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Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

LUBRICANTS

Submitted by:

Antonio, Ricky Judemer A.

Henson, Cian Renz S.
Seda, Jan Michael E.
Villamor, Jaganath Das P.

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

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LUBRICANTS

OVERVIEW
What is LUBRICANTS?

It is a substance, usually organic, introduced to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact,
which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move.

It may also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles, or heating or cooling
the surfaces.

What is Viscosity?

It is the resistance of fluid or liquid to flow. It is one of the basis to where and when a lubricant must be
used. Its SI unit is Pascal seconds(Pa.s.).

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the lubricants and its history

2. Classify the different types of lubricants
3. Differentiate the classification of lubricants
4. Explain the methods of disposal of lubricants
5. Identify the different properties of lubricants

HISTORY
According to records, olive oil was used to move stone or lumber in constructing colossal buildings in
ancient Egypt; since then tallow which is animal fat was used as lubricant in the wheel axes of trams.

2600 B.C

The first trace of lubrication was found in the sled wheel that belonged to Ra-At-Ka (King of Egypt),
proved by analysis that the lubricant was beef or ram tallow.
After this discovery, it was concluded that in ancient Egypt the tallow was used as lubricant under the
sleds to facilitate sliding.

777 B.C – 393 A.C

At this time Greece celebrated the first Olympic Games, a tradition that continued every four years. One
of the modalities of the Olympics was the chariot race, which also had the axles lubricated by animal fat.

200 A.C
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At this time, the Romans also used the chariots as transportation, which were also lubricated by animal
fat.

Grease which is used to describe lubricating materials originated from the Latin word ‘Grussu’ which
means fat because grease looked similar to fat in the early days.

It was not intended to no longer use vegetable oil or animal fat and they were adopted mostly based on
the experience of use instead of scientific analysis.

5th to 10th Century

In the middle Ages animal fat was used sparingly to lubricate the mechanism for opening the gates of
castles and on carriages wheels carrying kings and queens.

Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales. WAX

Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained by pressing the seeds of the castor oil plant.

15th Century

In the beginning of the great commercial navigation, whale oil was also used to lubricate the pulleys and
rudders of ships.
The Oil, mineral existing for about 300 million years, provided in the Antiquity medicinal purposes and
later started to be used in lubrication. It was known as "rock oil, mineral oil and naphtha oil."

16th Century

With the invention of gadgets, the need of lubricating using oil for its perfect functioning emerged.

18th Century

The phenomenon of the Industrial Revolution led to the mechanization of industry and transport. With
the growth of textile machinery was used lubricant for the smooth functioning of the machines.

19th Century

In this century, Pennsylvania (USA) 3 important events occurred:

1) In 1859, a former American train driver, Edwin Drake, drilled the 1st oil well with 21 meters deep.
Thus, it was extracted approximately 3200 liters of oil per day.
2) The need arose to lubricate the bearings of the trains, every 160km.
3) With the innovations of machinery, lubrication went from sporadic to necessary.
After 5 years of Edwin Drake discovery , 543 companies dedicated to the extraction of oil.

1920s

In response to growing demands, particularly from the burgeoning auto industry, lubricant
manufacturers begin processing their petroleum-based oils to improve lubricant performance (which
previously had been rather poor). Various treatment processes, some more successful than others, are
developed during the decade. Among them, solvent refining emerges to become one of the most viable
methods.
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1930s–1940s

Additives to inhibit oxidation, resist corrosion, enhance pour points, improve viscosity indexes, and
more emerge in the 1930s. From the 1940s, they are widely used in lubricant formulations, especially to
prolong the performance and service life of automotive engine oils. Prior to this time, engine oils
without additives would typically provide only up to 80 to 100 hours of service. Also, the late 1940s
marks the beginning of systematic oil analysis: The railway industry begins using it in an effort to avoid
engine failures.

1950s

Synthetic lubricants are developed, primarily for use in the aviation and aerospace industries. Multi
grade automotive engine oils are introduced.

1970s

Hydroprocessing technologies such as two-stage hydrocracking dramatically improve base oil

purification and performance.

1990s

Modern hydroisomerization technologies (to dewax base oils by transforming wax molecules into high-
quality base oil) become widely used. Base oils now known as “Group II” (widely available as of the
1970s) are officially classified as Group II by the American Petroleum Institute. The API subsequently
classifies Group III, Group IV and Group V base oils.

2000s And Beyond

The lubricant evolution continues as increasingly advanced products are developed to meet the rising
demands of modern machinery for better productivity, performance reliability, energy efficiency and
environmental responsibility.

Recently, environmental factors as well as performance are mainly considered to choose lubricants, and
industry stakeholders including chemists, engineers, oil refinery industry, and metallurgists continue
research in upgrading the performance of lubricating products.

TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Solid Lubricants

• Often placed in between bearing surfaces

• Undergo more shear than bearing materials itself

• Performance majorly relies on the applied load PRIMARY PROPERTIES

• Must be able to support applied load without significant distortion

• Coefficient of friction and the rate of wear must be acceptably low

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PRIMARY PROPERTIES

• Must be able to support applied load without significant distortion

• Coefficient of friction and the rate of wear must be acceptably low

• To increase durability, resins are bonded to solid lubricants

• Increase wear life, surface film thickness etc § They are termed Bonded coatings

Liquid Lubricants

• Also known as liquid oils

• Low viscosity oils have low fluid friction losses (Hence low hear generation)

• Liquid can carry away heat CHARACTERISTICS

• High Boiling point

• Low freezing point

• High resistance to oxidation and heat § Non corrosive properties

• Mineral or Petroleum oils

• Stable under service conditions

• Less expensive

• Oiliness is less

• Blended oils

• Additives are essential

• Additive added lubricating oils are called Blended oils

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Gaseous Lubricants

• Gas(Air, Nitrogen, and Helium) lubrication is used for ultra-thin film thickness(separation)
between tribo-pairs

• Temperature range– (-2000 C) to (20000 C). No vaporization, cavitation, solidification,

decomposition. Very low viscosity (1000 times less viscous than even the thinnest mineral oil),
therefore ultra-low friction. Possible high speed. § Cleanliness. § No seal requirement for
lubrication

• Low load capacity

• Low damping

• Needs specialist designer and manufacturer

CLASSIFICATIONS
Fluid lubricants (Oils)

• Paraffinic oils are produced either by hydrocracking or solvent extraction process. Most
hydrocarbon molecules of paraffinic oils have non-ring long-chained structure. Paraffinic oils are
relatively viscous and resistant to oxidation. They possess high flash point and high pour point.
Paraffinic oils are used for manufacturing engine oils, industrial lubricants and as processing oils
in rubber, textile, and paper industries.
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• Naphtenic oils are produced from crude oil distillates.

Most hydrocarbon molecules of naphtenicnic oils have saturated ring structure. Naphtenic oils
possess low viscousity, low flash point, low pour point and low resistance to oxidation.
Naphtenic oils are used in moderate temperature applications, mainly for manufacturing
transformer oils and metal working fluids. Mostly used in shampoos

• Aromatic oils are products of refining process in manufacture of paraffinic oils.

Most hydrocarbon molecules of aromatic oils have non-saturated ring structure.
Aromatic oils are dark and have high flash point.
Aromatic oils are used for manufacturing seal compounds, adhesives and as plasiticezers in
rubber and asphalt production. Mostly used in perfumes

Semi-fluid lubricants (greases)

• Semi-fluid lubricants (greases) are produced by emulsifying oils or fats with metallic soap and
water at 400-600°F (204-316°C).
Typical mineral oil base grease is vaseline.
Grease properties are determined by a type of oil (mineral, synthetic, vegetable, animal fat),
type of soap (lithium, sodium, calcium, etc. salts of long-chained fatty acids) and additives (extra
pressure, corrosion protection, anti-oxidation, etc.).
Semi-fluid lubricants (greases) are used in variety applications where fluid oil is not applicable
and where thick lubrication film is required: lubrication of roller bearings in railway car
wheels, rolling mill bearings, steam turbines, spindles, jet engine bearings and other various
machinery bearings.

• Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
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Polyalphaoleins are the most popular synthetic lubricant. PAO’s chemical structure and
properties are identical to those of mineral oils.
Polyalphaoleins (synthetic hydrocarbons) are manufactured by polymerization of hydrocarbon
molecules (alphaoleins). The process occurs in reaction of ethylene gas in presence of a metallic
catalyst.

• Polyglycols (PAG)

Polyglycols are produced by oxidation of ethylene and propylene. The oxides are then
polymerized resulting in formation of polyglycol.
Polyglycols are water soluble.
Polyglycols are characterized by very low coefficient of friction. They are also able to withstand
high pressures without EP (extreme pressure) additives.

• Ester oils

Ester oils are produced by reaction of acids and alcohols with water.
Ester oils are characterized by very good high temperature and low temperature resistance

Vegetable lubricants

• Vegetable lubricants are based on soybean, corn, castor, canola, cotton seed and rape seed oils.
Vegetable oils are environmentally friendly alternative to mineral oils since they are
biodegradable. Lubrication properties of vegetable base oils are identical to those of mineral
oils.
The main disadvantages of vegetable lubricants are their low oxidation and temperature
stabilities.
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Animal lubricants

• Animal lubricants are produced from the animals fat. There are two main animal fats: hard fats
(stearin) and soft fats (lard). Animal fats are mainly used for manufacturing greases.

Functions of a lubricant
Keep Moving parts apart

Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This separation has the benefit of
reducing friction and surface fatigue, together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and
vibrations. Lubricants achieve this in several ways. The most common is by forming a physical barrier
i.e., a thin layer of lubricant separates the moving parts. This is analogous to hydroplaning, the loss of
friction observed when a car tire is separated from the road surface by moving through standing water.
This is termed hydrodynamic lubrication. In cases of high surface pressures or temperatures, the fluid
film is much thinner and some of the forces are transmitted between the surfaces through the lubricant.

Reduce friction

Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system
without any lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overall system friction. Reduced friction has
the benefit of reducing heat generation and reduced formation of wear particles as well as improved
efficiency. Lubricants may contain additives known as friction modifiers that chemically bind to metal
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surfaces to reduce surface friction even when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for
hydrodynamic lubrication, e.g. protecting the valve train in a car engine at startup.

Transfer heat

Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However, liquid lubricants are much more effective on
account of their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to and
from a cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when a
regulated temperature is required. This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat that is
carried away in any given unit of time. High flow systems can carry away a lot of heat and have the
additional benefit of reducing the thermal stress on the lubricant. Thus lower cost liquid lubricants may
be used. The primary drawback is that high flows typically require larger sumps and bigger cooling units.
Non-flowing lubricants such as greases and pastes are not effective at heat transfer although they do
contribute by reducing the generation of heat in the first place.

Carry away contaminants and debris

Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and external
contaminants that get introduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed. Lubricants for
machines that regularly generate debris or contaminants such as automotive engines typically contain
detergent and dispersant additives to assist in debris and contaminant transport to the filter and
removal. Over time the filter will get clogged and require cleaning or replacement, hence the
recommendation to change a car's oil filter at the same time as changing the oil. In closed systems such
as gear boxes the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any iron fines that get created.
It is apparent that in a circulatory system the oil will only be as clean as the filter can make it, thus it is
unfortunate that there are no industry standards by which consumers can readily assess the filtering
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ability of various automotive filters. Poor filtration significantly reduces the life of the machine (engine)
as well as making the system inefficient.

Transmit power

Lubricants known as hydraulic fluid are used as the working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission.
Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants produced in the world. The automatic
transmission's torque converter is another important application for power transmission with lubricants.

Protect against wear

Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts apart. Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or
extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue.
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Prevent corrosion

Many lubricants are formulated with additives that form chemical bonds with surfaces or that exclude
moisture, to prevent corrosion and rust. It reduces corrosion between two metallic surfaces and avoids
contact between these surfaces to avoid immersed corrosion.

Properties of lubricants
A good lubricant generally possesses the following characteristics:

 high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide range of
temperature)

 high viscosity index

 thermal stability

 hydraulic stability

 corrosion prevention

 high resistance to oxidation.

FORMULATION -Typically lubricants contain

 90% base oil (mineral oils)

 10% additives

 Additives
A large number of additives are used to impart performance characteristics to the
lubricants
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 Pour point depressants

 Anti-foaming agents

 Viscosity index improvers

 Antioxidants

 Corrosion inhibitors (rust inhibitors)

 Anti-wear additives

 Extreme pressure (antiscuffing) additives

Disposal and environmental

It is estimated that 40% of all lubricants are released into the environment.

Common Disposal methods

Recycling

- It is the returning of the used and excess oil to the company for recycling and proper
disposal

Burning

- It is the burning of used oil on an

open area for the disposal of it.
This kind of disposal of oil is
prohibited due to the production
of too much carbon dioxide.

Landfill

- It is the landfilling of the used oil underground. It is not advisable to use this method
because it can affect the water system under and beside or near the location of landfills.
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Discharge into water

- It is the pouring of used oil

to any body of water such as
sewage rivers etc.. it is
prohibited because it affect
the ecosystem on that body
of water.

EXERCISE:
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ENCIRCLE THE LETTER OF THE CORRECT ANSWER

1. It is a substance, usually organic, introduced to reduced friction between surfaces in mutual contact.

a)lubricant b)animal fat c)grease d)baby oil

2. Latin word of Grease.

a)Gurussu b)Gracias c)Grussu d)Grassa

3. Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from ___________.

a ) animal sperm b)sperm whale c)sperm fish d) sperm boi

4. The 1st oil well with 21 meters deep was drill in _________, USA.

a)Pennsylvania b)Washington c)Oregon d)Texas

5. In 1859 a former American train driver ________________, drilled the 1st oil well.

a)Edwin Mond b)Edwin Beri c)Edwin Blake d)Edwin Drake

6. The technology that started in 1970’s that improved base oil purification and performance.

a)Hyperprocessing b)Hydroprocessing c)Hyperzomerization d)Hydrozomerization

7. 1990’s modern technology of de-waxing base oil by transforming wax molecules into highquality

base oil.

a) Hydroisomerization b)Hydroizomerization c)Hydroprocessing d)dewaxing

8. Lubricants known as ___________ are used as the working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission.

a.)Hydrostatic Gas b.)Hydraulic Fluid c.)Torque converter d.)Hydraulic Transmission

9. Which of the choices uses lubricants for hydrostatic power transmission?

a.)Torque Converter b.)Automobile Differential c.)Chainsaw d.)Drive shaft

10. It is an additive usually added to a lubricant to Carry away contaminants and debris?

a.)Detergent b.)Chlorine c.)Dihydrogen Monoxide d.)oil

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11. _________ is the loss of friction observed when a car tire is separated from the road surface by

moving through standing water.

a.)Water Slide effect b.)Friction loss scenario c.)Hydrodynamic Lift d.)Hydroplaning

12. Which of these lubricants are used inside a 4 stroke engine's cylinder?

a.)Grease b.)Engine Oil c.)Hydraulic fluid d.)Automatic Transimission Fluid

13. It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition

to, external forces like gravity.

a.)Viscosity b.)Permeability c.)Hydroplanability d.)Capillary Action

14. Which of these is not a function of a lubricant?

a.)Carry away contaminants and debris b.)Transmit power c.)Seal for gases d.)Produce

energy

15. Undergo more shear than bearing material itself.

a. Solid lubricants b. liquid lubricants c. gas lubricants

15. Also known as liquid oils

a. Solid lubricants b. liquid lubricants c. gas lubricants

16. Type of lubricants that needs specialist and manufacturer.

a. Solid lubricants b. liquid lubricants c. gas lubricants

17. Classification of oil produced either by hydrocracking or solvent extraction process.

a. Paraffinic b. naphtenic c. aromatic

18. Classification of oil are produced from crude oil distillates

a.Paraffinic b. naphtenic c. aromatic

19. Classification of oil are products of refining process in manufacture of paraffinic oils.

a.Paraffinic b. naphtenic c. aromatic

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20. The most popular synthetic lubricant.

a.PAO b. Polyglycol c. Ester

21. Produced by oxidation of ethylene and propylene

a.PAO b. Polyglycol c. Ester

22. This are produced by reaction of acids and alcohols with water.

a.PAO b. Polyglycol c. Ester

23. Resistance of flowing of a substance

a.Viscosity b.fluidity c.permeability

24. What is the 90% of the substance in a common car oil?

25. It is the 10 % substance in a common car oil?
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Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

Submitted by:

Nodado Jr., Eliezer M.

Diaz, Eriberto J.
Garcia Jr., Joyce Ephraim S.
Laurio, Brizelle Anne P.
Moldes, Benedictus Marvin T.

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

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Properties of Lubricants
I. Viscosity
The term 'viscosity' describes a material's property from a physicist's point of view. It is a fluid's
thickness. Scientifically speaking, it is the measure of a fluid's internal flow resistance, the
resistance to being deformed. The two-plates model mathematically describes this definition.

A fluid's viscosity is determined by viscometry, which is part of a wider science called

rheometry. Rheometry again is part of rheology, the science of materials' flow behavior and
deformation. All materials range on an imaginary scale from solid to liquid. In scientific terms,
solid materials are specified as elastic, while liquids are viscous. However, most materials are
not purely elastic, nor entirely viscous, but viscoelastic. Depending on their properties,
substances can be classified as viscoelastic solids (like e.g. gels) or viscoelastic liquids (like e.g.
hair shampoo).

Viscometry deals with ideally viscous fluids, and - with certain limitations - also with
viscoelastic liquids, i.e. viscous substances with an elastic portion. If a fluid flows easily, its
resistance to deformation is low. It is a low-viscosity fluid. Fluids with greater resistance to
deformation do not flow easily. They are highly viscous.
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The Two-plates Model

This model consists of two imaginary plates with the fluid in-between. Two conditions must be
met to allow for accurate calculation of the viscosity-related variables.
 The fluid adheres to both plates and does not slip or slide along them.
 There are laminar flow conditions. That means the flow takes the shape of infinitesimally thin
layers, no turbulence - i.e. vortices - occurs. A stack of beer mats gives a good idea of how
laminar flow works.

Shear Stress

While the lower plate stands still, the upper plate very slowly moves along. Even the slow
movement causes stress that is parallel to the fluid's surface and which is called shear stress.
The shear stress is defined as the force F applied to the upper plate divided by this plate's area A.
The force is measured in newton, the area in square meters. The shear stress tau is force divided
by area. This calculation results in the unit N/m2, which is called pascal [Pa] after Blaise Pascal.
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Shear Rate

A second variable that can be derived from the two-plates model is the shear rate gamma-dot. In
older literature the shear rate is sometimes given as D.
To obtain the shear rate, the velocity v of the upper plate, in meters per second, is divided by the
distance h between the two plates in meters. This gives the unit [1/s] or reciprocal second [s-1].
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Newton's Law and Dynamic Viscosity

Newton's Law states that shear stress is shear rate times viscosity. Consequently, shear stress
divided by shear rate is viscosity, which is given the variable η 'eta'. This simple relation applies
to Newtonian liquids only.
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Typical Substances and Their Viscosity Values

Dynamic viscosity values - data from Thomas G. Mezger 'The Rheology Handbook', 3rd Revised
Edition, p. 28, Table 2.3 - with references

I.I Cloud Point

In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or
biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance. The presence of solidified waxes thickens the
oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines. The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces
(producing, for example, pipeline or heat exchanger fouling) and forms an emulsion with water.
Therefore, cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold
operating temperatures.
I.2 Pour Point
The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes semi solid and loses its flow
characteristics. In crude oil a high pour point is generally associated with a high paraffin content,
typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion of plant material.
I.3 Fire Point
The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to
burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.
I.4 Flash Point
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which vapours of the material
will ignite, when given an ignition source.
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II. Additives
Additives are used to enhance the performance of the lubricants and functional fluids. Each
additive is selected for its ability to perform one of ore specific functions In the combination with
other additives. Selected additives are formulated into packages for use with a specific lubricant
base stock and for a specified end-use application.
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ADDITIVE PROPERTIES

SURFACE PROTECTIVE ADDITIVES

Lubricity additives
Also referred to as oiliness, with respect to lubricating oil, is defined as the ability of an oil to
reduce friction between moving surfaces. Lubricity additives enhance lubricity by tenaciously
adhering to the metal’s surface, forming an absorbed film of high lubricating value.

Anti-wear additives
Anti-wear additives work by coating a metal’s surface. If light metal to metal contact is made,
the heat from the friction melts the additives, forming a liquid layer between the surfaces. This
molten additive layer, being softer than the metal, acts as a lubricant, preventing wear of the
metal surfaces.

Extreme pressure additives

Extreme pressure additives work by reacting with a metal to form a compound that acts as a
protective layer on the metal’s surface. Because this layer is softer than the metal itself, under
extreme pressure conditions, the compound layer wears away first, protecting the metal. As this
layer is removed, the extreme pressure additives acts to form another layer. In contrast to the
action of anti-wear additives, extreme pressure additives control wear instead of preventing it.

Tackiness additive
Tackiness additives increase a lubricant’s adhesive properties, preventing dripping and splashing
during operation. This reduces operational cost and the risk of environmental contamination.

Rust inhibitors
Rust inhibitors absorbs on metal surface to prevent water and acid attacks. Included in most oil
formulations.

Corrosion inhibitors
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Corrosion inhibitors act in a similar way to protect non-ferrous parts with a light chemical film
and also act to neutralize acids with a basic compound such as calcium carbonate.
INHIBITOR – Chemical or substance added or applied to another substance to slowdown a
reaction or to prevent an unwanted chemical change.

Detergents and Dispersants

Detergents and Dispersants additives are additives that adhere to dirt and oil insoluble products
formed as oxidation by-products during equipment operation. They keep these in suspension,
preventing them from depositing onto critical engine surfaces. Detergents also adhere to the
metal surface itself to prevent corrosion from occurring.
Over-based detergents neutralize acidic combustion and oxidation products, helping to control
rust, corrosion and resinous build up in the engine. Some detergents can also act as oxidation
inhibitors.
Detergents neutralize strong acids present in the lubricant and remove the neutralization product
from the metal. Detergents also form a film on the part surface preventing high temperature
deposition of sludge and varnish. Detergents are commonly added to Engine oils.

PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ADDITIVES

Viscosity index improvers

Viscosity Index (VI) is defined as an arbitrary measure for the change of kinematic viscosity
with temperature. Higher-quality paraffinic mineral oils have naturally high viscosity indexes
before the addition of VI improvers. Multi- grade engine oils that have to be light enough to flow
at low temperatures and thick enough to protect at high engine temperature. This is achieved by
the use of VI improvers
Viscosity index improvers lower the rate of change of viscosity with temperature and are used to
produce multi-grade motor oils.

Pour point depressant

Pour point depressant enables lubricants to flow at low temperature.

Emulsifiers
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Emulsifiers promote the rapid mixing of oil and water to form a stable emulsion. Emulsifiers are
used in motor oils to allow water, formed by combustion of fuel, to be kept in emulsion until
engine heat can evaporate it. Emulsifiers are also used in soluble oils used in some metal
working operations and in fire-resistant hydraulic fluids.

Demulsifiers
Demulsifiers, or emulsion breakers, are a class of specialty chemicals used to separate emulsions,
for example, water in oil. They are commonly used in the processing of crude oil, which is
typically produced along with significant quantities of saline water. This water (and salt) must be
removed from the crude oil prior to refining. If the majority of the water and salt are not
removed, significant corrosion problems can occur in the refining process.

LUBRICANT PROTECTIVE ADDITIVES

Oxidation inhibitors
Oxidation inhibitors lengthen a lubricant’s service or storage life by increasing its oxidation
resistance by binding the free oxygen in the oil or by neutralizing the catalytic effects of metals.

Foam inhibitors
Foam inhibitors prevent lubricant foaming by decreasing the surface tension of air bubbles,
allowing them to combine into large ones, which break more rapidly.
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Viscosity of Fluids Lab: Ball Drop Method

Objectives
 Solidify the concept of viscosity through experimentation
 Test viscosities of different samples by measuring the velocity of a sphere falling through
a fluid

Introduction
Viscosity is a fluid property that measures the resistance of a fluid to flow and can simply be
thought of as the “thickness” of a fluid. Fluids that have a high viscosity, such as honey or
molasses, have a high resistance to flow while fluids with a low viscosity, such as a gas, flow
easily. The resistance to deformation within a fluid can be expressed as both absolute (or
dynamic) viscosity, µ [Ns/m2], and kinematic viscosity, υ [m2/s].

Absolute viscosity is determined by the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate of the fluid. The
shear stress is dependent on the fluid’s resistance force to flow over the area of the plate while
the shear rate is the equivalent to the fluid’s gradient.
𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
µ= = = 𝐴
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝛿µ
𝛿𝑦
These relationships shown in the equation above can be seen pictorially in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Friction between fluid and boundaries causes shear stress at a specific gradient.
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While absolute viscosity is able to quantifiably compare various liquids and gases on the same
scale, it does not account for an important characteristic of fluids – the density (ρ). Kinematic
viscosity (υ) is highly dependent on density and is measured by the time required for a specific
volume of fluid to flow through a capillary or restriction.
µ
𝜐=
𝜌

Ball Drop Experiment

This experiment uses one of the oldest and easiest ways to measure viscosity: we will simply see
how fast a sphere falls through a fluid. The measurement involves determining the velocity of the
falling sphere. This is accomplished by dropping each sphere through a measured distance of
fluid and measuring how long it takes to traverse the distance. Thus, you know distance and
time, so you also know velocity, which is distance divided by time. Additionally you will have to
measure the mass and diameter of the sphere.

The formula for determining absolute viscosity () is :

1  d 2   S   F   g 
VT   
  18 

Where
d = diameter of sphere

S = density of sphere = m/V = (mass of sphere/volume of sphere)

F = density of fluid = 1367g/m3

g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2

VT = Terminal Velocity = D/t = (distance sphere falls)/(time of it takes to fall)

Materials
 Thermometer
 Graduated Cylinders
 P a g e | 30

 Airsoft BB balls
 Syringes
 Stopwatch
 Test Liquids (e.g. liquid soap, corn syrup, vegetable oil, motor oil, etc)

Procedure
1. Measure the diameter and weight of a BB ball and compute the volume and density in
Table 1..

Table 1: Properties of a BB ball.

Value Units
Diameter
(d)
Mass (m)
Volume (V)
Density (S)

2. Calculate the density of the liquid samples.

Table 2: Properties of liquid samples.

Cylinder # 1 2 3 4 5
Liquid Product
Weight of empty cylinder
Weight of cylinder +
liquid
Density (F)

1. Drop a ball into the center of the cylinder and record time between timing marks. Repeat
three trials for each fluid sample and record data in Table 3.
a. Alternative timing method: Record video of ball drop and import in Logger Pro
for video analysis to determine time.
2. Calculate the velocity for each drop time in Table 3.
 P a g e | 31

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS AND DEVICES

Submitted by:

Catapang, Franz D.
Comia, Bernie Louie E.
Hipolito, Charlene B.
Maghanoy, Gian Grent G.
Verungque, Reuben B.

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

 P a g e | 32

OBJECTIVES
1. To identify and differentiate every lubrication system suitable for every system.
2. To obtain the right lubrication device for each means.
3. To identify the applications for the lubrication systems.
4. To enumerate the types of lubrication systems present in the industry and its
applications.

Single Point Automatic Lubricators Applications

Multi Point Automatic Lubricators

Single-Line Lubrication Systems Applications

Dual-Line Lubrication Systems Applications

 P a g e | 33

Multi-line lubrication system Applications

Progressive Lubrication Systems Applications

Oil & Air Lubrication Systems Applications

 P a g e | 34

Circulating Oil Lubrication Systems Applications

Types Of Engine Lubrication Systems

Petroil System Splash System

Pressure Lubrication Wet Sump Lubrication

 P a g e | 35

Dry Sump Lubrication

Minimal Quantity Lubrication Systems

It is an alternative to the use of traditional metal working fluids (MWFs) in machining.

MQL is also referred to as “Near-Dry Machining” (NDM), “Micro-Lubrification” or “Micro-lubrication”,
“Micro-dosing”, or even, somewhat incorrectly, referred to as “mist coolant.”
MQL system has the task of delivering minimal quantities of lubricant to the active site between the tool
and work-piece when cutting or non-cutting operations are involved.

The Internal Lubrication Method

Compressed air or the aerosol is applied through the spindle, the tool holder and the tool directly at the
point between tool and workpiece.

External Lubrication Method

The aerosol is supplied to the lubrication point from the outside through nozzles.

Lubrication Systems for Special Applications

Centralized lubrication systems for chains

Grease Spraying System for Large Open Gears
Dry Lubrication System for Conveyors

Centralized lubrication systems for chains – ChainLube

To reduce high levels of friction that can result in chain wear, high energy consumption and unplanned
production stops.
In most plants, lubrication is applied manually – a task that requires the chains to continue running while
production is stopped.
 P a g e | 36

Advantages:

Higher productivity by eliminating the unplanned production downtime for lubrication tasks.
Increased conveyor service life through reduction of chain wear.
Greater operators safety.
Better respect of the environment resulting from a controlled and reduced lubricant consumption.

Application:

Food and beverage industry: Drying kilns, ovens, stoves, sterilization systems, slaughter houses.
Miscellaneous: Escalators, luggage processing in airports, freight consolidation stations, etc.

Spray Lubrication System for Gear

It is a lubrication system that sprays the lubricant automatically onto the gear teeth.
The progressive distributors fitted on these units direct the lubricant towards the sprayers.

Advantages:

The spraying covers the surface of the gear teeth obtaining a homogeneous film of thickness adapted to
the gear requirements.
Users can adjust the lubrication cycle according to their requirements for increased production rates or
temperature variations for example.
The system is equipped with monitoring and safety devices for optimum operation.

Dry Lubrication System for Conveyors

This flexible and completely automated systems applies a small amount of Dry Film Lubricant(NSF H1
certified) on the conveyor chains and guides. As a result, the floors are dry, and there is no more waste
water, no moisture on packages and no corrosion.

Advantages:

Cost savings because the lubricant consumption is minimal.

Improved operator safety by reducing slip hazards.
Protect package quality by eliminating moisture.

Lubrication Systems for Specific Markets

 P a g e | 37

Gas driven single point automatic lubricators

Pins and bushings fail without proper lubrication.

Extends preventive maintenance (PM) intervals.

Reduces PM man-hours.
Decreases component failures.
Increases machine usage.
Extends machine life.
Improves machine safety and reliability.
Increases resale value of equipment.

Construction Machines
Pins and bushings fail without proper lubrication.

Improve production with more uptime.

Reduce replacement part costs when equipment is properly lubricated.
Improve resale value when lube system is on board.
Reduce potential for worker injury.
Minimize lubricant costs.
Reduce environmental concerns through controlled lubrication.

Food and Beverage Industry

Consistent lubrication is vital to the life of bearings, gears and chains.
 P a g e | 38

Reducing unplanned downtime and production interruptions.

Reducing labour costs.
Extending repair and maintenance intervals.
Reducing parts replacement and spare parts inventory.
Eliminating over-lubrication.
Reducing energy consumption.
Reducing lubricant consumption.
Reducing waste.
Eliminating manual lubrication of difficult-to-access points or of points in demanding areas.
Fewer accidents.

Marine Industry
Simplify maintenance tasks and reduce operating costs.

Minimizes labor required for lubrication.

Extends repair intervals.
Reduces consumable costs.
Reduces wear and corrosion.
Helps to ensure that equipment is properly lubricated.
Eliminates over- and under-lubrication.
Increases reliability.
Improves profitability.
Eliminates manual lubrication of difficult-to-access points or in explosion-protected areas.
Reduces risk of slips and falls when compared to manual lubrication.
Fewer accidents.
 P a g e | 39

Mobile Onroad Market

Consistent lubrication is vital to chassis and body components.

Extends preventive maintenance (PM) intervals

Reduces PM man-hours
Decreases component failures
Reduces road failures
Increases truck usage
Extends truck life
Reduces tire wear
Improves fleet safety and reliability
Increases resale value of equipment

Rail Applications
Managing friction successfully

Reduces labour costs

Extends repair intervals
Reduces lubricant consumption
Increases equipment reliability
Reduces unplanned downtime
Reduces energy and fuel consumption
Improves equipment profitability
Eliminates manual lubrication of difficult-to-access points
Reduces the risk of derailments
 P a g e | 40

Wind Turbines
Wind energy systems need proper lubrication to function optimally.

Reduces labour costs

Extends repair intervals
Eliminates over- and under-greasing
Increases turbine reliability
Reduces unplanned downtime
Improves wind farm profitability
No manual lubrication in dangerous, difficult-to-access points
Reduces risk of slips and falls through precise lubrication

Oil and Gas Turbines

Improving performance and reliability

 P a g e | 41

LUBRICATION DEVICES
OIL CAN

An oil can is a can that holds oil (usually motor oil) for lubricating machines.

LUBRICANT SPRAYER

Lubricant sprays ensure quick and easy lubrication and relubrication of areas difficult to access and for
spot application. lubricants in spray cans HAS a wide range of applications to protect your machines and
components reliably against wear.

LEVER GREASE GUN

The lever grease gun can be used to manually relubricate rolling bearings via lubrication nipples.
The container on the lever grease gun can be filled with 500 g loose grease or by means of a 400 g
cartridge. The cartridge must correspond to DIN 1284 (diameter 53.5 mm, length 235 mm).
 P a g e | 42

Pistol Grease Guns

Pistol grease guns have a 4-digit digital counter that displays the lubricant quantity in grams. The specific
mass of the lubricant can be set.

Power-Luber Grease Gun

This powerful grease gun includes a multi-function LCD with many features including an easy to
understand readout showing how much lubricant is being dispensed to prevent over lubricating and
wasting grease.
P a g e | 43
P a g e | 44
 P a g e | 45

QUESTIONS
1. What are the 7 applications of lubrication systems in specific
markets?

2. What is/are the difference/s between a multi-line lubrication

system and a multi-point lubrication system?
 P a g e | 46

3. What are the three lubrication systems in for special applications?

Explain each.

4. List 2 different lubrication device and explain how they work.

 P a g e | 47

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

Submitted by:

Bangoy, Andrea Joan

Fuertez, Jonnel L.
Garcia, Rey Farly
Pe Benito, James Peter
Tabino, Jefourthvien

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

 P a g e | 48

SELECION OF LUBRICANTS
I. SEMI-SOLID LUBRICANTS
Semi-solid – is a state of matter wherein a substance shares the characteristic of both a solid and a liquid
matter. It does not take the shape of the container instantly but rather settles in the container in a long
amount of time.
Semi-solid substances include:

 Wax
 Pomade
 Gel
 Grease
GREASES
Greases combine the lubricating properties of oils with added stickiness, allowing the lubricant to adhere
to the surfaces better.
Greases can even act as a barrier, protecting the surfaces from contaminants that can corrode or damage
them.
Like oils, greases come in a range of consistencies, from ketchup-thin to thick like cheddar cheese.

Greases are made by using oil (typically mineral oil) and mixing it with
thickeners. They may also contain additional lubricating particles, such as
graphite, molybdenum disulfide, or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, aka teflon).
One downside to grease is that because it’s so thick and sticky, it can cause
resistance in small or fast-moving mechanisms.
 P a g e | 49

Types of Greases based on properties:

Lithium Soap Grease

• Has a buttery texture and a brownish red color.
• Good water resistance.
• Dropping point is 190°C
• Bearings in automotive and industrial

Calcium Soap Grease

• Water Resistant
 P a g e | 50

• It is yellow in color, and is smooth

• Does not dissolve in water
• Dropping point is approximately 79-94°C
• Used in applications that operate up to 110°C, bearings of water pump, and agricultural
vehicles

Sodium Soap Grease

• Very fibrous texture.
 P a g e | 51

• Yellow or green in color.

• Dropping point is 150-205°C
• Bearings in aerospace, universal joints, and axle journal boxes
 P a g e | 52

Aluminum Soap Grease

• Smooth texture
• Silver in color
• Good water and thermal resistance
• Rust and oxidation inhibitor
• Dropping point is 230-250°C
• Vibrating screens, elevator drive motors and governors where reversing motion occurs,
and large electric motors with bearings operating at high linear speeds
 P a g e | 53

Grease
• Use When:
– You need lubrication to stay put and stick to surfaces for a long time
– You want to seal out contaminants such as water or dust
– You use a machine so infrequently that you may forget to oil it
• Don’t Use When:
– You have fine or fast-moving mechanisms where thick grease would create too
much resistance
– You don’t want a mess. When parts move, they can fling grease all around, so it
may not be the best option for keeping things clean
II. SYNTHETIC LUBRICANTS
What is a synthetic lubricant?
A synthetic lubricant contains more highly refined base oils than those
used in conventional mineral oils, offering you superior protection and performance.
Synthetic oils are made from more advanced refining processes and are of a higher purity
and quality than conventional mineral oils.
Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
 P a g e | 54

Polyalphaolefin oligomers (PAO), commonly referred to as synthetic

hydrocarbons, have many favorable properties which contribute to their rapidly growing
use for a variety of industrial applications.
PAO’s are mainly used as high-performance functional base fluids in
engine lubricants, gear oils, hydraulic oils, automatic transmission oils, compressor/pump
oils.

Application
• Engine oils
• Gear oils
• Bearing oils

Characteristics
Compared to mineral oils, PAO has
:
 Low pour point
 Low volatility
 High viscosity index
 Nontoxic
Ester
A compound produced by the reaction between an acid and an alcohol with the
elimination of a molecule of water. Usually, esters are derived from a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.
Thousands of different kinds of esters are commercially produced for a broad
range of applications.
Diesters
 Diesters which are often abbreviated DBE (dibasic acid esters) are named after the type
of dibasic acid used and are often abbreviated with letters.
 P a g e | 55

 For example, a diester made by reacting isodecyl alcohol with adipic acid would be
known as an “adipate” type diester and would be abbreviated “DIDA” (Diisodecyl
Adipate).
Adipates
Adipates are the most widely used diesters due to their low relative cost and good
balance of properties.
Azelates, Sebacates, and Dodecanedioates are similar to adipates except that in
each case the carbon chain length (backbone) of the dibasic acid is longer.

Characteristics
 Nontoxic
 Low pour point
 High viscosity index

Application
• Screw compressor oils
• Gear and transmission oils

Polyol Esters (POE)

The term “polyol esters” is short for neopentyl polyol esters which are made by
reacting monobasic acids with polyhedric alcohols having a neopentyl structure.
 P a g e | 56

Polyol esters represent the highest performance level available for high
temperature applications.
Characteristics
 High thermal stability
 Low volatility
 Higher price tag than diesters
Application
 High temperature grease
 Refrigeration compressor
 Industrial oven chains
 Jet engine oils

Silicone
Silicones, also known as polysiloxanes, are polymers that include any synthetic
compound made up of repeating units of siloxane.
Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils,
and thermal and electrical insulation.
Silicone oil and silicone grease are examples of lubricant.
Characteristics

 High thermal stability

 Ability to repel water
 Low thermal conductivity
 Low toxicity

Application

 Brake components
 P a g e | 57

 O - rings

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer
of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best known brand name of PTFE-
based formulas is Teflon by Chemours.

Characteristics

 Nontoxic
 Low coefficient of friction
 Low chemical reactivity
 Thermoplasticity

Application

 Cooking pans
 Plain bearings
 Slide plate

LIQUID LUBRICANT
Lubricant are generally compose of a majority of base Oil plus a variety of additives to
impart desirable characteristics.
Mineral Oil is used to encompass lubricating oil derive from Crude oil. The name mineral
oil by itself is imprecise, having been used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other
names, similarly imprecise, include white oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinumliquidum (Latin),
and liquid petroleum.
• Paraffinic Oil – Produce either by hydrocracking or solvent Exraction process
• Napthenic Oil – produce from crude oil distillates
• Aromatic Oil – products of refining process in manufacture of paraffinic oils.

PROCESSING CRUDE OIL

 P a g e | 58

USES OF LIQUID LUBRICANT

Biomedicine • Insulator and coolant
• Cell culture • Heat Transfer Oil
• Veterinary uses • Lube &Cutting Fluid
• Cosmetics Other uses
Mechanical, electrical and industrial • Food preparation
• Transformer Oil • Wooden coating

BASE OIL SAE GROUPING INDEX

 P a g e | 59

Groups Saturation Sulfur Content SAE VI

Group I < 90% > .03 % 80-120

Group II > 90% < .03 % 80-120

Group III > 90% < .03 % >120

Engine oils
One of the mot important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between
moving part is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be though of as its “thickness” or a
measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film
but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions.
The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil’s viscosity changes as temperature
changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a
lower viscosity index.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has establish a numerical code system for grading motor
oils.
Cold Temperature
this set measures cold temperature performance
Ex: 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W and 20W
The “W” mean Winter Grade, the number before W is the performance grade (not viscosity) of the
equivalent base motor oil at 0 celcius.
High Temperature
This set measures high temperature performance
Ex: 8, 12, 16, 20, 30, 40 and 50
Gasoline Engine can expose motor oil to temperature upto 160 ˚C (320 ˚F)
In Diesel Engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperature over 315 ˚C(600 ˚F).
Engine Oil with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperature
Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen.
 P a g e | 60

Automatic Transmission Fluid

It is typically colored red or green to distinguish it from motor oil and other fluids in the
vehicle. ATF is also used as a hydraulic fluid in some power assisted steering system.Modern ATF
typically contain a wide variety of compound chemicals to provide the required properties of
particular ATF specification. Most ATF contains additives that improves lubricating qualities such
as Anti-wear additives, rust and corrosion inhibitor, detergents, dispersant and surfactants
ETC.There are many specifications for ATF such as DEXRON and MERCON series

Brake fluid
Brake Fluid is a type of hydraulic fluid used in hydraulic brakes and hydraulic clutch.Most
Brake fluid today are glycol-ether based but mineral oil is also available.Brake Fluid sold in US is
Classified by the US Department of Transportation (DOT)

Hydraulic fluid
Hydraulic fluid is the medium by which power is transferred in Hydraulic machinery.
Common Hydraulic fluid are Based on mineral oil

2 Stroke Engine Oil

These motors are not exposed to as wide service temperature ranges as In vehicles so this
oils may be single viscosity oils.In a small two stroke engines the oil maybe premixed with the
gasoline or fuel often in a rich Gasoline : Oil ratio 25:1, 40:1 , or 50:1 Larger 2 stroke engine such
as boat and motorcycles may have more economical oil injection system because Oil injection
system is not used in small engine. 2 stroke Engine have a lot of smoke. Non-smoking Two-stroke
oils are composed of ester or polyglycol
 P a g e | 61

Liquid Lubricants
-Reduces friction or wear between two moving metallic surfaces
It also serves as
-Corrosion preventer
-Sealing Agent
-Cooling Medium
Conditions for Using Liquid Lubricants
-Where solid and semi –solid lubricants is not suitable
-In such type of machines whereas less amount of heat is produced during motion
-In light machines

Types Of Liquid Libricants

1. Vegetable Oil
Examples
a)OLIVE OIL-It is used for the lubrication of bearings
b)Castor Oil-it is used for the lubrication of rough machinery vehicles and bearings.
c)Palm Oil-It is used for the lubrication of delicate instruments like watches, clocks
2. Animal Oil
Examples:
a)Neatsfoot Oil-It is used for lubrication of guns, sewing machine, watches, and clocks.
b)Whale Oil-It is used in light machinery
c)Lard Oil -It is used for various types of machine
Disadvantages
A)They are costly
B)Undergo oxidation easily
C) Hydrolyze in aqueous medium or moist air

3. Blended Oils
-When mineral oils are mixed with animal oil or vegetable oil then mixture formed is
called as blended oil.
A number of oils have poor oiliness and viscosity ,so some specific additives are
incorporated into the oils to improve the ff: typical properties.
a) Oiliness e) Thickeners
b) Antioxidants f) Viscosity Index
c) Antifoaming g) Extreme Pressure
d) Emulsifier h) Abrasion
 P a g e | 62

Gas Lubricants
Lubrication is fundamental to the operation of all engineering machines. It is required to
minimize friction, wear and also provides a cooling function and a surface protection function.

Gas lubricated bearings have numerous advantages over liquid and solid lubricated bearings for a
wide range of applications. A gas bearing is virtually frictionless, silent, and vibration free. Gas
bearings can be used for extremely large surface velocities. A gas bearing can eliminate the risk
of contaminating a process with lubricant.

Types of Gas Bearings:

 Hydrostatic Bearings
A bearing is said to be hydrostatic when if it has a static gas along the
surface of the shaft or journal where the gas will be supplied externally and
the pressure is generally maintained by an external pump.

 Hydrodynamic Bearings
In hydrodynamic bearing, when the machine is turn on. The journal begins to rotate and it
drugs the lubricant around the bearing. The journal is essentially pumping lubricant, the
pressure underneath the journal begins to rise and when the journal was spinning fast
enough, a lubricant wedge was formed which lift the journal off of the sleeves and
completely separate the two surfaces.

Gas
 P a g e | 63

Group No. : Date:

Members:

EXPERIMENT 4
Measurement of Oil and Grease

Introduction
The partition – gravimetric method involves extraction of dissolved or emulsified oil and
grease from water by using an extracting solvent. The common solvents used are n-hexane,
methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and trichlorotrifluoroethane. Any filterable solvent-soluble
substances (e.g., elemental sulfur, complex aromatic compounds, hydrocarbon derivatives of
chlorine, sulfur, and nitrogen, and certain organic dyes) that are extracted and recovered are
defined as oil and grease. No known solvent will dissolve selectively only oil and grease.
Heavier residuals
of petroleum may contain a significant portion of materials that are not solvent-extractable.Oil
and grease has the natural tendency to float on the water surface under quiescent conditions, as
the density of oil and grease is usually less than one. Not all the oil and grease is in liquid
or solid form. Appreciable amounts remain in a finely divided emulsified form. Oil and grease is
an important parameter for water quality and safety. Regulatory bodies worldwide set limits in
order to control the amount oil and grease entering the water reservoirs or the sea through
industrial discharges and also limit the amount present in drinking water.

Objective
To determine the dissolved or emulsified oil and grease in kitchen water sample by using
partition – gravimetric method.

Apparatus and Materials

Separatory funnel, distilling flask, liquid funnel, filter paper, distillation apparatus, waste
container for used solvent, desiccator, kitchen water sample, hydrochloric acid, n-hexane,
anhydrous sodium sulphate, and distilled water.

Experimental Procedure
1. 200 mL of kitchen water sample was acidified with 5 mL of HCl, and then transferred to
a separatory funnel.
 P a g e | 64

2. 30 mL of n-hexane solvent was added to the funnel and the mixture was shaken
vigorously for 2 min.
3. The upper solvent layer was transferred into a conical flask.
4. The lower aqueous layer and any remaining emulsion were extracted with 2 portions
of 30 mL n-hexane where the solvent layer was transferred to the same conical flask after
each washing.
5. Anhydrous sodium sulphate was added to the extract in the conical flask to absorb traces
of water.
6. The dried extract was filtered into a tarred distilling flask and then distilled at 63 – 69 °C.
7. The remaining oil and grease in the distilling flask was cooled in desiccator and weighed.
8. The procedures were repeated with deionized water as blank.

Result and Calculation

Observation and Analysis:

Conclusion:
 P a g e | 65

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

WIRE ROPE OILS AND STEAM CYLINDER OILS

Submitted by:

Cantoria IV, John Pablo V.

Cruz, Evandro Michael E.
Dizon, Rock Daniel
Dela Cruz, Evhanwill O.
Agapito, Mark Joseph

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

 P a g e | 66

Lesson NO. 1
(Cruz, Evandro Michael and Dela Cruz, Evhanwill O.)
General Objective
To determine the different types of and the proper lubrication of Wire Ropes.
Specific Objective
 To know how to identify the different lays of Wire Rope.
 To determine the type of lubricant to be used on Wire Rope.
 To reduce friction as the individual wires, move over each other.
 To provide corrosion protection and lubrication in the core and inside wires and on the exterior
surfaces.
Introduction
Wire rope is technically the correct term for groups of strand wrapped in a uniform helix
around a core. Wire ropes are identified by a nomenclature that is referenced to: 1) the number
of strands in the rope, 2) the number (nominal or exact) and arrangement of wires in each
strand, and 3) a descriptive word or letter indicating the type of construction, i.e., the geometric
arrangement of wires. For wire ropes to be used properly and everlasting, wire rope oils is
necessary.

Wire Rope Oil

 Wire rope lubricants have two principal functions:

1. To reduce friction as the individual wires move over each other.

2. To provide corrosion protection and lubrication in the core and inside wires and on the
exterior surfaces.
Characteristics:
 P a g e | 67

 A lubricant used for wire ropes must therefore:

 Be free of additives and compounds which result in corrosive reactions or degeneration
 Be water-resistant and non-emulsifying
 Not contain grit, sand, other abrasives, water, chlorine, or similar impurities
 Have high-quality layering properties
 Be able to penetrate easily to the core of the wire
TYPES OF WIRE ROPE OILS
PENETRATING LUBRICANTS
 Contain a petroleum solvent that carries the lubricant into the core of the wire rope then
evaporates, leaving behind a heavy lubricating film to protect and lubricate each strand.

COATING LUBRICANTS
 Penetrate slightly, sealing the outside of the cable from moisture and reducing wear and
fretting corrosion from contact with external bodies.

COMPOSITION OF WIRE ROPE OILS

Petrolatum compounds
 P a g e | 68

 are translucent, allowing the technician to perform visible inspection. Petrolatum

lubricants can drip off at higher temperatures but maintain their consistency well under
cold temperature conditions.

Asphaltic compounds

 Generally dry to a very dark hardened surface, which makes inspection difficult. They
adhere well for extended long-term storage but will crack and become brittle in cold
climates, asphaltic are the coating type.
Greases
 Used for this application generally have a soft semifluid consistency. They coat and
achieve partial penetration if applied with pressure lubricators.

Petroleum and Vegetable Oils

 Penetrate best and are the easiest to apply because proper additive design of these
penetrating types gives them excellent wear and corrosion resistance. The fluid property
of oil type lubricants helps to wash the rope to remove abrasive external contaminants.
 P a g e | 69

Wire rope relubrication

In relubriacting a wire rope, there are two factors that must be considered:
1. To reduce friction as the individual wires move over each other.
2. To provide corrosion protection and lubrication in the core and inside wires and on the
exterior surfaces.
 P a g e | 70

In the production of wire ropes, the lubricants were applied while the ropes are twisting
together so that while the process in ongoing, the friction must be lessen on each wire rope and
also the cause of corrosion were avoided.
After the installations of wire ropes, the wire ropes must be periodically relubricated. In
manual relubrication, it takes two men, 2 days and it must be relubricated in every 2 months.

This manual relubrication is not safe either and it could cause the lubricants splash
around the working area. So there are companies invented on how the workers less the effort of
relubrication of wire ropes. The Viper Company invented a Wire rope relubricator

Viper Lubricator Kit Components

 P a g e | 71

Viper Wire Rope Lubricator MKII - Operating Instructions with the Viper Wire Rope
Lubricator assembled and mounted correctly, it is now ready to operate the system and
lubricate the nominated wire rope.

1. Make sure the high pressure lubricant flow control valve is closed (turn clock wise to
close).
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2. Open the air supply to the lubricant pump via the air control valve. The pump may start
to pump for a short period but will stop as the lubricant reaches the closed lubricant flow control
valve. Check that the air regulator is set to 7 bar. (100psi)
3. Open the high pressure lubricant flow control valve slowly by turning anti clockwise
and proceed to fill the installed seal with lubricant. Once lubricant appears at the wire rope entry
point or in the overflow drain line, close the lubricant flow control valve by turning clockwise.

THE VIPER IS NOW CHARGED AND READY FOR OPERATION.

4. Start the wire rope moving through the Viper collar and then slowly open the lubricant
flow control valve. Continue to open until an even coating of grease is visible on the wire rope
exiting the collar.

- Speeds of up to 2,000 metres per hour are possible but this depends on a number of
factors, including the rope size, speed and specific lubricant in use.
5. The lubricant flow control valve should be adjusted as required to provide the correct
lubricant flow rate into the lubricator collar and thereby onto and into the wire rope.
- If the lubricant flow rate is too high lubricant will begin leaking out of the Viper collar
at the rope entry point or from the excess lubricant clear hose.

- Reduce the lubricant flow by turning the flow control valve clockwise. Alternatively
increase the wire rope speed through the lubricator collar until the correct amount of
lubricant appears on the wire rope.
7. If lubricant leakage occurs around the collar, check the collar is correctly tightened and
seals are fitted correctly.
8. An even balance between lubricant volume and wire rope travel speed is required to
achieve an even lubricant film combined with optimum penetration.
9. Once the optimum lubricant coverage is achieved, run the complete rope at a
consistent speed though the Viper.
10. Note that the Viper collar with flexible seals is not a pressure vessel and is not
designed to hold pressure. The grease pressure is generated by both the pump and the action of
the rope travelling through the lubricant chambers in the seal. The Viper grease pump should
not be operated with the wire rope stationary.
With these relubrucator, it takes 1 man, 2 hours of operation and it must be relubricated
in every 6-7 months.
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Lesson No. 2 (Agapito, Mark Joseph, Dizon, Rock Daniel and Cantoria, John Pablo)
General Objective
Students will actively learn about Steam Cylinder Oils through exploring and analyzing
primary resources from documents, Oil ISO Grade data and ASME data. Through participating in
direct hand-on learning, students will have an opportunity to investigate and critique on how
steam cylinder oil affect the lubrication industry.
Specific Objective
After completing this module, students will:

 Understand what make a steam cylinder oils to be a lubricating oil,

 Identify the importance and role of Steam Cylinder oil within the application on moving
part of a machine,

 Begin to understand each kinds of steam cylinder oils on how they are classified as
lubricating oils and different in application,

 Learn how to apply lubricating oils,

 Begin to develop an ability to evaluate multiple situation, think critically about the
problem, and act independent, and secure a high possibility of success.

Introduction

Steam Cylinder Oil is an extra high performance high viscosity compounded extreme
pressure lubricant that is recommended for use in all high pressure wet or saturated content
steam cylinder and steam engine applications. Steam Cylinder Oil can also be used in enclosed
worm gear applications operating at moderate to high speeds and temperatures, and where
heavy loads, slow speeds or high temperatures require the use of a high viscosity oil.

Steam Cylinder Oil is blended from the finest high viscosity index solvent refined, severely
hydro-treated paraffin base stocks available. These paraffin base stocks provide Steam Cylinder
Oil with the following characteristics:

1. Excellent thermal and oxidative stability.

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2. Excellent resistance to high temperature degradation.

3. A naturally high viscosity index.
4. Excellent film strength.
5. Excellent resistance to the build-up and formation of harmful deposits caused by the high
temperature operations of steam cylinders.

Body
Steam Cylinder Oil is often referred to as cylinder oil and compounded steam cylinder oil
as its primary use is to lubricate the valves and cylinders of steam engines. It provides a
lubricating film to the engine steam admission valves and the pistons within the cylinder
walls. Both the valves and the pistons are metal to metal sliding interfaces. Therefore, steam
cylinder oil must possess unique characteristics to allow it to mix with superheated steam,
saturated steam, and hot water or condensate.
HISTORY
Steam cylinder oils are a family of specialty oils that were originally formulated about 150
years ago to lubricate the moving parts within the valve chests and cylinders of reciprocating
steam engines. Early steam engine operators quickly learned that their machines required some
form of lubrication. They discovered that beef tallow, a component of early handmade soaps,
was an excellent lubricant when introduced into the valve chests of their engines. Unfortunately,
tallow has an undesirable characteristic though. The early tallow was full of free fatty acids that
form corrosive acids when decomposed in the presence of steam. These acids attacked the
metal parts of steam engines.
When Colonel Drake discovered oil in Pennsylvania in 1859 the introduction of refined
mineral oils as less expensive and better lubricants rapidly followed the development of the
modern petroleum industry. Early refineries used simple distillation towers to separate out
different crude oil fractions such as kerosene, light lubricating oils and heavy lubricating oils. It
was found that the residuum at the bottom of the distillation towers formed an excellent
lubricating film in hot steam cylinders. This residue became known as "cylinder stock" and has
been called this name ever since. Further refining cylinder stock produces more desirable
characteristics and a whole series of heavy, high viscosity products is extracted from the basic
cylinder stocks.
The use of heavy mineral oils in steam engine cylinder lubrication was quickly found to be
less than perfect because, unlike tallow, mineral oils will not mix with water. In steam engine
cylinders using saturated steam, large quantities of condensed steam form water droplets that
move at high velocities with the rapidly traveling steam throughout the engine passages. This
condensate constantly washes the rubbing surfaces and does not allow the oil to establish a
stable, long lasting lubricating film. Nineteenth century engine operators found that they had to
feed large quantities of mineral oil to get reasonable performance out of the new oils.
 P a g e | 75

Experimentation proved if a small amount of tallow (or some other animal fat such as lard oil or
sperm oil) was mixed with the mineral oils a nice compromise was formed. The tallow
"saponifies", or forms a sticky, soapy emulsion when heated by the steam and agitated by the
turbulence in the cylinders and valve chests. The mineral oil gets caught up in this emulsion and,
in effect, a crude grease is formed where the soapy emulsion "holds" the oil against the cylinder
walls and other rubbing surfaces.
The result is a "compounded" oil that will "wet", or spread over all the rubbing surfaces
and resist the washing effect of water droplets in the steam. It was quickly found that only a
small amount of tallow was needed to form adequate emulsions and today’s compounded oils
generally use 10% or less compounding. The small amount of tallow in the oil significantly
reduced the amount of corrosion found when 100% tallow was used for lubrication prior to the
introduction of mineral oils. Yet, it was enough to help significantly reduce the amount of oil
required to lubricate saturated steam cylinders.
SPECIFICATIONS

Steam cylinder oils have never been formulated to a standard specification that has been
agreed upon by a consortium of steam engine manufacturers. However, the Skinner Engine
Company developed generic guidelines for steam cylinder lubricants applicable to their line of
steam engines. One of the significant generic lubricant specifications is the heavy gear oil
specifications developed by the American Gear Manufacturer’s Association (AGMA) over 50
years ago.
Over the last 50 years the gradual demise of steam engines in all types of service has
shrunk the steam cylinder oil market to a pitiful remnant of its original proportions. Today the
major oil companies and one or two specialty blenders are the only makers of steam cylinder oils
and this business is a small fraction of their total lubrication operations. Indeed, many of these
oil companies have discontinued, or are in the process of discontinuing their cylinder oil product
lines.
More importantly, the only identifiable commercial market that really remains for steam
cylinder oils is for gearbox lubrication. Their specifications all claim compliance with the AGMA
specifications and their product designations call out the appropriate AGMA specification
number. The primary differences between gear lubrication service and steam cylinder lubrication
service are the lower temperatures found in gear boxes and the requirement that enclosed
gearboxes re-circulate the lubricant many times for extended periods before change out. In
steam cylinders the oil is applied once then is replaced as more is required to maintain adequate
lubrication films.
The improvement in lubrication technology and chemistry has evolved many chemical
additives that improve the stability and life of lubricants in re-circulating service. Gear lubricants
are no exception and most gear oils have additives such as oxidation inhibitors, rust inhibitors
and viscosity improvers. While these additives improve the lubricant’s performance in gearboxes
they are not stable at elevated temperatures and tend to come out of the oil as undesirable
 P a g e | 76

deposits in hot steam cylinders. In extreme cases where viscosity improvers have been added
the base oils fail completely in steam cylinder service.
Because steam cylinder oils have never been manufactured to a standard generic
specification that is published there are a wide range of cylinder oils that create confusion when
the proper type of oil is being sought for a particular application. In an effort to standardize
formulations and reduce confusion, Green Velvet lists all ingredients in its oils, identifies
formulations with a formula designation and tabulates a standard set of specifications across all
oil types.
Here are nine specification parameters listed for all Green Velvet Steam Cylinder oils.

Base Oil: The base oil is the dominant component in cylinder oil and generally makes up 90% or
more of the final product. The viscosity and lubricating characteristics of the base oil represent
these characteristics in the final product. Choice of the proper base oil is a key part of
manufacturing good quality steam cylinder oils.

Compounding: The amount of compounding is listed as a percent by volume of the total

product. It determines how resistant the oil is to water washing and determines the amount of
emulsion that is generated in the valve chest and steam cylinder. More compounding improves an
oil’s "wetting ability", or its ability to spread evenly across rubbing surfaces in the presence of
water. Green Velvet Steam Cylinder Oil uses a maximum of 10% compounding. This compounding
is formulated especially for steam cylinders.

Tackifier: The synthetic copolymer tackifier is identified as an additive so Green Velvet

customers know every ingredient in their oil. There are no mystery ingredients in Green Velvet
Steam Cylinder Oils to gum up customers’ steam engines.

% Compounding: This is the percentage of the total product volume that is made up of
compounding. It helps determine which engine applications are appropriate for a particular oil.
The basis for application is steam pressure, temperature, engine type, engine size and load factor.

Color: The color is a perceptive parameter that helps identify steam cylinder oil by color and
texture when oil cans and lubricators are being filled with different oils. Steam cylinder oil is
traditionally a green opaque color. Green Velvet Steam Cylinder Oil is the traditional dark green
color in all its grades.

Viscosity: This is a measurement of how "fluid" a liquid is at a particular temperature. It

determines how much "body" or film building capacity the oil has at the high temperatures
prevailing inside steam cylinders. As a general rule, the lowest possible viscosity should be used
in each application. This rule allows the easiest handling of heavy oils, improves atomization and
application of oil into the steam circuit and builds films that are stable enough to adequately
lubricate the moving parts at the conditions prevailing in a particular application.

Flash Point: This is the temperature where the vapors driven from a heated sample of cylinder oil
will "flash" into flame, but will not support a continuous burn. A continuous burn of vapors is
 P a g e | 77

called the Fire Point. The higher the flash point the more resistant the oil is to evaporation that
destroys its ability to build a stable lubricating film on the rubbing surfaces.

Carbon Residue: This is the amount of carbon residue that remains after a sample of cylinder oil
has been heated to a high temperature that evaporates and burns all components except a carbon
residue that is left at the bottom of the test cup. The final amount of residue is listed as a
percentage of the total weight of the original sample. This parameter helps determine how well
the base oils are refined and also helps determine which additives contribute to the overall
carbon residue content. Low carbon residue numbers below 2% are desirable because they
indicate the oil will not precipitate as much hard or gummy deposits in the lubricators, valve
chests and cylinders

Performance: This is the best criteria. Because there are so many different conditions that exist
in steam engine lubrication, it is impossible to be very precise about which oil is best.

TYPES OF STEAM CYLINDER OILS

OIL VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

ISO – International Standardization Organization
SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
AGMA – American Gear Manufacturers Association
 P a g e | 78

Oil viscosity is measured several ways. The three main ones that we encounter in
equipment manuals are SAE, ISO, and AGMA. It can be confusing when you have a gear case that
the manual says requires SAE 90 gear lube and one oil distributor gives you a pail that
says AGMA 5 and another gives you a pail marked ISO 220. In terms of viscosity only, this is 3
ways of describing the same thing. In terms of viscosity they are equivilant.
Compounded Steam Cylinder Oil
 Features:
 Corrosion protection particularly over-wintering
 Compatible with a wide variety of steam types (saturated to low superheat)
 Minimal piston deposits
 High lubricity

 Shelf life 1-4 years varies in additives added

 ISO320 (AGMA Grade 6)

 Lightest of the true cylinder oils.
 Intended for steam pressures under 160 psi, saturated steam conditions and smaller
cylinders (typically under 8" bores).
 It has plenty of soft, smooth lard oil compounding and tough glazing additive to lubricate
wet cylinders and prevent rust after shutting down.

 ISO680 (AGMA Grade 8C)

 Medium grade cylinder oil
 Made for higher steam pressures up to 230 psi, larger cylinder bores such as found on full
size locomotives and conditions where moderate superheat temperatures are reached.
 Tallow oil compounding and a film/surface modifier additive ensure water and rust
resistant films during operation and long after shut down.

 ISO1000 (AGMA Grade 8AC)

 Heaviest grade of compounded cylinder oil
 Made for moderately high steam pressures up through 350 psi (at the engine inlet) and
higher superheat temperatures up to 650° F
 Full bodied high viscosity oil that will stand up to the high piston speeds and high
superheat temperatures in all non-condensing steam car applications
 This oil should not be used in condensing steam cars because the compounding cannot
be easily separated in the water tank
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Non-Compounded Steam Cylinder Oil

 Features
 Non-Compounded
 Non-Staining
 Safe on paintwork and brasses
 Low deposit forming characteristics
 Excellent oxidation resistance
 Excellent water separability
 This lubricant contains no animal fat compounding

 SOVEREIGN STRAIGHT STEAM CYLINDER OILS

 Have superior resistance to oxidation and have low deposit forming characteristics under
extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. They also possess strong
demulsification characteristics and therefore separate quickly and cleanly from water.

 The Sovereign range is recommended for all steam engines utilising wet or dry steam,
and as a boiler or process feed in preference over compounded products where the
steam is being recovered.

 This lubricant contains no animal fat compounding and is an excellent lubricant for high
pressure, high temperature, condensing steam engines that have superheat in the
exhaust.

 ISO680 (AGMA Grade 8C)

 Medium grade, non-compounded cylinder oil
 Higher steam pressures up to 230 psi and larger cylinder bores such as found on multiple
expansion marine engines and stationary condensing engines
 Contains no animal fat compounding so it separates well from condensate that is
returned to the boiler
 Suited for Large steamboat and stationary condensing engine

 ISO1000 (AGMA Grade 8AC)

 Heavy grade, non-compounded cylinder oil
 Made for moderately high steam pressures up through 350 psi and high superheat
temperatures up to 650°F
 Suited for Condensing Steam Automobile
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 ISO1500
 Heaviest grade cylinder oil
 Highest steam pressures up through 700 psi and the highest superheat temperatures up
to 700°F.
 Excellent lubricant for high pressure, high temperature, condensing steam engines that
have superheat in the exhaust
 Mechanical lubricators that use this lubricant must have heaters that maintain the oil at a
minimum 120°F temperature for free flowing characteristics

 ISO2200
 Ultra-heavy grade, specialty cylinder oil formulated for high superheat locomotives
operating in high speed, high load mainline railroad service
 Excellent lubricant for high pressure, high temperature, locomotives that are loaded for
extended periods of time when pulling heavy trains
 Suited for Main line steam locomotive
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REFERENCES

Wire Rope Oils

http://www.deltarigging.com/doc/Wire%20Rope/Wire%20Rope%20General%20Information/Wire
%20Rope%20Identification%20and%20Construction.pdf

http://www.superslings.ca/Products/Slings/WireRopeSlings/WireRopeTypes.aspx

http://thecableconnection.com/cable-construction.html

http://www.gabaswire.com/en/types-of-wire-rope/

Steam Cylinder Oils

http://www.southernsteamtrains.com/misc/steam-oil-hwade.htm
http://www.morrislubricants.co.uk/products/classsteam/cylinder-oils.html
http://www.smokstak.com/forum/showthread.php?t=23302
http://www.lsc-online.com/steam-cylinder-oil/
http://www.steamenginelube.com/lubeuse.html
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Group No. : Date:

Members:

EXPERIMENT 5
Oil Viscosity

Introduction
The method applies Newton’s law of motion under force balance on a falling sphere ball
when it reaches a terminal velocity. In Newton’s law of motion for a falling ball, there exist
buoyancy force, weight force, and drag force, and these three forces reach a net force of zero.
The falling ball viscometer is well-suited for measuring the viscosity of a fluid, and the method
has been stated in international standards

Objective
To classify each oil samples in ISO/AGMA/SAE measurements base on how thick each
one is by determining its viscosity by using falling sphere method.

Apparatus and Materials

Test tube, Graduated Cylinder, Metal ball, oils

Experimental Procedure

1. Fill tube or cylinder with oils. Oils should have the same amount in each
2. Drop ball with known density into the oil then count or time how long it takes before
it is in the bottom
3. Get the visvosty w/ the acquired data
4. Compare to the actual viscosity of the oil
5. Get the % of error
6. Classify each oil’s viscosity in ISO/AGMA and SAE.

Result and Calculation

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Observation and Analysis:

Conclusion:
 P a g e | 84

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

GREASES

Submitted by:

Azul, Patrishia
Campang, Kalvin
Furaque, Viva Ponamuthon
Jamora, Adam
Liggayu, Guillen
Tapalla, Jethro

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

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HISTORY, PROPERTIES, CLASSIFICATION AND STANDARDS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GREASE

What is Grease?
A solid or semi-solid product of dispersion of a thickening agent in lubricating oil. Greases
are applied only to mechanisms that can be lubricated infrequently and where a lubricating
oil would not stay in position. They also act as sealants to prevent ingress of water and
incompressible materials.
Making grease is similar to making soap: Both products rely on a chemical reaction to take place
between oil, fat or fatty acids (often present in the oil or added) and an alkali base material (referred
to as the “thickener”) to form soap-like material. This reaction is known as “saponification.” Grease
uses a variety of metal hydroxide alkaline to make and define the grease type. For example,
aluminum hydroxide makes aluminum grease, lithium hydroxide makes lithium grease, and
calcium hydroxide makes calcium grease.
To give grease a wider temperature application range and enhanced properties, a second thickener
known as a “complexing” agent is added to the mix. This agent is a salt, usually of the same metal
hydroxide used to originally thicken the grease. If lithium is used as the alkaline agent, lithium salts
are added to the mix to create lithium complex grease.

Early History of Lubricant

According to the historical accounts, it is said that as early as
2400 B.C. grease-like substance, oil and water were used as
lubricant to reduce friction.
In a painted wall relief of an Egyptian Pharaoh's tomb dated
to around 2400 B.C., a worker is seen pouring lubricant (in
this case, water) for moving statues.
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Early History of Grease

Chariots from another Egyptian Pharaoh's tomb dated to
around 1400 B.C. are found with what seems an early form of
grease derived from animal fat on the axle.

Most of the lubricating oil used in these times was based on

animal or vegetable fat. It was only in modern times when
grease formulated with petroleum lubricating oil came into
use.

Properties of Grease
 Dropping point
 Max temp. in degrees Celsius
 High temp. use
 Low temperature mobility
 Mech. Stability
 Water resistant
 Oxidation stability
 Texture

CLASSIFICATION AND STANDARS

Standard ASTM D4950“standard classification and specification for automotive service
greases” was first published in 1989 by ASTM International.

2 Categories
1. LA and LB: chassis lubricants (suitability up to mild and severe duty respectively)
2. GA, GB and GC: wheel-bearings (suitability up to mild, moderate and severe duty
respectively)
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GREASE CONSISTENCY
Consistency is defined as the degree to which a plastic material resists deformation under the
application of force. In the case of lubricating greases, this is a measure of the relative hardness or
softness and has some relation to flow and dispensing properties. Consistency is measured by
ASTM D 217, Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease and is often reported in terms of NLGI
grade.
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ASTM D217 Grease Worker

Unlike oil, grease is lucky to have a single standard
grading system named the NLGI (National
Lubricating Grease Institute) grading system. The
corresponding number identifies the greases
consistency. To test for consistency, the ASTM
D217 core test is used in which a special cone is
dropped into the grease from a specified height, at a
temperature of 25 C (77 F), and its depth of
penetration is measured in 0.1mm increments. Most
industrial applications will utilize an NLGI number
one or number two grade grease.

NLGI CONSISTENCY RATING

Greases are manufactured in a variety of consistencies. These consistencies are distinguished

into nine specific classifications using the National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) number-
rating system, from #000 (representing a grease with a very fluid appearance at room
temperature), all the way up to a #6 (which appears block solid at room temperature). The most
popular grease for use in grease guns is an NLGI #2 (which looks soft at room temperature).

The recommended grease consistency for use in an automated centralized grease lubrication
system is NLGI #1 or lower. NLGI consistency is determined in the laboratory using an ASTM
(American Society of Testing Materials) D-217 cone penetration test. In this procedure, grease is
placed in a cup and a cone is dropped from a specified height at a room temperature of 77 F and
allowed to penetrate the grease for five seconds. The depth of penetration is then measured
carefully in tenths of a millimeter and rated according to an NLGI classification chart that
assigns a rating number to penetration depth ranges. For example, if the cone penetration is
between 265 (26.5mm) and 295 (29.5mm), the grease is classified as a NLGI #2.
 P a g e | 89

The advantages and disadvantages of grease lubrication

Under normal working conditions, most can adopt the way of grease lubrication bearing
applications. The advantages of the grease is: easier to keep in bearing configuration, especially
in the vertical shaft or the application of axis tilted at a certain Angle.

As well as the role of sealing grease, can prevent contaminants, moisture or water effect on the
bearing. But if too much grease, can lead to bearing temperature rise, especially in the
application of high speed. In most cases, only in the beginning stages can completely fill the
bearing grease, while filling the right amount of grease in the bearing seat and had some free
space.

Before fully achieve work speed, must let too much grease in the running-in stage discharge
bearing, make the right amount of grease in the bearing. When working temperature decreased
obviously, said with bearing grease, and evenly distributed in the configuration of the bearing.
Of course, if the bearing working speed is very low, and need to work in pollution and humid
environment, it is best to fill the grease in the bearing seat.

A FEW TYPES OF GREASE

Silicone Grease
 Silicone grease is an amorphous fumed-silica thickened, polysiloxane-based
compound, which can be used to provide lubrication and corrosion resistance.
 P a g e | 90

Cork Grease
 Cork grease is a lubricant used to lubricate cork, for example in musical wind
instruments. It is usually applied using small lip-balm/lip-stick like applicators.

Food Grade Grease

 Food-grade greases are those greases that come in contact with food.
 P a g e | 91

MAIN COMPONENTS OF GREASE

• Base Oils

Base oils can either be mineral oils or synthetic oils. Mineral and synthetic base
oils degrade thermally in conjunction with oxidative degradation if the product is
in contact with air. The break point at which the individual oil molecules in a
highly refined mineral oil and synthetic hydrocarbons will begin to unravel,
releasing carbon atoms from the molecular chain, is about 536°F to 608°F (280°C
to 320°C).

The grease manufacturer will select materials given their familiarity, and perhaps
availability, of the raw materials. If the manufacturer makes a particular type of
synthetic base fluid and is intimately familiar with the various destruction
mechanisms of that fluid, then it is likely that this type of synthetic base will often
be selected for new product development.
 P a g e | 92

• Thickeners

The materials selected as the grease thickeners may be organic, such as polyurea;
inorganic, such as clay or fumed silica; or a soap/complex soap, such as lithium,
aluminum or calcium sulfonate complex. The usefulness of the grease over time
depends on the package, not just the thickening system or the type of base oil.

Keep in mind that grease is composed of base oil, a thickener and additives.
Typical amounts would be 70 to 90 percent base oil, 3 to 30 percent thickener and
up to 10 percent additives. The amounts will depend on the specific use for which
the grease is designed. The thickener is formed in the base oil by a chemical
reaction. The byproducts are then removed and more oil and additives are mixed.
Then, the mixture is homogenized. The more thickener that is added, the stiffer
the finished product. These thickeners are sometimes called soaps.

Polyurea Clay

Fumed Silica Soap/Complex Soap

P a g e | 93
 P a g e | 94

• Additives

The additives selected for grease manufacture must likewise be viewed as parts of
the whole rather than simply discrete parts that must withstand set test limits. The
additives tend to provide properties for greases in fashion similar to lubricating
oils: oxidation stability, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, low temperature
flow characteristics, water resistance, etc. The additive must be capable of
working synergistically with the thickener and the oil to lead to a balanced, stable
mixture of the three distinct components.

LUBRICATION OF GREASE
o Gear Lubrication
Manual Repacking

o 2 Types of Bearing Lubrication

Manual Repacking
Using Grease Gun

GREASE FITTINGS
A metal fitting used in mechanical systems to feed lubricants, usually lubricating grease, into
a bearing under moderate to high pressure using a grease gun.
Grease Fitting Angles
45°
90°
180°
 P a g e | 95

SELECTING A HIGH- SPEED GREASE

• Base Oil Viscosity – Ensure the viscosity adequately provides the lubricating film but is not too
thick to cause excessive heat and drag.
• Channeling Characteristics – The grease should be able to channel so excess heat isn’t
generated from grease churning.
• Dropping Point – The dropping point of the grease should exceed the operating temperature by a
wide margin to avoid excessive bleed and possible bearing failure.
• Thickener Type – Choose a thickener that can provide the proper dropping point, channeling and
bleed characteristics. Also, if you use multiple greases, check the thickener types for
compatibility in case of accidental mixing.
• NLGI Grade – The consistency of the grease will have an impact on the bleed characteristics and
channeling properties of the finished lubricating grease.
• Additive Load – Most applications require additives to help the oil lubricate. For greases, a wide
variety of chemical and solid additives can be blended to aid in film strength and reduce friction
and wear.

HOW TO DETERMINE WHICH GREASE IS BEST FOR YOUR

APPLICATION?
Lithium 12-hydroxystearic acid has widely been
considered a preferred fatty acid in the manufacturing of
lithium based grease thickeners. This fatty acid has had
its application in calcium based grease thickeners as well.
Greases formulated with this acid will often be smooth
with a buttery texture. They also tend to have higher
thickener content by weight of about 1015 percent. The
smooth texture and many of the other advantages derived
from these thickeners is due to their webbed fibrous
pattern, which is only visible on a microscopic scale.
Calcium 12-hydroxystearate grease is one of the most
common types of anhydrous calcium based greases. It
has a dropping point of around 275 to 300 degrees F,
with a maximum usable temperature of approximately 230 degrees F and average characteristics
at low temperatures. When well formulated, the grease normally has good oxidation and water
 P a g e | 96

resistance, but other additives may be necessary to protect against rust. Calcium 12-
hydroxystearate is also generally compatible with many other types of grease as well.
The vast majority of lithium based greases are formulated with 12-hydroxystearate soap for
versatility. The dropping point for these greases is higher, around 350400 degrees F. They also
have good resistance to water, although the grease may soften and run when large quantities of
water are present. The maximum usable temperature is around 250 degrees F, which is better or
equal to most other grease types. Unlike calcium 12-hydroxystearate, lithium 12-hydroxystearate
is less compatible with other greases.
When trying to decide which grease is best for your application, evaluate the top performance
properties that will impact the application. Some of these properties have been mentioned
already, including the dropping point, maximum usable temperature, water resistance and
oxidation resistance. The usable temperature range is especially critical when the application will
experience temperature extremes.
The grease's consistency will be important to consider in every application. It is determined by
the base oil viscosity and the thickener concentration and type. Lithium based greases remain
very common in the industry (as much as 70 percent or more) for their overall performance.
Other types of thickeners, like calcium 12-hydroxystearate, will be limited to specific purposes,
such as for certain types of seals, chains and roller bearings.
It should also be noted that some greases have thickeners that are mixtures of both lithium and
calcium. Other greases may even be manufactured with 12-hydroxystearate as the fatty acid.
Much like any specialty grease formulation, these lubricants likely are not intended for multi-
purpose applications. Be sure to reference the manufacturer's product data sheets for specific
application recommendations.

GREASE - HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?

How much Grease is needed?
We use the SKF grease meter, which measures the amount of grease pumped
from the grease gun into the equipment bearing. We learned that it was important
to make sure the guns have a small air release valve on the end.

How often should this PM (Preventive Maintenance) Activity be performed?

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Time intervals based upon bearing size, equipment speed and load severities
(from the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) electric motor
standards) were referenced to develop our re-lubrication schedules.

When Do We Know if the Grease Has Properly Reached the Rolling Elements of the
Bearing?

A shock pulse meter supplied by SPM Corp. was acquired to let us know if the
grease was reaching the bearings. This small instrument has an accelerometer
attached to the meter by a cable. High-frequency vibrations picked up from the
bearing are shown in bar scale on the face of the meter. When first connected to
the equipment bearing housing, the meter may read from one to nine bars.

During re-lubrication, if the meter is at one bar and starts increasing, the grease
gun operator should stop the re-lubrication process. If the meter is at eight bars,
the reading will decrease as the fresh grease reaches the bearing’s moving
elements.

COMMON LUBRICATION PROBLEMS

1. Lack of Procedures

Great lubrication programs are only as good as the people who do the work, just as a
chain is only as strong as its weakest link. In many of my most recent projects, the
retirement of technicians has been the problem of greatest concern. As Baby Boomers
are reaching retirement age and subsequently retiring, they are taking with them a
great deal of personal experience and knowledge of how they do their jobs. For some
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plants, the lube-tech position may have been held by a single person for decades.
These professionals are the masters of their domains and know every sight, sound and
smell of their machines. It is imperative to pass down this type of dedication and
understanding to the next generation of professionals. Unfortunately, all of this
knowledge usually is not passed down. This results in problems and a steep learning
curve.

Documented procedures can lessen the blow and help new personnel understand the
proper way a task should be performed. While countless articles and books have been
published on the best way to write procedures, once written, the procedures must be
implemented for their full effect to be realized.

2. Improper Sampling Points and Hardware

If used correctly, oil analysis can be an extremely valuable tool. It allows you to
monitor not only the health of the oil but also the health of the machine, as well as
catch failures before they become catastrophic. In order to obtain all the benefits of
oil analysis, you first must have the correct sample points and hardware.

3. Over-greasing

Bearings require a set volume of grease to be

properly lubricated. A popular formula used to
determine the volume of grease needed is the
outside diameter (in inches) multiplied by the
width (in inches) multiplied by 0.114. This will
provide the volume of grease in ounces that the
bearing requires.

4. Lack of a Labeling System

Labeling is a key part of any world-class lube

program. Not only does it reduce the chance for
cross-contamination by minimizing confusion as
to which lubricants go where, it also allows
individuals who may not be as familiar with the
lube program to top-up with the correct oil or
grease.
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5. Use of OEM Breathers and Dust Caps

Most original equipment manufacturer (OEM) accessories like breathers do little to
restrict the ingression of tiny particles into oil and critical spaces, which can damage
machine surfaces. Some of these breathers are simply a cap filled with steel wool or a
mesh screen that serves as a block for larger particles. Considering the lubricant film
in a journal bearing is approximately 5 to 10 microns, any particles of this size
contaminating the oil will greatly increase the likelihood of wear and subsequent
machine failure. These tolerance sized particles do the greatest damage and have the
highest probability of causing machine wear.

Not only do many OEM breathers allow particles into the oil, they also do nothing to
restrict moisture from entering the oil. Oil is hygroscopic, which means it absorbs
moisture from the ambient air. In areas with high humidity or steam, moisture will
pass through these types of breathers and be absorbed into the oil, causing rust,
increased oxidation and hydrolysis rates, and a higher corrosive potential of acids
formed by oxidation and hydrolysis.

HIGH TEMPERATURE GREASES

There are many criteria to consider when selecting a high-temperature grease for hot, grease-
lubricated equipment. The selection must include consideration of oil type and viscosity, oil
viscosity index, thickener type, stability of the composition formed by the oil and the thickener),
additive composition and properties, ambient temperature, operating temperature, atmospheric
contamination, loading, speed, re-lubrication intervals, etc.

The selection criteria differ appreciably. In addition to heat resistance, the grease to be used in a
hot steel mill application may require exceptional load-carrying capability, oxidation stability,
mechanical stability, water wash resistance and good pump-ability, and at a price suitable for
large-volume consumption. With all of the important factors to consider, it is useful to have a
grease selection strategy.

SELECTION STRATEGIES FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE GREASES

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The grease’s long-term behavior is influenced by the causes of degradation, three of which are
particularly important: mechanical (shear and stress) stability, oxidative stability and thermal
stability. Oxidative and thermal stresses are interrelated. High-temperature applications will
generally degrade the grease through thermal stress, in conjunction with oxidative failure
occurring if the product is in contact with air. This is similar to what is to be expected with most
industrial oil-lubricated applications.
HIGH-TEMPERATURE GREASE COMPATIBILITY

Following the Arrhenius rate rule, chemical reactivity doubles for each 10°C rise in
temperatures, incompatibility issues are more pronounced at elevated temperatures. The lack of
compatibility shows up as grease thinning. If thinning occurs, the user may re-lubricate to flush
out the original product until the problem ceases. Alternatively, the user has a more difficult
choice to make, requiring dismantling the equipment to remove the original product and cleaning
the system. The thickeners, additives and base oils may each have problems at differing
temperature ranges and time limits in use. Before converting major systems to a new grease,
exhaustive testing may be warranted to prevent significant cost and time delay due to long-term
maintenance problems.

SELECTION OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE GREASES

• Determine the real temperature range. The operating temperature may be less than what it
seems. Use a contact or noncontact sensor to measure the operating temperature of the
grease. Does it exceed 392ºF (200ºC)?
• Is it intermittent or continuous? If it is continuous, then look for a top-tier product that
meets the operational requirements.
• Do heating and cooling cycles accompany machinery operating and non-operating
intervals? Consider if moisture may be induced through either atmosphere or
impingement.
• What is the reasonable re-lubrication interval or opportunity? If re-lubrication is going to
be difficult, then consider a top-tier product to achieve a lower use cost even though it’s
more expensive.
• Consider any cosmetic issues. Can the product drip onto a component in process? Re-
lubrication frequency and volume must be balanced against product contamination issues.

GREASE GUNS-LEARNING THE BASICS

Four shots every 28 days

It couldn’t get any simpler than that, right?
At least I thought so at first.

The grease gun is an effective tool for moving grease to a point of application, though it is often
taken for granted. The most common styles of grease guns include the lever, pistol-grip, hand
 P a g e | 101

grip, air-powered and battery-powered. The lever style is the most economic and widely used of
all the grease guns.

Lubrication technicians need to know the output per stroke of the grease gun in order to know
how much grease is added each time a piece of equipment is lubricated. Grease guns vary in the
amount of grease pumped per stroke, from one to three grams of grease or higher. The actual
output can vary depending on the age of the grease gun.

Some factors to consider when establishing standard grease guns for your facility include:

• How are you going to load the grease gun - suction fill, cartridge or bulk?

• What are your common lubrication quantities? You do not want a high-volume
grease gun for areas requiring only a few grams of grease for lubrication tasks.
• Where is the lubrication task being performed? Some lubrication points are easier
to reach with a pistol or hand-grip grease gun than a lever and vice versa. This will
also help determine where rigid extension and flexible extensions are needed.

Another factor to consider is the type of grease fittings used in the facility. Most fittings have a
ball check in the head of the fitting, which prevents dirt from getting to the bearing. The
spherical contour of the fitting head provides a ball-and-socket joint between the fitting and the
hydraulic coupler of the grease gun. The most common fitting is the hydraulic fitting, available
in standard and metric sizes. Hydraulic fittings are available in threaded, thread-forming, rivet
and drive styles. They are available in different angled configurations and a wide variety of
extension lengths to allow you to position the fitting for easy access with a grease gun on
different types of equipment.

Pin-type
Grease Fitting
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Hydraulic Shut-off
Grease Fitting

Other common types of fittings include button head, flush (where protruding fittings cannot be
used), pin, pressure relief and vent. There are also hydraulic shut-off fittings that shut-off at
specified pressures to prevent over-lubrication and blowing out bearing seals. Each application
needs to be examined to determine the correct fitting and which style of grease gun and coupler
is needed.

Grease gun fittings and accessories can enhance a lubrication program in several ways. Caps
help keep contaminants out of the fitting and the bearings. Paint markers or colored labels (such
as dots) can be used to identify the proper grease to use on a fitting. It is important to ensure that
the proper grease is used on the equipment in your facility.

To prevent the accidental lubrication of bearings with an incompatible grease, we are considering
using button head fittings on lubrication points in our facility that require a polyurea grease to
eliminate the possibility of adding the wrong product. It would be best also if examining standard
hydraulic fittings on lubrication points that require lithium grease is applied. Again, do not
overlook the basics and the chance for improving the tribology program at your facility.

After careful consideration, select a lever-style grease gun for most of our manual grease
lubrication tasks if it was deemed necessary to use a hand-grip style grease gun on certain
equipment in one area in your facility. Because of the location of the hydraulic fittings, it is
necessary to hold a flexible extension on the fitting with one hand while pumping the grease gun
with the other hand. The next step was to replace the old grease guns with the new grease guns.

A basic step that is often overlooked is training the lubrication technician on the proper use of
the grease gun. A high-pressure grease gun delivers pressure up to 15,000 psi. Most bearing seals
will rarely handle more than 500 psi. A grease gun in the hands of an untrained technician can
compromise the bearing’s seal and lead to early failure. The compromised seal invites dirt or
other foreign materials as well as over-lubrication due to little or no back pressure.
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Gangrene

Safety training can also be a factor when using a needle-point applicator to disperse grease to
certain types of fittings. If the needle slips off the grease point and punctures the hand or finger,
grease can be forced into the skin. This can cause the punctured area to become swollen, stiff,
and even gangrenous, which could lead to amputation. This is why grease gun injuries require
immediate medical treatment. Remember to use caution when using needle-point applicators on
grease guns.

Some common tips for using a grease gun:

• Calculate the proper amount of grease needed for re-lubrication of bearings, based
upon the calibrated delivery volume of the selected grease gun.
• Use a vent plug on the relief port of the bearing to help flush old grease to reduce the
risk of too much pressure on the bearing.
• Use extreme caution when loading grease into the grease gun to ensure that
contaminants are not introduced. If using a cartridge, be careful when removing the
metal lid that no metal slivers are introduced into the grease.
• Make sure the grease gun is clearly marked to identify the grease with which it
should be charged. Do not use any type of grease other than that which is identified.
• Always make sure the dispensing nozzle of the grease gun is clean before using.
Pump a small amount of grease out of the dispensing nozzle, then wipe off with a
clean rag or lint-free cloth before attaching to the grease fitting.
• Clean the grease fitting of all dirt before attaching the grease gun. Inspect and
replace damaged fittings. Also clean the grease fitting after applying grease. It is
helpful to use grease-fitting caps to keep them clean, but still wipe fittings clean
before applying grease.
• Ensure the proper grease is used at every grease point. Applying the wrong grease
can cause an incompatibility problem which can quickly cause bearing failure.
Lubrication points should be clearly identified with which grease is to be used. This
can be done with colored labels, adhesive dots or paint markers.
• Grease guns should be stored unpressurized in a clean, cool, dry area and in a
horizontal position to help keep the oil from bleeding out of the grease. Grease gun
clamps make storage easy and organized. Also cover the coupler to keep it free from
dirt and contaminants.
• Calibrate grease guns regularly to ensure the proper delivery volume.
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• Use caution and safety when working around moving equipment and when using a
grease gun.

Manual grease guns have their place in industry. They have a few disadvantages, the chief of
which is poor control that can lead to over- and under-lubrication. Grease guns also present a
higher risk of inducing contaminants. However, they do have advantages, such as low cost, ease
of use once the technician is properly trained, and allowing the technician to inspect the
equipment during lubrication tasks. Just remember not to overlook the basics, no matter how
simple it may seem.
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Name: Date:
Instructor:
Group#:
Members:

EXPERIMENT #6: Grease Analysis

Materials:
 Portable Grease Condition Assessment Kit

*The kit also contains instructions for use, a report template and guidelines for proper
interpretation of test results. The grease test kit lets users analyze three all-important grease
properties: consistency, oil bleeding and contamination. Universal tools supplied for all three
grease condition assessments include: sampling syringe, sampling tube, permanent marker,
sampling containers, disposable spatulas and gloves. Tools specific to a particular test also are
provided.

 Grease (either used, of brand new)

 Pen/Pencil
 Scientific Calculator
 Laboratory Gown

Procedure:
 Sampling
 First, know the type and uses of the grease that will be used as a sample.
 Next, collect at least 0.5 grams of grease for each of the other parts of the
procedure.

 Consistency
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*Tools in the kit specifically for the consistency test include a housing, a calibrated weight, a
mask and glass plates.

 Place the grease sample on one of the glass plates with the consistency
criteria/NLGI grade.
 The, place another glass plate on the grease sample.
 Place the calibrated weight on the on the recently placed glass plate. Let the
weight perform its task by spreading the sample.
 After spreading, remove the calibrated weight and read the circumference in
accordance to the consistency criteria on the glass plate to determine the
consistency of the sample.

* Greases are classified by their consistency, or stiffness, according to the National Lubricating
Grease Institute (NLGI) and are graded from NLGI Class 000 (very soft) to 6 (very stiff).
Classifications are based on the degree of penetration achieved when a standard cone is allowed
to sink into the grease at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius for a period of five seconds. For
normal use in bearings, grease consistency usually ranges between NLGI Class 1 and 3. Lower-
consistency greases will be recommended for low-temperature applications or for improved
ability to pump; greases with higher consistency will suit bearing arrangements with a vertical
shaft.

 Read and record the measured value and check if it matches the specifications of
the sample.

 Oil Bleeding

*Components for use in the oil bleeding test include a USB heater, a USB/220/110V adapter, a
special paper pack and a ruler.

 Place a sample on the special paper.

 Place the special paper on the USB heater. Let the base oil create a stain on the
paper.
 Remove the residues of the sample from the paper and measure the diameter of
the stain with the use of a ruler.
 Compare the diameter of the fresh sample and the oil stain for the paper. Compute
for the bleed rate. Decide if it’s pass or fail.

*Typical oil bleed rates of greases for bearing lubrication are 1 to 5 percent. The base oil
viscosity and operating temperature influence the bleed rate, which should be high enough for
adequate bearing lubrication.

 Contamination
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*The kit’s test for evaluating contamination uses a supplied pocket microscope to view a fixed
grease amount spread between two glass plates. Any contamination becomes apparent.

 Use the pocket microscope and analyze the squished sample from the Consistency
Test.
 Check the sample if there are contaminants present or not, then record the
observations.

Data Gathering:
 Consistency
 NLGI grade:

 Oil Bleeding
 Diameter of Stain:
 Diameter of Fresh Sample:
 Operating Temperature (°C):
 Bleed Rate:

Pass Fail

 Contamination

Present Absent

Observation and Analysis:

Conclusion:
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Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

BEARINGS

Submitted by:

Francisco, John Carl

Cho, Sung Hum
Crisostomo, Dharell
Miranda, Romari
Pama, Allen
Tuyay, Mark EJ Vincent

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

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Bearings
What are Bearings?
 Bearings are highly engineered, precision-made components that enable machinery to
move at extremely high speeds and carry remarkable loads with ease and efficiency.

History of Bearings
 The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing,
an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention of the wheel.

 Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) – Primary sketch of ball bearings

 Agostino Ramelli (16th century)- Sketch about thrust bearing

 Galileo Galilei (17th century)- Sketch about the

Loads
 Axial (thrust) load is a parallel load to the axis of the shaft while radial load is
perpendicular load to the axis of shaft. (See the figure).

 Types of bearing
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 Ball Bearing

 They can support moderate radial loads and moderate axial loads. They can operate at
high speeds. Ball bearings with shields or seals for protection are usually lubricated to
last for the operating life. Rolling function is provided by a ball. It is used in light and
general machine applications that are commonly found in fans, roller blades, wheel
bearings, and under hood applications on cars.

 Roller Bearing

 Roller bearings have high radial load capacity and some designs can accept light axial
loading. They operate at moderate-to-high speeds. The lubrication method must be
carefully considered during the design phase when using roller bearings.
The rolling function is provided by a cylinder of some kind. And may also be referred to
as needle roller bearings (where length is much greater than diameter). It is commonly
found in general machine applications including gearboxes and transmissions, machine
tool and construction equipment.

 Thrust Bearings - Ball and Roller Type

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 Thrust bearings are used for axial loading only. Roller thrust bearings have higher load
carrying capacities then equally sized ball thrust bearings. Higher speed applications
require oil lubrication. They are used in bar stools (seats), car transmissions, gear
supports.
 Tapered Roller Bearing

 This style of bearing is designed to handle large radial and thrust loads—as a result of
their load versatility, they are found in car hubs due to the extreme amount of both radial
and thrust loads that car wheels are expected to carry. A tapered version of a roller
bearing is used for combined axial and radial loads, such as in wheel applications on
trucks
 Commonly found in heavy industrial, truck and wheel applications with combined radial
and axial loads. Some examples are manual transmissions, gearboxes, power generation
and other process equipment.

 Spherical Bearing
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 A roller bearing that has a barrel shaped roller. It permits angular rotation about a central
point in two orthogonal directions (usually within a specified angular limit based on the
bearing geometry. They are applicable in misalign shafts and angular movements.

 Jewel Bearing

 A plain bearing in which a metal spindle turns in a jewel-lined pivot hole. The jewel
material is usually synthetic sapphire or ruby (corundum). Jewel bearings are used in
precision instruments where low friction, long life, and dimensional accuracy are
important.
 The advantages of jewel bearings include high accuracy, very small size and weight, low
and predictable friction, good temperature stability, and the ability to operate without
lubrication and in corrosive environments.
 Used in mechanical watches, galvanometers, compasses, gyroscopes, gimbals, and
turbine flow meters.

 Flexure Bearing
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 A flexure bearing is a category of flexure which is engineered to be compliant in one or

more angular degrees of freedom. This bearing is utilized in place of bearings for their
frictionless properties. They are used in precision alignment mechanisms, scientific
instruments, and drive shafts of some sports cars, underwater and vacuum environments,
and elevated temperatures

 Magnetic Bearing

 It supports a load using magnetic levitation. Magnetic bearings support moving parts
without physical contact. For instance, they are able to levitate a rotating shaft and permit
relative motion with very low friction and no mechanical wear. Magnetic bearings
support the highest speeds of all kinds of bearing and have no maximum relative speed.
 Advantages include very low and predictable friction, and the ability to run without
lubrication and in a vacuum. They are used in compressors, turbines, pumps, motors and
generators; watt-hour meters, flywheel energy storage, maglev trains.

 Giant Roller Bearing

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
 Giant roller bearings are used to move extremely large and heavy loads, such as buildings
and large structural components.

 Fluid Bearings


 These are bearings in which the load is supported by a thin layer of rapidly moving
pressurized liquid or gas between the bearing surfaces.
 Since there is no contact between the moving parts, there is no sliding friction, allowing
fluid bearings to have lower friction, wear and vibration than many other types of
bearings. They are used in drill spindle, ice skates, marine propeller shafts, water turbine
and etc.

FLUID BEARINGS
INTRODUCTION
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Fluid bearings are bearings in which the load is supported by a thin layer of rapidly moving
pressurized liquid or gas between the bearing surfaces. Since there is no contact between the
moving parts, there is no sliding friction, allowing fluid bearings to have lower friction, wear and
vibration than many other types of bearings.
They can be broadly classified into two types: fluid dynamic bearings (also known as
hydrodynamic bearings) and hydrostatic bearings. Hydrostatic bearings are externally pressurized
fluid bearings, where the fluid is usually oil, water or air, and a pump does the pressurization.
Hydrodynamic bearings rely on the high speed of the journal (the part of the shaft resting on the
fluid) to pressurize the fluid in a wedge between the faces. Fluid bearings are frequently used in
high load, high speed or high precision applications where ordinary ball bearings would have short
life or cause high noise and vibration. They are also used increasingly to reduce cost.
French civil engineer L. D. Girard, who in 1852 proposed a system of railway propulsion
incorporating water-fed hydraulic bearings, may have invented the fluid bearing.

OPERATION
Fluid bearings are noncontact bearings that use a thin layer of rapidly moving pressurized liquid
or gas fluid between the moving bearing faces, typically sealed around or under the rotating
shaft. The moving parts do not come into contact, so there is no sliding friction; solely the pressure
of the moving fluid supports the load force. There are two principal ways of getting the fluid into
the bearing:
 In fluid static, hydrostatic and many gas or air bearings, the fluid is pumped in through an
orifice or through a porous material. Such bearings should be equipped with the shaft
position control system, which adjusts the fluid pressure and consumption according to the
rotation speed and shaft load.
 In fluid-dynamic bearings, the bearing rotation sucks the fluid on to the inner surface of
the bearing, forming a lubricating wedge under or around the shaft.
Hydrostatic bearings rely on an external pump. The power required by that pump contributes to
system energy loss, just as bearing friction otherwise would. Better seals can reduce leak rates and
pumping power, but may increase friction.
Hydrodynamic bearings rely on bearing motion to suck fluid into the bearing, and may have high
friction and short life at speeds lower than design, or during starts and stops. An external pump or
secondary bearing may be used for startup and shutdown to prevent damage to the hydrodynamic
bearing. A secondary bearing may have high friction and short operating life, but good overall
service life if bearing starts and stops are infrequent.

Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic (HD) lubrication, also known as fluid film lubrication has essential elements:
 P a g e | 116

1. A lubricant, which must be a viscous fluid.

2. Hydrodynamic flow behavior of fluid between bearing and journal.
3. The surfaces between which the fluid films move must be convergent.
Hydrodynamic (Full Film) Lubrication is obtained when two mating surfaces are completely
separated by a cohesive film of lubricant.
The thickness of the film thus exceeds the combined roughness of the surfaces. The coefficient of
friction is lower than with boundary-layer lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication prevents wear in
moving parts, and metal-to-metal contact is prevented.
Hydrodynamic lubrication requires thin, converging fluid films. These fluids can be liquid or gas,
so long as they exhibit viscosity. In computer components, like a hard disk, heads are supported
by hydrodynamic lubrication in which the fluid film is the atmosphere.
The scale of these films is on the order of micrometers. Their convergence creates pressures normal
to the surfaces they contact, forcing them apart.
3 Types of bearings include:
 Self-acting: Film exists due to relative motion. e.g. spiral groove bearings.
 Squeeze film: Film exists due to relative normal motion.
 Externally pressurized: Film exists due to external pressurization.
Conceptually the bearings can be thought of as two major geometric classes: bearing-journal (anti-
friction), and plane-slider (friction).
The thin films can be thought to have pressure and viscous forces acting on them. Because there
is a difference in velocity, there will be a difference in the surface traction vectors. Because of
mass conservation, we can also assume an increase in pressure, making the body forces different.
 Hydrodynamic lubrication – characteristics:
1. Fluid film at the point of minimum thickness decreases in thickness as the load
increases
2. Pressure within the fluid mass increases as the film thickness decreases due to load
3. Pressure within the fluid mass is greatest at some point approaching minimum
clearance and lowest at the point of maximum clearance (due to divergence)
4. Viscosity increases as pressure increases (more resistance to shear)
5. Film thickness at the point of minimum clearance increases with the use of more
viscous fluids
6. With same load, the pressure increases as the viscosity of fluid increases
7. With a given load and fluid, the thickness of the film will increase as speed is increased
 P a g e | 117

8. Fluid friction increases as the viscosity of the lubricant becomes greater

 Hydrodynamic condition – Fluid velocity:
1. Fluid velocity depends on velocity of the journal or rider
2. Increase in relative velocity tends towards a decrease in eccentricity of journal bearing
centers
3. This is accompanied by greater minimum film thickness
 Hydrodynamic condition – Load:
1. Increase in load decreases minimum film thickness
2. Also increases pressure within the film mass to provide a counteracting force
3. Pressure acts in all directions, hence it tends to squeeze the oil out of the ends of the
bearing
4. Increase in pressure increases fluid viscosity
 Bearing characteristic number:

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantages
 Fluid bearings can be relatively cheap compared to other bearings with a similar load
rating. The bearing can be as simple as two smooth surfaces with seals to keep in the
working fluid. In contrast, a conventional rolling-element bearing may require many high-
precision rollers with complicated shapes. Hydrostatic and many gas bearings do have the
complication and expense of external pumps.
 Most fluid bearings require little or no maintenance, and have almost unlimited life.
Conventional rolling-element bearings usually have shorter life and require regular
maintenance. Pumped hydrostatic and aerostatic (gas) bearing designs retain low friction
down to zero speed and need not suffer start/stop wear, provided the pump does not fail.
 Fluid bearings generally have very low friction—far better than mechanical bearings. One
source of friction in a fluid bearing is the viscosity of the fluid. Hydrostatic gas bearings
are among the lowest friction bearings. However, lower fluid viscosity also typically means
fluid leaks faster from the bearing surfaces, thus requiring increased power for pumps or
friction from seals.
 When a roller or ball is heavily loaded, fluid bearings have clearances that change less
under load (are "stiffer") than mechanical bearings. It might seem that bearing stiffness, as
with maximum design load, would be a simple function of average fluid pressure and the
bearing surface area. In practice, when bearing surfaces are pressed together, the fluid
outflow is constricted. This significantly increases the pressure of the fluid between the
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bearing faces. As fluid-bearing faces can be comparatively larger than rolling surfaces,
even small fluid pressure differences cause large restoring forces, maintaining the gap.
 Fluid bearings often inherently add significant damping. This helps attenuate resonances
at the gyroscopic frequencies of journal bearings (sometimes called conical or rocking
modes).
 It is very difficult to make a mechanical bearing, which is atomically smooth and round;
and mechanical bearings deform in high-speed operation due to centripetal force. In
contrast, fluid bearings self-correct for minor imperfections.
 Fluid bearings are typically quieter and smoother (more consistent friction) than rolling-
element bearings. For example, hard disks manufactured with fluid bearings have noise
ratings for bearings/motors about 20–24 dB, which is a little more than the background
noise of a quiet room. Drives based on rolling-element bearings are typically at least 4 dB
noisier.
 Fluid bearings can be made with a lower NRRO (non-repeatable run out) than a ball or
rolling element bearing. This can be critical in modern hard disk drive and ultra-precision
spindles.

Disadvantages
 Overall, power consumption is typically higher compared to ball bearings.
 Power consumption and stiffness or damping greatly vary with temperature, which
complicates the design and operation of a fluid bearing in wide temperature range
situations.
 Fluid bearings can catastrophically seize under shock situations. Ball bearings deteriorate
more gradually and provide acoustic symptoms.
 Like cage frequency vibration in a ball bearing, the half frequency whirl is a bearing
instability that generates eccentric precession , which can lead to poor performance and
reduced life.
 Fluid leakage; keeping fluid in the bearing can be a challenge.
 Oil fluid bearings are impractical in environments where oil leakage can be destructive or
where maintenance is not economical.
 Fluid bearing "pads" often have to be used in pairs or triples to avoid the bearing tilting
and losing the fluid from one side.
 Unlike greaseless mechanical bearings, fluid bearings cannot operate at the extremely low
temperatures needed for some specialized scientific research applications.

EXAMPLES OF FLUID BEARING

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 Foil bearings
Foil bearings are a type of fluid dynamic air bearing that was introduced in high-speed
turbine applications in the 1960s by Garrett AiResearch. They use a gas as the working
fluid, usually air and require no external pressurization system.

 Journal bearings
Journal bearings are lubricated with fluid. The working part of the bearing operates by
carrying oil at a low pressure and is compressed to allow the bearing to spin around the
shaft without any contact.

 Water Lubricated Rubber Bearings

Water lubricated rubber bearings have long cylindrical metal shell that hosts multiple
rubber staves separated by axial grooves. The usage of the bearing has three major
advantages: (i) pumped water going through the bearing is conveniently used as a lubricant,
which reduces pump operation cost; (ii) water flow takes away heat and fine particles
through the bearing grooves; and (iii) the natural resilience of rubber gives the bearing
good properties for shock and vibration absorption and wear resistance. Water lubricated
rubber bearings operate under the condition of mixed-lubrication.
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 Air bearings
Unlike contact-roller bearings, an air bearing (or air caster) utilizes a thin film of
pressurized air to provide an exceedingly low friction load-bearing interface between
surfaces. The two surfaces don't touch. Being non-contact, air bearings avoid the traditional
bearing-related problems of friction, wear, particulates, and lubricant handling, and offer
distinct advantages in precision positioning, such as lacking backlash and stiction, as well
as in high-speed applications.

 Michell/Kingsbury tilting-pad fluid bearings

Both British-born Australian, Anthony George Maldon Michell and American tribologist
Albert Kingsbury invented Michell/Kingsbury fluid dynamic tilting-pad bearings
independently and almost simultaneously. Both designs were near identical except for
differences in the approach used for pivoting the pads. Michell mathematically derived the
pressure distribution where a span-wise line pivot was placed, allowing the load to act
through the point of maximum fluid pressure. The Kingsbury patent lacked this
mathematical approach, and the pad's pivot point was placed in the geometric center of the
bearing. Michell's patent (in Britain and Australia) was granted in 1905, while Kingsbury's
first patent attempt was 1907. Kingsbury's U.S. patent was eventually granted in 1911 after
he demonstrated that he had been working on the concept for many years. As stated by
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Sydney Walker, a long-time employee of Michell's, the granting of Kingsbury's patent was
"a blow which Michell found hard to accept".

The bearing has sectional shoes, or pads on pivots. When the bearing is in operation, the
rotating part of the bearing carries fresh oil in to the pad area through viscous drag. Fluid
pressure causes the pad to tilt slightly, creating a narrow constriction between the shoe and
the other bearing surface. A wedge of pressurized fluid builds behind this constriction,
separating the moving parts. The tilt of the pad adaptively changes with bearing load and
speed. Various design details ensure continued replenishment of the oil to avoid
overheating and pad damage.

Ways to Prevent Bearing Failures

 Proper Lubrication

 Grease Service Life

 Mounting and Installation of Bearings

 Operational Stress and Bearing Selection

 Environmental Influence

Proper Lubrication
 The purpose of lubricating a bearing is to cover the rolling and sliding contact surfaces
with a thin oil film to avoid direct metal-to-metal contact.

 Generally, lubrication failures occur due to:

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1. Using the wrong type of lubricant

2. Too little grease/oil

3. Too much grease/oil

4. Mixing of grease/oil

5. Contamination of the grease/oil by objects or water

Grease Service Life

 In addition to the normal bearing service life, it is also important to take into
consideration the normal grease service life. Grease service life is the time over which
proper bearing function is sustained by a particular quantity and category of grease. This
is especially crucial in pump, compressor, motor and super-precision applications.

Mounting and Installation of Bearings

 Don’t forget to check for proper diameters, roundness and chamfer radius.

 Be sure to avoid misalignment or shaft deflection.

 Keep in mind that a proper film of lubricant must be established between the rolling
elements.

 Reducing internal clearance and impeding lubricant flow can lead to premature failure.

Operational Stress and Bearing Selection

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Environmental Influence
 Dust and dirt, which can aggressively contaminate a bearing. Special care should be
given to using proper sealing techniques.

 Aggressive media or water. Once again, sealing is key. The use of specialty-type seals
that do not score the shaft is recommended.

 External heat. The ambient operating temperature mandates many choices in radial
internal clearance, high-temperature lubricants, intermittent or continuous running and
other factors that affect bearing life.

 Current passage or electrolytic corrosion. If current is allowed to flow through the rolling
elements, sparks can create pitting or fluting on the bearing surfaces. This can be
corrected by creating a bypass circuit for the current or by using insulation on or within
the bearing. This should be an inherent design consideration in applications such as wind
turbines and all power-generating equipment.

When to use OIL or GREASE in Bearing Lubrication

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The oil selected to lubricate the system should:

 Demonstrate chemical stability to resist oxidation and deposit formation

 Protect against rust and corrosion

 Readily separate from water

 Maintain viscosity control in applications in which dilution can occur

 Resist foaming

The selected grease should:

 Be of sufficient viscosity to permit the formation of fluid films at the shear rates
prevailing, but not so high that friction losses will be excessive

 Have good low temperature properties, particularly if the bearings must be lubricated at
low ambient temperatures
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Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in ME Elective 1

SCHEDULING AND LUBRICANT ANALYSIS

Submitted by:

Antoni, Jhon Helarch

Alcantara, Johann Sebastian
Cabrera, Jerrymiah
Dalanon, Cristian Mozee
Guillermo, Gian Kirby
Nano, Diego
Sanchez, Krizdelle

BSME 4-3

Submitted to:

Engr. Jesus D. Callanta

October 16, 2017

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Overview of Lubrication Management System

• The purpose of the lubrication management system is to plan and schedule the deployment
of lubrication to oil and grease lubricated machinery. It has been determined that
inadequate or improper lubrication accounts for as much as 60% of all mechanical failures
in industry. A lubrication management system should ensure that the correct grade of
lubricant is delivered to the right place, in the right quantity, at the right time.
Plant Audit Lubricant Usage
• A plant audit of lubricant usage (also known as a lubrication survey or a lubrication chart)
is designed to populate the database with a complete set of all oil and grease lubricated
equipment in the plant. A database of the oils and greases used in the plant is also required
to ensure that the equipment is linked to its appropriate lubricant.

Create Daily/Weekly/Monthly Lubrication Routes

• Many of the tasks can be gathered together into lubrication routes. A route is a set of
lubrication points that are carried out in a sequence. A properly designed route can
minimize the amount of time and effort needed to get to all of the lubrication points, and
also minimize the amount of lubricant types needed to be used at any one time. This can
help ensure that all points are lubricated correctly.
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Generate/Manage Lubrication Schedules

• The lubrication schedule ensures that lubrication tasks are not forgotten or ignored. Some
systems require bar code or memory disk confirmation at the component, to further ensure
that the lubrication tasks are being carried out.
Management Reports of Lubricant Application/Usage
• There are several types of management reports available from a typical lubrication
management system. These reports include lists of overdue lubrication tasks, lists of
machines or components that are using an excessive amount, lubricant inventory level
reports, etc.
Benefits
• prevention of failures.
• help us in our work efficiently.
• Logistics (in this case focused on activities of use of lubricants) have to provide the
adequate lubricant, in necessary quantity, in proper quality, on the right place and in time
has to be available.
Overview of Lubricant Analysis System
• The purpose of the lubricant analysis system is to administer the used oil analysis program.
Used oil analysis is one of the most effective machine condition monitoring technologies
available for rotating, reciprocating and hydraulic equipment. Lubricant analysis is used to
monitor the wear rates of the machine itself, the level of contaminants in the lubricant and
the condition of the physical properties of the lubricant.
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Help to Set Up an Appropriate Lubricant Analysis Test Regimen

- Pre-defined test sets within the software can make it easier to determine the appropriate
package of lubricant tests needed for specific machine types (diesel engines, paper machine
bearings, compressors etc.).
Generate/Manage Sampling Schedules (Print Labels)
- The software can maintain lists (routes) of samples that are to be collected and sent to the
laboratory at the same time. Some software can generate the appropriate labels for the laboratory,
saving the operator the effort of filling out pre-printed labels by hand.
Acquire and Import Data Electronically from Lab
- For most users, a primary reason for using lubricant analysis software is that it is
preferable to receive laboratory data electronically instead of receiving paper reports. I think its
safe to say that all lubricant analysis software grant some form of electronic access to lab data.
Acquire/Enter Data from Onsite Oil Instruments
- The use of onsite lubricant screening instruments is growing in popularity. These
instruments range from simple but useful methods such as patch tests and hotplate water tests to
viscometers, contamination/ wear particle monitors and lubricant physical properties testers. The
results these instruments produce are easier to use when they can be stored in the same database
as the results from external lubricant analysis laboratories.
Graphs/Tables
- The heart of most lubricant analysis software is the data display routines. Most of these
packages give you the ability to generate trend graphs and/or data tables showing the results of
spectrographic analysis, viscosity, and particle count and TAN/TBN, etc. More advanced
packages allow you to display non-numeric data such as analytical ferrography or
photomicrography images.
Manage Rejection Limits (Alarm Levels) for Machines/Lubricants
- The end user can maintain a database of machine and/or lubricant alarm levels (rejection
limits). These alarms can be used in conjunction with, or as a replacement for, the alarm levels
that are used by the testing laboratory. Often users require more rigorous rejection limits than are
applied by the laboratory - using a lubricant analysis software is an effective means of receiving
notification both when the laboratory detects a rejection limit, and when your lubricant has
crossed one of your own limits.
- Management Reports of Machinery Condition Based on Lubricant Analysis
The final process for most lubricant analysis systems is the production of management reports.
These reports come in two main categories - summary reports that cover the overall condition of
many machines (usually all the machines that have recently been analyzed), and detailed reports
that show trend graphs, tables of data and microscope images. These detail reports are nearly
always focused on the results of one or more tests that have been carried out on a single sample
of oil. Figure 3 shows a typical detail report produced for a single sample.
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Why Perform Oil Analysis

An obvious reason to perform oil analysis is to understand the condition of the oil, but it is also intended to help
bring to light the condition of the machine from which the oil sample was taken. There are three main categories of
oil analysis: fluid properties, contamination and wear debris.

Fluid Properties
This type of oil analysis focuses on identifying the oil’s current physical and chemical state as well as on defining its
remaining useful life (RUL). It is designed to answer questions such as:

 Does the sample match the specified oil identification?

 Is it the correct oil to use?
 Are the right additives active?
 Have additives been depleted?
 Has the viscosity shifted from the expected viscosity? If so, why?
 What is the oil’s RUL?

Contamination
By detecting the presence of destructive contaminants and narrowing down their probable sources (internal or
external), oil analysis can help answer questions such as:

 Is the oil clean?

 What types of contaminants are in the oil?
 Where are contaminants originating?
 Are there signs of other types of lubricants?
 Is there any indication of internal leakage?

Wear Debris
This form of oil analysis is about determining the presence and identification of particles produced as a result of
mechanical wear, corrosion or other machine surface degradation. It answers a number of questions relating to wear,
including:

 Is the machine degrading abnormally?

 Is wear debris produced?
 From which internal component is the wear likely originating?
 What is the wear mode and cause?
 How severe is the wear condition?
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 Read and check the data on the oil type and machine type for accuracy.

The first step in doing an oil analysis is identifying the type of oil that is used. It is important so
you can identify the components of the oil that you are analysing.

 Check the
measured viscosity.
Viscosity is the state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency, due to internal friction.
It is important because you can identify if the oil lubricant is still in good condition. Some oils
must be thick enough so it can perform well.

 Verify elemental wear data and compare to reference and trended data.
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This process identifies the elemental wear of the oil lubricant. We can identify if our oil is efficiently
working as a lubricant.

 Verify
elemental
contamination data

This process lets us identify if our oil lubricant has a contaminant. For example, if our oil has an
element like boron, there must be rust in the part of the machine.

 Check the elemental additive data

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This process identifies the additives of the oil lubricant that we are analyzing. We can also
identify if the additives is efficiently working or if the additives is working its role properly.

 Check moisture/water levels and compare to reference data.

This process identifies the moisture content of the oil lubricant. It is important because we all
know that water and oil must not mix together. We can also identify if there are leakage inside the
machine.

 Verify the acid number and base number.

This process is important to let us know if the oil that we are using is acidic.
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 Check other analyzed data such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) oxidation
levels, flash point, demulsibility, analytical ferrography, etc.

In oil analysis it also important to identify the FTIR oxidation levels, Flash point. It this properties, we
can deeply identify if there are problems in the oil that we are analysing.

 Compare
written results and recommendations with known information on the oil and machine

 Review alarm limits and make adjustments based on the new information.
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Oil analysis tests

Viscosity Test

Viscosity is a lubricant’s most important characteristic. Monitoring the oil’s viscosity is

critical because any changes can lead to a host of other problems, such as oxidation, glycol

ingression or thermal stressors.

Too high or too low viscosity readings may be due to the presence of an incorrect lubricant,

mechanical shearing of the oil and/or the viscosity index improver, oil oxidation, antifreeze

contamination, or an influence from fuel, refrigerant or solvent contamination.

Limits for changes in the viscosity depend on the type of lubricant being analyzed but most often

have a marginal limit of approximately 10 percent and a critical limit of approximately 20

percent higher or lower than the intended viscosity.

Acid Number/Base Number

Acid number and base number tests are similar but are used to interpret different lubricant and

contaminant-related questions. In an oil analysis test, the acid number is the concentration of acid

in the oil, while the base number is the reserve of alkalinity in the oil. Results are expressed in

terms of the volume of potassium hydroxide in milligrams required to neutralize the acids in one

gram of oil. Acid number testing is primarily performed on non-crankcase oils, while base

number testing is mainly for over-based crankcase oils.

An acid number that is too high or too low may be the result of oil oxidation, the presence of an

incorrect lubricant or additive depletion. A base number that is too low can indicate high engine
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blow-by conditions (fuel, soot, etc.), the presence of an incorrect lubricant, internal leakage

contamination (glycol) or oil oxidation from extended oil drain intervals and/or extreme heat.

FTIR

FTIR is a quick and sophisticated method for

determining several oil parameters including

contamination from fuel, water, glycol and soot; oil

degradation products like oxides, nitrates and sulfates; as

well as the presence of additives such as zinc

dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) and phenols. The FTIR

instrument recognizes each of these characteristics by

monitoring the shift in infrared absorbance at specific or

a range of wavenumbers. Many of the observed

parameters may not be conclusive, so often these results

are coupled with other tests and used more as supporting

evidence. Parameters identified by shifts in specific wavenumbers are shown in the table below
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Elemental Analysis

Elemental analysis works on the principles of atomic

emission spectroscopy (AES), which is sometimes

called wear metal analysis. This technology is designed

to detect the concentration of wear metals,

contaminants or additive elements within the oil. The

two most common types of atomic emission

spectroscopy are rotating disc electrode (RDE) and

inductively coupled plasma (ICP). Both of these

methods have limitations in analyzing particle sizes,

with RDE limited to particles less than 8 to 10 microns

and ICP limited to particles less than 3 microns.

Nevertheless, they are useful for providing trend data. Possible sources of many common

elements are shown in the table below.

Particle Counting

Particle counting measures the size and quantity of particles in the oil. Many techniques can be

used to assess this data, which is typically reported based on ISO 4406:99. This standard

designates three numbers separated by a forward slash providing a range number that correlates

to the particle counts of particles greater than 4, 6 and 14 microns.

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Moisture Analysis

Moisture content within an oil sample is commonly measured with the Karl Fischer titration test.

This test reports results in parts per million (ppm), although data is often shown in percentages. It

can find water in all three forms: dissolved, emulsified and free. The crackle test and hot-plate

test are non-instrument moisture tests for screening before the Karl Fischer method is used.

Possible reasons for a moisture reading being too high or too low would include water ingression

from open hatches or breathers, internal condensation during temperature swings or seal leaks.
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Viscosity Oil Test

I. Objective:

 To learn and understand how to analyze the Viscosity of the Oil

 To have a brief knowledge how Viscosity Oil Test works

 To follow the procedure properly and correctly without errors or mistakes.

 To have different readings on the Viscosity Oil Test

 To know which one has the lower or highest Viscosity in the Viscosity Oil Test

II. Materials:

Container Stopwatch

Water U-shaped glass tube

Thermometer Engine oil

Viscosity is an important aspect for oil used in machines and transportation vehicles.

Viscosity is defined as how the oil flows as a result of gravity. Viscous fluids help lubricate

machines as their internal parts move. In the case of motor vehicle engines, viscous oil helps

lubricate engine parts from overheating and welding together. Motor oil companies advertise how

viscous their motor oil fluid might be with grades and data listed on the bottle. Consumers can test

the viscosity of the motor oil themselves.

IV. Procedure:
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1. Fill a tub or container with water. The container needs to be filled enough so it can submerge an

object. Be careful not to overfill the container, since it needs to be raised to a boiling temperature.

2. Warm the water to around 100 degrees Celsius. An external heat source is needed to heat the

water. Position the container over the heat source and check the temperature of the water with a

thermometer. Once the water reaches approximately 100 degree Celsius, maintain the temperature

throughout the measurement.

3. Submerge the U-shaped glass tube in the water. Only allow the bottom U-bend into the water.

Both ends of the tubes need to be exposed to the air. Make sure you can clearly see the glass tube

and there is a calibrated region to the tube.

4. Pour the motor oil into the open end of the U-shaped glass tube.

5. Time the stop watch immediately. The heat from the water should cause the oil to heat up and

rise toward the closed end of the tube.

6. Record the time the oil rises to the calibrated region of the tube and then falls. To have the oil

begin falling, remove the closed top of the tube and the oil should fall at a certain rate. The faster

the oil rises and then falls, the more viscous the oil.
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V. Observation:

VI. Conclusion:

VII. Guide Questions:

1. What is the importance of viscosity in analyzing engine oil? Explain.

2. What is the effect of viscosity in engine oil?