje
Introduction
The phase of crucial importance in most product development projects is

the front end, often called “Fuzzy Front End” (Koen et al., 2001; Kim and
Wilemon, 2002). Here the decision is made which projects will get resources
and which ones won’t. Additionally, several studies indicate that a major
part of the product-development costs heavily depend on the decisions
taken in the front end (Herstatt and Verworn, 2003).
A key activity of the front-end work is to develop ideas for new prod-
ucts and generate product concepts. Hence the front end of product
development requires creative work. A new and creative solution usu-
ally results from the combination of pieces of knowledge that have not
been connected before (Geschka, 1992; Geschka et al., 1994; Hargadon,
2002). One promising avenue to create new combinations of knowledge
is the use of analogies. As a basis for developing something new, one has
to access one’s own knowledge pool and other sources of knowledge.
Accessing this knowledge and transferring it to the new solution usually
requires the use of analogies – although this is not always obvious for
the creative person. An analogy between two objects exists if these are
similar to each other in some aspects – that is similar appearance, simi-
lar function or similar structures – and are at the same time different in
some other aspects.
A key problem in using analogies for product development is to find rel-
evant analogies early in the process. First, analogies can only be accessed
if relevant knowledge of the different knowledge domains is available
to the innovating person or group. Second, even if relevant knowledge
is available, several factors can impede realizing the relevance of that
knowledge in the current context. For example, learning is contextual,
meaning that acquired knowledge is linked to the situation and meaning
258
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Generating Innovations through Analogies 259
in which it is learned (Gick and Holyoak, 1980; Holyoak and Thagard,

1995; Schild et al., 2004).
The question arises as to which factors foster the use of analogies in
product development. First, it seems to be important to have access to
diverse knowledge domains. Additionally, some practice in combining
knowledge from diverse sources can have a positive effect. Furthermore,
open-mindedness can foster looking in different domains even though
obvious similarities between the domains are rare. According to Hargadon
(Hargadon, 2002, 2003) certain companies, so-called “knowledge bro-
kers,” are in a special position to use analogies better than others. These
companies are familiar with a wide range of knowledge domains and are
therefore able to transfer a solution from one domain to another. Their
unique position in a network enables them to take advantage of so-called
structural holes. Structural holes describe the separation between non-
redundant contacts (Burt, 1992). For example, there is usually no con-
tact between the individual manufacturers of sport shoes and medical
devices. This structural hole was used by Design Continuum, a full-serv-
ice product design firm, while developing the Reebok Pump sport shoe.
They put an inflatable splint in the shoe and used a medical IV bag as the
air bladder (Hargadon, 2003). This shows how bridging such a structural
hole and transferring knowledge between formerly separated domains
can lead to innovative solutions. Knowledge brokering can be conducted
by consulting companies, design agencies, and product- development
companies working for clients in diverse industries.
So far, the role of knowledge brokers in the context of product development
has been explored based on a limited number of case studies (Hargadon and
Sutton, 1997; Hargadon, 2002). With this research we want to enlarge this
empirical basis and develop a richer understanding of the processes and the
actors behind the use of analogies in product development. Specifically the
present study aims to answer the following questions:
Which purpose does the use of analogies serve in product-development

projects?
How do knowledge brokers ensure the access to diverse knowledge domains
in order to find analogous solution approaches?
Our results indicate that analogies fulfil a greater variety of functions

than usually considered in the relevant literature. For instance, analogies
are not exclusively used to develop truly new products or solution strategies,
but are also an important means to increase the efficiency of the innovation
process. Besides, our results show that the combination of knowledge from
diverse sources is primarily based on existing experience and knowledge of
the persons participating in such projects. Therefore, the team configura-
tion is a key (limiting) factor for companies tackling the development of
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 259 11/25/2010 12:57:07 PM

260 Kalogerakis, Herstatt, and Lüthje
new products, services or processes based on the usage of analogies. Hence,

human resource management plays a crucial role for the formation of such
product-development teams.
The paper is organized as follows: In the next section we describe our
empirical approach. Afterwards we present the results of our qualitative
research based on 13 cases. First, all cases are categorized according to the
primary purpose to use analogies. Second, the process of using analogies is
thoroughly described and analyzed. The paper ends with a summary and an
outline of aspects for future research.
Empirical approach
We concentrated our research on companies that are in the position to act

as knowledge brokers in product- development bridging “otherwise discon-
nected worlds” (Hargadon, 2002, 2003).
The companies participating in our study all offer services in product
development – particularly industrial design and engineering – to clients
from diverse industries. Therefore, these companies have the opportunity
to transfer solutions between knowledge domains to generate innovations.
In addition, they are all experts in product innovation, simply because it is
their main activity.
As a research method we chose semi-structured interviews that were
conducted mainly via telephone. The interview guideline was addressed
to managers in charge of product-development projects in the compa-
nies participating in our research. The interviews started with a general
part including questions concerning the company (for example services
offered, client industries) and the interviewee (for example experience
with the application of analogies in former projects). The major part of
each interview focused on a project in which analogies played a role for
developing a new product. The interviewee was asked to first describe
this project. After this and the explanation of the analogies that were
used, the rest of the questions dealt with the formation of the team and
the way the team worked with the analogies. Our interview ended with
an evaluation of the effects on the project resulting from the use of
analogies.
Thirteen companies participated in our research, including three com-
panies offering engineering services, four companies offering engineering
and design services, and six companies that specialized solely in industrial
design. The companies range from large international companies like IDEO
to small companies with six-eight employees. Of the 13 persons interviewed,
eight persons have a degree in industrial design (one of them additionally
has a degree in engineering), four persons have a degree in engineering, and
one person has a degree in IT. The projects described in the interviews can
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 260 11/25/2010 12:57:07 PM

Table 12.1 Overview of interviews
No Knowledge broker (employees) Industry of client Target of project Team configuration
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 261
1 Small industrial design studio Music industry Design of a mixer for audio Industrial designers
(<10) engineering
2 Small industrial design studio Tools Design of a steering lawn mower Industrial designers
(<10)
3 Small industrial design studio Tools Design study of a mini cordless Industrial designers
(<10) electric screwdriver
4 Medium industrial design Vehicles Design study of a forklift truck Industrial designers
studio (>30)
5 Large engineering company Medical Electronics for a medical device Electronic and mechanical engineers,
(180) technology to create high voltage in very a physicist, and a technician for
small dimensions precision mechanics
6 Small industrial design studio Aircraft Design of a cockpit of a big Industrial designers and an engineer
(<10) passenger aircraft
7 Large industrial design Sports “Baton” for the Commonwealth Industrial designers, human factor
company also offering Games specialists, and engineers
engineering services (~ 400)
8 Medium engineering company Mobile phone Mobile phone appliance for A hardware engineer, a software
(30) services tunnels engineer, a design engineer, and a
model maker
Continued
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9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 262
Table 12.1 Continued
No Knowledge broker (employees) Industry of client Target of project Team configuration
9 Medium engineering company “Baby equipment” High-quality baby stroller Engineers and designers
also offering design services
(40–50)
10 Medium Design and Medical Purifier for dental tools (for An industrial designer, mechanical
engineering company (45) technology example bur, polisher) engineers and technicians, a model
maker and a tool and die maker,
electronics and software engineers
11 Small to medium design studio Promotion Original promotion item with Industrial designer
(12) long lasting value
12 Medium to large industrial Office furniture High-quality backrest of an Industrial designers and design
design studio also offering office chair engineers
engineering services (>60)
13 Large engineering company Transport sector Facility to rearrange allocation Soft and hardware engineers,
(>200) of train wagons technical experts
11/25/2010 12:57:07 PM
be arranged between solely technical problems and problems where design

aspects dominated. An overview of the cases is given in Table 12.1.
Functions of analogies in new product development
The function of analogies in product-development processes we observed

can be characterized along an efficiency / innovativeness dimension. That
is, in some projects analogies are primarily used to increase project efficiency
and in other projects analogies rather serve to generate highly innovative
new product ideas and concepts. Also, in some projects, both strategies were
followed.
The motivation to use an analogy in a product-development project has
an impact on the search space explored and the type of transfer. Aiming at
efficiency means a solution that fulfils the given demands in the shortest
possible time – restricting the search space to well known and proximate
solutions. Due to intense competition, innovating companies can be forced
to use analogies to reach the given time and cost limits. How pressure from
outside concerning cost and time limits can provoke the efficient use of
analogies for highly innovative products is described by Majchrzak et al. in
their study concerning knowledge reuse in NASA projects (Majchrzak et al.,
2004).
Contrastingly, aiming at a high degree of innovation leads the team
to a wide search space and a focus on far analogies. In the literature a
distinction is made between near and far analogies (or intradomain and
interdomain analogies respectively) (Dahl and Moreau, 2002; Bonnardel
and Marmèche, 2004). If source and target of an analogy are closely
related or stem from the same domain respectively, we talk about near
analogies. Far analogies, on the other hand, have fewer surface simi-
larities – here source and target belong to different domains. Dahl and
Moreau have shown that the number of far analogies that are discussed
during a creative product design task is an indicator for the originality of
the resulting design and the appreciation of the design by the customer
(Dahl and Moreau, 2002). An example of a breakthrough product inno-
vation based on a far analogy is the Speedo Fastskin swimsuit. Here an
analogy to the structure of shark skin was used bridging domains that
are very far apart – biology and sports equipment. Applying bionics in
product development offers very innovative and original solutions, but
also difficulties in the transfer process.
The cases can be located along the efficiency / innovativeness continuum,
coming up with three main clusters (see Figure 12.1). On the one end, we
found three projects mainly focusing on reaching tight timeframes and cost
limits and/ or a reduction of risks. On the other extreme of this continuum
we identified two breakthrough projects that were mainly driven by finding
a really new product solution. Finally, we found eight “Balanced” projects
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 263 11/25/2010 12:57:07 PM

Efficiency projects Balanced projects Breakthrough projects
Efficiency as Innovativeness as
primary objective primary objective
Figure 12.1 Project clusters according to primary function of using analogies
Table 12.2 Efficiency projects
Characteristic of
No. Target of project Analogy analogy based transfer
8 Mobile phone Transfer of a processor Transfer of an existing

appliance for tunnels used in a control board technological solution
of an amplifier for a that was already used in
mobile phone mast a former project
13 Facility to rearrange Transfer of a solution
allocation of train of consistent time
wagons measurement in shared
systems
5 Electronics for a Transfer of a
medical device to technological solution
create high voltage in from light electronics
very small dimensions
which are located between pure efficiency and breakthrough. These are
characterized by a compromise concerning efficiency and the goal of find-
ing a highly innovative solution.
In the following sections we describe and analyze the various projects
within the three clusters.
Efficiency projects
The three cases portrayed in Table 12.2 all belong to engineering com-
panies that reported to use analogies mainly to meet time and cost con-
straints set by their clients. Hence, in these cases the search for analogies
was mainly driven by the aim to increase efficiency. In order to suc-
ceed the engineers built upon their experiences from former projects
and transferred existing technological solutions. For example, in case
number 8, a mobile phone appliance for tunnels had to be developed.
One of the participating engineers who was responsible for the hardware
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 264 11/25/2010 12:57:08 PM

development made use of an already existing control board that he had

developed in a former project as part of an amplifier for a mobile phone
mast. He realized that he could use the complete processor for this new
application. Due to this transfer of an existing technological solution
the development time and costs could be reduced. In addition, existing
contacts to the manufacturer of the processor could be used which had a
positive effect on the procurement of the component. Altogether, the use
of the analogy helped to reach the cost and time targets that had been
defined by the client.
Relying on previous experiences can be highly efficient: In that case not
only explicit knowledge, but also implicit knowledge can be transferred.
Besides it helps in judging the relevance of the analogy if one has profound
knowledge based on own experiences in the source domain.
Balanced projects
In all “Balanced projects” the reduction of development time and costs
played an important role with regard to the use of analogies (see Table 12.3).
At the same time all projects aimed to develop a really new solution to dif-
ferentiate the innovation from existing products in the market. Thus, the
common basis of the balanced projects is that a time and cost frame to
develop a marketable solution is given by the client and within these con-
straints analogies are used to maximize the innovativeness of the solution.
However, slight differences can be identified in-between the cases concern-
ing their approach of making a transfer based on an analogy.
First, in the projects 7, 1, and 6 design elements or principles that had
already been used in former projects were transferred. The transfers were
not as direct as they were in the case of the “Efficiency projects,” because
only basic shapes and solution principles and not existing technological
solutions were transferred. For example, in order to develop a new “baton”
for the Commonwealth Games an analogy was detected to a digital antenna
that had been developed in a former project. The antenna had the form of a
stick with a swelling in the middle on which a display was mounted show-
ing lights to visualize strength and activity of the received radio signals. In
analogy to this antenna the baton was designed as a thin stick with a swell-
ing in the middle containing a display that showed the pulse rate of the
person holding the baton.
Next, in the cases 10, 9, 2, and 12 technical solutions were transferred,
but these transfers were not solely based on experiences from former
projects. Although the ideas that were followed originated from personal
experiences of the team members, the teams were also willing to look into
different areas to build up new competences if required. These projects
targeted at developing a really new or premium solution that could be
manufactured with reasonable effort and be introduced to the market in
the foreseeable future. For example, in the development of a purifier for
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Table 12.3 Balanced projects
Characteristic of
No. Target of project Analogy analogy based transfer
7 “Baton” for the Transfer of form and Transfer of design

Commonwealth technical ideas from an elements or principles
Games antenna for digital radio from former projects.
1 Design of a mixer for Transfer of solution
audio engineering principles from an
ergonomic study of the
interior of cars
6 Design of a cockpit of a Transfer of ergonomic
big passenger aircraft principles from vehicle
construction and chairs
in general
10 Purifier for dental tools Transfer of technical Transfer of technical
(for example bur, solutions from high- solutions from other
polisher) pressure cleaners and industries. Ideas are
premium car-doors based on former
9 High-quality baby Transfer of disc brakes projects, but not
stroller from mountain biking directly transferable
and single wheel without building up
suspension from vehicle new competences.
construction
2 Design of a steering Transfer of solution
lawn mower principles from vehicle
construction
12 High-quality backrest Transfer of technical
of an office chair solutions from sports
and medical technology
11 Original promotion Transfer of material and Transfer of design
item with long lasting movement of a piece of elements based on
value ship yard waste direct contact with the
environment of the
designer
dental tools two analogies were used. First, to develop a cleaning mecha-
nism, an analogy was detected to high-pressure cleaners that were already
known in the market for cleaning tools. This approach originated from
a participating designer who already had experience in the area of high-
pressure cleaners. A second analogy concerned the door of the purifier.
In analogy to high-class cars, an automatic closing mechanism was devel-
oped that draws the door shut if it is not properly closed or left ajar. The
developed product was unique in design and handling. Most project goals
were reached. Only the development costs were higher than targeted,
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 266 11/25/2010 12:57:08 PM

because core competences for this apparatus had to be developed. Neither

the knowledge broker nor the client possessed extensive knowledge in this
area before the project.
Finally, a slightly different approach can be observed in case number 10.
The client requested the designer to develop a promotional item with sub-
stantial benefit for the user. The client did not restrict the solution space.
Just after receiving this job, the designer participated as a tourist in a har-
bor tour. There he encountered a hump of waste which stemmed from riv-
ets punched by a shipyard. One of those small curved metal plates inspired
him to develop a bottle opener as a skipjack transferring movement and
material from the piece of metal waste. In this case inspiration was sought
in the direct environment. On the one hand, this approach was driven by
high efficiency: The product should be given away as a promotional item –
therefore having limits concerning production costs. On the other hand
high originality of the product was demanded. This case however stands
apart from the other displayed cases, because the developed product was
from a technical point of view very simple and his client provided only few
restricting parameters for the project.
Breakthrough projects
There is a last cluster encompassing two cases where innovativeness was
the predominant objective – almost totally neglecting project efficiency
(see Table 12.4). In these two projects the intention was to develop a design
study for imaginary product lines of the future not having the restriction to
be directly marketable. However, these studies inspired the development of
products being successfully brought onto the market.
In these cases the project teams chose a different approach for finding
relevant analogies. The scope of analogies was broader than in the other
two clusters – basic ideas are transferred from really different areas like, for
example, nature or Stone Age habits. Analogical thinking does not lead to
the direct transfer of a technical solution or material, but to get a profound
understanding of solution strategy and transfer very basic design elements.
Table 12.4 Breakthrough projects
Characteristic of analogy
No. Target of project Analogy based transfer
4 Design study of a An egg as an archetype Transfer of basic ideas and

forklift truck form to provide shapes from very distant
protection areas. Use of very far
3 Design study of A hand ax (/ hand-wedge) analogies.
a mini cordless from the Stone Age
electric screwdriver
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 267 11/25/2010 12:57:09 PM

For example, in the case of the forklift truck study the designers started
with the question of what is really important for the driver. Imagining
themselves to be in the position of a forklift truck driver, the designers iden-
tified the importance of shelter. An analogy was detected to an egg as an
archetype form to provide protection. Therefore, the cabin of the driver
showed the basic shape of an egg. The study resulted in the production of
a prototype that was not suitable for the market, because of high produc-
tion costs and a too futuristic approach. However, this prototype served as
inspiration for other forklift trucks that were successfully introduced into
the market. Besides, the analogy helped to focus the project and to commu-
nicate the goals to be reached.
Looking back at the three different clusters, it can be summarized that
most of the cases were attributed to the “balanced project” cluster. That is,
the project teams followed mostly a mixed strategy to maximize the inno-
vativeness of the solution concepts within a given time and cost frame. In
addition, some projects clearly favored one function of analogical thinking:
Either efficiency or innovativeness. It could be shown that the motivation
of using analogies influenced the approach where to look for analogies and
which kind of transfers to consider. In the projects dominated by efficiency
considerations, the teams conducted the search for analogical problem solu-
tions in a rather narrow space and primarily relied on personal experiences
from former projects. These teams focused on finding an already existing
solution that could be transferred without substantial development effort.
In contrast, the more considerations of innovativeness dominated the use
of analogies the further the teams went to look out for analogies. In those
cases the teams did not only search for easy transferable solutions, but were
also willing to build up new competences or merely to transfer some basic
ideas or shapes.
Detecting relevant analogies
After the exploration of the different functions analogies can be used for in
product development and the resulting search space we will now describe
and analyze the process of detecting relevant analogies based on the results
of the interviews. Thereby we focus on the importance of the human
factor.
An ideal process model of using analogies derived from literature analysis
is displayed in Figure 12.2 (Schild et al., 2004; Herstatt and Kalogerakis,
2005).
Premises to search for analogies

As the examined companies are service providers, basic goals and con-
straints of their product-development projects are set by their clients.
Based on this information a project team has to be configured. Taking
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 268 11/25/2010 12:57:09 PM

Development of
Definition of Verification and
Search for the solution via
the search evaluation of
analogies transfer of
field analogies analogies
• Abstraction of the • Decision for a search • Was the analogue • Development in the
problem strategy: search via system correctly company, in a
• Review of constraints people and/ or via understood? cooperation or via
and general conditions databases • Evaluation of the outsourcing
• Use of methods to analogy concerning
• Integration of
activate knowledge its transferability
customer views
Figure 12.2 Process model of using analogies in product development
into account that the search for analogies in the examined cases is mainly
based on own experiences and personal contacts, characteristics of the
team members seem to be decisive for the outcome of the processes. It
can be valuable if former projects of the developers are considered while
staffing the teams. In one of the engineering companies it is for example
the job of the leader of the development department to choose the team
members. He reported choosing the team members with the intention
to increase the probability that experiences from former projects can be
used for solving the current problem. If he realizes that there is no rele-
vant knowledge in the company, he acquires external experts. The search
of external experts and their contacting is again based on his personal
network. However, from the interviews there is little indication that the
consideration of increasing the success of analogical thinking strongly
influences the team composition. Altogether, the formation of teams
was predominated by general project management considerations. What
kinds of skills are required? Who is the right person for contact with
the customer? Who has the right determination for this project? Who is
available?
For a knowledge broker it seems to be important that all employees partic-
ipating in product- development projects possess individual characteristics
fostering the use of analogies. First, according to the interviews, a person
needs a certain amount of experience to rely upon. Therefore the build-
ing of diverse experiences through project work in a broad area of domains
should be fostered. Only if people have knowledge from different areas are
they able to make transfers based on analogies. Less experienced engineers
or designers can continually broaden their horizon while working, if the
teams are generally composed of people with different levels of experience.
Second, communicative habits of the individuals are important. One has to
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 269 11/25/2010 12:57:09 PM

be able to share his experience and knowledge with his colleagues. Finally,
a certain curiosity, diverse hobbies, and an open view of the world can have
positive effects.
Considering the interdisciplinarity of teams, there were teams of engi-
neers, teams of designers and engineers, and teams of designers. In the
mixed teams, the designers usually lead through the phases of idea genera-
tion and development of a basic concept. At the beginning engineers are
mostly involved to guarantee the manufacturability of the solutions that
the industrial designers create. Then, in later phases of the development
of technically based products, engineers take over more responsibility. In
the mixed teams, especially the designers are expected to look in diverse
areas and get inspiration through analogies. However, the examples show
that in the engineering-teams the use of analogies is also an essential part
of product development. But engineers, probably due to their education,
tend to look for simple transferable solutions close to the original area of
the task.
If the project team is set it has to work on the project definition. The
respondents indicated that a good problem definition at the beginning of
the project is very important with respect to a successful outcome of the
project. As indicated by the process model of using analogies, a project
definition that includes an abstraction of the problem and considers given
restrictions as well as the view of the customer views is needed to open a
search space for analogies.
The need for an abstraction of the concrete problem could be confirmed
by the results of the interviews. Abstracting the problem enables the devel-
oper to use knowledge from diverse domains. As the examined companies
work as service providers they are not only confronted with the require-
ments of the future user of the product, but also the wishes of their clients.
The demands of the future user are especially important in design projects.
In order to consider ergonomic factors designers often perform human fac-
tor analysis at the beginning of a project. These ergonomic factors can be
the basis for drawing analogies to former projects from different areas.
Altogether, a good communication – within the team as well as with the
client – is an important premise in developing the project definition. Here,
analogies can also help on another level. For example, designers sometimes
use mood-boards to find a common understanding of the project with the
help of analogies. Mood-boards are a form of visual stimulus: On large boards
a collage is made with images that are usually cut out from magazines. It is
used to help capturing the “values” of the product which will appeal to the
target customer. According to its name, a mood-board should transport the
mood of the product – “the sentiment, feeling or emotion which the prod-
uct engenders when first seen” (see: www.betterproductdesign.net or www.
aqr.org.uk/glossary/).
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Search for analogies

The search for analogies is based on the problem definition and the identi-
fied general framework of the project. According to the interviews the search
for analogies is not the outcome of an explicit and conscious decision, but
emerges in the context of general creativity sessions held in the early phase
of the development projects.
In general, as depicted in the process model, a search for analogies can be
either based on knowledge stored in databases or on personal knowledge of
the participating experts. None of the examined companies used databases
to find analogies. The interviewees stated that the effort to initialize such
a database and to fill it with new knowledge is too big. Furthermore, solu-
tions in pattern matching to efficiently search in such databases were still
not been sufficiently developed. One of the designers also explicitly men-
tioned a lack of time to search in databases or to execute thorough internet
searches. Besides, he considered that a database-search for analogies was not
a task that could be delegated to assistants, but would need to be performed
by the participating designers and engineers themselves.
Altogether, database-search seems to be inefficient and is thus reducing
the willingness to use analogies. Furthermore, only explicit knowledge can
be transferred via databases. Implicit knowledge on the other hand has a
subjective and intuitive character and is tied to persons. According to Swan
et al. attempts to codify implicit knowledge of persons usually create knowl-
edge that is useless, hard to verify, trivial as well as redundant (Swan et al.,
1999). Therefore, access to knowledge while searching for analogies has to
concentrate on the participating persons. Information technologies are only
of secondary interest.
Experience and knowledge of the team members that is used to search
for analogies can stem from diverse sources. First, former development
projects are an important source. This type of direct solution transfer from
former projects is especially relevant in the “efficiency projects” where a
direct solution transfer from former projects occurs. A transfer from former
projects also plays a crucial role in most “balanced projects.” Other knowl-
edge sources can be hobbies of the team members, their general education
or an inspiration of the direct environment of the developers. In addition to
applying personal knowledge, the team members can also make use of their
personal networks. If none of the team members has personal experience in
an apparently relevant area it might be that one of them has heard of a solu-
tion that could be relevant and knows where to find further information.
The personal contacts of the team can lead to experts within or outside the
company.
The question arises how the knowledge of the team is activated. According
to the interviews some teams perform brainstorming or other creativity
techniques (that is 6–3–5 method) under a given time frame. Although the
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formality of these creativity sessions differs, a discussion of diverse ideas

within the team seems to always be an essential part of the search proc-
ess. In addition, especially for designers, visual stimuli are important: for
example looking into magazines, building mood-boards or trend-boards,
studying other projects on the market or watching for inspiration in the
direct environment.
The search for analogies is completed by an evaluation of the found anal-
ogies. It has to be checked if the analogue system was correctly understood
and what kind of transfer can be made. In the examined cases the verifica-
tion and evaluation of analogies is facilitated, because team members could
refer to their own experiences in the analogue domain. This phase was
mostly done in team discussions based on the project definition developed
at the beginning of the project. At this point, it should also be considered if
problems will arise through the transfer due to intellectual property rights
or covenants with other clients. If this is the case a more abstract transfer
might be a solution. However, in the given examples such conflicts did not
appear.
Overall, the approach of the knowledge brokers to search for analogies
follows no strict or formalized process. Several of the interviewees stated
that their procedure of finding solutions needs to be very flexible, because
each project possesses very individual characteristics. Furthermore, there
is often insufficient time to follow a formal method or long and thor-
ough search for analogies. This indicates that efficiency reasons often
predominate. And the search for analogies usually is not identifiable as a
distinct phase, but integrated into other approaches of finding a solution
for the given task.
The most important factor seems to be experiences and characteristics
of the participating persons. Therefore, human resource management has
to be considered as an important factor. A diverse and broad knowledge
of employees should be fostered if the company aims to use analogies in
product development. Measures have to be taken to prevent the forming of
specialists – employees of a knowledge broker have to be able to work to a
certain degree as generalists.
Resumé and further aspects
All interviewees had positive experiences with the use of analogies in prod-
uct development – designers as well as engineers. However, using analogies
in their daily business is a more or less automatic process, because it is per-
manently part of the routine work of these people.
Analogies are used very pragmatically throughout the whole develop-
ment process. First of all, they play an important part in the development of
solutions. Here, we can differentiate between efficiency projects, balanced
projects, and breakthrough projects. The function of analogies to increase
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 272 11/25/2010 12:57:10 PM

project efficiency is an important result, because analogies are often just

considered as a means to increase creativity. As shown before, the motiva-
tion to use analogies to create a new product directly leads to a narrower or
broader search.
Second, analogies are also used for improving communication through-
out the whole development process. They can already be used in the
phase of project definition to develop a common understanding of the
goals of the project. The project goals have to be communicated within
the development team as well as to the client. Further, analogies can help
not to lose the focus of the project and are valuable in discussions about
possible solutions (“Shared picture or vision”). Finally, analogies can also
be used to transport a message with the product to its future users. This
is a main task of most design projects. Furthermore, as analogies are
familiar to designers as well as engineers they may be especially useful
in improving the communication between designers and engineers by
decreasing the risk of misunderstandings that can arise due to their dif-
ferent backgrounds.
Finally, an important result of our research is that the search for analogies
is mostly based on the knowledge of the participating persons. Therefore,
human resource management has a crucial impact on the success of devel-
opment projects. Design and engineering companies offering product-
development services to diverse clients seem to automatically provide such
a stimulating environment: Letting people build up experiences in diverse
areas, supporting the personal communication throughout the company,
but also to external experts, and using analogies as part of their daily work
seem to have positive effects. These effects can also be seized by indus-
trial companies if they transfer these mechanisms to their development
departments.
● Using analogies in product development is well perceived – by designers
as well as engineers. However, using analogies in daily business routines
today is a more or less intuitive, “automatic process”, partly because it is
part of the daily work of these people.
● In the cases we have observed, analogies are very pragmatically used
throughout the whole development process. First of all, they play
an important part in the development of solutions. Here, we can
differentiate between efficiency projects, balanced projects, and
breakthrough projects. The function of analogies to increase project
efficiency is an important result, because analogies are often just
considered as a means to increase creativity. As shown before, the
motivation to use analogies to create a new product directly leads to
a narrower or broader search.
9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 273 11/25/2010 12:57:10 PM

● Using analogies is improving communication throughout the develop-

ment process. They serve in the phase of project definition to develop
a common understanding of the goals of the project. The project goals
have to be communicated within the development team as well as to the
client. Further, analogies help not to lose the focus of the project and are
valuable in discussions concerning possible solutions (“Shared picture or
vision”).
● Analogies can also be used to transport a message with the product to its
future users. This is a main task of most design projects. Furthermore, as
analogies are familiar to designers as well as engineers they are especially
useful in improving the communication between designers and engineers
by decreasing the risk of misunderstandings that can arise due to their
different backgrounds and “sticky-data” phenomenon.
● The search for analogies is mostly based on the knowledge of the par-
ticipating persons. Therefore, human resource management has a crucial
impact on the success of development projects: Letting people build up
experiences in diverse areas, supporting the personal communication
throughout the company, but also to external experts, and using analo-
gies as part of their daily work seem to have positive effects. These effects
can also be seized by industrial companies if they transfer these mecha-
nisms to their development departments.
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9780230_245907_13_cha12.indd 276 11/25/2010 12:57:11 PM

Index
Alliance, 75, 138, 139, 140, 151, 152, 201, 202, 204, 206, 210, 213, 215,
154, 200, 201 216, 217, 232
Ambidexterity, 174, 191, 194 Competitive advantage, 26, 56, 83, 99,
Analogy, 198, 228, 231, 235, 258, 259, 103, 118, 120, 132, 133, 134, 162,
263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269 234, 237, 252
Complexity, 4, 5, 22, 83, 87, 125, 132,
Benchmarking, 88, 153, 180, 192 136, 138, 153, 238, 252
Best practice, 63, 203, 206, 208 Continuous improvement, 181, 193, 223
Bounded rationality, 240, 252 Cooperation, 20, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
Brand, 43, 44, 54 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54,
Business 77, 121, 214, 224, 234, 235, 269
decision matrix, 35 Creativity, 10, 12, 16, 22, 58, 229, 271,
model, 31, 70, 179, 180, 185, 196, 272, 273
203, 204 Cross-functional teams, 105, 110, 130
opportunity, 27, 126, 166 CTO, 23, 29, 207
plan, 20, 35, 91, 125, 208 Culture, 3
strategy, 34, 129 Customer
needs, 4, 6, 10, 14, 16, 24, 35, 142, 241
Capabilities, 20, 22, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, satisfaction, 132, 133
74, 85, 86, 87, 88, 93, 96, 104, 106,
126, 142, 145, 152, 167, 168, 173, Development projects, 92, 97, 117, 120,
178, 181, 191, 193, 202, 203, 240 127, 166, 195, 199, 258, 260, 263,
Case study, 60, 64, 71, 84, 86, 88, 90, 93, 268, 269, 271, 274
95, 106, 111, 121, 224, 259 Discovery-driven planning, 182
Change Disruptive technology, 161, 163, 166,
demographic, 6, 10, 12 175, 197
organizational, 59, 102 Distribution, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54,
technological, 3 55, 58, 68, 127, 145, 210, 231, 238,
Collaboration, 10, 20, 39, 63, 68, 85, 239, 240, 241, 244, 248, 250, 254
129, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143,
144, 145, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, Ecosystem, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76,
153, 200, 201, 202, 215 77, 78
Communication Effectiveness, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
barriers of, 3 105, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,
strategy of, 40, 43, 45, 46, 54 118, 119, 224, 234
Companies Efficiency, 29, 58, 62, 88, 142, 145, 174,
small- and medium-sized, 8, 106 191, 238, 259, 263, 264, 265, 267,
start-up, 5, 71, 185, 204, 208, 212, 268, 271, 272, 273
216, 217 Environment, 11, 20, 22, 30, 66, 68, 69,
technology-based, 127 70, 71, 77, 88, 90, 102, 105, 140,
Competence, 3, 4, 5, 8, 24, 26, 59, 60, 143, 168, 178, 183, 184, 192, 214,
62, 64, 66, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 98, 240, 266, 267, 271, 272, 273
102, 162, 167, 173, 178, 180, 181, Exploitation, 97
184, 186, 191, 192, 195, 197, 200, Exploration, 59, 268
277
9780230_245907_14_indd.indd 277 11/16/2010 6:08:30 PM

278 Index
Formalization, 105, 110, 113, 114, 115, Management

116, 117, 119, 121 decisions, 16, 17, 35
Future trends, 10, 230 skills, 167
Fuzzy front-end, 195, 237 tools, 5, 179
Market
Globalization, 6, 56, 83 demand, 14, 91, 108
Goods global, 37, 48, 142
consumer, 41, 42, 46, 225 introduction, 25, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
industrial, 225 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50,
Growth, 5, 8, 18, 20, 30, 31, 37, 63, 83, 51, 52
125, 126, 141, 163, 167, 169, 175, local, 37, 40, 42, 50, 51
188, 191, 197, 213, 237 research, 130, 132, 191, 223, 230, 234,
235
Idea generation, 196, 242 Mass production, 193
Industrial design, 260, 270 Mobility, 22, 24, 25, 188
Information exchange, 194, 251, Multinational corporation, 38, 42
252, 254
Innovation Net present value, 34, 35
architecture, 13 New product development, 42, 99, 100,
drivers of, 20, 24 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108,
incremental, 104, 112, 114, 115, 116, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117,
117, 120, 121, 162, 167, 168, 171, 118, 119, 120, 121, 138, 187,
173, 174, 187, 190, 191, 192, 193, 243, 263
202, 203, 223
radical, 5, 112, 114, 115, 117, 120, 161, Performance
162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, internal, 139, 140, 145, 152, 154
171, 172, 174, 179, 180, 186, 187, measurement, 137, 138, 139, 140, 151,
188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 152, 153, 210
196, 197, 202, 203, 208, 216, Pricing, 43, 45, 47, 48, 54, 55
217, 234 Privatization, 56
strategy, 22, 35, 141 Probe and learn process, 198, 199
Innovativeness, 4, 5, 117, 120, 121, 263, Product
264, 265, 267, 268 characteristics of, 21, 24, 25
Intellectual property, 71, 74 concept, 25, 54, 99, 100, 101, 102,
103, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 118,
Joint venture, 62, 63, 85, 92, 138, 140, 119, 227, 229, 232, 258
141, 151, 152, 153 feature, 6, 10, 129, 131, 132, 133
function, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 34
Kano analysis, 132, 133 idea, 12, 233, 242, 263
Knowledge innovation, 5, 260
broker of, 259, 260, 267, 269, 272 strategy, 25, 28, 48, 54, 55,
contextual, 254, 256 103, 110
distribution of, 238 Production
fields, 10, 11 technology, 61
map, 6 Productivity, 8, 58, 61, 100, 101, 108,
proprietary, 239, 252 119, 120, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144,
scientific, 9, 17, 35, 161 145, 146, 149, 154, 191
Profitability, 4, 31
Lead user, 235, 241, 242, 243 Project management, 22, 27, 197,
Lifecycle, 162, 169, 171 206, 269
9780230_245907_14_indd.indd 278 11/16/2010 6:08:30 PM

Index 279
Rationalization, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 128, 135, 136, 137, 144, 145, 153,
65, 66 174, 178, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185,
Relatedness 186, 190, 193, 195, 196, 198, 201,
market, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65 204, 206, 217, 254, 255, 267, 269
social, 57, 59, 64 Structured creativity, 6, 14, 16
technology, 62 Success factors, 42, 48, 105, 136, 175
Renewal, 84, 87, 94, 184, 187 Supply chain, 8, 137, 138, 140, 141,
Resistance, 59, 178, 184, 186, 187, 196 142, 153
Resources, 4, 5, 18, 26, 35, 57, 74, 76, System
83, 86, 89, 90, 94, 97, 128, 130, 136, information, 206
137, 142, 151, 153, 166, 180, 181, scanning, 192
182, 186, 194, 195, 201, 216, 252
Restructuring, 21, 59, 61, 163, 184, 187 Technological assets, 84, 94
Return on equity, 18, 20 Technological solution, 7, 8, 14, 25, 129,
Return on investment, 18 264, 265
Revitalization, 184, 187 Technology
Risk, 21, 24, 34, 50, 51, 86, 104, 108, acquisition of, 91, 92, 125
115, 116, 118, 168, 185, 191, 195, base, 8, 85, 89, 93, 94, 163, 164, 188
197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206, complementarity of, 57, 59
209, 211, 215, 224, 246, 253, 255, integration of, 125
273, 274 management of, 90, 91, 94, 97, 98
Roadmapping, 20, 22, 125, 128, 129, markets for, 6
130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136 planning of, 86, 127
platforms, 7, 8, 9, 26, 204, 213
Sailing-ship effect, 170 protection of, 94, 98
Scenario, 58, 179 selection of, 89, 92
S-curve, 170, 171, 175, 179 synergy of, 86
Service innovation, 5 Trust, 59, 104, 108, 118, 121, 143, 150,
Specifications, 17, 18, 24, 89 151, 152, 190, 254
Strategic
analysis, 21, 28 Uncertainty, 22, 103, 104, 162, 163, 166,
fit, 74 167, 168, 178, 180, 188, 191, 192,
goal, 21, 25, 35, 178, 190, 195, 193, 197, 200, 201, 203, 205
198, 202 User
objective, 18, 20, 138, 139, 178, 190 extreme, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247,
option, 20, 22, 178, 180, 181, 188, 248, 249, 252
192, 216 innovation, 225, 227
planning, 8, 27, 168, 170, 171, 172, lead, 235, 241, 242, 243
173, 187, 205 normal, 242, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248,
Strategy, 5, 6, 17, 18, 19, 20, 29, 34, 35, 249, 256
37, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54, 55, 65,
68, 69, 71, 74, 75, 83, 91, 93, 100, Value benefit analysis, 34
103, 104, 110, 112, 114, 119, 127, Venture capital, 5, 6, 185, 216
9780230_245907_14_indd.indd 279 11/16/2010 6:08:31 PM

9780230_245907_14_indd.indd 280 11/16/2010 6:08:31 PM

Managing Innovation Driven Companies - Hugo Tschirky, Massimo Colombo

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd i 11/26/2010 4:05:50 PM

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd ii 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

Hugo Tschirky, Cornelius Herstatt, David Probert,

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd iii 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd iv 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

List of Illustrations vii

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd v 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

Part III Innovation

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd vi 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

1.1 “Quadrangle” of Innovation Architecture, Strategy

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd vii 11/26/2010 4:05:51 PM

4.1 A typical Ecosystem of a business unit 69

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd viii 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

8.4 Performance contribution of 3T projects to

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11.1 Information provided by extreme users tends to be

2.1 Correlation of quality of cooperation and success

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd x 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

8.2 The mean, standard deviation, and the percentage distribution

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xi 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

● Professor Cornelius Herstatt from Hamburg University of Technology and

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xii 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

In the spirit of EITIM

Lessons learnt from current innovation initiatives

In order to pursue the EITIM vision in practice, conclusions have been

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xiii 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

being spent to promote Europe’s competitiveness, the question about the

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xiv 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xv 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

book publication titled Technology and Innovation Management on the Move –

Coming back to the current book: at its core it represents a continuation of

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xvi 11/26/2010 4:05:52 PM

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xvii 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

play an eminent role. Referring to field research findings, a four-phase proc-

Professor Hugo Tschirky, PhD, DBA

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xviii 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

Antje Baumgarten is a Corporate Advisor at Sydbank, Germany.

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xix 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

Christian Lüthje is Full Professor in the Institute for Marketing and

9780230_245907_01_prexx.indd xx 11/26/2010 4:05:53 PM

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 1 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 2 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

Coping with the ever stunning development of technological change and

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 3 11/16/2010 6:05:37 PM

contrast, the production discipline is characterized by the colloquial lan-

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 4 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

A further challenge of emerging significance is the broad-minded aware-

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 5 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

Figure 1.1 “Quadrangle” of Innovation Architecture, Strategy Morphology, Business

Innovation Architecture representing structured creativity

Generic concept of Innovation Architecture

9780230_245907_02_cha01.indd 6 11/16/2010 6:05:38 PM

Current trend New trend

(New) Current Current Current Current New New New New