1 Management of Bridge Operations Module

HigherNational
Diploma

Unit Title:
Management of Bridge
Operations
Unit Code:
F0LW 35
FLEETWOOD
NAUTICAL
CAMPUS
This publication has been prepared to cover the HND syllabus of the SQA
examination board for Management of Bridge Operations. The contents have
been developed over many years by numerous academics and from other
sources. It is therefore not appropriate to reference all the authors.
This publication is owned and the copyright of Fleetwood Nautical Campus of

Blackpool and the Fylde College. No part of this publication maybe reproduced
without prior permission.
Unit title: Management of Bridge Operations
Unit code: F0LW35
Unit purpose: This Unit will introduce candidates to the current guidance
regarding the management of bridge watchkeeping operations from the
perspective required by the convention on Standards of Training Certification and
Watchkeeping (STCW 95) at management level.
It will cover the requirements for manning levels in various situations on both the
bridge and the engine room and the Master’s responsibility to ensure that safe
watchkeeping arrangements are maintained at all times in all weathers, whether
on an ocean, coastal or pilotage passage.
It will introduce the concepts required for the safe handling of the ship in terms of
manoeuvring, mooring, anchoring and emergency situations. The theory of the
Marine Gyro compass is also revisited in greater depth than the earlier HN Unit
F0M0 34 Navigational Mathematics and Science.
It is primarily aimed at candidates who intend to seek sea going employment as a

Merchant Navy.
On completion of this Unit the candidate should be able to:
1 Establish watchkeeping arrangements and operational and safety procedures

to comply with statutory and international requirements regarding navigation.
2 Explain how to manoeuvre and handle the ship in all conditions.
3 Analyse the principles of the operation and errors of a marine gyro compass.
Subject Guide
Management of Bridge Operations

Learning Outcome 2 - Ship-Handling
Welcome to the Higher National Certificate (HND) unit F0LW 35, Management of Bridge
Operations. This aspect of the Unit will introduce the candidate to the concepts required for
the safe handling of the ship in terms of manoeuvring, mooring, anchoring and emergency
situations.
On completion of this Learning Outcome the candidate should be able to:

‘Explain how to manoeuvre and handle the ship in all conditions’.
Candidates will need to provide evidence to demonstrate their knowledge and/or skills by
showing that they can:
1. Outline one propulsion system or one steering system commonly found on merchant
ships.
2. Analyse the factors affecting a vessel’s manoeuvrability from a sample of one of the
following:
(a) Shallow water effects.
(b) Bow and stern wave effects.
(c) Interaction.
(d) Weather and tidal conditions.
(e) Trim draught and list.
3. Outline the requirement for data on manoeuvring characteristics on board ship.
4. Demonstrate manoeuvring procedures when berthing and un-berthing, in all conditions

of wind, current and tidal stream, with and without tugs from a sample of two of the
following:
(a) At fixed pier, jetty and single or multi buoy moorings.
(b) Entering and leaving locks and dry docks.
(c) Warping along jetties.
(d) Turning short round.
(e) Berthing alongside other vessels including for lightening operations.
5. Demonstrate the manoeuvring procedures when involved in anchor operations in any

condition of wind and tide from a sample of two of the following:
(a) Use of anchor when berthing.
(b) Turning on an anchor.
(c) Single and multiple anchor operations.
(d) Dragging anchor and countermeasures.
(e) Weighing and leaving the anchorage.
6. Outline the manoeuvring procedures to be followed from a sample of three of the following:
(a) In the vicinity of off-shore installations.
(b) Picking up or dropping off a Pilot.
(c) Operating with tugs and small craft.
(d) Operating with helicopters.
(e) Heavy weather including a TRS.
(f) Narrow channels.
(g) In or near ice.
(h) When affected by ice accretion.
(i) In or near VTS and TSS.
(j) Launch and recovery of survival/rescue craft.
(k) Fire, flooding, collision and shift of cargo.
(l) Beaching.
(m) Loss of propulsion and/or steering.
(n) Emergency towing.
(o) Use of anchor in emergency.
(p) SAR situations
(q) Man Overboard
You should read, understand and be able to answer all the self-checking questions before you
attempt the Tutor Marked Tests.
In order to fully understand the subject you are required to undertake further reading and
research.
Books that are available to buy or view online include
An extensive list of books is available on Onefile
You should work through the book slowly allowing time to assimilate the information. The self-
checking questions and Tutor Marked Tests are a guide to the type of questions that could
appear in the college assessments.
Resources and Assessment Prompts
Available on Moodle and or Onefile
Powerpoints available
DVDs available
Further reference
Recommended Tutor Marked Test completion point
Website links
M Notices
Learning Outcome 2
LO2-1
Propulsion & Steering Systems………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Propulsion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Diesel Engines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Steam Turbines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Diesel Electric……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Azipods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Contra-rotating Propulsion (CRP)……………………………………………………………………………… 6
Propellers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
Fixed Pitch Propellers (FFP)………………………………………………………………………………………. 9
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)…………………………………………………………………………… 9
Schottel Rudder Propeller (SRP)……………………………………………………………………………….. 10
Voith Schneider Propeller (VSP)……………………………………………………………………………….. 11
Kort Nozzle……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
Thrusters………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Bow Thrusters………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Stern Thrusters…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Tunnel Thrusters……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Jet Thrusters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Water Jet Thrusters…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Azimuth Thrusters…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Rudders…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
Conventional Rudders………………………………………………………………………………………………. 17
High Lift Rudders………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Becker Rudder………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Schilling Rudder………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Fish Tail Rudder………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Pleuger Rudder…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20
LO2-2
Factors Affecting Manoeuvring…………………………………………………………………………………… 21
Pivot Point………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Dynamics of a turn……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
Turning Circle……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Shallow Water Effect…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
Squat…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
Effects of Squat…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
Signs of squat……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Squat Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Bow and Stern Wave Effect………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
Interaction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Bernoulli’s Law…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
Bank Effect…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Ship to Ship Interaction………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Avoiding Interaction…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
Overtaking…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
Head on Situation…………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 33
Passing Moored Vessels……………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
Manoeuvring with Tugs………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
Weather and Tidal Conditions…………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
Effects of Wind……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
Tides and Currents………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Trim, Draughts and List……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Effects of Trim…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
Effects of List………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40
Transverse Thrust……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Cartwheel Effect…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
Twin Screw Handling…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43
LO2-3
Manoeuvring Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………….. 44
Sea Trials……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
Pilot Card…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
Master Pilot Exchange…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
LO2-4
Manoeuvring Proedures for Berthing and Unberthing………………………………………………… 52
Fixed Piers and Jetties…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Berthing port side to – no wind…………………………………………………………………………………… 53
Berthing starboard side to-no wind…………………………………………………………………………….. 53
Departure – port side alongside………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
Departure – starboard side alongside…………………………………………………………………………. 54
Departure – head current…………………………………………………………………………………………… 55
Departure – stern current…………………………………………………………………………………………… 55
Single and Multi Buoy Moorings…………………………………………………………………………………. 56
Making fast to a Buoy…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
Mooring to Buoys –wind/tide ahead………………………………………………………………………….. 57
Unmooring from Buoys –wind/tide ahead…………………………………………………………………. 57
Unmooring from Buoy – wind/tide astern…………………………………………………………………. 57
Tanker Loading Buoys…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
Entering and leaving locks and docks………………………………………………………………………….. 59
The geography of the approaches………………………………………………………………………………. 59
The dimensions of the dock entrance…………………………………………………………………………. 59
The current flow at the dock entrance……………………………………………………………………….. 60
The manoeuvrability of the vessel……………………………………………………………………………… 60
The fendering at the entrance……………………………………………………………………………………. 60
Adjacent layby berths…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
Dry Docking………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
Undocking………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
Warping Along Jetties…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 62
Turning Short Round…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 64
Turning short round - slack water……………………………………………………………………………….. 64
Turning short round - current ahead………………………………………………………………………….. 64
Turning short round - current astern…………………………………………………………………………. 65
Berthing Alongside Other Vessels……………………………………………………………………………….. 65
Fenders………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66
Moorings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66
LO2-5
Manoeuvring Procedures for Anchoring…………………………………………………………………….. 69
Use of anchor when berthing…………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
Berthing with an Onshore Wind…………………………………………………………………………………. 69
Berthingwith an Offshore Wind…………………………………………………………………………………. 70
Berthing with current astern…………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
Turning on an anchor…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 71
Single and multiple anchor operations……………………………………………………………………….. 71
Anchoring a Large Vessel…………………………………………………………………………………………… 71
Open Moor………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
Standing Moor…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 73
Running Moor……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
Mediterranean Moor…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 74
Baltic Moor………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 74
Dragging Anchor………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
Methods of detecting a dragging anchor…………………………………………………………………… 76
Preventing Dragging Anchor………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
Use of a Second Anchor……………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
Weighing and leaving the anchorage…………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
LO2-6
Routine and Emergency Manoeuvres…………………………………………………………………………. 79
In the vicinity of off-shore installations………………………………………………………………………. 79
Picking up or dropping off a Pilot……………………………………………………………………………….. 80
Operating with tugs and small craft…………………………………………………………………………… 82
Operating with helicopters………………………………………………………………………………………… 84
Heavy weather including a TRS…………………………………………………………………………………… 86
Synchronous Rolling…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 88
Parametric rolling………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 88
Racing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Broaching…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Pooping……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Tropical Revolving storms………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89
Narrow channels………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 90
Ice Navigation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 91
Preparations for Ice Navigation………………………………………………………………………………….. 91
Methods of Detecting Ice…………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
Navigating in Ice………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
Reporting…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 94
Sources of Information on Ice……………………………………………………………………………………. 94
Ice Accretion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95
Minimising Ice Accretion…………………………………………………………………………………………… 95
Navigating in or near VTS and a TSS………………………………………………………………………….. 96
Launch and recovery of survival and rescue craft……………………………………………………… 96
Manoeuvring in Emergencies……………………………………………………………………………………. 97
Fire…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 97
Collision……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 98
Flooding……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 98
Cargo Shift…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 98
Beaching…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
Approach……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 100
Re-floating…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 101
Loss of Propulsion and/or Steering…………………………………………………………………………….. 103
Vessel becoming disabled near land…………………………………………………………………………… 104
Altering Drift Pattern…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 105
Use of Engines following a Steering breakdown…………………………………………………………. 106
Vessel becoming disabled in confined waters…………………………………………………………….. 106
Emergency Towing Arrangements and Procedures……………………………………………………. 106
Connecting the Tow Line……………………………………………………………………………………………. 107
Commencing the Tow……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 110
Precautions during Towing………………………………………………………………………………………… 111
Signals……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 112
Completing Long Distance Towing…………………………………………………………………………….. 112
Girting……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 112
Parting of Tow Ropes…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 114
Towage Assistance – Steering Gear Failure……………………………………………………………….. 115
The Use of Anchors in an Emergency………………………………………………………………………… 115
Stopping / Slowing the Vessel……………………………………………………………………………………. 116
Search and Rescue Situations…………………………………………………………………………………….. 117
SAR Co-ordination……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 117
Planning and Preparing a Search……………………………………………………………………………….. 117
Consultation with Other Stations Answering the Distress………………………………………….. 118
Proceeding to the Area of Distress…………………………………………………………………………….. 119
Planning and Conducting the Search………………………………………………………………………….. 120
Saris 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 121
Datum………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 121
Leeway………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
Total Water Current (TWC)………………………………………………………………………………………… 121
Search Area……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 123
Rendezvous………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 124
Search Patterns………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 125
Expanding Square Search…………………………………………………………………………………………… 125
Sector Search……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 125
Parallel Sweep (track) Search……………………………………………………………………………………… 126
Co-ordinated vessel aircraft search pattern……………………………………………………………….. 127
Conclusion on the Search…………………………………………………………………………………………… 127
Rescue Successful………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
Rescue Unsuccessful………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 128
Ocean incident………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 128
Coastal incident…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 128
Man Overboard………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129
Initial actions to be taken…………………………………………………………………………………………… 129
Williamson Turn…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 130
Single Turn or ‘Anderson Turn’…………………………………………………………………………………… 131
Delayed Actions – Man Overboard suspected……………………………………………………………. 131
Single Delayed Turn…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 132
Elliptical Turn…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 133
Scharnov Turn……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 134
Learning Outcome 3
LO3-1
The Gyro Compass………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 136
Gyroscopic Inertia……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 137
Movement of a Free Gyroscope………………………………………………………………………………….. 137
North Latitude…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 138
South Latitude…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 138
At the Equator…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 139
Learn the tables………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 140
Tilt and tilting…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 140
Precession…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 140
Relationship between Torque, Spin, Inertia and Precession………………………………………… 141
LO3-2
Two Steps to Create a Gyro Compass………………………………………………………………………….. 142
Step 1 Gravity Control…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 142
Step 2 Damping…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 142
Damping in tilt…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
Damping in Azimuth……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 144
LO3-3
The Effect of Errors……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 145
Limitations of gyrocompasses (errors)…………………………………………………………………………. 145
Lubber Line………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 145
Latitude, course and speed error…………………………………………………………………………………. 146
Settling error……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 152
LO3-4
Interface with other equipment………………………………………………………………………………….. 153
Management of Bridge Operations – Ship Handling
Ship-handling is a subject that covers many practical aspects of seamanship but at the same
time requires specialised knowledge and experience to cover all types and designs of vessels.
You will observe at first hand masters and pilots executing manoeuvres in different ways. There
are many ways to complete a manoeuvre safely but there also some approaches that are
deemed less safe with little control.
The following principles will in the majority of cases ensure you execute the manoeuvre in a
safe and controlled fashion:-
 Start the manoeuvre at a minimum safe speed, maintaining steerage way.

 Use the vessel’s characteristics to your advantage to assist during the manoeuvre
 Where possible use the wind, tide and other environmental conditions to assist.
Principles of Ship Handling

The manoeuvring characteristics of a particular vessel are dependent on numerous inter-
related factors which include the hull form, the machinery used to propel the vessel and the
efficiency and limitations of the rudder and propeller. An understanding of the interaction of
these factors is necessary in order for mariners to safely handle their ships.
The elements of ship-handling that will have an effect on any manoeuvre can be split into two
areas and include:
Controllable Uncontrollable
Rudder Wind
Propeller Currents/tides
Main Engine(s) Swell
Thrusters/Azipods Water Depth
Anchors Traffic Density
Tugs Nature of Jetty
Mooring Lines
Pivot Point
Displacement and Trim
A ship-handler should take into account all of the above elements before executing a
manoeuvre. The qualities demanded of a good ship-handler are considerable; whilst they must
be knowledgeable in the vessels characteristics and limitations, be able to exercise judgement
and work well under pressure, communicate and work well in a team, they must at the same
time have an overall awareness of the manoeuvres and the surrounding factors.
As mentioned above, certain aspects are in the direct control of the ship-handler but the effects
of wind, weather, current, tide, water depth and interaction are all outside of your control.
These conditions are constantly changing which means they have to be predicted, monitored
and allowed for during the manoeuvre. The importance for constant assessment, a proactive
approach and good judgement of the overall situation during a manoeuvre can’t be over
emphasised. Ship-handling is based on teamwork between masters, pilots, tugs, linesman,
ships’ officers and dock masters, all of whom need to be able to have a general understanding
in order to communicate clearly. The need for total concentration by all parties during a
manoeuvre is essential; distractions from telephones, telex, mobiles and other areas should be
restricted as one missing link in the operation is all that is needed for an incident to occur.
The topics will be covered as described in the module content but due to the nature of the
subject matter and the need to link the theoretical and practical knowledge there will be
references made between topic areas.
Learning Outcome Two
1
HND Management of Bridge Operations F0LW35
Learning Outcome
Propulsion
LO2-1
In order for a vessel to achieve a constant speed a force needs to be applied. The Explain how to
magnitude of this force will depend on the resistance acting on the ship which is manoeuvre and
proportionate to the speed at which it is travelling. Usually the force generated is by handle the ship in
power from the vessel’s engines. A vessel’s propulsion system normally consists of an all conditions
engine or turbine, a propeller shaft and a propeller.
 Propulsion and
There are various types of propulsion systems on ships that comprise of different steering systems
combinations of engine, propeller and rudder arrangements. Important aspects of the
propulsion system include ensuring that the ship can gain the best performance from its
design, be safe to the marine environment and to be cost-effective. The main types of
engine found on merchant ships are diesel, diesel electric and steam turbine.
Diesel Engines
Most ship types are powered by diesel engines, including small boats and recreational
vessels. Diesels are very responsive to engine orders and reasonably economical to run.
A diesel engine has sets of pistons which reciprocate inside cylinders. These cylinders or
liners as they are also known, have covers known as cylinder heads. The cylinders sit in a
space in the main body of the engine called a jacket and cooling water is circulated
around inside here. The cylinder heads are clamped to the cylinder, creating a sealed
space above the piston where combustion takes place. This combination of a cylinder
head, liner and piston is collectively known as a unit. Engines of various physical sizes
and power ratings can be produced by combining a certain number of units with a
common crankshaft and camshaft.
Pistons are connected to the crankshaft by connecting rods, which together with the
crankshaft convert the reciprocating motion of the pistons into the rotary motion of the
shaft. The crankshaft is extended out of the engine and rotates freely as the pistons
reciprocate. The rotating shaft can then be used to rotate a propeller.
Diesel engines are started either by a battery driven motor, hydraulic motor, hand
cranking or more commonly by injecting compressed air into the engine cylinders.
When the piston moves upwards in the cylinder, the air in the combustion space
becomes pressurised, causing the temperature to rise. Fuel is then injected into the
cylinder, which heats up very quickly and burns in the oxygen from the air in the
combustion space. The expanding gas caused by the burning fuel forces the piston back
down, turning the crankshaft. This is known as one cycle.
1
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
steering systems
Diesel engines are classified as either two stroke or four stroke with regards to their
principle of operation. The two stroke engine as its name implies, requires two strokes
of the piston to complete one cycle whereas the four stroke engine requires four
strokes.
Usually, the two stroke slow speed diesel engine is used for the main propulsion of large
vessels and most of these engines are direct reversing types. They are ‘direct’ because
the engines have output shafts which are directly connected to a propeller without any
gearing in between. When the engine pistons reciprocate, the crankshaft turns and the
output shaft rotates. This causes the propeller to rotate. They are ‘reversing’ as these
engines have a special mechanism to change the direction of the engine from clockwise
to anticlockwise to change the ship movement from ahead to astern or as required.
With a low speed diesel it is sensible to reduce speed until the vessel is almost stopped
before attempting an astern movement on a vessel fitted with a fixed pitch propeller.
The propeller driven by a two stroke direct drive slow speed diesel
A piston draws in a new charge of air as it

drives out the exhaust. The air is then
compressed prior to injecting a spray of fuel
at top dead centre which ignites, driving the
piston down until the exhaust ports open
and the cycle is repeated
2
The four stroke medium speed diesel engine is usually used for the main propulsion of Learning Outcome
smaller vessels using a reverse/reduction gearbox and clutch. Most of these engines are LO2-1
indirect or geared reversing types and rotate at 400 to 1000rpm which is too high to
reconcile the optimum speed of the engine and propeller. These engines are ‘indirect’ Explain how to
as they have output shafts indirectly connected to the propeller through gearing or manoeuvre and
other means. When the engine pistons reciprocate, the crankshaft turns and the output handle the ship in
shaft rotates. This shaft drives the gears which reduce the rpm of the propeller shaft. A all conditions
clutch is used to engage the gears which determine the ahead or astern propulsion. It is  Propulsion and
important to allow the engine revs to idle before engaging the engines astern on vessels steering systems
of this type.
A vessel may not only reverse the propulsion thrust through use of a reversible engine
output shaft or via the use of a clutch and reversing gear, but also by a controllable
pitch propeller (CPP). Neither the engine or propeller shaft is reversed; instead the pitch
of the propeller blades on a CPP is altered to change the movement of a vessel between
ahead and astern.
A disadvantage of diesels is that the number of engine starts is limited by the supply of
starting air. The use of starting air is not as critical when a CPP is fitted as the engine will
run at its rated speed nearly all the time in a constant direction.
Another disadvantage is that difficulties may be experienced in starting the engine while
making headway through the water, as the propeller and therefore the engine will still
be turning over unless checked.
Steam Turbines
In large vessels where sustained high speed is required, steam turbine engines can be
fitted. Although they are not so common today, an exception is LNG carriers which
utilise the boil off from their cargo. These are lighter than their diesel engine
equivalents and in many respects are more reliable, although they have a tendency to
consume more bunkers.
Turbines are used on some ships for the main propulsion or to drive other machinery
such as cargo pumps and alternators. A turbine has a set of moving blades attached to a
shaft, the assembly of which is known as the rotor. The rotor is supported on bearings
and made to rotate on a set of fixed stationary blades and rings known as a stator.
Pressurised steam or gas is allowed to enter the stator through specially designed ports
or blades.
A steam turbine uses superheated steam which is generated by a boiler therefore a

steam turbine plant will always be connected to a boiler. A gas turbine on the other
hand uses hot gas which is generated by the combustion of fuel and air. A gas turbine
will therefore be connected to a combustion chamber.
There are two types of steam turbine based on their principle of operation, impulse
turbines and reaction turbines. In an impulse turbine, steam is supplied to a set of fixed
3
nozzles, usually staggered in a ring and called the nozzle ring. The rotor blades are Learning Outcome
impelled by the direct impact of pressurised steam, similar to the action of flowing LO2-1
water on the blades of a water wheel. The nozzles are designed in such a way that when
the steam passes through, the pressure drops and the velocity increases. The higher Explain how to
velocity steam is then guided to make contact with the rotor blades, thus moving the manoeuvre and
blades and rotating the shaft. handle the ship in
all conditions
In a reaction turbine the steam is fed through alternate rows of fixed and moving  Propulsion and
blades. The fixed blades are attached to the casing and the moving blades are attached steering systems
to the shaft. The fixed blades are staggered so that passageways are formed which
serve as the nozzle ring of an impulse turbine. The moving blades are made to revolve
as a result of the back thrust of the flowing steam as it gains velocity while passing
through the specially shaped passages between the rotor blades.
With both types of steam turbine, the steam is directed at an angle towards the moving
blades and the rotor shaft is made to rotate freely at a very high speed. The shaft,
known as the turbine output shaft, is extended out of the turbine casing through a
suitable seal. This shaft rotates at very high revolutions and is not suitable for direct
coupling with a propeller as they are designed to work efficiently at a lower rpm. The
speed of the output shaft is therefore reduced using gearing to match the propeller
characteristics.
Some turbines are designed for a multistage operation. High pressure steam from the
boiler drives the first stage turbine or the high pressure turbine (HP) as it is known. The
exhaust steam from the HP turbine is used to drive the intermediate pressure turbine
(IP) and the exhaust steam from this is used to drive the low pressure (LP) turbine.
4
Diesel Electric Learning Outcome

Marine diesel electric systems were first introduced in the navy long before they were LO2-1
shown to the commercial industry. This type of propulsion system uses the combination
Explain how to
of a generator powered by electricity, connected to a diesel motor. There are numerous
manoeuvre and
operational advantages to this type of propulsion system when comparing it to the
handle the ship in
others.
all conditions
Their main advantages include low noise and vibration disturbances, lower energy  Propulsion and
consumption and higher flexibility in the ship design. Due to the electric motors taking steering systems
up less space than diesel engines, this allows for greater cargo carrying capacity. Less
maintenance is also required for electrical motors and there is no limit on the amount of
starts in comparison to the restriction on marine diesel engines.
Numerous diesel engines can be connected in parallel in sound and vibration isolated
rooms, almost anywhere on the lower decks of the ship. These diesel generators are
then responsible for the electric ship propulsion, the heating and any other electrical
utilities on board. Running diesel-electric engines at a stable load allows smoother
transients and constant speeds. While at an efficient load, marine diesel engines also
tend towards optimum fuel consumption, however diesel electric reduce emissions and
the impact on the environment.
The diesel electric system is extremely valuable for ships with low average speed (10
knots) but also used on cruise liners where the power is utilised for other services. This
technique of combined diesel electric systems gains importance when the installed
power generating capacity can be used for various ship functions and different
situations such as that needed for passenger services (i.e. electricity, heating).
5
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
The safety aspects of diesel electric systems are commonly regarded as being related to steering systems
redundancy in different ways. The number of electric power-generating units is large
enough to ensure propulsion capability and steerage way irrespective of any component
failure. In addition the diesel and electric units can be located in different
compartments to safeguard against loss of power in case one compartment has been
destroyed by fire or flooding.
Azipods
The ‘azipod’ which has been developed from azimuth thrusters is a combined
propulsion and steering system. It is powered by an electric motor which is housed in a
sealed pod outside of the ship’s hull. The variable speed electric motor powers a fixed
pitch propeller (FPP) which is connected directly via the motor shaft. This system relies
on sea water flowing past the unit to keep the electric motor cool. This allows slimmer
housing which creates a more streamlined pod. The azipod can be rotated 360° to
provide propulsion in any direction.
6
There are numerous advantages and disadvantages of the azipod propulsion system. Learning Outcome
The azipod enables great manoeuvrability due to its capability to rotate and thrust in LO2-1
any direction, which can remove the requirement for a rudder. Due to the housing and
motor being located outside of the hull, this reduces the amount of engine room space Explain how to
required and allows for greater cargo carrying capacity. Depending on the location of manoeuvre and
the azipod, there may be no requirement for stern / bow thrusters as the azipod can handle the ship in
provide the sideways thrust. This system is also more environmentally friendly, all conditions
providing less noise and vibration than conventional diesel engines and furthermore, it  Propulsion and
has lower fuel consumption. steering systems
However, it is an expensive system to install initially and it requires a number of diesel
generators to produce the power required, especially on large vessels that carry heavy
cargoes. The amount of power that can be produced by the electric motor is also
limited.
Azipods are a propulsion system commonly found on offshore vessels and cruise ships
but can also be found on product tankers and icebreakers.
7
Contra-rotating Propulsion (CRP) Learning Outcome

CRP is a propulsion system comprising of two propellers situated one behind the other which LO2-1
rotate in opposite directions. The principle which was originally seen on aircraft is now also
Explain how to
being used on ships. CRP propellers can either consist of two fixed pitch propellers on a single
manoeuvre and
shaft or the secondary propeller can be an azipod, aligned downstream of the main propeller. In handle the ship in
some cases, the aftermost propeller will have a smaller diameter than the forward propeller to all conditions
optimise the slipstream created when the forward propeller is rotating.
 Propulsion and
steering systems
An advantage of the CRP

system is that the energy
created from the rotating
forward propeller can be partly
recovered by the aftermost
propeller which would usually
be lost with the conventional
single-screw system. As a result
it is seen as having a higher
level of propulsion efficiency
and therefore lower fuel
consumption. The forces which
would normally act upon the
propeller will also be split
between the two propellers
used in this system, therefore
extending the life span of the
propellers
This system comes at high expense however and vessels that have utilised the two contra-
rotating propellers on one shaft have reportedly experienced a lot of mechanical problems due
to limited access to the inner shaft for lubricating and wear due to excessive friction.
8
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
steering systems
Propellers
A propeller and a ship form a unit. The propeller transmits the thrust of the engine to
the ship's hull consequently moving it through the water and providing the flow
necessary for the rudder to act effectively. There are two types of conventional
propellers, fixed pitch and controllable pitch.
The propeller pitch is the distance in direction parallel to the shaft that a point covers in
one revolution.
Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPP)

With a fixed pitch propeller the blades
are in a fixed position, usually
manufactured integral with the boss by
which the propeller is secured to its
shaft. The pitch of the blades is
selected at the design stage to suit the
ship for which the propeller is
intended. The direction and strength of
the force generated by the propeller,
and therefore the direction and speed
of the ship, is determined by the direction and speed that the propeller rotates.
Therefore, in ships fitted with fixed pitch propellers, there must be a means of reversing
the propeller's direction of rotation in order to generate astern power.
The advantages to having a FPP are that they are less vulnerable to damage and it is less
likely for entanglement to occur with ropes whilst mooring as the propeller does not
rotate when the vessel is stopped. However, there are several disadvantages of fixed
pitch propellers, such as they can only utilise the plant’s rated speed for one mode of
operation; the power transmitted at full astern may only be half of that for full ahead.
At slow speeds or if the vessel has to come astern, the engine is not being used to its full
potential when a FPP is fitted. The propeller is designed to be more efficient when the
vessel is moving ahead as the design of the hull is intended for this.
9
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
steering systems
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

Unlike a vessel fitted with a fixed pitch propeller, with a CPP there is no need to reverse
the engine to manoeuvre the vessel astern. The blades are bolted to the boss, are
movable, and are actuated in unison by hydraulic fluid fed into the boss via a hollow
drive shaft according to the vessel's manoeuvring requirements. The angle of pitch
determines the power and direction generated by the propeller and changing the pitch
of the blades in this way allows the
vessel to be manoeuvred from full
ahead to full astern without altering
engine speed for the vessel to move
astern, therefore running the engine at
its rated and most efficient speed at all
times.
It must be remembered that propellers
are designed to be more efficient when
the vessel is moving ahead as the
vessel's hull form is designed to move
in that direction. The power generated
when going full astern may only
therefore be half of that compared to
going full ahead.
There are numerous advantages to CPPs over FPPs, some of which are listed:
 Bridge control has a quicker response – easier to stop / come astern

 Full engine power is utilised at all times
 Stern tube and engine wear is reduced
 More economical engine use and therefore reduced fuel costs
 Constant engine rpm enables constant power to be produced by shaft
generator
 Damaged blades are easier to replace
In addition to advantages, CPPs also have disadvantages when compared to a FPP.

10
In addition to advantages, CPPs also have disadvantages when compared to a FPP. Learning Outcome
LO2-1
• Propeller rotates when vessel is stopped; therefore fuel is used unnecessarily
• Pitch control system is vulnerable due to the hydraulic components and the many Explain how to
sealing rings required, if ever punctured could lead to pollution manoeuvre and
• Higher initial cost and more complicated to install handle the ship in
all conditions
Schottel Rudder Propeller (SRP)  Propulsion and
The SRP is a combined propulsion and steering unit, steering systems
consequently eliminating the requirement for a rudder. The
main advantage of this arrangement is that it may be rotated
through 360 to allow propulsion in any direction.
Engine power is delivered to the propeller by means of

bevelled gears. The unit is usually mounted directly on to the
transom of the vessel, with the drive shaft led through a
sealed aperture. These units are used both for main
propulsion and for dynamic positioning work and are usually
employed on tugs and stand-by vessels. Due to their
mechanically complex structure and the drag imposed on the
vessel by the unit, it would be impractical to fit this type of rudder/propeller to a large
cargo carrying vessel.
Voith Schneider Propeller (VSP)

This type of propulsion system is also
known as a cycloidal drive system which
is able to produce thrust in any direction
almost instantaneously. It is most
commonly used on tugs and ferries and
more recently has also been used on
offshore vessels. It is made up of a
circular plate that rotates and has
vertical blades in the shape of hydrofoils
which extend below the vessels hull
attached to this plate. The gearing sets
the angle of the blades which
synchronise and rotate to generate
thrust in the required direction. It is not
necessary to change the direction of
rotation in order to change the direction
of thrust, the synchronised angle of the blades only needs to be adjusted. This allows
instantaneous fine control which can be useful during manoeuvring especially when
accurate position keeping is required. The propulsion unit also provides the steering
capability for the vessel through adjusting the direction of the thrust.
Particularly with tugs, Voith Schneider is considered to be a favourable system as it

provides fine control and high manoeuvrability. However they are slowly being replaced
by Azimuth Stern Drive systems which are cheaper to build and maintain and produce a
higher bollard pull from the equivalent sized power unit.
11
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
 A tug with twin units Explain how to

manoeuvre and
in a frame to increase
handle the ship in
thrust and provide all conditions
protection.
 Propulsion and
steering systems
< Diagram demonstrating how blades are set

at a particular point in the rotation to provide
directional thrust.
Kort Nozzle
A propeller which is fitted inside a non-rotating nozzle (or shroud) is known as a Kort
Nozzle, or ducted propeller. The nozzle is designed to improve the efficiency of the
propeller by preventing high pressure, generated when the propeller blades rotate
through the water, from being lost at the tips of the blades. It is the pressure generated
by the propeller that produces the thrust to move the vessel. This increase in efficiency
is limited to lower speeds however, usually less than 10 knots. Kort nozzles are most
commonly found on fishing vessels and tugs.
There are many different designs of this system, ranging from a basic fixed shroud
which gives added protection to a propeller to more advanced designs which are used
to improve the power/thrust or reduce wash and cavitation. Where the nozzle is fixed, a
rudder is used to provide the steering. More sophisticated designs allow the nozzle to
rotate with the propeller, providing both propulsion and steering. In some cases, a
rudder may be fitted directly onto the nozzle.
Azimuth propellers that rotate 360° are often fitted with a duct to increase the
directional thrust and provide protection for the propeller. The use of a duct can have
several benefits in certain conditions over conventional propellers. The more common
accelerating duct enables the thrust to be increased due to the forward end of the duct
being larger than the aft end where the water exits. The decelerating duct on the other
hand, is when the duct is wider where the water exits, which helps to reduce cavitation.
12
Learning Outcome
LO2-1
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
steering systems
The use of a nozzle / duct also makes the propeller less vulnerable to debris and ice. In
addition it reduces the transverse thrust effect which is particularly noticeable when
operating astern. If used at higher speeds however, the drag caused by the duct reduces
the efficiency of the propeller and obstructions such as ice could become lodged within
the duct which would prove difficult to clear.
Thrusters
Bow thrusters
The combination of the engine,
propeller and rudder situated in
the aft part of the vessel is
primarily concerned with
providing thrust and steering in
the fore and aft direction, with
some limited manoeuvring
capability at low speeds. With a
large percentage of ships now
required to manoeuvre frequently,
precisely and quickly without tug
assistance, in order to overcome the manoeuvring limitations most vessels are now
fitted with bow thrusters.
Some examples of vessels that

are fitted with bow thrusters
include cruise liners, ferries,
tankers, container ships and
offshore ships. Some of the
larger more conventional vessel
types are fitted with thrusters
to assist with berthing and
turning the vessel even though
they still require tug assistance
as well.
13
Bow thrusters give the ship handler the ability to exert a force at the bow to port or Learning Outcome
starboard, either to assist in the turning of a large ship or to augment the manoeuvring LO2-1
capabilities of a smaller ship. It must be remembered that a bow thruster is only fully
effective when the ship is stopped in the water. At speeds of over two or three knots, Explain how to
the thrust provided by the unit will prove largely negligible compared to the thrust manoeuvre and
imparted by the main propulsion. handle the ship in
all conditions
Another criticism sometimes levelled at bow thrusters is that they can have a tendency
to be under-powered in relation to the work demanded of them. However, in using a  Propulsion and
bow thruster it should be borne in mind that the unit has been designed to run at a steering systems
specific peak load and that this load should not be exceeded. Some thrusters are
powered by the main engine from shaft generators and are therefore not always
independent in case of a main engine problem.
Stern Thrusters
In addition to bow thrusters, some
vessels are also fitted with stern
thrusters to further aid the
manoeuvrability of the vessel. Stern
thrusters give the ship handler the
ability to exert an additional force
at the stern either to port or
starboard, again to assist in the
turning of a large ship or to
supplement the manoeuvring
capabilities of a smaller ship. As with bow thrusters, the thrusters’ propellers are
protected from bimetallic corrosion by anodes in the same way as the ships main
propeller.
< Thruster arrangement

diagram.
14
Tunnel Thrusters Learning Outcome

LO2-1
There are various types of thrusters in use,
Explain how to
most commonly the tunnel thruster. This
manoeuvre and
type of thruster is placed in an athwartship
handle the ship in
tunnel usually powered by a diesel engine
all conditions
or electric motor through reverse or
reduction gear. The direction of rotation of  Propulsion and
the thruster’s propeller is reversed to steering systems
change the direction of movement either
to port or starboard. Some are fitted with
guards at the tunnel entrances to prevent
ropes and other debris from fouling the
www.marineinsight.com
propeller and causing damage.
Either a controllable pitch propeller or a reversible

propeller is used with a constant speed electric
motor or hydraulic system to vary the direction
and strength of the thrust. The traditional tunnel
thruster powered by an electric motor is generally
seen as the most robust and effective for their
respective power output. The hydraulic type of
tunnel thruster although very powerful is slow to
react and takes time to start and stop as well as to
change the direction of thrust.
Jet Thrusters
This type of thruster usually
produces effective thrust when a
ship is at a speed of 6 to 8 knots
whilst tunnel thrusters operate
most effectively when the ship is
making no headway.
A propeller is placed inside a tube

called the propeller tube. A
hinged deflector plate is mounted
in the tube and is actuated by a
hydraulic cylinder which closes
off either port or starboard
discharge openings. As a result thrust to starboard or port is achieved.
15
Water Jet Thrusters Learning Outcome

LO2-1
Water jet systems operate on the
basic principle of sucking in water and Explain how to
expelling it through nozzles located manoeuvre and
either at the bow or stern. This type of handle the ship in
system is powered by a centrifugal all conditions
pump and operated using a three way
valve and electrical controls. As this  Propulsion and
thruster does not have a propeller, steering systems
there is no cavitation or sound
www.hollandmarineparts.nl
produced. Water jet thrusters are
primarily used on yachts and
motorboats.
Azimuth Thrusters
This azimuthing or rotatable thruster is a retractable unit

which can rotate through 360°. The propeller and drive shaft
are lowered and raised as a unit through the ship’s hull. The
mechanism that trains the propeller also moves up and down
with the rest of the machinery. Azimuth thrusters are more
commonly used on vessels with Dynamic Positioning (DP)
systems where it is necessary to remain for prolonged
periods in a particular position. As this type of thruster
extends below the keel, sometimes by as much as two
metres, it is more susceptible to damage and cannot always
be used in port and in shallow areas.
The types of thruster that provide multi directional thrust are

also considered as a backup to the main engine if it fails as
some are capable of producing several knots of headway if required which could be
used to keep the vessel out of danger. As with propellers, different types of thruster are
considered more suitable to some vessels and for operating in different areas. They all
have their advantages as well as their limitations which is important for the ship-handler
to recognise.
Rudders
The rudder by itself is a passive instrument and relies on water flowing past it to give it
lift. This flow of water is produced by the propellers, the vessel’s forward motion or
current. As a vessel moves ahead through the water, a pivot point exists at
approximately 1/3 of the vessel’s length from the bow. If the angle of the rudder is
changed a lever is produced which creates a turning moment. A large rudder angle will
provide a large turning lever; consequently the turning moment will increase.
16
Conventional Rudders Learning Outcome

LO2-1
Types of conventional rudder are as follows:
Explain how to
 Unbalanced – rudder stock is attached to the forward most point of the rudder manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
span and the stock runs the length of the rudder. Requires far greater torque
all conditions
to turn than the balanced rudder.
 Semi-Balanced – rudder stock runs only part way through the rudder. The top  Propulsion and
section, through which the stock transits, is unbalanced and the bottom steering systems
section of the rudder is balanced.
 Spade (Balanced) – rudder stock is attached at a position so that 40% of the
rudder’s area is forward of the stock, around the centre of gravity of the
rudder. This requires less torque to rotate the rudder, reducing the power
required by the steering gear and therefore reducing the fuel consumption.
Unbalanced and semi-balanced rudders need more power to operate and work less
effectively at high speeds but are effective in initiating a turn.
Unbalanced Semi-balanced Balanced
These conventional rudder types allow angles of up to 45° but once you exceed this, the
water flow across the rudder becomes progressively more turbulent. This causes the
flow of water to become less effective at turning the vessel, which is known as the
rudder stall. If you experience rudder stall, reduce the rudder angle to restore the water
flow.
17
High Lift Rudders Learning Outcome

LO2-1
Types of high lift rudders are as follows:
Explain how to
 Becker manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
 Schilling
all conditions
 Fish Tail
 Propulsion and
This rudder type is very effective and allows for a much greater degree of control over steering systems
the stern of the vessel in ship handling situations. They are mostly fitted to small or
medium sized vessels enabling them to manoeuvre with far greater independence and
reducing the need for regular tug assistance.
Many ferries, car carriers, passenger vessels and offshore vessels are fitted with twin
independent rudders of this type which can be operated together or if required, split
and operated independently. At sea and at high speed great care should be taken not to
use excessive rudder angles and to set auto-pilot limits accordingly to prevent sudden
and severe course deviation. These types of rudder generally operate to angles of up to
70° as opposed to a conventional rudder which normally has a limit of 30-35°.
Becker Rudder
Also known as a flap rudder, this incorporates a hinged flap at the aft end of the main
rudder. When helm is applied to the rudder system, a linkage to the trailing flap turns
the flap to an angle greater than the main rudder angle (usually about 2 times). This
deflects the propeller stream sideways and thus improves the vessel's turning
capability.
18
Schilling Rudder Learning Outcome

LO2-1
A Schilling rudder is a type of hi-lift rudder that has a fish tail profile which accelerates
the flow of water across the rudder surface, therefore enhancing its effectiveness. It is Explain how to
typically used on ships that are difficult to manoeuvre such as large container vessels manoeuvre and
and tankers. handle the ship in
all conditions
 Propulsion and
steering systems
This type of rudder has several advantages over the conventional types, which include:
 Reduced overshoot angles

 Effective full speed course keeping ability
 Improved crabbing and zero speed control
 Enhanced turning capability with significantly reduced turning circles at speed
 Reduced head reach and lateral deviation
Fish Tail Rudder
These rudders are designed to utilise the propellers slip stream and are capable of
turning up to 70° rudder angle, double the amount capable of conventional rudders.
There are various types of vessel fitted with this rudder type, including tankers, bulk
carriers and LNG carriers.
This rudder type reacts quickly to steering orders and provides both a smaller advance
and less overshoot than a conventional rudder.
19
Pleuger Rudder Learning Outcome

LO2-1
This rudder type has a small ducted propeller fitted to it, usually powered by an electric
motor. As the propeller is attached to the rudder itself, it creates a flow of water along Explain how to
the direction that the rudder is angled and as a result generates thrust in that direction. manoeuvre and
This is particularly useful on larger ships when manoeuvring in confined places as the handle the ship in
thrust it provides is sufficient to allow for effective manoeuvres at slow speeds when all conditions
the propeller cannot be used.
 Propulsion and
steering systems
20
Factors Affecting Manoeuvring Learning Outcome

LO2-2
Before the factors affecting manoeuvring are discussed it is important to have an
understanding of how a vessel reacts when forces are applied. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
Pivot Point handle the ship in
The pivot point is an imaginary floating point, situated somewhere in the vertical plane all conditions
through the stem and stern, around which a vessel turns when forced into a directional  Factors affecting
change. The form of the submerged body, rudder size and type, trim, under keel manoeuvring
clearance and direction of movement all affect the position of the pivot point of a
vessel. The exact location of the pivot point is therefore not stationary but variable.
Pivot Point when stopped
Pivot Point when making headway
Pivot Point when making sternway
When a vessel is stationary the pivot point is in the mid-ships area but moves ahead
initially to the bow as vessel moves ahead and then settles about one quarter of the
vessel’s length from forward. The rudder therefore has greater turning force when
moving ahead with the increased turning lever. Likewise when a vessel moves astern
the pivot point settles one quarter of the ships length from aft therefore making the
bow thruster more effective when moving astern due to the increased turning lever.
There are various scenarios that affect the position of the pivot point and how a vessel
reacts. These include when the vessel is:-
 Using anchors
 Using tugs
 Turning
 In shallow waters
 Turning with thrusters
 Manoeuvring on lines
21
Dynamics of a turn Learning Outcome

LO2-2
When the rudder is over there is a turning force applied to the vessel and as the vessel
begins to turn, a force is created which moves the vessel sideways. This force is called Explain how to
centripetal force or ‘centre seeking’ and causes a body to follow a curved path. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Factors affecting
manoeuvring
This creates the drift angle of the turn and counter forces are created at the bow and
stern of the vessel. The resultant is a drag force on the ship slowing it down.
The turning circle of a vessel will be approximately the same at all speeds provided the
engine power and rudder angle remain constant throughout. The vessel may suffer
some loss of speed in the turn due to the counter forces however, which will affect the
turning circle slightly.
A ship handler can influence the turn by increasing the engine speed and or increasing
the rudder angle which will have the effect of tightening the turn and reducing the
turning circle. On the other hand by reducing the engine speed and or rudder angle, a
larger turning circle will be created.
The principle of using kicks ahead on the engine at low speeds will increase the turning
force without giving the vessel excessive headway. This is the principle used to turn
vessels short around and during most manoeuvres. Vessels fitted with high performance
rudders can affectively turn around within their own length using maximum turning
force from a stationary position.
22
Turning Circle Learning Outcome

When a vessel alters her course under helm through 360˚ she moves on a roughly LO2-2
circular path called a turning circle. The turning circle is the path traced out by the ship’s
Explain how to
centre of gravity which is close to the pivot point.
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
Tactical advance - Distance travelled by the centre of gravity along the original
all conditions
course until a point where the vessel has altered her course by
90°.  Factors affecting
manoeuvring
Total advance - The total distance travelled by the centre of gravity along the
original course.
Transfer - The sideways distance travelled by the centre of gravity

measured from the original course to the point where the vessel
has altered her course by 90°.
Tactical Diameter - The sideways distance travelled by the centre of gravity

measured from the original course to the point where the
vessel has altered her course by 180°.
Total Diameter - This is the extreme diameter of the turning circle.
It is important to note that the speed of a ship during a turn suffers a marked
reduction. As the ship slides sideways and ahead, the exposed side of the vessel
experiences a substantial increase in water resistance which acts as a brake.
Information specific to a vessel’s turning circle is required to be posted on the bridge
and on the pilot card.
23
Shallow Water Effect Learning Outcome

LO2-2
The effect of the propeller turning and forcing water over the rudder cannot be over
emphasized. The side force on a rudder is practically the same in both deep and shallow Explain how to
water with the propeller running. However the side force is reduced to 10% of this force manoeuvre and
in shallow water if the propeller is stopped and 20% of the side force in deep water. handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
Shallow water results in two things; firstly the build up of water ahead of the ship with
the longitudinal resistance results in the pivot point being pushed back and the steering
lever is reduced. Additionally, the water being forced under the bow at a higher speed
than normal creates a low pressure and loss of buoyancy. This causes the ship to squat
by the bow which can be as much as 2 meters.
The main effect of shallow water is to reduce the drift angle of a vessel which will cause
a reduction in speed and increase the turning circle diameter. This is due to shallow
water interfering with the linear flow of water past the rudder and creating a turbulent
eddy which reduces its turning efficiency.
24
The turning circle of a vessel in relation to the under keel clearance is very important to Learning Outcome
appreciate. Both masters and pilots navigating in port approaches and anchorages need LO2-2
to recognise how the vessel manoeuvres in different depths of water.
Explain how to
The previous diagram illustrates that a vessel with an under keel clearance of 200% of manoeuvre and
its draft has an advance of less than 4 ships lengths but a vessel with an under keel handle the ship in
clearance of 15% has an advance in excess of 9 ships lengths. all conditions
A vessel’s performance is affected by shallow water in several ways; the turning circle  Factors affecting
can change and the vessel can also suffer a loss in under keel clearance which is greater manoeuvring
in shallow waters, this is referred to as Squat.
Squat
Squat is the extra sinkage that a vessel will experience when moving through the water.
When a vessel proceeds through the water, water is pushed ahead and will travel
around the sides and underneath the vessel. When the flow beneath the vessel is
restricted by a small under keel clearance (UKC) it must increase in velocity.
Respectively, the water will decrease in pressure and the vessel will sink by a calculable
amount. The vessel generally trims when encountering squat due to the vessel regaining
lost buoyancy. The block coefficient determines which way the vessel trims.
 Cb 1.0 – 0.6 trims by bow (large tankers)
 Cb 0.6 – 0.4 trims bodily – so no effect
 Cb less than 0.4 trims by stern (Naval vessels)
Effects of Squat
Due to squat causing a vessel to trim, it is possible for this to cause a vessel to go
aground if adequate attention is not paid to the available UKC and the allowance for
squat. There is also the possibility of losing control of the vessel and sheering out of the
navigational channel. When squat has caused a trim by the bow, if the helmsman allows
for a small swing to develop, longitudinal resistance ahead of the ship will be brought
round to the exposed bow. This will encourage a violent swing in the same direction as
the helm order.
Counter helm to correct the swing may be sluggish due to the effect of a reduced
steering lever. Once the ship does respond, it may then sheer in the opposite direction
and a chain reaction then sets in. The ship will sheer from side to side and will not
respond correctly to helm orders.
25
This affect can occur rapidly and cause the ship to leave the safe navigational channel Learning Outcome
and aground in only a few minutes. Excessive speed is the main contributing factor LO2-2
under such circumstances and reduced speed is essential in preventing such violent
forces from building. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
In some areas trim is of particular importance and pilotage authorities may refuse to handle the ship in
handle vessels that are trimmed a certain way. When a vessel is trimmed by the stern, all conditions
the steering lever is improved and therefore allows for better handling of a ship.  Factors affecting
Signs of squat manoeuvring
Numerous accidents and groundings have occurred due to squat so whenever UKC is
limited, the vessel’s speed should be reduced. Squat should be suspected if any of the
following are encountered:
 Unusual noise or vibration
 Steering is sluggish or difficult
 Vessel slows unexpectedly
 Reduction in propeller revs – increased load on propeller
 Large bow or stern wave is apparent
 An unusual trim develops
 Sea suctions become blocked
Squat Calculations
Variables: “K” – Vessel’s speed, block co-efficient and blockage factor (ship’s max
underwater X-sectional area and x-sectional area of the waterway)
Formula: Max squat = K x Cb x V2 / 100 m
Squat = Cb x V2 / 100 m
Example:
If v/l Cb is 0.8
At 10 knots squat = 0.8 x 102 / 100 = 0.8m
At 20 knots squat = 0.8 x 202 / 100 = 3.2m
Squat tables are calculated and should be on board all vessels. There should be data for
port and shallow water areas and for coastal and deep sea passages. The effect of squat
is far greater in shallow water and the loss of under keel clearance is generally more
critical. It is important that the appropriate constant is used in the squat calculation,
taking in to consideration the location of the vessel.
See over for an example of a basic squat table for a particular vessel. Some pilots may
carry a generic table that also includes the block co-efficient which allows calculations
to be made for all vessel types.
26
Learning Outcome
Ship Speed Maximum squat Maximum squat LO2-2
(knots) in Open Water (m) in Confined Channels (m) Explain how to
0 0.00 0.00 manoeuvre and
1 -0.01 -0.02 handle the ship in
2 -0.03 -0.07 all conditions
3 -0.08 -0.15
4 -0.13 -0.27  Factors affecting
5 -0.21 -0.42 manoeuvring
6 -0.30 -0.60
7 -0.41 -0.82
8 -0.54 -1.08
9 -0.68 -1.36
10 -0.84 -1.68
11 -1.02 -2.03
12 -1.21 -2.42
13 -1.42
14 -1.65
15 -1.89
Bow and Stern Wave Effect
27
A sign of squat is an increased bow wave which is enhanced in shallow water as the Learning Outcome
vessel displaces the body of water by pushing it ahead. In shallow water and narrow LO2-2
channels there is less space for that water to flow down and beneath the vessel and as a
result the increased flow leads to a reduction of pressure and an area of negative Explain how to
pressure around middle section of the vessel. The pressure patterns will be discussed manoeuvre and
further in the next section on interaction with Bernoulli’s Law. handle the ship in
all conditions
Vessels creating a larger bow wave are likely to be experiencing squat and therefore a
reduction in under keel clearance which should be taken into consideration.
manoeuvring
Furthermore the vessel will be pushing ahead a body of water that may affect other
vessels. This is often felt by others several cables ahead of your own vessel, particularly
in narrow channels. In shallow water a greater than normal wash is created and this can
be dangerous to other vessels and cause damage on the shore line if it is excessive.
Consideration should be given to others; a reduction in speed may be prudent if you are
in doubt.
Remember the calculation for squat... its effects are proportional to the square of the
speed, so double your speed, quadruple your squat!
Interaction
When a vessel moves through the water a pressure pattern develops around the hull as
illustrated below. As the vessel moves forward and pushes the water ahead a positive
pressure area builds up around the bow. The water flow then increases down the sides
of the vessel where a negative pressure area develops before slowing down again
towards the stern where an area of relative high pressure is experienced.
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
- - + Positive pressure fields
- - - -
- - - Negative pressure fields
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
28
This is known as the Bernoulli Effect after the Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Learning Outcome
Bernoulli. He stated that ‘as the water flow increases in velocity it decreases in LO2-2
hydrostatic pressure’.
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
Bernoulli’s Law
The law states that the pressure of a fluid varies inversely with speed and that an
increase in speed produces a decrease in pressure. For instance, there is a drop in
hydraulic pressure when fluid travelling through a pipe speeds up due to a constriction
in the pipe.
The pressure at "1" is higher than at "2" because the fluid speed at "1" is lower than at
"2".
As described in the squat explanation the pressure patterns around the hull can affect
how a vessel manoeuvres. In shallow and restricted waters where the water flows are
further restricted the effect is greatly increased. A good of example of this is bank
effect.
29
Bank Effect Learning Outcome

LO2-2
The change in the flow of water around a vessel induced by the vicinity of a bank or
shoal can cause pressure differences between the port and starboard sides. As a result, Explain how to
the ship will tend to be attracted towards the bank; the positive pressure at the bow will manoeuvre and
push the bow out and the low pressure created at the aft end of the vessel will suck the handle the ship in
stern in. all conditions
manoeuvring
Interaction between other vessels can be experienced at any time but the affects will be
far greater in shallow and enclosed waters and at high speeds when the pressure areas
will be at a maximum.
Ship to Ship Interaction
In restricted waters, manoeuvring and steering may be affected by interaction between

other vessels or the boundaries of the navigation area. When operating in narrow and
shallow waters, extreme care is therefore required if another ship is overtaking or
passing. Interaction can occur in various circumstances, such as:
 When vessels attempt to pass one another at close range, usually when confined
to a narrow channel
 When vessels are manoeuvring in close company for operational reasons,

particularly when the larger vessel has a small UKC
 When vessels with a small UKC stop quickly when approaching a basin which
results in unexpected sheering; if tugs are being used this can reduce their affect
30
Learning Outcome
LO2-2
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
When vessels move through the water, the flow creates areas of high and low pressure.
This is increased with vessel size and speed. When smaller vessels approach larger
vessels, the affect of pressure zones will be noticeable and can lead to steerage
problems and risk of collision.
Avoiding Interaction
In order for vessels to avoid the affects of interaction, the following general points
should be observed when manoeuvring:
 Prior to the manoeuvre and then once the manoeuvre is complete, vessels should
remain in the centre of the navigational channel for as long as possible to reduce
the risk of bank effect which could result in sheering across the channel into
oncoming traffic or causing grounding.
 Engines should be brought to dead slow ahead for manoeuvres to reduce the
affect of interactive forces, particularly on turbine or FPP ships so that power is
readily available for kicks ahead.
 If ships pass from deep to shallow water at any time during their manoeuvres, the
forces will increase noticeably and caution should be exercised.
 Where manoeuvres involve more than one vessel, the smaller of the two vessels
is likely to be most affected and larger vessels should be aware of this and reduce
their speed accordingly.
31
Overtaking Learning Outcome

LO2-2
When overtaking another vessel in confined waters, it is possible that interaction will
occur. This manoeuvre could cause the vessel being overtaken to sheer into the path of Explain how to
the overtaking vessel or when both vessels are side by side, the forces created could manoeuvre and
cause the bow of each vessel to turn away from each other, resulting in the sterns handle the ship in
swinging towards each other. The effects of interaction will depend on various factors all conditions
including the sizes of the vessels involved, but caution should always be exercised when
completing this manoeuvre  Factors affecting
manoeuvring
When planning to overtake another vessel, the following procedure should be followed:
1. Establish communication between vessels.

2. Agree on the overtaking procedure to be undertaken. Lead vessel to slow down
to reduce the interactive forces, the overtaking vessel to speed up to reduce the
period of time that the two vessels will be in close proximity to one another.
3. Select widest and straightest section of the channel where possible.
4. Select deepest stretch of channel to reduce effect of squat and interactive
forces.
5. Ensure no other traffic is in the vicinity.
6. Inform Engine Room, both steering motors on.
7. Ensure helmsman aware of possibility that steering could be affected due to
interaction.
Ensure maximum distance between vessels whilst overtaking procedure is executed
32
Learning Outcome
Overaking phase 3 Overtaking phase 4 LO2-2
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
Head on Situation
Interaction may also occur when two vessels meet in a head on situation in confined
waters. Although this situation is potentially less dangerous than overtaking, due
caution should also be exercised. In this situation, the bows of either vessel are inclined
to repel one another as they approach. This could then result in an increase in any
existing swing and also be exacerbated by any secondary interaction, for instance from
the bank at the edge of a navigational channel.
In both situations it is important to ensure that the maximum distance is kept between
the two vessels and the Officer of the Watch should take into consideration the possible
greater effects on the smaller of the vessels involved.
33
Learning Outcome
LO2-2
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
Both vessels should end up mid channel when clear
34
Passing Moored Vessels Learning Outcome

LO2-2
When passing moored vessels, the vessel tied alongside can experience surging up and
down the quay. This can cause problems with their mooring lines as well as interfering Explain how to
with cargo operations if there is significant movement caused. It is therefore important manoeuvre and
to reduce your speed whenever passing a moored vessel. handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
Manoeuvring with Tugs
With regards to interaction, the most potentially dangerous situation exists for vessels
operating in close quarters when there is a great difference in the size between the two
vessels. This is most common therefore when a vessel is working with a tug.
When working with tugs it is essential for you recognise to their capabilities and
limitations. There are several different types of tugs with varying propulsion systems. All
tugs operating within close proximity of a vessel will experience the pressure field
surrounding that vessel. This can be extremely hazardous for the tugs if a vessel is
moving at high speeds creating areas of greater pressure difference. Before tugs are
requested to approach a vessel the speed should therefore be adjusted accordingly.
Although speeds of below 8 knots are generally safe it can be necessary to reduce down
to below 4 knots for bow to bow towing and also with deep drafted vessels that are
creating a larger pressure area around the bow.
35
The diagrams illustrate the factor of power that the tug is using and the counter helm Learning Outcome
necessary as it passes a moving vessel. LO2-2
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
manoeuvring
36
Weather and Tidal Conditions Learning Outcome

LO2-2
Factors affecting manoeuvring can be categorised as controllable and uncontrollable.
Weather and tidal conditions fall in to the latter and although uncontrollable, they can Explain how to
prove very useful if used to your advantage. An understanding of how they affect your manoeuvre and
vessel in different loaded conditions is important to ensure you can manoeuvre safely, handle the ship in
appreciating the limits and capabilities of your vessel. all conditions
A vessel in ballast condition or high sided vessels like car carriers, ro-ro’s or passenger
manoeuvring
vessels have large areas of freeboard above the water exposed to wind. The force
generated by the wind on the beam can be calculated and used to assist masters and
pilots in their assessment of towage requirements and limitations.
The forces generated are a function of the wind speed squared and therefore increase
exponentially with an increase in wind. Tables are available to assist with calculations
but generally the experience of the pilots and masters with knowledge of the tug fleets
will be used to agree the limits.
A vessel head to wind has maximum control and this can be helpful in reducing the
vessel’s speed as it allows you to keep the engine running ahead for longer. It will be
discussed in the later sections on manoeuvring how to use the wind and tide to your
advantage to maintain maximum control throughout. Your berth will not always be
head to the wind direction however and as a result there will be times when you have
to expose the vessel to the wind forces. Additional towage or the use of anchors will be
necessary to counter the forces and ensure a controlled manoeuvre.
37
Effects of Wind Learning Outcome

A vessel will tend to behave in a certain way when exposed to wind: LO2-2
Explain how to
1. To lie across the wind when stopped
manoeuvre and
2. To head unto the wind when making way handle the ship in
3. The stern seeks the wind when making sternway all conditions
It is important for ship handlers to remember these factors so that they can be used to  Factors affecting
your advantage in different situations. manoeuvring
38
Tides and Currents Learning Outcome

As with the wind, tides and currents can be used to your advantage. Local knowledge of LO2-2
the current flow and counter currents is something that is not always apparent through
observing charts and publications. The importance of masters and pilots local Explain how to
knowledge can be extremely useful when manoeuvring as flows can change significantly manoeuvre and
in areas around berths and dock entrances, sometimes very quickly. handle the ship in
all conditions
A vessel has maximum control when head to the tide or current as with wind. Subtle
changes to the heading can be useful to create sideways set and drift but at the same
manoeuvring
time can be easily corrected under full control by bringing the vessel back head to wind
and tide.
Below are factors to consider when manoeuvring with tide and current:-
 Currents can be used to your advantage if known
 Currents affect all ships equally
 Careful with the downstream drift, set and rate
 At anchor or alongside, the rudder is effective due to the flow of water past it
due to current
 Turning short around can be made easier with the help of current
 A vessel running down stream (with the current) could develop double the
speed over the ground so be aware
 When berthing the vessel, stay against the current to gain maximum control
Trim, Draughts and List
Effects of Displacement
When fully loaded: In Light Condition:

Lively to engine movements, quick to
More resistance respond
Slower to respond to helm Sensitive to helm movements
Slow to build up speed from

Easily turned on her anchor
stopped
Less freeboard therefore minimised

Wind effect maximum
wind effect
Larger turning circle Easier to stop
Smaller turning circle
39
Effects of Trim Learning Outcome

A vessel trimmed by the stern has her pivot point further aft than even keel and has a LO2-2
larger turning circle. A vessel trimmed by the head has her pivot point further forward
and has a smaller turning circle but can be difficult to turn and once swinging will be Explain how to
difficult to check. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
With headway all conditions
manoeuvring
With sternway
Effects of List
A vessel listed will turn more readily to the high side and will have a smaller turning
circle on that side.
When the vessel is in ballast the centre of the windage area moves forward closer to the
pivot point for a vessel with headway, therefore the turning lever is reduced and
weakened. With sternway the vessel in ballast will have a stronger turning lever as the
centre of the windage area moves forward increasing its distance from the pivot point.
All vessel types have different side profiles depending on their construction but it is
important to recognise that your own vessel can react very differently to wind and
currents depending on its loaded condition.
40
For example when approaching an anchorage observing other vessels at anchor in a Learning Outcome
similar loaded condition might be a good indication of how the wind and tide will affect LO2-2
your own vessel on the final approaches. Loaded vessels and vessels in ballast can
sometimes be lying on very different headings. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
It is important to remember the wind and tide will have a greater influence on your handle the ship in
vessel at lower speeds when berthing, anchoring and slowing down to embark a pilot. all conditions
Transverse Thrust manoeuvring
A propeller blade is designed so that it ‘screws’ through the water and propels the
vessel creating movement. The thrust generated by the propeller can be split into two
different components, a large fore and aft movement and a smaller athwart ships
movement. The athwart ships component is known as transverse thrust.
Transverse thrust is the product of the propeller's lower blades working in greater water
pressure than the upper blades. This thrust is greater when the engine is running astern.
Propellers can be described as either a right hand screw where it rotates clockwise
when viewed from astern, or left hand screw where it rotates anticlockwise.
As shown above, with a right hand screw transverse thrust has the following effect:
When going AHEAD: The bow moves to Port and the stern to starboard
When going ASTERN: The bow moves to Starboard and the stern to port
41
Cartwheel Effect Learning Outcome

LO2-2
The Cartwheel Effect comes from the idea that the propeller is replaced by a cartwheel
which comes loose and rolls away in the appropriate direction. The direction in which Explain how to
the wheel would roll is the direction in which the stern will go. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
• Factors affecting
manoeuvring
Transverse thrust is more effective when the engines are going astern. The action of
going astern further decreases the surface water pressure and reduces the pressure on
the upper blades. A ballasted ship will react to this manoeuvre better than a loaded
ship, particularly if the upper blades are not fully immersed.
With a variable pitch propeller however, whether the propeller is left or right handed it
always turns the same way whether running ahead or astern. This is because the
propeller constantly rotates in one direction and only the pitch of the blades change,
therefore the transverse thrust component will always be in the same direction. A
variable pitch vessel with a right handed turning propeller will act like a left handed
fixed pitch vessel when coming astern, with the bow canting to port.
42
What is important for ship handlers to remember is what happens to their vessel when Learning Outcome
the engines are operated astern and the rudder ceases to have any affect. LO2-2
Explain how to
Twin Screw Handling manoeuvre and
In a twin screw ship, the propellers are offset from the ship's centreline and a moment handle the ship in
is created about the centreline by the fore and aft thrust of each propeller, known as all conditions
the offset effect. However, if both engines are going ahead or astern at the same speed
the two moments will cancel each other out. • Factors affecting
manoeuvring
The propellers on a twin screw ship are either inward or outward turning and the
manoeuvrability of the vessel will vary according to the configuration employed. Inward
turning controllable pitch propellers and outward turning fixed propeller configurations
is when the transverse thrust of the astern engine and offset forces are working
together in the same direction.
Transverse thrust is a relatively weak force and generally only becomes noticeable when
operating the engine astern once you lose the effect of the rudder. Some vessels will
have slightly different turning circles from port to starboard and this can be attributed
to the transverse thrust assisting or slowing the turn.
Transverse thrust is a characteristic of the vessel that needs to be considered but can be
used to your advantage in many situations.
43
Manoeuvring Characteristics Learning Outcome

LO2-3
The manoeuvring characteristics of vessels are affected by various factors discussed in
LO2-2. These include the controllable elements which can be influenced and the Explain how to
uncontrollable elements which can only be recognised and allowed for. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
It is necessary to provide and make available as much information as possible to the all conditions
bridge team to ensure a vessel can be manoeuvred safely. Some of the sources from
which a vessel’s manoeuvring characteristics are ascertained include:  Manoeuvring
characteristics
 Sea Trial Data
 Stability Data
 Technical Data
 Construction Diagrams
 General Arrangement Plans
This information is then gathered and displayed in various formats and documents
onboard, some of which are:
 Pilot Card
 Wheelhouse Poster
 Squat Tables
 Wind Area Tables
 Increase in Draft due to Heel Graph
Sea Trials
Every new vessel and vessels that have under gone significant modifications will be
required to undergo sea trials by their classification society. The results recorded during
these trials will then be used to produce the wheelhouse posters.
The principle sea trial tests will include:-
 Speed trial: using the maximum speed in both ballast and loaded conditions,
usually at 90% of the maximum engine load.
44
 Crash stop in different loaded conditions; from maximum service speed full Learning Outcome
astern is ordered and the rudder put hard over. The time taken to stop along LO2-3
with the drift and advance are recorded. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Manoeuvring
characteristics
These emergency stopping manoeuvres are required to be posted on the navigation

bridge and on the pilot card, the information available should include:
 Trajectories of full astern stopping manoeuvres plotted along with turning

(maximum rudder)
 Diagram of the stopping characteristics, including information on the distance

travelled, speed and time to stop for approaching speeds corresponding to
slow ahead, half ahead, full ahead and full sea ahead.
 Full astern manoeuvring is to be presented with a line connecting all possible

vessel dead in the water positions.
Note: The aforementioned must be presented for fully loaded conditions (These are
produced during sea trials).
 Endurance test: testing the engine and associated temperatures for an extended
period.
45
 Manoeuvring trial: testing and recording turning circles to port and starboard in Learning Outcome
ballast and loaded conditions. The speed of a ship during a normal turn is LO2-3
interesting in so much that it suffers a marked reduction. As the ship is sliding Explain how to
sideways and ahead, the exposed side experiences a substantial increase in water manoeuvre and
resistance, which in turn acts as a brake. The following information for the handle the ship in
vessel’s turning circles is required to be posted on the navigation bridge and on all conditions
the pilot card, the information available should include:
 Manoeuvring
characteristics
 Expected turn trajectory of the centre of gravity and another point

furthest from it.
 Trajectories must be shown in a rectangular coordinate system with the
origin at the point where the rudder was deflected.
 The length units used must be cables (cb).
 Time and speed when the vessel turns 90, 180, 270 and 360 degrees
from the original course.
 Zig-zag test: an amount of helm is applied alternately to either side after a known
heading deviation.
 Emergency Manoeuvres such as man overboard.
These tests will be undertaken in different loaded conditions and water depths. Sea-
keeping tests in different swell and weather conditions are also required on some
vessels including passenger ships to test comfort and the potential for hull damage.
Tests will also be conducted on auxiliary manoeuvring equipment including thrusters to

prove their effectiveness in different conditions.
46
Below is an example of a wheelhouse poster which illustrates how the data is displayed. Learning Outcome
LO2-3
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Manoeuvring
characteristics
Pilot Card
The pilot card is the recognised method of displaying the manoeuvring characteristics of
a vessel for the Pilot when he or she boards a vessel. The information should be
produced using a standard format; an example of which can be found in the ICS Bridge
Procedures Guide. This will ensure all the necessary data and information is included
and easily identifiable at a glance when required.
47
A Pilot card typically includes:- Learning Outcome

LO2-3
 Vessel dimensions, drafts and tonnages
 Engine type, power and speeds Explain how to
manoeuvre and
 Critical revs, air starts and delays
handle the ship in
 Steering information including type of rudders, thrusters and propellers with all conditions
further details of power, direction, limitations and idiosyncrasies
 Turning Circles and stopping distances  Manoeuvring
characteristics
 Details of any defects
Pilot cards may differ from ship to ship in line with companies individual management
systems. They should however, all be displayed in a format which allows for the
information to be readily identified.
Master Pilot Exchange

At the beginning of any act of pilotage the Master will inform the Pilot regarding the
vessel’s particulars and propulsion configuration and the Pilot will pass on information
specific to that pilotage area, such as expected traffic, navigation warnings, weather and
tidal conditions. The vessel’s manoeuvre can then be discussed and planned.
Master to Pilot
1. Present Position, Engine settings and helm / course at present
2. Intended passage plan
3. Completed Pilot card: Handling characteristics; squat; peculiarities with
machinery; emergency manoeuvers; defects and deficiencies; critical RPM
4. Cargo; hazardous cargo; berthing requirements or usual practices
5. Set up of navigational equipment and role of members of bridge team
Pilot to Master
1. Passage plan to be followed
2. Special traffic; type; when and where meeting these; work in channel harbour
like dredging
3. New navigational hazards; environmental factors like tide/tidal stream, effect
of wind
4. Any new reporting requirements/by-laws
5. Readiness times for anchors; tugs; berthing
Passage plan to be discussed and agreed with pilot, including:

Radio & Reporting points
Bridge manning
Use of tugs
This transfer of information is known as the ‘Master Pilot Exchange’. The passing of
information will continue throughout the pilotage whenever deviations from the
original plan occur and when more information such as berthing and mooring
arrangements becomes available.
48
The pilot card and passage plan are among the resources that contribute towards the Learning Outcome
information exchange process. It is important to remember that initial plans often have LO2-3
to be adapted as circumstances change and as a result, the passage plan is a live
document. Pilotage is a constant risk assessment which has to be conducted using the Explain how to
latest information and resources available, therefore a departure from the initial plan is manoeuvre and
common practice. The initial plan however is essential to provide an overall framework handle the ship in
and understanding of how the operation is expected to be executed. all conditions
 Manoeuvring
The exchange of information is commonly completed verbally between the Master and characteristics
Pilot with the documents being used as reference items and reminders.
49
Learning Outcome
LO2-3
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Manoeuvring
characteristics
50
Learning Outcome
LO2-3
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Manoeuvring
characteristics
51
Manoeuvring Procedures for Berthing and Unberthing Learning Outcome

LO2-4
There are numerous scenarios with regard to manoeuvring that can be executed in
different ways. Individual Pilots and Masters will have developed their own styles and Explain how to
preferred methods but all will obey the basic principles. Each manoeuvre will be manoeuvre and
adjusted to take into account the conditions but also the manoeuvring characteristics of handle the ship in
the vessel. all conditions
 Berthing and
All vessels handle differently and this depends on the propulsion arrangement fitted unberthing
onboard. For instance, a vessel fitted with bow thrusters, controllable pitch propellers, manoeuvres
twin screw, high performance rudders, nozzles and azipods can be manoeuvred far
differently than a conventional vessel fitted with basic equipment.
It is important that the basic ship handling principles are observed and that the
limitations of every vessel are recognised. An example of this is that a vessel fitted with
a bow thruster can approach a berth stern first with sternway under full control,
something that is not considered normal practice on a conventional vessel without a
thruster.
Whenever possible, there are some basic principles that should be observed in order to
execute a safe manoeuvre. A controlled approach speed is one of these principles; the
angle and speed of the approach to a pier or jetty are of prime importance. The speed
must be carefully judged and monitored to ensure that the vessel is always under
control, bearing in mind the effect that tide and current can have on steerage. The
approach angle must be such that the vessel can be safely positioned without sustaining
damage and without damaging the jetty or other ships which may be berthed nearby.
It is always easy to increase speed to keep the ship under control but difficult to reduce
speed quickly and still maintain control of the vessel. It is for this reason that it is
important to always maintain a controlled speed. In order to maintain steerage way and
maximise the turning force of the rudder, using kicks ahead is very affective without
increasing speed excessively.
Another important principle to observe is appreciating the effect of transverse thrust

and to use it to your advantage wherever possible.
Throughout this section, various manoeuvres will be discussed and each will be based
on using a conventional vessel. For the benefit of the examples, to make these
manoeuvres realistic without tug assistance the vessel is deemed to be:
 LOA 100m
 Approximately 4000 Tonnes DWT/GT
 Fixed pitch right handed propeller
 Conventional rudder
 No thrusters
52
Where appropriate it will be suggested how the manoeuvres can be executed Learning Outcome
differently if thrusters or other equipment is available. The procedures discussed are LO2-4
one way of completing the manoeuvres and each ship handler may choose to execute
their manoeuvre in a different manner. The order of mooring lines and the use of Explain how to
fenders are examples of adjustments that are sometimes appropriate. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
Fixed Piers and Jetties all conditions
Berthing port side to - no wind  Berthing and

unberthing
1. Approach the berth at an angle around 30° slightly aft of required position manoeuvres
2. Use a controlled safe speed
3. When one ship’s length off the quay, put rudder to starboard and engine to
astern – this takes all way off and induces the vessel to swing to starboard
4. Once the vessel is parallel to the berth, send a headline ashore
5. Rudder to midships, stop engines
Berthing starboard side to - no wind
1. Approach the berth at an angle around 10° using a controlled safe speed – the
transverse thrust acts against swinging towards the berth
2. Put the rudder over to port and give a kick ahead on the engine – the stern will
move to starboard
3. Stop engine and then put astern – this stops the vessel and should bring the
ship parallel to the berth
4. Send a sternline ashore
In this manoeuvre a port
swing is created before
coming astern to
counteract the transverse
thrust created from the
astern movement.
53
Departure - port side alongside Learning Outcome

LO2-4
1. Single up to forward spring, put rudder hard to port and dead slow ahead on
the engine Explain how to
manoeuvre and
2. Once stern is swinging clear, rudder to midships and let go spring line, engine
handle the ship in
half astern (vessel will move to position 3) all conditions
3. Stop engine, rudder to starboard and come ahead on the engine
 Berthing and
unberthing
manoeuvres
The transverse thrust from the astern engine movement swings the bow to starboard
clear of the berth as the vessel moves astern.
Departure - starboard side alongside
1. Single up to forward spring and aft breast line, place fender on starboard bow,
rudder to starboard and dead slow ahead on the engine
2. Once stern is swinging clear, rudder to midships and let go the forward spring,
engine slow astern
3. Once vessel moving bodily clear of the berth, stop engine and let go aft breast
line
When the weight comes on to the aft breast line this will over power the weaker force
of the transverse thrust and the bow will swing to port as the vessel starts to move
astern.
54
Departure – head current Learning Outcome

LO2-4
1. Single up to head line and aft spring line, slack headline until bow is pushed
away from berth – the force of water will push the stern away from the quay Explain how to
manoeuvre and
2. Ahead on the engine and let go head line
handle the ship in
3. Stop engine and let go spring line aft all conditions
4. Ahead on the engine and move clear of the berth
 Berthing and
unberthing
manoeuvres
A wedge of water created by the force of the current will develop between the vessel
and the berth lifting the bow and creating a gentle swing to starboard. With a weak
current a kick astern on the engine will help lift the bow.
Departure – stern current
1. Single up to forward spring line and stern line, slack stern line until stern is
pushed away from berth – the force of water will push the bow away from the
quay also
2. Let go all lines, engine to astern
3. Vessel will move clear of the berth
55
The current flow has to be strong enough between the bow and the quay to overpower Learning Outcome
the relatively weak force of the transverse thrust. LO2-4
All the manoeuvres discussed are either using the transverse thrust to assist or are Explain how to
allowing for it if is working against the vessel in the manoeuvre. Where there is a manoeuvre and
current it is used to assist with the manoeuvre. If the vessel was fitted with a bow handle the ship in
thruster the same manoeuvres would be appropriate but the thruster would give all conditions
greater control of the bow and at the same time allow the effect of transverse thrust to  Berthing and
be counteracted or controlled. unberthing
manoeuvres
Sometimes when the wind and current are in opposing directions the ship handler must
decide which is going to be the most influential factor. Which side to berth alongside is
not always decided until you are in the final approaches when an assessment can be
made. This is often determined by the loaded condition of the vessel as loaded vessels
are more influenced by tide and ballasted vessels are more influenced by the wind.
When departing a berth the assessment is easier as you have the ability to single up to
the springs and observe how the vessel reacts. Weight may come on to the forward or
aft springs; these are usually the last lines to be let go and the lines used to spring the
vessel off.
Single and Multi Buoy Moorings
When approaching a mooring buoy it is important to be head to wind or tide to

maintain maximum control of the vessel. Due allowance should be made on the angle of
approach for the transverse thrust that will be experienced when coming astern on the
engine. Adjusting the approach angle with relation to the current can also be used to
control the vessel’s position and ability to crab into the required position.
Making fast to a buoy

Several preparations must be made prior to a vessel mooring to a buoy. These
preparations include making ready:
 Heaving lines
 Messenger line to pass out the slip wire
 Mooring ropes
 Rope tails / toggle / shackle
 Slip wire
 Lashings – securing the slip wire to bitts
56
Mooring to buoys – wind / tide ahead Learning Outcome

1. Vessel to approach at slow speed, head to tide LO2-4
2. For buoy on port bow, rudder to port to move Explain how to
towards buoy manoeuvre and
3. When bow close to buoy, stop vessel over handle the ship in
ground and stem tide, send headlines all conditions
 Berthing and
The use of mooring boats is necessary to run the lines
unberthing
unless there is a pickup buoy with a messenger line
manoeuvres
Unmooring from buoys – wind / tide ahead
1. Single up to slip wire, rudder hard over to

starboard, stem the tide
2. Once vessel clear of buoy, let go slip wire
3. Engine ahead as soon as slip wire released
By letting go the aft lines first the vessel remains

securely moored and under control using the engine
until you let go the last line.
Unmooring from buoy – wind / tide astern
1. Single up to slip wire fore and aft, shorten up on aft

slip wire so that prop will be clear as soon as wire is let
go
2. Let go aft slip wire, engine astern – prevents vessel
running onto the forward buoy
3. Tide will pivot the vessel around the buoy, when vessel
beam to tide stop engine
4. Once vessel head to tide, kick ahead on the engine and
let go slip wire
57
The method used to secure to the buoys can vary considerably. Sometimes there is a Learning Outcome
chain or wire from the buoy or a line or anchor cable from the vessel is used. A slip wire LO2-4
on a bite which is quick to rig is used as the first and last line between the vessel and
buoy to allow time to rig the heavier more permanent arrangement. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
It is important to be able to release the slip wire sometimes when it has weight on. It is handle the ship in
therefore imperative that the slip wire is not secured by the eye but is only turned up all conditions
and capable of being released from either end of the bite.  Berthing and
unberthing
Tanker Loading Buoys manoeuvres
A single buoy mooring (SBM) sometimes

known as single-point mooring (SPM) is a
loading buoy anchored offshore. These
serve as a mooring point and connection
for tankers loading or offloading gas or
liquid products. They are capable of
handling any size ship, including very
large crude carriers (VLCC) where no
alternative berthing facility is available. A
tanker is moored to a buoy by means of
a hawser arrangement. The arrangement
usually consists of a nylon rope but
varies from one installation to another.
The systems are required to comply with
the recommendations in the OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum) guide.
The approach to the buoy would be made head to wind and tide and as near to slack
water as possible. Tug assistance is common with a tug aft being used to control the
headway as well as assisting with the steering as required. Generally a mooring boat will
assist the vessel in retrieving the hawser if there is no other arrangement. Operations
will be governed by weather restrictions for the location of each individual mooring,
many of which are in exposed locations
58
Learning Outcome
LO2-4
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Berthing and
unberthing
manoeuvres
Entering and leaving locks and docks
There are various factors that may

affect the choice of manoeuvre A Multi Purpose Offshore Support vessel
which is used when entering or departing Leith docks through a lock system
departing a lock or dock.
The geography of the approaches

The geography of the approach to
a lock or dock entrance may
determine if you are able to steam
unassisted into the entrance. If you
are able to make your approach in
this way at a controlled speed you
can then arrange for mooring lines
to be handled and carried up the quay side and placed on the bollards when requested.
The dimensions of the dock entrance

If the beam of the vessel is small in relation to the dock entrance then it may be possible
to transit the entrance without assistance. If there is only a small clearance on either
side then it will be necessary to reduce the speed to a minimum to maintain control. As
you enter the dock it then may be necessary to increase your engine power to
overcome the water pressure from the resistance of the water which you are displacing
as it flows out. The water flowing out can cushion you from the dock walls and care
must be taken to reduce the engine power when you begin to lose the resistance. It
may be necessary to allow the shoulder of the vessel to land gently on one side of the
cut and then run gently in to the dock under full control resting on one side.
59
The current flow at the dock entrance Learning Outcome

If there is a cross current at the dock entrance then it may be prudent to land the vessel LO2-4
gently alongside outside the dock entrance. Many locks with cross currents have a berth
or set of fender piles or roller dolphins that you can rest on before sliding into the Explain how to
entrance under full control with little lateral movement. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
The manoeuvrability of the vessel all conditions
A conventional vessel with limited manoeuvrability will have to adopt the more  Berthing and
conventional controlled approach to docks and locks. Other vessels however, with unberthing
thrusters or with DP may be able to enter at slow speeds unassisted and still maintain manoeuvres
full control.
The fendering at the entrance

On the corners of the dock there are often fenders, rollers or dolphins that are designed
for the ship to rest on before entering or leaving the dock. If there is nothing in place to
assist then it may be possible to rig fenders on your own vessel if practicable. If this not
possible, the vessel should wait until slack water or use tug assistance so that the risk of
damage is avoided.
Adjacent layby berths

In addition to fenders some dock entrances will have adjacent berths which will allows
for a vessel to berth safely alongside outside the dock and then manoeuvre into the
dock under its own power or using lines to assist.
Dry Docking
The basic principles for entering a dock or lock apply to dry docking as well, with the
exception that the use of thrusters and propellers is usually prohibited once past the sill
of the dock. This is because the blocks are in danger of being displaced from their pre-
set position by the turbulence created either by the propellers or thrusters. When
entering a drydock, the following procedure should be observed.
• Line up the bow of the vessel in the

A vessel entering drydock with a tug at
dock entrance and run a head line on the stern and her sternline connected to
either side of the bow. A mooring a shore winch.
boat may be necessary to deploy the
initial lines.
• If necessary, rest the vessel on one

side of the entrance to gain
maximum control.
• The vessel can then be lined up with the dock under her own power but sometimes
with tug assistance if required.
60
Learning Outcome
• The vessel can be moved into the dock with small kicks on the engine (provided the LO2-4
propellers are outside the dock) or with a shore winch and wires that are
sometimes available. Occasionally a vessel may also be required to pull herself into Explain how to
the dock using her mooring lines and winches, with the lines being moved along the manoeuvre and
dock by linesmen. handle the ship in
all conditions
• The headlines are used to control the bow and are carried up the dock when they
 Berthing and
become too short. If there is sufficient man power and lines, a second set of
unberthing
headlines can be used so there is always one set on the bollards ashore. manoeuvres
• The vessel continues to move ahead at a controlled speed continually moving the
headlines up the dock until the final position is reached.
• Stern lines from each quarter are run ashore as soon as possible to control the
stern.
• Additional ship’s fenders should be available and deployed as necessary as the

vessel transits the dock cut.
• Thrusters and engines should not be used once inside the dock sill and variable
pitch propellers should be declutched.
• The lines can be used to stop the vessel and if required a tug aft which can usually
assist by remaining outside the gates.
• The vessel will then be lined up using plumb lines and other more sophisticated
equipment.
• Shore wires are usually connected to the vessel to fine tune the final position.
61
Undocking Learning Outcome

This is a reverse of the procedure for docking although there are a few differences. LO2-4
Explain how to
 The vessel is held in position by head and stern lines once afloat.
manoeuvre and
 The vessel is moved slowly down the dock into the cut using the lines and tug handle the ship in
assistance if required. all conditions
 Berthing and
 The lines are transferred down the dock to maintain control. unberthing
manoeuvres
 Some dry docks will allow the thrusters to be used on departure.
 It may be necessary to slow the vessel down or even stop it in the dock cut to
make fast additional tugs as it is common for vessels to leave the dock without
engines and layby on an adjacent berth.
 Once the vessel is under full control with engines and or tugs fast then you can
manoeuvre clear of the dock cut as necessary, letting go the final headlines.
Warping Along Jetties
Warping along jetties is an operation which is common on vessels that are regularly
required to move for cargo operations. Whilst it is more practicable on smaller vessels
and in good conditions can be completed without tug assistance, it is also possible on
larger vessels with great care and pre-planning. With an offshore wind the operation is
a lot higher risk and should not be attempted without a full knowledge of the vessel
and the capability of the mooring equipment.
62
When planning to move a vessel along a jetty, the following principles should be Learning Outcome
observed: LO2-4
 Ensure there are sufficient fenders Explain how to

manoeuvre and
 Check for overhangs on board and ashore handle the ship in
all conditions
 Hold pre-planning meeting with mooring parties
 Berthing and
 Single up to a manageable number of lines unberthing
manoeuvres
 Use springs to heave vessel along the quay and adjust head and stern lines to
keep vessel flat alongside the quay
 Stop vessel if necessary to carry lines along quayside to the next bollard
Position
 Move lines one at time to ensure vessel remains alongside and under control
 Once in desired position redeploy full moorings
 If required, use tug to push vessel when there is an off shore wind
Larger vessels required to execute

this manoeuvre may require
additional towage to assist. During
this manoeuvre, it is important to
maintain full control of the vessel
and if possible keep it flat alongside
the quay. An angle to the quayside
could cause the flare of the bow or
stern to come over the quay and
make contact with bollards, cranes
or loading arms. Effective
communications between the
bridge team and mooring parties is
essential during manoeuvres such
as this.
63
Turning Short Round Learning Outcome

Turning a vessel ‘short round’ means to turn the vessel in a restricted area by using LO2-4
ahead and astern movements. This may be in a harbour or river, or in an anchorage
Explain how to
where space is limited. As with any manoeuvre it is necessary to make the usual
manoeuvre and
preparations with regards to communications and anchor preparations. The
handle the ship in
manoeuvres discussed use both transverse thrust and current to assist.
all conditions
Turning short round - slack water
 Berthing and
1. Move over to the port side of the channel and reduce speed, maintaining unberthing
steerage manoeuvres
2. Put the rudder to starboard, kick ahead on the engine – vessel will start to
swing
3. As vessel makes headway, stop engines and put rudder to midships
4. Put engine astern – vessel will continue swing to starboard
5. When vessel makes sternway, stop engine, rudder to starboard and kick ahead
on the engine
6. Continue to kick ahead / astern until vessel completes turn
Turning short round – current ahead

1. Move over to the port side of the channel and reduce speed, maintaining
steerage
2. Put the rudder to starboard, cant the bow into the current – current will push
bow round
3. Put engine astern if necessary, transverse thrust assists with the turn
64
Turning short round – current astern Learning Outcome

1. Move over to the port side of the channel and reduce speed, maintaining LO2-4
steerage Explain how to
2. Put the rudder to starboard manoeuvre and
3. Once mid way through turn and bow facing bank, put engine astern – transverse handle the ship in
thrust will continue to swing the vessel to starboard all conditions
 Berthing and
unberthing
manoeuvres
The manoeuvres may require you to repeat the ahead and astern movements several
times. The starting air and the number of consecutive engine starts may be a restriction
on the number of movements you can execute however.
With strong winds and currents bold engine movements will be necessary to turn the
vessel; otherwise the turn may stall with the vessel across the wind or tide. If there is
insufficient water area then swinging the vessel with use of the anchor is an alternative
option.
Berthing Alongside Other Vessels

There are various scenarios whereby vessels must berth alongside one another such as
for lightening operations, to bunker the vessel or transfer cargo. This can take place
either:
• Whilst alongside
• At anchor or moored to buoys
• Whilst underway
•
The preparations required for all such scenarios should include:-
• Fully approved ship to ship (STS) plan

• SMS Checklist for Ship to Ship transfers
• Risk Assessment
• Adequate fenders
• Mooring plan
• Firefighting plan
• Agreed system of communications (such as VHF Channel)
• Permission from the port / VTS
65
Berthing alongside another vessel is a common manoeuvre required on many occasions Learning Outcome
which include bunkering, cargo transfers and Pilot transfer. This can either take place LO2-4
within port limits where quaysides are restricted or where vessels are laid up alongside,
on buoys or at anchor. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
It is recognised that tanker ship to ship operations are required to have a formal plan handle the ship in
and should follow the vessel’s Safety Management System (SMS) which should in turn all conditions
conform to the guidelines set down in OCIMF.
 Berthing and
Berthing alongside another vessel is considered to be a relatively high risk manoeuvre unberthing
therefore the operation requires careful planning and execution. Consequently this manoeuvres
should only be carried out in relatively calm conditions and in sheltered waters
whenever possible.
Overhangs such as bridge wings, helidecks

and cranes should be considered when
vessels are of similar size. Smaller vessels
such as bunker barges need to be
particularly aware of the flare on larger
vessels at the bow and the counter of the
stern. Often bunker points on some vessels
make it difficult for the barge to position on
the flat side of the larger vessel.
Fenders
Fenders should be deployed from one vessel and should be adequate to hold both the
vessels apart taking into account for any list that might occur during operations by
either vessel.
 Fenders in place for a Product Tanker to come alongside a Drillship for

bunkering.
Moorings
Mooring lines are usually run from the
approaching vessel or smaller vessel on to the
stationary vessel. It is not always possible to have
ideal leads on the lines particularly if there is large
size and height difference between vessels.
Heaving lines will need to be lowered from the
high vessel to assist with the running of lines.
 Headlines and spring lines sent from

the Product Tanker to the Drillship.
66
Below is an example of a Ship to Ship transfer checklist from the SMS Learning Outcome
LO2-4
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Berthing and
unberthing
manoeuvres
67
When berthing alongside another vessel at anchor or moored to buoys great skill and Learning Outcome
judgement will be required on the approach as the moored vessel is likely to be yawing. LO2-4
Whilst underway, it would not be usual or common to berth alongside another vessel Explain how to
with the exception of pilot transfer or small boats such as rescue craft. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
Ship to ship transfers such as ‘Replenishment At Sea’ (RAS) operations carried out all conditions
between RFA and Naval vessels are regularly carried out whilst the vessels are making  Berthing and
way. One vessel will maintain its course and speed whilst the other vessel will unberthing
manoeuvre into the required position. The operation will be undertaken at a speed manoeuvres
which will take in to consideration the interaction between the vessels and leave
sufficient reserve power to manoeuvre out of any danger.
Ship to ship transfers can also take place when vessels are fitted with Dynamic
Positioning (DP). This system enables a vessel to maintain its position accurately without
the need for anchoring or mooring.
Vessels engaged in bunkering

operations
68
Manoeuvring Procedures for Anchoring Learning Outcome

LO2-5
Use of anchor when berthing
Explain how to
There are numerous scenarios with regard to manoeuvring that require the use of the
manoeuvre and
anchors. In different weather conditions, using the anchor can give the ship handler
handle the ship in
more control over the vessel.
all conditions
Berthing with an Onshore Wind  Anchoring
1. Approach the berth at about 60° to the quay, dead slow ahead on the engine
2. Stop the vessel when the bow is level to the centre of the berth, let go the offshore
anchor – short stay
3. Put the rudder hard over to port, kick ahead on the engine if required to control
the stern and dredge the anchor in towards the berth
4. As you approach the berth, pay out the anchor
5. Once the bow is just off the berth, hold onto the anchor
6. As the stern closes towards the berth, a kick ahead will cushion the stern
7. Stop engine, send lines ashore, slack anchor or heave in
The anchor in the illustration above has been let go approximately a ship’s length off
the quay and is used to help break the bow as the vessel is blown alongside.
Dredging the anchor is a method that gives greater control and the anchor should be let
go several ship’s lengths from the quay. The scope of the cable used should be
approximately two times the water depth. This will allow the vessel to operate the
engine ahead against the anchor maintaining steerage on the approach.
Nearing the berth the engine can be stopped and the anchor will have the effect of
slowing or stopping the vessel and holding the bow up to the wind. With the vessel
slowing and stopping with the resistance of the anchor, the stern will swing to port with
the wind, towards the quay. With the bow controlled by the anchor the approach of the
stern can be controlled by kicks ahead on the engine and port helm as required. With a
controllable pitch propeller the manoeuvre has greater control because ahead pitch can
be maintained throughout against the anchor cable and the vessel can be held in a
stopped position but at the same time maintaining water flow over the rudder,
therefore controlling the stern.
69
Berthing with an Offshore Wind Learning Outcome

1. Approach the quay at a steep angle LO2-5
keeping the bow up wind using port Explain how to
rudder, aim for the aft end of the berth manoeuvre and
2. Once a ship’s length off the quay, let handle the ship in
go the offshore anchor and dredge in all conditions
towards the quay, use the engine and  Anchoring
rudder to keep the bow up wind until
head and stern lines can be sent
ashore
3. Give a kick astern to bring the stern in, make lines fast
In stronger winds dredging the anchor in from several ships lengths will allow for
greater control. Using a scope of cable approximately two times the water depth, make
a broad approach aiming for the middle of the berth and adjust the engine speed
allowing the anchor to slow you down. Port helm will be required to allow for the
anchor continuously forcing the bow to starboard.
In this scenario, when nearing the berth run a spring line forward, stop or slow the
engine to allow the vessel to stop and then use the engine ahead with starboard helm
to lift the stern alongside whilst running a breast line aft. All the time the bow is
controlled by the starboard anchor and the forward spring will check the vessel’s
headway allowing the use of the engine ahead to lift the stern. A controllable pitch
propeller will give greater control allowing the ship’s speed to be balanced against the
resistance of the anchor.
The use of anchors when berthing gives extra control of the vessel particularly in windy
conditions. However there will become a stage when the wind speed becomes too
excessive for the use of anchors to be sufficient and tug assistance will need to be
considered.
Berthing with current from astern

1. Approach the berth at a shallow angle, stemming the tide
2. As soon as practicable, send stern lines ashore from starboard quarter
3. Cant the bow to starboard, let go port anchor, let it sit on sea bed
4. Once weight is taken on stern ropes and stern is clear of jetty, weigh port anchor
5. As the current starts to push the bow around, let go port anchor again
6. Allow the vessel to be swung around in a controlled manner, paying out on the
anchor cable
7. Send headlines and spring lines ashore as soon as practicable
70
Turning on an anchor Learning Outcome

With the manoeuvre ‘turning short round’ sometimes there is insufficient sea room or a LO2-5
strong current. Turning on an anchor allows you to turn within the length of your own
Explain how to
vessel, without the need to use numerous engine movements.
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
1. Reduce speed but maintain steerage, clear both anchors
all conditions
2. Cant bow towards starboard bank, let go starboard anchor – short stay
3. Engine to astern, stop vessel  Anchoring
4. Current will push the stern, vessel will swing around the anchor
5. Once vessel is stemming the current, engine to slow ahead and heave in
anchor
The illustration shows the manoeuvre with a following current from astern. With slack
water or a weak current from ahead, it is possible to turn the vessel using ahead
movements on the engine and the rudder to starboard. It may be necessary to use more
cable in this case to give you more resistance to drive the ship around through the turn.
Turning to starboard with the transverse thrust or head to wind will also allow you
greater control and assist the turn.
Single and multiple anchor operations

Although not a common practice, mooring with anchors is still used in some areas
around the world, particularly in rivers and harbours where there is restricted swinging
room. There is always the chance of a fouled hawse if you are unable to control the
direction of the vessel’s swing. At slack water the use of the bow thruster or a kick on
the engine and the use of the rudder can be used to influence the swing in the required
direction until the flow strengthens.
The following illustrations of different moors are generic and can be adapted to suit the
manoeuvring characteristics and capabilities of individual vessels.
Anchoring a Large Vessel

When anchoring a large vessel, there are a few additional points to note. Very large
vessels require extra caution during anchoring operations as it takes longer to stop the
vessel’s inertia. A large vessel should be stopped prior to anchoring as their anchoring
systems are not designed to stop a ship with way on. Mariners must pay attention to
the excessive load placed on the windlass machinery because of the large momentum
which is due to the very high displacement of large vessels, even when the speed of the
vessel is minimal. The weight and inertia of a very large vessel could be enough to snap
the links of an anchor chain.
71
When planning on anchoring a large vessel, the following points should be considered: Learning Outcome
LO2-5
 The vessel should be stopped in the water for letting go, head to tide / wind
 The anchor should be paid out under control using the windlass Explain how to
 Once the anchor is on the seabed, the vessel should start moving astern to ensure the manoeuvre and
anchor cable is paid out along the seabed in a controlled manner handle the ship in
all conditions
Another option would be to let go the anchor after lowering it to the sea bed but for this
procedure the brakes must be in very good condition to control the speed or stop the cable  Anchoring
paying out.
Both OCIMF and the Nautical Institute have published guidance on anchoring which should be
consulted for further information.
Open Moor
1. Stem the current and position the vessel
where you want the line of anchors to be -
stop the vessel over the ground
2. Let the current take the vessel astern, once
making sternway let go starboard anchor
3. Pay out 4/5 shackles and then hold
4. Engine to slow ahead and cant the bow to port
until 60° off original position
5. When level with starboard anchor, straighten
up and stop engine
6. Once making sternway, let go port anchor and
pay out 4/5 shackles
7. Stop engines and let the vessel be brought up
It is important that the angle between the anchor cables does not exceed 120° as this is
the angle at which the stress on each cable is equivalent to that of one cable lying
ahead. If the angle exceeds 120° it is known as a ‘tight span’.
The open moor as well as

increasing holding power and
reducing the swinging circle can
also help to reduce ‘yawing’. On
vessels with forward
accommodation where the
centre of windage area is further
forward than a conventional
vessel, yawing is a common
problem. It can sometimes make
anchoring very uncomfortable
even in moderate conditions.
72
Standing Moor Learning Outcome

1. Position the vessel head to tide or wind, whichever is greatest LO2-5
2. Steam past the position you intend to moor, stopping when 4/5 shackles beyond Explain how to
intended position manoeuvre and
3. Once tide starts to bring vessel astern, let go the leeward anchor, 9 shackles and hold handle the ship in
4. Heave on the leeward anchor, once the ship starts to come ahead, let go windward all conditions
anchor
 Anchoring
5. Pay out the windward anchor and heave up on the leeward anchor
6. Bring the vessel up to 5 shackles on the ebb and 4 on the flood
The standing moor is suitable for dead ship situations when the vessel is being towed.
The tug and towed vessel can head into the tide and let go the leeward anchor, allowing
for the tide to take the vessel astern. The second anchor can then be let go also,
without the need for engines to be used.
Running Moor
A running moor is quicker and more commonly used in weak current streams when the
vessel can manoeuvre easily. During this manoeuvre, the ship handler maintains full
control over the power, helm and anchors in comparison to the standing moor which is
suitable for a disabled vessel that has no control. This type of moor is therefore
generally preferred as the ship handler has more control over the manoeuvre.
1. Position the vessel head to tide or wind, whichever is greatest

2. Once 4 shackles from the position you intend to moor, let go windward anchor whilst
continuing to steam ahead
3. Once 9 shackles have been paid out, hold and let tide take vessel astern
4. Once tide starts to bring vessel astern, let go the leeward anchor
5. Pay out the leeward anchor and heave up on the windward anchor
6. Bring the vessel up to 5 shackles on the ebb and 4 on the flood
73
With a running moor and a standing moor Learning Outcome

the final result is the same as the vessel LO2-5
has deployed both anchors and rides to
the upstream anchor at any one time. The Explain how to
standing moor is often used in stronger manoeuvre and
tides or on less manoeuvrable vessels handle the ship in
because the upstream anchor is let go first all conditions
and is used to control the vessel whilst the  Anchoring
downstream anchor is set. This
manoeuvre takes longer however as the
vessel passes the final position twice
before completing the moor.
Mediterranean Moor
The Mediterranean moor is commonly used where there is limited quay space or by Ro-
Ro vessels’ with stern ramps on to a quayside. It is also common in marinas to maximise
the use of quay space. This moor also enables secure mooring and ease of departing
berths when there is a prevailing onshore wind which is fairly common in the
Mediterranean. The manoeuvre and approach may need to be adjusted depending on
the wind and current relative to the berth and also the manoeuvring capabilities of the
vessel.
1. Approach parallel to the quay, once 2 ship’s lengths off let go offshore (stbd)
anchor
2. Rudder hard to starboard, allow vessel to run on
3. Stop vessel and engine astern – transverse thrust will keep vessel swinging, once
vessel starts to make sternway let go port anchor
4. Allow vessel to drop astern and pay out on both cables until in position, send
stern lines ashore crossed
74
Learning Outcome
LO2-5
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Anchoring
Baltic Moor
The Baltic Moor is used in ports where there is a strong onshore wind to prevent
damage to the jetty or vessel. In this manoeuvre, the vessel’s anchor and stern mooring
wire are used to make a controlled approach to the berth. The stern mooring wire is
passed forward and secured in bights using light lashings along the ship’s side. The eye
of the wire is usually connected to the offshore anchor’s ganger shackle.
The anchor cable and stern wire are able to take some of the pressure off the berth,
particularly if the ship is ranging on the quay in the wind and swell. Ship’s fenders
should also be rigged to prevent any damage to the ship’s side.
1. On the approach, send the aft mooring wire forward and secure to the offshore
anchor ganger shackle
2. Approach around 60° to the berth and when the bow is level with the centre of
the berth, around 3 shackles off, let go the offshore anchor
3. Give the engine kicks astern to bring the stern in, pay out on the anchor cable and
let the wind push the vessel slowly towards the berth – the light lashings on the
mooring wire will part and this will pay out too
4. Hold anchor just before vessel is in position, send mooring lines ashore and make
fast – take the weight on the mooring lines before taking the weight on the
anchor and wire as this tends to harden up the inshore moorings, the moorings
will prevent the vessel from ranging up and down the berth
75
Learning Outcome
LO2-5
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Anchoring
Dragging Anchor
All vessels behave differently when at anchor in poor conditions and the cause for
dragging anchor may vary. The ability of a vessel to remain at anchor and hold position
will be affected by some of the factors below:-
 Type, weight and holding power of anchor

 Type and weight of cable
 Heading of vessel relative to wind and swell and any expected changes to
weather conditions
 Holding ground
 Loaded condition of vessel
 Scope of cable
 Swinging room relative to other vessels and obstructions
Every vessel has to conduct a risk assessment prior to anchoring, taking into
consideration the factors above. This is particularly appropriate when poor weather
conditions are expected. The main engines and anchor party should be available at
short notice at all times and placed on immediate stand-by if the vessel is deemed to be
dragging.
Methods of detecting a dragging anchor

There are various ways in which the Officer of the Watch can ascertain if the vessel is
dragging anchor. These methods include:
 Observing navigational information – ECDIS and GPS anchor watch alarms,

radar VRM and EBLs are all useful but transit bearings can always be relied
upon as these do not depend on a power supply
 Vibration along the anchor cable – if the anchor is dragging a strong vibration
can be felt
 Placing a weighted line on the seabed – if the vessel is dragging its anchor, the
line will begin to lead forward and therefore the vessel must be moving astern
76
If it has been determined that the vessel is dragging anchor, the following initial Learning Outcome
actions should be followed: LO2-5
 Call the Master Explain how to

manoeuvre and
 Contact the Engine Room and request power to the windlass handle the ship in
all conditions
 Anchor party to standby
 Stand by engines – ready for immediate manoeuvre  Anchoring
 Inform the port / VTS and surrounding vessels

 Rig fenders if getting close to other vessels and prepare fire fighting appliances
Preventing Dragging Anchor
 If sufficient sea room, pay out more cable to create a better horizontal pull on
the anchor
 Use engines to steam against the weather and relieve some of the weight on
the cable – only a short term option to prevent immediate danger
 Move to a more sheltered area or a place of better holding ground and re-
anchor
 Weigh the anchor and steam until conditions

improve
 Let go a second anchor
Use of a Second Anchor
1. Use the engines to steam ahead to a point

abreast of the first anchor, let go second anchor
2. Pay out on the second anchor until same

amount of shackles are in the water as the first
If using this type of moor, care must be taken if the ship is in a tidal area. At the turn of
the tide when the vessel swings, the cables could become fouled. To avoid this it may be
advisable to heave one anchor clear of the seabed just before the turn of the tide and
re-position once the vessel has swung.
77
Weighing and leaving the anchorage Learning Outcome

LO2-5
When weighing and leaving the anchorage, preparations for the bridge and foc’sle Explain how to
should be followed in accordance with the ship’s safety management procedures. Once manoeuvre and
ready to commence heaving up, the vessel can be manoeuvred as required by using handle the ship in
kicks on the engine or use of a bow thruster if available to minimise the weight on the all conditions
cable. In calm conditions with little tidal flow the anchor winch can usually manage to
recover the cable by drawing the vessel to the anchor but this will also depend on the  Anchoring
vessel’s loaded condition.
The Officer in charge on the foc’sle should provide a regular update to the bridge of the
direction and weight on the cable to enable the vessel to be manoeuvred as required.
There are various methods of reporting the cable direction but usually using compass
points relative to each bow or the clock system with 12 o’clock representing the ship’s
head. If there is excessive weight on the cable then heaving will have to be stopped until
the vessel’s position is adjusted.
Once the anchor is aweigh, the cable will become ‘up and down’ and it is at this stage
the vessel is underway and will become influenced by the wind and current. Until the
vessel gains headway, great care and attention is required to monitor the track of the
vessel as the wind and tide can have a significant affect. It is important to ensure that
the anchor is sighted and clear before significant headway is established.
Before the anchor is aweigh and on a short stay it is sometimes possible particularly on
smaller vessels to use the anchor to adjust the heading of the vessel by using the rudder
and kicks ahead on the engine. When the desired heading is achieved the final stages of
weighing anchor can be completed. This manoeuvre is only achievable in good weather
and in a weak tidal stream.
It is important that good seamanship is observed when leaving the anchorage, passing
astern of other anchored vessels where possible and remaining vigilant at all times
watching for other vessels that may be getting underway at any time.
78
Routine and Emergency Manoeuvres Learning Outcome

LO2-6
The procedures discussed here are concerned principally about the manoeuvre in each
circumstance and will not cover the detail of each operation. Every vessel is required to Explain how to
have procedures under their own safety management system to cover most of the areas manoeuvre and
we are about to discuss. handle the ship in
all conditions
Check lists should be available to assist where practicable, examples of which can be
found in the ICS Bridge Procedures Guide. Use should also be made of all specific and  Routine and
generic publications and industry approved guides which are relevant to each subject emergency
area. manoeuvres
In the vicinity of off-shore installations
Vessels’ passing through areas with offshore installations should use the recommended
routes where ever possible. Every installation has a 500m restricted area surrounding it
and no vessel may enter this area unless permission is given by the installation. These
500m safety zones are established under the 1987 Petroleum Act which is applicable for
installations in UK territorial waters. Every vessel required to enter 500m zone must
complete checklist and tests.
Vessels required to manoeuvre close to installations have to do so with great care at all
times. In the open sea it is not always readily apparent how the wind and tide are
affecting the vessel and ship handlers on vessels operating in close vicinity to
installations must fully appreciate the affect of weather and tidal streams.
Vessels required to work close to installations could include:-
 Supply vessels Dive Support Vessel

 ROV Support vessels
 Dive support vessels
 Survey vessels
 Anchor handlers
 Shuttle tankers
Supply Vessel
ROV Support Vessel
Many of the vessels listed above will be fitted with Dynamic Positioning (DP) equipment
that will allow the vessel to approach the installation very precisely under great control
and enable it to hold position very accurately. Vessels manoeuvring in close proximity to
installations should approach from a position on the leeside, down wind and tide, in
such a position that if equipment was to fail, the vessel would be ‘blown away’ from the
installation.
79
It is also common for some vessels to approach stern first which enables the Master to Learning Outcome
position the working area close to the installation, providing a full view of the vessel’s LO2-6
deck and the installation. This position also enables the vessel to move ahead quickly
away from danger if circumstances require. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
Vessels of this type are usually fitted with variable pitch propellers for fine control to handle the ship in
assist with holding position. In the event of a pitch failure the propeller pitch usually all conditions
defaults to slow ahead or another ahead position in order to take you clear of the
installation.  Routine and
emergency
Vigilance is of great importance when manoeuvring at close quarters to an installation; manoeuvres
weather conditions are often challenging and it is essential you recognise and respect
the limitations of your own vessel. Agreed operational working limits and good
communications with the installation throughout operations are paramount.
Picking up or dropping off a Pilot
When taking on or disembarking a Pilot, the following points should be considered:
 Making a lee for the pilot boat as instructed

 Course and speed will depend on type of pilot vessel, characteristics of the ship, the
relative wind and swell conditions
 High traffic density and restricted waters
 Increased risk of collision with vessels manoeuvring
 Handling characteristics of your vessel at low speeds in confined waters without

assistance
 Preparation of pilot ladder and safety equipment at pilot gate
 Testing of engines and auxiliary

equipment for berthing
 Preparation of anchors and mooring

arrangements
 Familiarisation of port approaches

and boarding area, a contingency
plan in place in case of delays or the
need to abort.
 Prepare pilot master exchange

documentation
 Display correct signals
 Establish communications with Pilot Vessel, VTS and officer at the pilot ladder
80
There are various ways to create a lee to provide shelter and minimise rolling and Learning Outcome
pitching of either vessel. A course will be required from the ship to position the wind LO2-6
and or swell usually on the opposite bow to the side in which the pilot vessel wishes to
come alongside, or on the opposite quarter particularly in larger swells to provide the Explain how to
best lee. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
A further swing to the boarding side is often requested by the pilot vessel as this will all conditions
have the effect of further flattening the waves and give a relative temporary calm  Routine and
enabling the pilot boat to approach and complete the transfer. This period is often emergency
limited in large swells as the ship will begin to roll when the swell comes onto the beam. manoeuvres
Creating a lee by swinging the ship is sometimes referred to as a swept lee and can be
useful in restricted areas.
Pilot boats vary greatly from port to port and it is therefore important to understand
the instructions given for course and speed as they will allow for the capabilities of the
individual pilot craft.
Likewise different ship types and their loaded condition

may determine the appropriate manoeuvre to make
the best lee. Belting, rubbing strakes and other over
side obstructions make pilot boarding more difficult
particularly when the cutter has to ride up and down
the vessels hull in the swell.
81
Great care should be taken when navigating in pilot boarding areas as there is often a Learning Outcome
high density of traffic with an LO2-6
increased risk of collision with
vessels manoeuvring. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
The pilot boat will request a handle the ship in
course and speed but the onus all conditions
remains on the vessel to ensure  Routine and
the request is safe before acting. emergency
From the pilot boat it is not always manoeuvres
possible to be aware of the
surrounding traffic movements
due to the height of eye and the
sea conditions.
As previously discussed it is
important to be aware of how
your vessel is going to manoeuvre
at slow speeds having regard for
the wind, tide and shallow water
affect. Observing other vessels at
anchor will assist in determining
the effect of the tide and wind
which may assist you in holding
position if your pilot is delayed.
Consideration should also be given to an abort position, enabling the vessel to turn
away if pilot boarding is cancelled.
Pilot boarding areas where possible should be such that they allow the pilot and master
sufficient time to complete the “Master Pilot Exchange” and discuss the passage plan
before the vessel is committed to the port. Every port will have its preferred methods
for pilot boarding which will be determined by the type of pilot boats and the
geography of the port approaches.
Operating with tugs and small craft

When operating with tugs and small craft it is important to be aware of the affect your
vessel has on their ability to manoeuvre. It has been discussed previously about the
pressure patterns that are created around vessels when they move through the water
and how the forces are proportional to the square of the speed of the vessel.
In the section on interaction it was illustrated how tugs operating close to a vessel are
affected by the pressure patterns. It is important for this reason that a vessel is slowed
down to a speed for the tugs to manoeuvre safely within their own capabilities.
The pressure patterns will vary between ship types and their loaded condition as well as
the speed of the vessel. Large loaded deep drafted bulk carriers and VLCC’s will push a
considerable mass of water ahead creating greater pressure fields than vessels with fine
lines.
82
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
Different types of tug and the various methods of Use of tugs for entering
operating will each have their own limitations. In drydock in Singapore
general vessels will have to reduce speed to a
maximum of 7 to 8 knots to secure tugs, or in cases where bow to bow towing is used
then a maximum speed of 3 to 4 knots could be required.
There are other factors that should also be considered when working with small craft
which include:-
 Vessel’s wash
 Use of thrusters
 Use of engines
 Variable pitch propellers continuously turning
 Over side discharges
Good communication
between pilots, tugs
and mooring boat
crew is essential to
ensure thrusters and
propellers are not
used without
warning when boats
are operating in the
danger areas.
The view of a large vessel from a small craft at sea level is very intimidating and it is easy
to under estimate the affect a vessel can have on such a craft.
83
Operating with helicopters Learning Outcome

Helicopter operations are common LO2-6
practice at sea, often used for pilot
Explain how to
transfer, crew transfers and emergency or
manoeuvre and
medical evacuation. Depending on the
handle the ship in
circumstances, either commercial or
all conditions
coastguard search and rescue helicopters
could be used.  Routine and
emergency
Preparations for helicopter operations are manoeuvres
essential and should be carried out in
accordance with the ship safety management system using the appropriate check lists.
Preparations for helicopter operations will include:-
 Heli deck/winching zone preparation – ensure free from debris, objects lashed,
adequate lighting, wind sock hoisted
 Communications – to be established between vessel and helicopter
 Firefighting preparations – make ready foam monitors (where fitted) or
prepare portable fire fighting equipment
 Ensure crane operations suspended and cranes are stowed
 For vessels with a helideck, Helicopter Landing Officer (HLO) to prepare flight
manifest and brief Helideck Assistants (HDAs)
Once the vessel has completed preparations and established communications then a
course to steer will be requested from the helicopter to achieve the appropriate relative
wind direction. This will be determined by the location of the operational area to be
used on the vessel and the need for the helicopter pilot to have a view of any
obstructions.
For helicopter winching, the ship must be on a steady course giving minimum ship
motion, as directed by the helicopter pilot. As a guide, relative wind should be
maintained as follows for helicopter winching areas, where possible.
84
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
 Winching area all conditions
aft – wind 30°  Routine and
on Port Bow emergency
manoeuvres
< Winching area midships –

wind 30° on Port Bow or a
beam wind
 Winching area
forward - wind
30° on
Starboard
Quarter
If it is not possible to position the ship according to the above guidelines, the vessel
should remain stationary head to wind.
85
Heavy weather including a TRS Learning Outcome

LO2-6
Operating in heavy weather has its obvious hazards; therefore it is important that
preparations are carried out prior to sailing or encountering poor weather conditions. Explain how to
Every vessel should have its procedures including the appropriate check lists included in manoeuvre and
the safety management system onboard. handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
When heavy weather is expected, the following precautions should be taken:
- Brief all heads of department and crew
- Secure all moveable objects
- Check the cargo lashings and increase as necessary
- Consider an alternative route
- Secure all accommodation doors, portholes, hatches and vents
- Secure the anchors and seal the spurling pipes
- Reduce external access to essential personnel only
- Adjust course and speed as necessary
- Ensure safety lines are rigged and scuppers are clear
- Minimise free surface effect in tanks
86
The behaviour of any vessel in heavy weather is dependent on many factors such as if Learning Outcome
the vessel is loaded, in ballast and its GM. A small GM will cause the vessel to be tender, LO2-6
(slow roll period) whereas a large GM will make the vessel stiff (fast roll period).
Explain how to
The options available to vessels that are approaching heavy weather are: manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
- Head to sea or place the wind fine on the bow and reduce speed all conditions
 Routine and
- Stern to sea and reduce speed (though not preferable as vessel will be emergency
manoeuvres
uncomfortable)
- Heave to, preferably in the lee of a large land mass
- Proceed to anchor somewhere sheltered
- Alter course to avoid the area of bad weather
If it is required to turn the vessel in heavy weather, it is advisable to notify all heads of
department before hand and ensure that everywhere is secure. Observe the sea and
swell and if possible, turn during a calm period and bring the vessel round as quickly as
possible to shorten the length of time that the vessel is beam to the weather.
87
Synchronous Rolling Learning Outcome

LO2-6
This is caused by the ship’s rolling period becoming synchronous or resonant with the
wave period. When this occurs, the ship will heel over and in exceptional circumstances Explain how to
be rolled further by the action of a wave. Consequently, there is a serious danger that manoeuvre and
the vessel will heel beyond the angle of heel from which it can return to an upright handle the ship in
condition. The ship therefore ends up with negative stability and capsizing becomes all conditions
more likely.
 Routine and
emergency
If this occurs, the vessel should alter course or reduce speed to change the approaching
manoeuvres
wave frequencies. Ballasting the vessel to alter the KG would also help to prevent this
situation as the GM will change and the natural rolling period will be altered to a non-
synchronous value.
Parametric rolling
This type of roll describes the occurrence of a large unstable roll motion which arises
suddenly with head or stern seas. As a wave travels along the hull, stability will vary due
to the changes of buoyancy. When the bow of the vessel is pitching coupled with a
slight roll, the flare will be immersed in the wave crest. The restoring buoyancy force
plus the wave excitation force will push the vessel. A similar action will occur on the
other side of the vessel as the bow pitches down in the next cycle. This synchronous
motion could lead to large unpredictable roll angles which are violent in nature and can
occur without warning, leading to structural damage and even capsizing.
Parametric roll occurs when the natural roll period is between 1.8 to 2.1 times the
encountered wave period. Vessels with a large flare are more likely to be subjected to
parametric roll as the larger the flare the wider the range of resonance. In order to
avoid this situation, alter course so that the vessel no longer has a head or following
seas and reduce speed to change the vessel’s roll period.
88
Racing Learning Outcome

LO2-6
When steaming into the sea, the bow will be driven in to the waves with increasing
force. This action will cause pounding and the propeller is alternately submerged and Explain how to
then out of the water. This results in the engine being loaded at one moment and then manoeuvre and
racing the next when the propeller comes out of the water. This will cause heavy stress handle the ship in
on the vessel and also on the engine. To avoid this from occurring, the vessel should aim all conditions
to keep the weather slightly on the bow and reduce speed.
 Routine and
Broaching emergency
manoeuvres
When the crest of a wave lifts the stern of the vessel and causes it to shear off course,
broaching has occurred. This can lead to a temporary loss of directional control of the
vessel. This can occur as a result of a sudden change in course.
Pooping
Pooping occurs when a vessel falls into the trough of a wave and fails to rise, allowing
the wave to break over the stern poop deck area.
Tropical Revolving storms
A TRS is a rotating depression that forms over the tropical oceans and produces
thunderstorms with strong winds, heavy rain and high seas. In addition to taking the
normal heavy weather actions and precautions, when a TRS is forecast an alternative
passage should be followed so as to avoid the storm.
The ship’s position relative to a TRS can be determined by monitoring the air pressure
and wind direction. If the ship is nearing a TRS, the pressure will drop and an
appreciable change in wind direction and speed can be expected. When facing the wind,
the eye of the storm will be 90-135° on the right hand side when the storm is
approximately 200 miles away in the Northern Hemisphere, and on the left hand side in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Where possible, it is advisable to try and keep 200 miles away from a TRS and make
good speed. If a storm is travelling slowly, then it is possible to overtake or outrun it. If
the vessel is behind the storm or even in the navigable semi-circle, the vessel should
alter course and proceed away from the eye of the storm.
89
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
Narrow channels
Vessels manoeuvring in narrow
channels may be affected by
interaction, either with other
vessels or from the likes of
shallow water or bank effect, as
has been previously discussed.
The pressure patterns that are

created around a vessel are a
function of the speed squared,
therefore to minimise the
effects of interaction, a
reduction of speed is the
required.
From experience Pilots and Masters are sometimes able to use bank effect to assist with
manoeuvring in narrow channels and fairways. It is not uncommon for bank effect to
cause a vessel swing too fast around a bend in a channel, therefore requiring counter
helm to keep the rate of turn under control.
When passing through a narrow channel, in addition to manoeuvring with increased

awareness it is also important to remember how your responsibilities as per rule 9 of
the collision regulations apply.
90
Ice Navigation Learning Outcome

The north and south polar icecaps are continually flowing outward under pressure of LO2-6
accumulated snow. Ice moves along the easiest routes which are valleys and flat sloping
land surfaces. These moving masses of ice are known as glaciers and eventually Explain how to
protrude into the sea, where they acquire buoyancy and float. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
The combined effect of buoyancy, wind and currents cause the ice to break away from all conditions
land and an iceberg is calved. The bulk of these icebergs originate from glaciers on the
West Coast of Greenland.  Routine and
emergency
Ice is an obstacle to any vessel including ice manoeuvres
breakers. Navigators should respect the
powers and strength of ice in all its forms.
All icebergs have the bulk of their volume
submerged, usually about an eighth is
visible. An iceberg south of the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland may survive as a
danger to navigation for up to two weeks
but after June, this period decreases to
about ten days.
Movement of ice and bergs is monitored by an international Ice Patrol. The Patrol
contributes to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and protection of
marine environment in the North Atlantic. Ships transiting the areas covered by the Ice
Patrol are required to make use of their services.
Preparations for Ice Navigation

Prior to entering an area where ice is expected, the following preparations should be
undertaken:
 Close all watertight doors
 Ensure the ship’s damage control equipment is ready and available
 Notify the Engine Room – engines and steering gear ready for immediate
manoeuvre
 Proceed at a slow speed
 Post extra lookouts
 Keep a continuous radar watch
 Listen to ice bulletins and obtain latest weather forecasts
 Ensure radar scanner heaters are on
 Ensure lifeboat falls and rigging are adequately greased
 Drain the deck fire main
 Maintain adequate stability
 Vessel to be adequately trimmed and ballasted
 Ballast and fresh water tanks should not be more than 90% full to allow for
expansion
 Search lights tested
 Adequate reserves of stores and bunkers
91
The depth of water over the propeller Learning Outcome

tips should always be borne in mind LO2-6
when operating in ice and the ship
should be ballasted and trimmed so Explain how to
that the propeller is completely manoeuvre and
submerged and as deep in the water handle the ship in
as possible. If this cannot be done and all conditions
the propeller blades are exposed  Routine and
above the water or are just under the emergency
surface, the risk of damage due to the manoeuvres
propeller striking ice is greatly
increased.
Methods of Detecting Ice

 Detection by radar
 Sea state – change in state, abrupt smoothing of the sea
 Visually – appears as a white mass with the sun on it or a dark mass when
overcast
 Sea temperature – 1 degree within 150nm and below 1° within 50nm
 Fog - Ice edge can have a thick fog bank
 Noise – if a growler is calved you may hear it
Navigating in Ice
Navigating in ice should if possible be avoided and alternative routes should be used.
Icebreakers and some modern ships are however strengthened specifically for
navigation in ice with and these vessels have an ‘Ice Classification’. Ships with this have
strengthened hulls and are equipped with powerful engines to enable the vessel to
break through the ice. Navigating in ice is a specialised area and requires knowledge and
experience; the use of ice pilots where available should be considered.
When navigating in ice, the following points should be considered:

 Keep moving, if only slowly
 Work with the ice, not against it
 Reduce speed - excessive speed can lead to ice damage
 Attempt right angle approaches to any floe
 Avoid anchoring in moving close pack ice
 Increased sounding of tanks and bilges
Damage to the hull, propellers and rudders is the greatest concern when operating in
areas with ice. Speed is of paramount importance due to the force with which the ice
makes contact with hull.
Force of impact = Displacement x Speed2
The force is a function of the square of the speed; therefore a vessel moving at 4 knots
compared to 1 knot will experience a force 16 times greater. If impact with ice is
unavoidable, remember that the bow of the vessel is the strongest point.
92
If navigating in sea ice or pack ice the vessel will be forcing its way through the ice and Learning Outcome
sufficient speed will be required to ensure the vessel does not become trapped. Once LO2-6
the decision has been taken to enter and to proceed through pack ice, the vessel's
speed will have to be carefully selected and then adjusted from time to time in Explain how to
accordance with ice conditions as the passage progresses. The guiding factors will be: manoeuvre and
 Type, hardness and thickness of ice handle the ship in
all conditions
 Concentration of ice
 Amount of open water or leads  Routine and
 Visibility emergency
manoeuvres
 Vessel's ice class and engine power
The speed at which to travel requires

careful consideration as if too slow, the
vessel will be beset which could mean
costly delays and increased risk of
damage when trying to free her but if
too fast, damage may result due to
collisions with ice floes. As a general
rule, the vessel must be kept moving or
ice could stop her.
When passage through pack ice becomes unavoidable it should only be made in daylight
and in good visibility. Sometimes it might become necessary to make such passages at
night or in reduced visibility with the help of a searchlight, for instance in an emergency
or to enable a vessel to pass through a certain area in good time due to rapidly
worsening ice conditions. Usually this is not recommended however and should
certainly never be attempted by inexperienced navigators.
When required to transit through an area with ice, vessels can sometimes be escorted
by Ice Breakers. In this situation, the Master of the icebreaker directs the escorting
operation and escorted vessels should:
 Establish position of commencement of escorting service
 Amend ETA if required
 Maintain continuous radio watch
 Follow the route ordered
 Proceed at the speed ordered
 Always follow path cleared by icebreaker
 Have towing gear rigged at all times
 OOW should know signals for icebreaker assistance
 Acknowledge and execute icebreaker signals promptly
 If icebreaker stops in an emergency, escorted ship should stop immediately,
either by going astern on engine or ramming into ice
93
Reporting Learning Outcome

Under SOLAS when ice is reported on or near the track of own vessel, the Master is LO2-6
required to proceed at a moderate speed at night or to alter course to pass well clear of
Explain how to
the danger area. On meeting dangerous ice the Master is obliged under SOLAS to send a
manoeuvre and
report to ships in the vicinity and to the nearest coast station. The report contents are
handle the ship in
type of ice, position of ice and UTC and date of observation.
all conditions
If the vessel encounters an air temperature drop below freezing and gale force winds  Routine and
that are causing ice accumulation, the Master is obliged to send a report to the stations emergency
listed in the ALRS. The report must contain: manoeuvres
 Air and Sea Temp
 Force and wind direction
 Position of Ship
 UTC (GMT) and date of observation
Sources of Information on Ice
 Mariner’s Handbook
 Ocean Passages of the World
 ALRS
 Sailing Directions
 Ice charts
 Routing Charts
 Weather facsimile charts
 Ocean routeing services
 NAVTEX and Safety NET ice reports
 International Ice Patrol
 US Coastguard, US Navy Ocean Office, Canadian Ice Reconnaissance Aircraft

Facsimile Service, Baltic Ice Service
 Port Authorities, Pilots and Pilotage Authorities
 Ocean weather ships
 Ships departing from the Area
 Previous experience and knowledge of individuals on board
 Previous records on board if vessel had been to the area before

94
Ice Accretion Learning Outcome

Ice accretion refers to the accumulation of ice on the ship’s superstructure due to the LO2-6
joining of solids and a liquid. This can sometimes be referred to as freezing rain or fog,
Explain how to
icing or black ice. In order for ice accretion to occur, the temperature must be 0°C for
manoeuvre and
rain and fog and -2°C for sea spray to turn into ice on the vessel’s superstructure.
handle the ship in
all conditions
The rate of accretion is categorised as:
 Low: less than 0.7cm/hour  Routine and
 Moderate : between 0.7 and emergency
2cm/hour manoeuvres
 Heavy: greater than 2cm/hour
Minimising Ice Accretion

In order to minimise the build up of ice accretion and therefore reduce the risk this
poses, the following options should be followed:
 Steer towards warmer conditions or seek shelter

 Head into the wind at minimum speed to reduce spray
 If weather does not allow to head into wind, run before the wind at minimum
speed to maintain steerage
 Ensure the build-up of ice is not greater on one side of the vessel to prevent a list
and a reduction in stability
 Remove any large build ups of ice otherwise the adverse effects on stability due to
the mass of ice at high levels on vessel may be enough capsize the vessel
95
Navigating in or near VTS and a TSS Learning Outcome

Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) are shore based organisations whose duties range from LO2-6
providing information to ships on weather and traffic to managing areas of high density
traffic within ports or waterways. A vessel navigating in an area controlled by VTS will Explain how to
typically report to the authorities by radio and are then tracked by the VTS control manoeuvre and
centre. Vessels must comply with any reporting procedures to VTS thereafter, where handle the ship in
required. all conditions
 Routine and
Ships must monitor specific VHF channels for navigation or other information and in emergency
some circumstances VTS will contact vessels directly if there is risk of an incident or to manoeuvres
provide advice on where that vessel must proceed. Once a vessel has berthed /
anchored in, or exited an area controlled by VTS, the VTS operator should be informed.
Traffic separation schemes (TSS) have been established in most of the highly congested
shipping areas around the world and as a result, the number of collisions and
groundings has decreased. Navigating in areas in and around TSSs should always be
undertaken with vigilance as the areas concerned are often very busy with a high
density of traffic. It is also common for TSS to be established through channels with port
entrances on either side so vessels will be regularly required to cross a TSS.
The requirements of Rule 10 should always be observed when navigating within a TSS
and vessels should proceed with caution having their engines on the appropriate notice
for manoeuvring.
Launch and recovery of survival and rescue craft

Procedures for the launching and recovery of survival and rescue craft will vary from
ship to ship depending on several factors:-
 Type of craft
 Size of craft
 Height of launching deck
 Speed and manoeuvrability of craft
In all cases it is necessary to manoeuvre the vessel to

ensure the safest possible environment for the launch or
recovery to take place. Generally the vessel will
manoeuvre to provide a sheltered lee side which is
relatively calm and also remove any headway, stopping
in the water. With some rescue craft, it is easier to
maintain a few knots headway on the mother vessel
when the craft is launched. The rescue boat is able to
gain instant control when entering the water making it
more stable if there is any swell. The use of a slip or
toggle painter is prudent in rescue craft operations, especially if the mother vessel has
headway to give time to release the craft from the falls with maximum control.
96
High sided vessels that manoeuvre beam Learning Outcome

on to the wind to allow the survival craft LO2-6
or rescue boat a lee may be blown down
wind quicker than the survival craft Explain how to
making it difficult for any small craft to manoeuvre and
clear the ship on the lee side. Adjusting handle the ship in
the ships head to reduce the drift may all conditions
therefore be necessary.  Routine and
emergency
The importance of drills and exercises manoeuvres
cannot be over emphasised as there is
every chance that in the event of a real
emergency it will be dark, cold and in
rough seas.
Manoeuvring in Emergencies
Every vessel should have an emergency plan ready for immediate use that anticipates
and describes how to combat any foreseeable emergencies. These plans should comply
with the latest MCA and IMO regulations and recommendations and will form part of
the vessels safety management system.
These emergency plans often consist of checklists which are easy to consult in an
emergency situation and serve as a prompt to ensure that the emergency is dealt with
completely and nothing is forgotten or missed. The ICS bridge procedures guide
contains checklists which can be used and adapted for individual vessels.
The response to any emergency should be to minimise the damage to the vessel, ensure
the safety of all onboard and prevent pollution. The response procedures onboard
should be regularly practiced in drills and training including all of the ship’s crew to
ensure that the appropriate response plan to each type of emergency scenario is
familiar to all onboard. A good safety culture onboard and regular planned maintenance
on safety equipment will also aid the response to an emergency.
In each emergency scenario, part of the response action required will be to manoeuvre
the vessel in a way that may help the emergency and prevent further problems.
Fire
- Reduce speed to ensure the relative
wind speed is minimised so as not to
further fuel the fire.
- Alter course to influence the
direction of the smoke away from
accommodation and personnel.
97
Collision Learning Outcome

- If collision is unavoidable attempt LO2-6
to minimise damage by making the
Explain how to
contact a glancing blow on bow or manoeuvre and
quarter and minimise impact handle the ship in
speed. all conditions
- After a collision has occurred trim,
 Routine and
list and / or de-ballast the vessel to
emergency
bring the damaged area out of the manoeuvres
water if possible.
- If the vessel is embedded, resist
the temptation to come astern as this may result in more damage to the hull of
both vessels and increase the chance of pollution.
Flooding
Once the condition of the vessel has been
assessed the heading and speed will need to be
adjusted to minimise the vessel’s movement in
the sea and swell.
The specific action required will depend on the

damage or the cause of flooding. It is highly
likely the vessel will have lost some of its
buoyancy and intact stability in this scenario.
Cargo Shift
In the event of cargo shifting it is likely that
the vessel may develop a list, experience a
loss in stability and possibly have sustained
damage. It is therefore important to
manoeuvre as soon as possible to steady the
vessel in order that a full assessment can be
made and further shifting can be prevented.
To ensure the crews safety on deck it may be
necessary to stop the vessel or in rough seas
heave to with the weather just off the bow or
run with the sea on the quarter, whichever is
more appropriate.
In an emergency situation, manoeuvring the vessel appropriately without delay could

make all the difference.
98
Beaching Learning Outcome

Beaching is defined as taking a vessel aground LO2-6
intentionally. The basic purpose of beaching is to
Explain how to
prevent the ship from sinking and get her repaired
manoeuvre and
and re-floated later on. The cargo on board will
handle the ship in
saved in the process. A minor reason which may
all conditions
also result in beaching would be to avoid collision.
It is normally preferable to run the ship on to a  Routine and
beach than allow her to become a total loss. A emergency
beached ship is easier to salvage than a sunken ship. manoeuvres
If time permits and choice is available, the Master should attempt to go for the
following:
- A gentle sloping beach

- Sandy and free of rocks
- Little or no current
- Sheltered from wind and swell
- Free of surf action
- Daylight hours
- High tide
- Accessible by land
- Coastguard recommended
- Political consideration
Planning time is at a premium in this situation, especially if the ship is in imminent

danger of sinking. All departments should be notified of the intention to beach and
should be briefed as to the actions required of them. The following preparations should
be made:
- The Coastguard contacted and notified

- Tide calculated
- Take on additional ballast which will assist when re-floating
- Prepare anchors
- Prepare to rig anti-slewing wire
- Sound all compartments
- Anti-Pollution equipment prepared
- Damage Control plans made available
- Transfer fuel from any forward tanks to aft
- Inform Owners if time allows
- Advise Engine Room of maximum RPM to be used on final approach
- Adjust vessel to an upright condition trimmed by the stern
- Sound general alarm and initiate a Muster, have all parties standing by for
beaching
- Ready LSA and FFE
99
Approach Learning Outcome

When a vessel approaches bow first: LO2-6
Advantages Disadvantages Explain how to

manoeuvre and
1. Ship can be manoeuvred easily 1.As the stern is hanging in the water,
handle the ship in
the chances are that it will slew the ship
all conditions
2. Clear observation of the approach can be 2.It is difficult to lay ground tackle
made (anchors) to assist with refloating  Routine and
3. Propeller and rudder will remain in 3.If anchors are used and the ship runs emergency
deeper water so they are less likely to be over the cable, additional damage can be manoeuvres
damaged and will be useful when caused
attempting to refloat
4. If ship has fuel tanks aft in vicinity of
machinery space, chances of them
obtaining damage and causing pollution
are less
5. The vessel can be driven onto the beach
by the use of the engines to keep her
securely in position during repairs or
transhipment operations
If the vessel approaches stern first:
Advantages Disadvantages
1. The manoeuvre can be done in the form 1.The rudder and propeller may be
of a Mediterranean moor damaged and unavailable for refloating
2.It will be difficult to control the
approach due to the effects of excessive
transverse thrust during use of astern
propulsion
3.Ship will not be able to gain speed to
drive her onto the beach
Once it has been determined which

way the vessel will approach the
beach, approach under control at slow
speed. Assuming that the approach is
bow first, an officer should take
soundings at the bow to keep the
bridge informed of the depth of water
at the bow. When the soundings
approach the draught stop engines
and let the vessel take the ground as
gently as possible.
100
When the ship takes the ground she is no longer a floating body. Huge forces are Learning Outcome
exerted on the ship's bottom, with the same effect as a weight discharged from that LO2-6
level. As a result G will rise and the GM will reduce, making the vessel less stable. If the
vessel is trimmed too far by the stern and the ship takes the ground stern first while Explain how to
heading bow in, the force exerted on the stern frame will be so great that it may cause manoeuvre and
it to fracture. handle the ship in
all conditions
The larger the fall in tide, the larger the loss of GM. Unlike dry dock there are no blocks  Routine and
to keep the ship upright. For this reason the ground should be soft and relatively even emergency
so that the ship will settle into the sand. manoeuvres
A detailed assessment of the vessel then needs to be undertaken. Measures should be
conducted to prevent the risk of pollution and additional ballast should be loaded to
keep the vessel from re-floating on the next tide. Mooring lines should be sent ashore
where possible and a means of access to the vessel rigged. Sound around the vessel
inside and out as soon as the vessel takes the ground. The engine room should also
check for damage and ensure that the risk of fire and explosion is minimised. Auxiliary
diesels should be started as the main plant will have to be stopped very quickly after
beaching if there is any significant tide.
Repairs should be made as required and the MAIB, owners, and local authorities
informed and general average declared. All possible measures must be taken to
minimise pollution during and after the beaching.
Re-floating
When planning to refloat the vessel, the following should be considered:
- Height of tide
- Additional ballast pumped out
- Stability assessed
- Tugs arranged to assist
If the vessel grounded without appreciable shock it may be possible to re-float by going
astern. However, if the engines are run astern for too long, this will bank silt up around
the hull and make it more difficult to re-float.
It may be necessary to transfer

ballast from aft forward to
break the suction between the
beach and the hull.
101
Discharge of ballast alone may be enough to re-float the vessel at the next high water. Learning Outcome
Comparing the present mean draught with that prior to grounding will allow a LO2-6
calculation to be made for how much ballast is needed to be discharged to float the
vessel. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
Extra buoyancy = difference in mean draft x TPC If shifting ballast bear in mind the loss handle the ship in
of stability. Thirdly, ground tackles can be rigged, if a suitable tug is available. If this can all conditions
be done it will be of great assistance during re-floating.
 Routine and
In some cases ground tackles will be more effective than tugs as an aid to re-floating the emergency
vessel. In any kind of swell tugs will not be able to maintain a constant tension on the manoeuvres
towing wire and the initial hauling momentum may not be sufficient to start the re-
floating process. Ground tackles can maintain a high degree of tension while the vessel
re-floats.
If the vessel has turned broadside on then it will be necessary to decide which end of
the vessel will be hauled off first. However, here it will be assumed that the vessel is still
head on to the beach.
Wires are brought on board (they will

be provided by the salvage company),
led through Panama leads and fixed
to strong purchases, which will be
needed to bring the wires taut before
re-floating. The hauling part of the
purchase is taken to a winch, which
can either be a ship's winch or one
installed by the salvers. The standing
part of the purchase is made fast to
the strongest point available. The
wires must be longer than the vessel
to increase the scope for heaving.
The wires are attached to anchors and these are taken out by a barge or tug and then
lowered some distance away from the stern. The tackles are set up taut at low water so
that when the next high water arrives large stresses will be set up in the gear, pulling
the ship to seaward.
102
Loss of Propulsion and/or Steering Learning Outcome

For these situations, checklists should be available in the ship’s safety management LO2-6
system and the actions to take in these scenarios should be discussed regularly in drills
Explain how to
and training.
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
For Main Engine failure, initial actions should include:
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
For steering failure, initial actions should include:
103
Vessel becoming disabled near land Learning Outcome

If this situation arises and the vessel is driven onto the shore the consequences may LO2-6
well be catastrophic. The problem is extremely serious and everything should be done
Explain how to
to prevent it occurring. In preparing the passage plan courses should be chosen so as to
manoeuvre and
allow ample margins of safety if a breakdown occurs. Contingency plans should be made
handle the ship in
to give greater room to seaward if rough weather is experienced.
all conditions
If a breakdown occurs we need to know immediately the nature of the problem to  Routine and
determine whether it can be repaired quickly and if any alternative or emergency emergency
arrangements can be put in place. In the event of a steering breakdown it may be manoeuvres
possible to use the emergency steering in the steering flat. By adjusting the revs of the
engines a twin screw vessel may be able to steer away from land (e.g. keep the port
engine on constant speed and increase or decrease the revs. as appropriate, of the
starboard engine).
If there is any doubt or the breakdown is serious, the following actions should be taken
immediately:-
- Try to increase or maintain sea room

- Send a ‘Mayday or ‘Pan Pan’ to SAR authorities
- Arrange for tug assistance
If a vessel is disabled its direction of drift cannot be precisely predicted but results of
models and drift observations can give an indication of the drift a vessel may
experience. Drift will depend upon:-
- Light / loaded condition

- Trim
- Wind
- Current
Every opportunity should be taken to observe drift behaviour. The drift pattern should
be documented and retained onboard for future reference. Before control of the ship is
lost the initial drift direction can be influenced by the way the ship is heading and the
ship swung through the wind to a heading that will allow a preferred drift. The options
to influence the drift when steerage is lost are:-
1. Change of trim
2. Rudder hard over to downwind position
3. Use of anchors
104
The correct combination of these may achieve a change of drift direction of up to 30°. In Learning Outcome
addition, low power tugs may also be used to influence the drift pattern. LO2-6
Wind Direction 000° Explain how to

manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
Drift Angle Drift Angle  Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
240˚ 150˚
Gas carriers and other types of ship with different hull forms that have large windage
areas may react substantially different to other vessels and could for instance, drift
astern not ahead.
Altering Drift Pattern

Most vessels when stopped in the water do not drift directly downwind but gather
some ahead or astern motion. The wind force acting on the structure and deck cargo
above the water combined with the hydrodynamic force acting on the underwater part
of the hull cause the ship to drift at some angle to the wind. This angle depends on the
hull form, draught, trim, helm position etc. A prudent master will note the drift direction
for varying conditions of wind, draught and trim. It is important to realise that before all
control is lost, the drift direction can be influenced by the way in which the vessel is
headed.
By having the vessel on one heading as opposed to its reciprocal, a substantial

difference in drift direction can be achieved. In some cases, vessels which developed
head motion whilst drifting have been able to turn from one reach to the other by
gibing, i.e. putting the stern through the wind. A disabled tanker is recorded as having
sailed through the Sombrero Passage whilst engine repairs were carried out.
The options available to the Master to alter the drift pattern include:-
- Use of engines when steering is lost

- Use of thrusters to steer or control heading at low speeds
- Putting the rudder hard over to the downwind side
- Listing the vessel
- Altering the vessel's trim
- Using the anchors and cables
105
Use of Engines following a Steering breakdown Learning Outcome

1. Most loaded vessels with an aft superstructure tend to sit head to wind whilst they LO2-6
have way on. There are exceptions however and by keeping or putting the engines
Explain how to
ahead, it may help to avoid a vessel being driven onto a lee shore. manoeuvre and
2. Putting the engines of a single screw ship full or emergency full astern should bring handle the ship in
the stern into the wind. all conditions
3. If the rudder is locked hard over, careful ahead movements may keep the bow into
 Routine and
the wind.
emergency
4. A freely flapping rudder generally moves to the hard a starboard position with manoeuvres
either ahead or astern movements. This may prove useful in aiding repairs but if a
tug is expected to arrive, the rudder should be fixed amidships.
Vessel becoming disabled in confined waters

Loss of engines or steering whilst in harbours or confined waters will usually require
immediate action to avoid danger or minimise the likelihood of potential damage, injury
or pollution. Likely actions may include one or a combination of the following:-
 Emergency use of anchors

 Thrusters
 Tug assistance
 Beaching
Local knowledge of the waters and surrounding dangers could prove invaluable when
making a choice of action. Avoiding pipelines, power cables and other hazardous
obstructions might well determine the best course of action.
Emergency Towing Arrangements and Procedures
106
Connecting the Tow Line Learning Outcome

A vessel that is disabled will normally be lying beam on to the sea. The towing vessel LO2-6
should get close to the bow of the vessel to be towed to make the connection. Use can
Explain how to
be made of rocket line throwing apparatus (LTA) (but care should be exercised in the
manoeuvre and
vicinity of tankers – tankers should fire the LTA). A messenger should follow the rocket
handle the ship in
line. Another heavy line or messenger should then be passed between both ships before
all conditions
passing the actual tow line.
 Routine and
When merchant vessels are involved, connection is usually in the form of a composite emergency
towline. In a composite tow line, the towing spring of the towing vessel is connected to manoeuvres
the anchor cable of the vessel to be towed. The connection is made at the ganger
length. The anchor is not normally removed from the cable. The presence of an anchor
at the end of the cable has certain advantages:
 Time is saved initially when connection is being made.
 The weight of the anchor provides a damping effect on the tow line.
 It is available for use at the end of the voyage after the cable has been heaved
in and the tow line disconnected.
If a connection is made using the anchor cable without the anchor, the anchor should be
secured in the hawse pipe and then the cable disconnected at the next joining shackle.
The cable is passed through a large chock or, if a chock is not available, the cable will
have to be passed through the hawse pipe. Passing the cable through the hawse pipe
should be very carefully considered, as the anchor would be hanging from the shoulder.
The weight of the anchor, securing arrangements and prevailing and forecast weather
need to be considered before using this method. (This approach should be discouraged
as far as possible).
On the towing vessel, the towing spring is secured to the strong bitts designed for
towing purposes. If a designated point is not available, take the spring around as many
welded strong points (bitts) as possible, before finally securing it. It should be simply
passed round bitts without taking turns around them initially. Sharp bends or nips
should be avoided. To spread the load to other parts of the hull, timber bearers should
be placed between the first set of bitts taking the wire and the chock through which it
comes. If a designated towing spring is not available, the heaviest wire on board should
be used.
107
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
The fairlead is be padded using wood, with ample grease applied frequently. Also the
tow line at the point of passing through the fairlead is parceled and well protected.
Added protection can be taken by the use of a sleeve protector.
Tankers have emergency towing

arrangements in place at the forward and
after ends of the vessel, in the form of a
Smits Bracket, a large fairlead and a
chafing chain with a standard pear-
shaped open link. Some tankers are also
required to have a towing spring and a
nylon pendant on board. In this case the
connection becomes even easier – the
spring needs to be connected to the pear
shaped link and chafing chain secured on
board to the Smits Bracket.
108
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
Another form of emergency towing arrangement on tankers is in the form of a specially

built reel and wire holder. The housing of the wire reel and its brake are specially
designed to take the full weight of pull when being towed. Usually a ratchet-type
mechanism is used to back up the brake. This allows the wire to be paid out
intentionally, but when the ratchet is set more wire will not get eased out under
pressure. The emergency towing arrangement is required to protect the towline against
chafing. The towline is led through a centre chock (lead). Arrangement is made to
prevent the towline chafing against the chock sides. This is achieved by keeping the
towline in the centre of the chock. A mechanical device prevents it from touching the
chock.
109
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
Vessels must be stopped dead in the water when the towline is being connected or
adjusted.
Commencing the Tow

As stated above, a disabled vessel lies beam on to the sea and the towing vessel
positions her stern close to the bow of the vessel being towed. The towing vessel should
try to remain head to wind or stern to wind, depending upon how easily she can
manoeuvre herself. It is also important to understand that it is simpler for a towing
vessel to slew a stationary vessel through the water, than to drag her forward.
The decision should be made in advance as to the scope (length) of the towline to be
used. The longer the scope, the less the strain. A simple way of judging the stress in the
towline is by watching its catenary. A shallow catenary indicates greater stress in the
towline. The stress increases rapidly as the line straightens out. As a general rule the
towline should never be allowed to break the surface.
When the towline is connected, it should be eased out to the required scope. A
responsible officer is stationed aft to report on the lead and strain of the towline. The
towing vessel moves slowly ahead (upwind or downwind). The towing vessel then takes
up the tow going ahead very gently (short bursts ahead – very slow speed) to put the
towline under the stress of getting the towed vessel moving – slewing initially.
The vessel being towed will slew initially and will then slowly start to follow the towing
vessel. When everything is satisfactory, a course alteration should be made towards
the intended destination.
110
When towing across an ocean, the shortest track is not always the quickest. Wind Learning Outcome
charts, ocean current charts and weather forecasts should be carefully studied and LO2-6
tracks planned to take advantage of favourable conditions and adverse ones avoided.
Explain how to
Precautions during Towing manoeuvre and
The area where the towline is connected should be cordoned off and kept out of handle the ship in
bounds for unauthorised personnel. Carry out regular inspection of the towline, and all conditions
keep the fairlead well lubricated at all times. Both ships should observe these
 Routine and
precautions. If chafing is occurring, it may be a good idea to extend the towline by a
emergency
metre or so every day so that a fresh section of the towline is exposed to chafing.
manoeuvres
Particular attention should be paid in heavy weather. If the towline shows a tendency to
break the surface, then it should be made longer or speed should be reduced. In bad
weather it should be made longer. A longer line can absorb more shock.
In case of ocean towage, special attention should be paid at commencement, passage

through shallow waters, coastal waters and at termination. If the tow is in confined
waters at commencement, it is essential to use harbour tugs for assistance until she is in
clear waters and the ocean going tug can exercise control over her. The same routine
may be followed at the termination if she is to proceed in confined waters. In confined
waters the length of towline will have to be shorter as it should never be allowed to
drag along the seabed. As the length reduces, strain will increase. Therefore speed must
be reduced to minimise strain. Speed reduction will also be advantageous for navigation
in close proximity to dangers and other traffic. In restricted waters, the tow should not
proceed without additional assistance, unless the towing vessel is specialised and is
capable of handling a vessel in such circumstances, single handedly.
Large course alterations should be made in steps of a few degrees (10 to 15) at a time,
to maintain a steady strain on the towline. Similarly, when speed is to be reduced, it
should be done gradually, so that the vessel being towed does not crash into the towing
vessel. Both the vessels should remain in radio contact with each other, if possible. The
vessel being towed should steer, if possible. This will help reduce strain on the towline
and a better rate of progress will result. It may prove very difficult for a single tug or
towing vessel to tow a much larger vessel that cannot steer itself.
The tow should be equipped with life saving appliances for the number of persons to be
engaged on her for towing operation. She should also have her anchor(s) ready in
shallow or restricted waters.
111
Signals Learning Outcome

Proper signals should be displayed to indicate towing during day, night and all LO2-6
conditions of restricted visibility. The following signals are used:
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
Night - If length of tow exceeds 200m, towing vessel to display 3 masthead lights in a
handle the ship in
vertical line.
all conditions
If she is 50 m or more in length another masthead light
Sidelights  Routine and
Stern light emergency
A towing light vertically above the stern light manoeuvres
A search light to illuminate the towline
The vessel being towed will display sidelights and stern light
Day - If the length of tow exceeds 200 m, the towing vessel will display a black diamond
where it can best be seen and the vessel being towed will display a black diamond
where it can best be seen. If the towing vessel is restricted in her ability to manoeuvre,
the towing vessel will display red, white and red all round lights in a vertical line. During
daytime she will display black ball, diamond and ball in a vertical line where they can
best be seen.
Use SECURITE message to inform shipping in the vicinity. Its use can also be made to
keep the coast stations notified of progress, which in turn can also broadcast the
message to shipping in the area.
Completing Long Distance Towing

On completion of long distance towing, reduce the speed gradually and shorten the
towline. Before disconnecting the towline, ensure that the vessel being towed is in a
position to drop her anchor(s) or can be taken in tow by harbour tugs.
Girting
Girting is a term used to describe a
condition when a pull is being
exerted sideways on a tug by a
vessel being towed. Its
consequences could be serious
when the hook of the tug is located
amidships and is reasonably high.
The problem will be compounded by the speed and rate of swing of a turning vessel
being towed, as well as the wash of propeller of the vessel being towed. If the force
becomes excessive, the tug’s gunwale could be dragged below the water. If the weather
deck of the tug has openings, the situation will end in a disaster.
112
Learning Outcome
LO2-6
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
The precaution against the occurrence of girting is the use of a gob rope, which will
keep the pull close to the stern of the tug. The tug master should try to bring the stern
of tug under the towline.
The gob rope takes the pull close to stern, away from midships; passing towline
through a lead also has a similar effect.
113
Parting of Tow Ropes Learning Outcome

In port: LO2-6
 Inform port authority and pilot immediately
Explain how to
 Reconnect the line as quickly as possible, using a suitably strong line for the manoeuvre and
purpose handle the ship in
all conditions
 Call additional tug
 Routine and
 Counter or enhance the required swing of vessel using engine and rudder emergency
manoeuvres
 Control or achieve headway using engine
 Head for safe waters or emergency anchoring position if tow line cannot be
connected in time
At sea:
 Inform master
 Call emergency and backup party
 Both vessels should stop
 Broadcast SECURITE or URGENCY message to vessels in the vicinity
 Reconnect as soon as possible
 Non-essential personnel to remain clear of the area
 Review the length of towline considering the strain on it
 Review the speed of towing to reduce strain
 Review route being followed in light of weather being experienced and

alternate routes available
 Check securing arrangements and chafing of line prior resuming the tow
 Recommence towage at very slow speed and increase gradually
114
Towage Assistance – Steering Gear Failure Learning Outcome

In circumstances where the steering gear of own vessel has failed and it has been LO2-6
decided to seek towage assistance, it should be realised that the engine of own vessel is
Explain how to
still functional. This will have a bearing on the towing arrangement. A preferred option
manoeuvre and
in this case is for the vessel seeking assistance to stay ahead and tow the assisting
handle the ship in
vessel. This arrangement will be particularly desirable where the power of the assisting
all conditions
vessel is significantly less.
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
The assisting vessel will act to control the heading of the vessel requiring assistance. A
pull on the stern to port would cant the bow of the vessel to starboard. Similarly, a pull
on the stern to starboard would cant the bow to port.
The Use of Anchors in an Emergency

The anchors should be readied at the earliest opportunity when their use is anticipated
as deteriorating conditions may hamper this action later. Any decision to use the
anchors should not be clouded by the fear that they may be lost if they cannot be
weighed later.
Anchors should always be ready for immediate use when vessels are underway in
harbours and port approaches as well as other confined waters such as narrow channel
and fairways. The forecastle should be manned by suitably qualified personnel in order
that the anchors can be used in an emergency without delay. The decision to use an
anchor/s in an emergency and how much cable will depend on various factors:-
 Speed of vessel
 Depth of water
 Underwater obstructions
Letting go one anchor would probably cause the vessel to shear towards that direction.
The decision therefore of how many anchors to let go or which anchor to let go will
depend on what is trying to be achieved with regard to avoiding other vessels or
potential dangers.
115
The use of anchors should always be considered in an emergency: Learning Outcome

LO2-6
 At sea - to minimise drift and where possible to hold position in safe water
clear of any danger. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
 In harbours, port approaches and narrow channels - to assist in slowing down
all conditions
and preventing collision or grounding. Dropping of anchors and the use of the
appropriate length of cable in each circumstance has to be carefully judged.  Routine and
emergency
Stopping / Slowing the Vessel manoeuvres
If the water is too deep for the anchor to reach the seabed, walking back the anchors
and cables to four or more shackles in the water should bring the vessel head to wind
and reduce the drift speed.
If the water is shallow enough for the anchor to reach the seabed, the anchors should
be used to try and arrest the ship. In sand or mud the ship may be slowed down or
stopped by slowly walking back the anchor until it begins to drag along the bottom. A
short scope should be laid down to begin with and then gradually increased as the
vessel’s speed reduces. This should result in the ship’s head coming round into the wind
reducing the speed over the ground further.
With a rocky seabed the chance of success is much slimmer but should still be
attempted if there is no alternative. Using the engines for a vessel without steering will
improve the chance of success and they will also help the vessel maintain position if the
anchors drag.
The anchors of a 150,000DWT vessel would normally be capable of stopping a ship with
a maximum speed over the ground of about 0.5 knots using cable approximately 6-10
times the depth of water.
A standard anchor should be capable of holding with wind speeds of up to 60 knots

without a current or waves. A high holding anchor should be capable of holding with
wind speeds of 60 knots combined with a 2-3 knot current and 6m waves.
The use of anchors may not be sufficient to prevent an emergency but they should still
be used to assist in minimising the potential for greater damage.
116
Search and Rescue Situations Learning Outcome

LO2-6
Under international law, ship’s Masters are obliged to assist others that are in distress
at sea whenever they are able to do so safely. The Search and Rescue Convention (1979) Explain how to
aimed at developing an international search and rescue plan so that wherever an manoeuvre and
incident occurs, the rescue of personnel that are in distress at sea will be co-ordinated handle the ship in
by a search and rescue organisation and when required, have the assistance of all conditions
neighbouring SAR organisations.
 Routine and
The responsibility of proceeding to assist a vessel or aircraft in distress is based on emergency
established international practices. SOLAS Chapter V requires that vessels carry on manoeuvres
board the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual
Volume III. The IAMSAR manuals provide guidelines for aircraft and vessels on providing
search and rescue services.
SAR Co-ordination
Search and rescue has three levels of co-ordination:

- On scene co-ordinator (OSC): when two or more SAR facilities are working
together, one party on scene may be required to co-ordinate. This usually falls to
the first facility to arrive on scene until the position is re-allocated by the SMC.
- SAR mission co-ordinators (SMC): every SAR operation is conducted under the
guidance of an SMC who guides the operation until rescue efforts have been
effected or it becomes evident that further efforts would be to no benefit.
- SAR co-ordinators (SC): these are the top level of management who have overall
responsibility for providing SAR facilities, co-ordinating training, developing
policies and managing the SAR system.
Planning and Preparing a Search
Distress incidents at sea can develop at any distance from the coast. They can be quite
close in shore or in the middle of an ocean. It is very often possible to deploy shore-
based search and rescue units in a coastal incident. The area MRCC/CS will
automatically take up the role of co-ordination. Very little authority will be delegated to
the OSC.
Ocean incidents are out of the range of shore-based units and are well away from land.
An RCC covering the ocean area will most probably co-ordinate the SAR activity. The
bulk of co-ordination work will be delegated to the nominated OSC and a lot of
delegated authority comes with the nomination.
117
Consultation with Other Stations Answering the Distress Learning Outcome

Once SAR units answer the call and it seems possible to render assistance, assessment LO2-6
should be made to make the best use of all the potential resources available and
Explain how to
develop a plan to effect the search and rescue. This type of assessment will only be
manoeuvre and
possible through proper communications between assisting craft and the co-ordinating
handle the ship in
station(s). The information (which is not exhaustive) to be made available may be as
all conditions
follows:
 Identity of craft.  Routine and
 Position of craft. emergency
 Estimated time of arrival (ETA) of craft at the scene of incident. manoeuvres
 Number of crew.
 Experience of master and crew with SAR.
 Navigational appliances fitted and their accuracy.
 Communication facilities.
 Medical (doctor, hospital and first aid) facilities.
 Lifting appliances.
 Life-saving appliances.
 Size of the craft.
 Type of the craft.
 Draught of the craft.
 Freeboard.
 Manoeuvring restrictions/capabilities.
 Duration of time the craft can stay on scene for participation in SAR.
 Type and quantity of cargo carried.
 Destination.
 Flight deck or helicopter facilities.
The above information will help the co-ordinating station to decide which is the best
unit to co-ordinate the activity on scene, which ones can easily participate in the search
if required and the best choice of the rescue units.
Detailed information should be obtained about the casualty. It can be obtained from the
casualty itself if communications are established. Alternately a reasonable amount of
information can be obtained from the owners or managers, flag state administration
and ship reporting services, if the casualty was previously involved with the service.
The distress message should carry most of the required information. Experience has
shown that in time of distress, vessels/persons seldom transmit a standard distress
message, due to panic. Information is usually incomplete. Therefore if contact is
available with persons in distress, more detailed information should be sought.
118
The basic information to be transmitted in a distress message should include: Learning Outcome
LO2-6
 Distress identifier
Explain how to
 Identity manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
 Position all conditions
 Nature of distress  Routine and

emergency
 Type of assistance required manoeuvres
 Number of persons at risk and their condition
 Additional information:-
o Weather in the immediate vicinity
o Number and type of survival craft carried, and the type and number
being launched
o Number of victims
o Number of casualties
o Distressed craft’s course or speed
o Type of craft, and cargo carried
o Type of location aids available and deployed
o Whether the parent craft has been abandoned or is about to be

abandoned
o Whether the parent has craft sunk
o Any other pertinent information that might facilitate the rescue
Proceeding to the Area of Distress

The Chief of MRCC or Officer Designated will take up the role of Surface Rescue Mission
Coordinator (SMC). The participating vessels should establish a traffic co-ordinating
system among themselves. An On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) will be nominated. The OSC
should co-ordinate communications on scene and ensure that reliable communications
are maintained.
Search and rescue (SAR) facilities normally report to the OSC on an assigned frequency.
If a frequency shift is carried out, instructions should be provided about what to do if
intended communications cannot be re-established on the new frequency. All SAR
facilities should maintain a listening watch on distress frequencies continuously.
119
Communications may be of great benefit in providing assistance in locating the casualty, Learning Outcome
either through a VHF direction finding unit or radio tracking device capable of detecting LO2-6
EPIRB signals. If two vessels obtain an approximate bearing of the source of
transmission and know their positions, then a rough fix can be determined and then Explain how to
refined as other identification signals are within visual or radar ranges such as flares or manoeuvre and
SARTS. handle the ship in
all conditions
It is usual to hear a casualty asked to transmit on VHF a slow count from 10 to 1 to  Routine and
establish accurately the relative bearing of the casualty from the rescue unit. emergency
manoeuvres
A vessel responding to a SAR incident should make preparations on board, which will
require internal communications. The Officer of the Watch in receipt of the distress
message must notify the Master immediately. After deciding to proceed, the engine
room should be advised to make good all available speed and be ready for manoeuvring
in the vicinity of the SAR area.
Emergency, back up and first aid parties on board should be notified for readiness and
the rescue boat crew should be ready with two-way communications. Additional
officer(s) and lookouts should be summoned to the bridge. There should be two-way
communications between the bridge and all parties involved on board.
Planning and Conducting the Search

The majority of search and rescue cases occur within 20 miles of the shoreline and the
quick response of dedicated resources such as SAR helicopters and lifeboats effectively
handle these situations. In about 80% of cases a prolonged search is not required.
Approximately 15% of searches will require 24 hours or less on task and approximately
5% will involve major searches lasting over 24 hours and will often utilise a large
number of search units.
Once the OSC has been nominated, s/he should obtain the search action plan from the
SMC. If the plan is not available, the OSC should develop a plan. The OSC should make
use of the International Code of Signals and Standard Marine Navigation Vocabulary
where language difficulties arise.
The SMC should be kept informed at regular intervals and whenever the situation has
changed. It is essential to know:
 Where to start the search
 What area to search
 What type of search patterns to use in the search area
120
Saris 2 Learning Outcome

The Maritime and Coastguard Agency utilise a programme called Saris 2 to help decide LO2-6
on search patterns and datum points. The Saris programme was originally developed for
Explain how to
the Counter-Pollution Unit as a means of tracking oil spills. However it was quickly
manoeuvre and
realised that it could be modified for search and rescue use. It uses sophisticated
handle the ship in
calculations to determine datum points and search areas taking into account
all conditions
meteorological conditions and inbuilt errors. This programme has proved very effective.
 Routine and
Datum
emergency
The term datum refers to the most probable location of the distressed vessel, corrected manoeuvres
for drift over a given time. In determining datum the following should be taken into
account.
 Time of incident
 Reported position
 Any bearings or sightings
 Time interval between the incident and arrival of SAR facilities
 Estimated surface movements of the distressed craft or survival craft,
depending on drift
Drift has two basic components:
Leeway - This is the movement of the search object through the water caused by local
winds blowing on the exposed surfaces of the object. Just how much this affects the
object is based on the above water profile, underwater resistance and strength of wind.
The Coastguard uses tables and formulae to determine the leeway experienced and will
determine a factor of divergence. This divergence is the movement either side of the
downwind direction again depending on the type of object and prevailing wind speed.
Total Water Current (TWC) -

This comprises of two components:
Tidal stream and or Ocean current - These are determined from reference material
available from Tidal Stream and Ocean Current Atlases.
Wind Driven Current - This is a water current generated when the prevailing wind has
been acting over a long “fetch” of water for at least a couple of days. In the United
Kingdom the meteorological branch of the RAF generates this information, as does the
Coastguard Saris 2 programme. However the Saris programme cannot take into account
the length of fetch as it varies from the distance off land. For this reason to obtain an
accurate wind driven calculation takes time therefore it is not used in immediate action
scenarios.
Working out a wind driven current involves a complicated calculation. It can be

performed easily by trained personnel having access to computer programmes designed
for the purpose and is usually performed by the SMC and passed on to OSC or
responding vessels. If the datum has not been provided by the SMC, and the OSC has to
work it out on board, the wind driven current should be ignored, as the OSC may not
have the right facilities to work it out.
121
The combined effect of the leeway and the total water current is the drift. Therefore Learning Outcome
when conducting an immediate action search the datum point generated should look LO2-6
something like this.
Explain how to
manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Routine and
emergency
manoeuvres
Drift speed and direction can be worked out graphically or by plotting. Where an
immediate action is not used due to the time interval being expired then full use can be
made of the wind driven currents. The introduction of the wind driven current provides
us with an additional vector and produces a greater probability of detection.
Time interval is the interval between the incident time or last computed datum and the
commencement of search time. This emphasises the requirement of working out the
ETA precisely.
The IAMSAR Manual contains life raft leeway in a graphical format. Some ships carry
drift predictions for different vessels at sea, but it must be understood that these are
estimations only and the actual response under the given circumstances may be
different.
Once drift speed and direction is known, by allowing the time interval elapsed, datum
can be calculated.
122
Search Area Learning Outcome

LO2-6
Initial Area of Search - Immediate
Explain how to
Draw a circle of 10 NM radius, with datum as its centre.
manoeuvre and
Using tangents to the circle, form a square.
handle the ship in
all conditions
This area should be used if search units are in the immediate
vicinity and arrive on scene very rapidly and commence the search.  Routine and
emergency
Initial Area of Search - Delayed / Subsequent manoeuvres
The drift rates available or calculated are estimated only and may not match the actual
situation. There may be errors in the transmitted position of the distressed vessel (e.g.
DR, or position based upon less accurate system, etc). A longer time interval will cause
errors to be more pronounced. For example, a survival craft or a vessel may not drift
exactly in the wind direction. It could drift in a number of directions due to ‘sail’ and
‘flag’ effects.
This is known as divergence. The Coastguard use tables to help calculate the value of
divergence. A life raft for example may travel anywhere between 15° to 35° off the wind
direction and this has to be allowed for in the calculation when there is a time delay
between distress and search.
Wind direction
Probable drift direction (leeway)
It can be seen from the above figure that the longer the time interval lapsed, the
greater the resultant error, in which case a larger area may have to be searched. It
should be realised that a search will only be required if the search object is not located
on arrival on-scene. Taking everything into consideration that has been said above, let
us now look at developing a graphical plan to search an area.
123
It can be seen from the plan that the search area will have to be widened to allow for all Learning Outcome
the probable leeway directions that may be taken up by the search object. RCC/RSC are LO2-6
equipped with computer software and SMC are trained to develop the search area
rapidly. They have access to all the material that is required to predict the drift and Explain how to
leeway. The data available to them is the result of a number of tests and experiments manoeuvre and
conducted in various countries. handle the ship in
all conditions
Rendezvous
 Routine and
On occasion there will be times where the craft requiring assistance is not disabled and
emergency
can proceed under power to rendezvous with or intercept the rescuing vessel. This is
manoeuvres
often the case in ocean regions where medical assistance has been gained via the
ANVER System and the vessels are several hundred miles away.
Equally there may also be occasions where vessels will require an escort whilst dealing
with situations onboard. The escort vessel can be a very useful tool not just providing
moral support to the other vessel but also:
 To take over the navigation and external communication on behalf of the

distressed vessel leaving their crew free to concentrate on the tasks to hand.
 To inspect the exterior of the ship and provide reports.
 To advise on procedures where required.
 To provide illumination.
 To provide additional life saving resources.
 To co-ordinate traffic movement in vicinity of the casualty.
To calculate rendezvous falls within the realms of navigation. However the reasoning
behind the calculations is a sound one. As a mariner with a serious fire onboard a vessel,
there can be no better sight than another vessel close in the vicinity in the event that
conventional means of fire fighting are exhausted. An intercept with an aircraft to drop
additional resources may also be an option when there are no vessels close to hand. In
extreme cases specialised personnel known as Pararescue or Parajumpers may be
parachuted to an area to be recovered by the ship to provide medical aid.
The IAMSAR manual contains a number of different examples of intercept methods and
should be reviewed.
124
Search Patterns Learning Outcome

LO2-6
Expanding Square Search
 Most effective when the location of the
Explain how to
search object is known within relatively manoeuvre and
close limits. handle the ship in
 The commence search point is always all conditions
the datum position.
 Routine and
 To be used by a single ship during a emergency
search. manoeuvres
 Often appropriate for vessels or small
boats to use when searching for persons in the water or other search objects with
little or no leeway.
 Accurate navigation is required.
 The first leg is usually oriented directly into the wind to minimize navigational
errors.
 All course alterations are of 90°.
 Two first two legs will be of same length ‘d’. ‘d’ will depend upon the visibility and
the height of eye of the lookouts, and the swell and sea height.
 Legs 3 and 4 will be a length of 2d.
 Legs 5 and 6 will be a length of 3d.
 Legs 7 and 8 will be a length of 4d, and so on until the area is fully search.
Sector Search
 Most effective when the
position of the search object
is accurately known and the
search area is small.
 Used to search a circular area
centred at the datum.
 Can be used by only one craft
at a time at a certain
location.
 An aircraft and a vessel may
be used to perform
independent sector searches
of thesame area.
 A suitable marker may be
dropped at the datum and used as a reference point.
 The commence search point is where the ship or aircraft enters the area to be
searched
125
Parallel Sweep (track) Search Learning Outcome

 Used to search a large area when the location of the search object is uncertain. LO2-6
 Most effective over water or flat terrain.

Explain how to
 Usually used when a large search area must be divided into sub-areas for manoeuvre and
assignment to individual search facilities on-scene at the same time. handle the ship in
all conditions
 The commence search point is in one corner of the sub-area, one-half track space
 Routine and
inside the rectangle from each of the two sides forming the corner.
emergency
 Search legs are parallel to each other and to the long sides of the sub-area. manoeuvres
 The main legs indicate the direction of drift.
The ships should maintain a distance of a track space between them. This distance is
normally twice the detection range. The ship should remain half the track space from
edge of the search area. In all these patterns, the circle indicates the datum. The main
legs are along the direction of drift.
126
Co-ordinated vessel aircraft search pattern Learning Outcome

LO2-6
 Normally used when
there is an OSC present
Explain how to
to give direction to and manoeuvre and
provide communications handle the ship in
with the participating all conditions
craft.
 Routine and
 In this case, creeping emergency
line search, co-ordinated manoeuvres
(CSC) is often used.
 The aircraft does most of the searching, while the ship steams along a course at a
speed as directed by the OSC so that the aircraft can use it as a navigational
checkpoint.
 The aircraft, as it passes over the ship, can easily make corrections to stay on the
track of its search pattern.
 This search pattern gives a higher probability of detection as compared to a single

aircraft searching alone.
 Ship speed varies according to the speed of the aircraft and size of the area to be
searched.
Conclusion on the Search
Rescue Successful
Once the distressed craft or survivors have been sighted, the OSC should assess the best
method for the rescue and direct the most suitably equipped craft on scene, if the
detecting vessel is unable to effect the rescue. It should be noted that the most suitable
vessel can be directed to effect the rescue, if there is a choice. Otherwise the detecting
vessel may have to effect the rescue. Most types of seagoing merchant vessels should
be able to effect a rescue.
It must be ensured that all survivors are accounted for. Survivors should be debriefed
and questioned concerning, among other things:
 The ship or aircraft in distress, and the number of persons on board
 Whether survivors or survival craft have been seen
127
A full list of debrief question is contained in IAMSAR Volume 3. This information should Learning Outcome
be promptly relayed to the SMC. When all rescuing action has been effected, the OSC LO2-6
should immediately inform all search facilities that the search has been terminated. The
OSC should inform the SMC of the conclusion of the search and give the following Explain how to
details: manoeuvre and
 Names and destinations of ships with survivors, and identities and number of handle the ship in
survivors in each. ETA at destination should be communicated, if known all conditions
 Physical condition of survivors  Routine and

emergency
 Whether medical aid is needed manoeuvres
 The state of the distressed craft and whether it is a hazard to navigation, in which
case, its position should be communicated
Rescue Unsuccessful
The search should be continued until all reasonable hope of affecting a rescue has
passed.
The OSC may have to make the decision on whether to terminate an unsuccessful
search.
The factors to consider when terminating are as follows:
 Probability that survivors were in the search area
 Probability of detection of the search object, if it were in the areas searched
 Time remaining that the search facilities can remain on scene
 Probability that survivors might still be alive
The OSC, after consultation with other craft and land-based authorities, should take the
following action:
Ocean incident
 Terminate active search
 Advise assisting craft to proceed on passage and inform the land-based authority
 Send a message to all ships in the area asking them to continue to keep a look-out
Coastal incident
 Consult with land-based authorities about the termination of search
128
Man Overboard Learning Outcome

The type of situation defines the action that will be taken. There are three scenarios LO2-6
which can occur:
1. Immediate action – personnel seen falling overboard by the bridge team Explain how to
manoeuvre and
2. Delayed action – personnel observed falling overboard and then reported to
handle the ship in
the bridge
all conditions
3. Person missing – reported as missing and suspected may have fallen overboard
 Routine and
Initial actions to be taken - immediate response when a person is seen to fall
emergency
overboard:
manoeuvres
 Raise general emergency alarm
 Put engine on immediate standby
 Engage hand steering and shift helm hard over to the side on which person has
fallen and commence a turn appropriate to the type of vessel*, e.g. Williamson
Turn, Single Turn, etc.
 Release bridge wing buoy with “man overboard signal”
 Note time and position / Press man overboard key on position fixing device, or
initiate auto waypoint, as appropriate
*Specialised vessels may be able to execute a Single Turn to bring them back to the
position where the person fell overboard, as an immediate action situation.
Subsequently:
 Post lookouts as high as possible and on all sides – keep person in sight, use
binoculars
 Hoist flag “O”
 Sound three prolonged blasts on the whistle, and repeat at intervals in restricted
visibility
 Transmit DISTRESS message to vessels in the vicinity and shore authorities
 Muster rescue boat crew, emergency and backup team
 Prepare rescue boat for launching
 Reduce speed
 Establish communications with all teams using hand held VHF radios
 Rig scrambling nets and rope ladders on both sides to aid recovery
 Prepare stretcher, resuscitator, first aid kit and hospital
 Proceed with the man overboard to leeward and stop the vessel up wind for
recovery
 If the man overboard is not sighted, vessel should commence a “Sector Search” to
locate the person.
129
Williamson Turn Learning Outcome

LO2-6
To perform this manoeuvre, the helm is put hard over at full speed, allowing the vessel
to swing. When the course has altered 60°, the helm is immediately put hard over in the Explain how to
opposite direction, until the vessel is on a reciprocal course to her original course. The manoeuvre and
vessel is then steadied on this reciprocal course, and should be on her original track. handle the ship in
all conditions
 Man overboard – Helm hard over to the side on which person fell
 Routine and
 60° off original course – Helm hard over to the other side emergency
manoeuvres
 20° short of reciprocal heading, amidships and steady up ship on reciprocal course
This type of turn is used as an immediate action. It is effective to return the vessels
original track line and is good in restricted visibility conditions. This turn takes the
vessel away from the incident and is a slow procedure.
130
Single Turn or ‘Anderson Turn’ Learning Outcome

An alternative manoeuvre is to turn the vessel ‘short LO2-6
round’, which can be deployed if the vessel is in
confined waters and is already on manoeuvring speed. Explain how to
With this manoeuvre, the rudder is put hard over to manoeuvre and
the side of the casualty and once a deviation of 250° handle the ship in
from the original course has been achieved, rudder to all conditions
midships. In the event of a man overboard in
restricted sea room often the best course will be to  Routine and
maintain heading, reduce speed as quickly as possible emergency
and launch a rescue boat to recover the casualty. manoeuvres
This manoeuvre is the fastest method of recovery and good for vessels with tight
turning characteristics. It is suited to vessels with a single screw. The approach is made
difficult because it is not straight to the casualty.
Delayed Actions – Man Overboard suspected

Sometimes, it is discovered that a person is missing after a period of time. A thorough
search of the ship and questioning of crew will follow after which it may be decided that
the person has gone overboard. In this case, the vessel will have to be turned around,
returned on the same track for a certain length of time, to search the most likely area.
In the event that a person is believed to be missing the following actions should be
taken:
131
Single Delayed Turn Learning Outcome

This manoeuvre may be employed if the person in the water is visible or, at least, there LO2-6
is visible indication of the person’s position. The manoeuvre involves a delay of 1
minute before putting the wheel hard over and allowing the vessel to turn in a circle Explain how to
before steadying for the approach. manoeuvre and
handle the ship in
all conditions
 Go past hazard and helm hard over to one side
 Routine and
 After turning over 180°, steady up to emergency
manoeuvres
 Stop ship with person on lee side
132
Elliptical Turn Learning Outcome

This manoeuvre also should only be attempted if the position of the person is visible. It LO2-6
involves turning the ship through 180° then following that course until the person is 30°
abaft the beam. At that time, the helm is put hard over again and the vessel turned to Explain how to
affect the recovery. The only advantage to this operation is to allow a slightly longer manoeuvre and
time for the engineers to prepare for engine movements. handle the ship in
all conditions
This is executed where navigational hazards or TSS prevent immediate manoeuvre.
 Routine and
 Helm hard over to side of turn
emergency
 After turning through 180° steady up manoeuvres
 Casualty is 2 points abaft the beam, helm hard over
 After turning 180°, steady up ship on original course
133
Both the single delayed turn and the elliptical turn do have one further advantage in Learning Outcome
that the casualty is kept on the same visual side throughout. The Williamson turn LO2-6
requires a manoeuvre which will take the casualty out of the lookouts sight line as it
passes astern leading to the possibility of losing the visual fix. Explain how to
manoeuvre and
Scharnov Turn handle the ship in
This manoeuvre will take the vessel back into all conditions
her wake and less distance will be covered
doing this, saving time. This turn cannot be  Routine and
carried out effectively unless the time elapsed emergency
between the incident occurring and the turn manoeuvres
commencing is known.
 Rudder hard over

 After turning through 240° from
original course, rudder hard over the
opposite side
 When heading 20 short of the
opposite course, rudder to midships
134
Learning Outcome Three
135
THE GYRO COMPASS Learning

To fully understand how a gyro compass works you need to understand the properties Outcome LO3-1
of a Gyro.
Analyse the
THE FREE GYROSCOPE principles of the
operation and
errors of a marine
gyro compass
Balanced Gimbal System Spin Axis  The Controlled
Rotor/Spinner Gyroscope
Horizontal pivot
Vertical Pivot
Mount
A Free Gyroscope is a heavy, balanced, rapidly spinning wheel having freedom to spin
and free to turn about two axes at right angles to each other and at right angles to the
spin axis.
This means that its spin axis can turn freely and it can point in any direction without
restraint (friction). This is referred to as a gyroscope having “three degrees of
freedom”. It is common to think of the other two axes as an altitude axis and an
azimuth axis. The bearings in these axes have almost “no friction”.
The correct names for these other two axes are the torque axis and the precession axis.
What they are called does not really matter. What is important is that they are at right
angles to each other and both are at right angles to the spin axis.
A free gyroscope has two unique properties. (Two properties that only gyroscopes
have.)
1. Gyroscopic Inertia* (sometimes called Rigidity in Space)

Gyroscopic inertia keeps the spin axis of a spinning object (a gyroscope)
aligned in the same direction in space unless it is subjected to a torque
(turning moment) at right angles to the spin axis.
*Inertia is a property of all objects. It keeps them moving in the same direction and at
the same speed unless they are subjected to a force.
136
2. Precession Learning
This word describes both the change of direction and the rate of change of Outcome LO3-1
direction of the spin axis of a free gyroscope when it is subjected to a torque
trying to change the direction in which the spin axis is pointing. Analyse the
principles of the
Gyroscopic Inertia operation and
errors of a marine
Gyroscopic inertia keeps a gyroscope axis pointing in the same direction in space. If the gyro compass
spin axis is pointing at a star, it will remain pointing at that star. As the star rises and  The Controlled
sets, the direction of the free gyroscope spin axis will follow that movement, rising with Gyroscope
the star, tracking it across the sky and setting with the star, following its movement as it
changes altitude and azimuth across the sky. The star may be a real star or a point in
the sky fixed between real stars. The point is known as a “fixed star”. Remember that it
is the earth that is turning, the real direction of the fixed star remains constant. The
change of direction of the spin axis is an apparent change of direction.
In order to understand how gyrocompasses are made to indicate true north, it is first
necessary to understand the apparent change of direction of the spin axis, that is the
movement of the north end of a free gyroscope. As navigators, you should have a good
idea of the hourly movement of stars. You need to understand this apparent movement
in all navigable latitudes. With respect to stars, we call the movement changing azimuth
and changing altitude, or rising and ‘setting’. With regard to gyroscopes, we call the
horizontal movement ‘drift’ and the vertical movement ‘tilting’.
Movement of a Free Gyroscope
Free gyroscopes follow the path of a fixed star, i.e. they circle the North Celestial Pole
in an anticlockwise direction. The rate at which the star is rising or setting, and
changing azimuth is complicated if we think of every direction (altitude and azimuth) of
the star and every latitude.
Gyrocompasses are not free gyroscopes. Their spin axes are always nearly horizontal
and can be considered to be pointing more or less towards the northern part of the
horizon. It is the apparent movement, vertical (tilting) or horizontal (drifting) of the spin
axis of a free gyroscope when it is nearly horizontal and when it is pointing more or less
north that you have to understand.
The north end of the spin axis of a free gyroscope, if pointing more or less towards the
north, will move as shown below. In all cases it will circle the north celestial pole once
every sidereal day (23 hours 56 minutes).
137
NORTH LATITUDE Learning

Outcome LO3-1
Near the horizon, the drift is always to the right (east).
North Analyse the
Tilting is upwards when the axis points to the east principles of the
of the meridian. Celestial
Pole operation and
errors of a marine
Tilting is downwards when the axis gyro compass
points to the west of the meridian.
Horizon  The Controlled
There is no tilting on the meridian. Horizon Gyroscope
West East
In north latitude, the turntable movement of the earth causes the direction of the north
end of a free gyroscope spin axis to drift and tilt as shown above.
The picture above is a very important one in the understanding of gyroscopes. The star
represents the same star at two times separated by a few hours. The star in the west is
setting and moving to the right. Eventually it is on the meridian below the pole and
then continues moving to the right but it now starts to rise. The star (same star) to the
east is still moving to the right and it is rising.
A free gyroscope initially pointing at the star in the west would, after the same time
interval, be pointing to the same star now in the east. The axis of the gyroscope would
continue to point at the star, following the star in its apparent movement round and
below the North Celestial Pole.
SOUTH LATITUDE
Horizon
Near the horizon, the drift is to the
left (west).
Tilting is upwards when the axis West East

points to the to the east of the meridian.
North
Celestial
Tilting is downwards when the axis points
Pole
to the to the west of the meridian.
There is no tilting on the meridian.
In south latitude, the turntable movement of the earth causes the direction of the north
end of a free gyroscope spin axis to drift and tilt as shown above.
The second picture is also a very important one in the understanding of gyroscopes.
The star represents the same star at two times separated by a few hours. The star in
the east is rising and moving to the left. Eventually it is on the meridian above the pole
and then continues moving to the left but it now starts to set. The star (same star) to
the west is still moving to the left and it is setting.
138
AT THE EQUATOR Learning

Outcome LO3-1
Near the horizon, there is no drift.
All movement is vertical. Analyse the
principles of the
Horizon operation and
Tilting is upwards when the errors of a marine
North gyro compass
spin axis points to the east of the meridian.
Celestial
Pole  The Controlled
Tilting is downwards when the spin axis Gyroscope
points to the west of the meridian. West East
There is no tilting on the meridian.
At the Equator, the turntable movement of the earth

causes the direction of the north end of a free
gyroscope spin axis to tilt as shown above.
The third picture is equally important in the understanding of gyroscopes. The star
represents the same star at two times separated by about twelve hours. The star in the
east is rising and initially not changing azimuth. Eventually it circles to the left round
and above the North Celestial Pole until it is on the meridian when it continues circling
to the left and now starts to set because it is in the west. The star (same star about
twelve hours later) is almost on the horizon and hardly changing azimuth and setting. It
will then continue circling until it reaches the meridian after which it will rise.
A free gyroscope initially pointing at the star in the east would, after the same twelve-
hour time interval, be pointing to the same star now in the west. The axis of the
gyroscope would continue to point at the star, following the star in its apparent
movement round and above the North Celestial Pole.
Summarising
DRIFT
of the gyroscope spin axis north end when it is
nearly horizontal
In North Latitude To the East (right)
In South Latitude To the West (left)
At the Equator No Drift
TILTING
of the gyroscope spin axis north end
East of the Meridian Upwards
West of the Meridian Downwards
On the Meridian No Tilting
139
Learn the tables Learning

As navigators, you will understand that the movement is an apparent one. It is the Outcome LO3-1
surface of the earth that is changing direction. The gyroscope is still pointing in the
same direction, following its fixed star. What we have been discussing is a free Analyse the
gyroscope. A gyrocompass always lies almost horizontally, so it is only the movement of principles of the
the free gyroscope when it is nearly horizontal that we need to understand. The axis operation and
will rise and set (tilt) and change azimuth (drift) under the same laws that apply to a free errors of a marine
gyroscope. This is very important. gyro compass
 The Controlled
Tilt and tilting Gyroscope
Try to avoid confusion brought about by the words “tilt“and “tilting“. Sometimes these
words are used in a verb sense when they mean the way the spin axis is moving, either
upwards or downwards. Sometimes the words are used in a noun sense, meaning the
altitude or depression (or the angle that the axis is pointing above or below the
horizontal).
Note: The apparent movement of a free gyroscope about the North Celestial Pole is not
very important in the understanding of gyroscopic compasses, because the axis of a
gyrocompass is always horizontal or nearly so. What is important is the direction of
movement horizontally (drift) and vertically (tilting) when the gyroscopic axis is nearly
horizontal.
Precession
Although the spin axis of a free

gyroscope remains pointing in the same Spin
direction for ever, the gyroscope axis
will change its direction if a torque or
turning moment is applied at right
angles to the spin axis. The name of this Precession Torque
change of direction is precession.
You must understand which way the spin axis will precess when subjected to a torque at
right angles to the spin axis. The axis moves at 90° to the torque in the direction of spin.
140
Determine the direction of precession in each of the following cases. The direction of Learning Outcome
spin and the direction of the force or torque, is as shown LO3-1
Analyse the
principles of the
operation and
errors of a marine
gyro compass
The Controlled
Gyroscope
Determine the direction of force or torque in each of the following cases. The direction
of spin and the direction of the precession, is as shown
Relationship between Torque, Spin, Inertia and Precession
The inertia of the wheel is a product of its weight and the way the weight is distributed
which means the size of the wheel and its shape. To increase inertia, the wheel must be
heavy and most of the weight of the wheel has to be concentrated away from the spin
axis, near the circumference of the wheel. A flywheel uses the same principle.
Gyroscopic inertia is the product of the inertia of the wheel multiplied by the rate of
spin of the wheel, which is usually in the order of several thousand revolutions per
minute. When the product of these two factors is constant, then the rate of precession
varies as the torque.
141
TWO STEPS TO CREATING A GYRO COMPASS Learning Outcome

LO3-2
a) Gyro to gravity controlled gyro
b) Gravity controlled gyro to gyrocompass Analyse the
principles of the
STEP 1: Gravity Control operation and
errors of a marine
Gyrocompasses are controlled by gravity. When the north end of the spin axis is tilted gyro compass
upwards, i.e. when it is pointing above the horizontal, a vertical force (or torque) is
 North Settling
applied to it in such a direction so as to make the north end precess to the left or west.
Compass
Although it is not a scientific statement, if the north end is above the horizontal, it
thinks it must be in the east (rising) so it moves towards north, i.e. to the left or to the
west.
When the north end of the axis is tilted downwards, i.e. when it is pointing below the
horizon, a vertical force is applied to it in such a direction so as to make the north end
precess to the right or east. Although it is not a scientific statement, if the north end is
below the horizontal, it thinks it must be in the west (setting) so it moves towards north,
i.e. to the right or to the east.
All gyrocompasses employ this direction of precession. Gravity-controlled precession

turns a free gyroscope into a gravity-controlled gyroscope.
The effect of gravity control is to make the gyroscope move round a central position
(sometime wrongly called a settling position) in a very flat ellipse. The degree of
flatness depends upon the amount of precession, which in turn depends upon the
Inertia, Spin Rate and Torque. These factors are decided upon by the manufacturer,
each different make of gyroscope having its own inertia, spin rate and torque. The
resulting ellipse will always be very flat which is why we can say that the gyroscope is
always nearly horizontal.
A gyroscope modified in this way is called a gravity-controlled gyroscope. It is not yet a

gyrocompass.
STEP 2: Damping
To turn it into a gyrocompass, the ellipse curve has to be made to spiral inwards on
itself. This is done in several mechanical ways, each manufacturer having to invent a
new mechanical method because of patent rights of previous makers.
To the horizontal precession described in a gravity controlled gyroscope is added an

extra, small amount of damping precession. This extra precession is known as damping
precession because it damps out the gyroscope moving from one side of the meridian to
the other repeatedly and makes the gyro compass spiral inwards and point to gyro
north.
There are two basic methods by which this can be achieved.
142
Damping in tilt
When the north end of the gyro axis is above the horizon, it is precessed downwards Learning Outcome
and when it is below the horizon it is precessed upwards. LO3-2
Analyse the
principles of the
operation and
VERTICAL DAMPING errors of a marine
PRECESSION gyro compass
 North Settling
Compass
DAMPED CURVE
UNDAMPED CURVE
The diagram below shows the direction of precession applied to a gyroscope damped in
tilt.
Gyro axis above horizontal

precession is downwards
HORIZONTAL
MERIDAN
Gyro axis below horizontal
precession
is upwards
Tilt damped precession
This method of damping is known as “damping in tilt“. It causes an error known as

“latitude error“. Modern compasses have a variable amount of tilt damping. A large
amount of tilt damping makes the compass settle quickly but causes a large latitude
error. Once the gyro is near the meridian a smaller damping precession is used
This method
reducing the of damping
latitude is known
error. as “damping
The changeover in tilt“.
is either It causes
manual an error known
or automatic. Manualas
“latitude
changeovererror“. Modernbycompasses
is affected means of have a variable
a switch labelledamount of and
“settle” tilt damping.
“run” on Asome
large
amount of tilt
gyrocompasses. damping makes the compass settle quickly but causes a large latitude
error. Once the gyro is near the meridian a smaller damping precession is used reducing
the latitude error. The changeover is either manual or automatic. Manual changeover
is affected by means of a switch labelled “settle” and “run” on some gyrocompasses.
143
Damping in Azimuth Learning Outcome

When the north end of the gyro axis is to the east of the meridian it is precessed to the LO3-2
west and when it is to the west of the meridian it is precessed to the east. This
precession does not cause latitude error. Analyse the
principles of the
operation and
Most gyrocompasses use damping in tilt rather than azimuth damping. errors of a marine
gyro compass
HORIZONTAL DAMPING  North Settling

PRECESSION Compass
DAMPED CURVE
UNDAMPED CURVE
The diagram below shows the direction of precession applied to a gyroscope damped in
azimuth.
There are various methods by which damping precession is achieved. This lesson does
not go into the details of how this is done.
MERIDAN
HORIZONTAL
AZIMUTH-DAMPED
PRECESSION
AXIS TO THE WEST

PRECESSION TO THE EAST AXIS TO THE EAST
PRECESSION TO THE WEST
144
THE EFFECT OF ERRORS Learning Outcome

LO3-3
Gyrocompasses are very reliable and every care is taken in their manufacture to ensure
that they meet specifications. Analyse the
principles of the
However from time to time they do develop errors and the navigator should check the operation and
gyrocompass every watch and after each course alteration to make sure that the error if errors of a marine
any is known. gyro compass
Any gyro error will cause an error in the instruments with which it interfaces. A bearing
repeater with 1 High error will cause a 1 error in all bearings. This error has to be  Gyrocompass
allowed before the bearings are drawn on the chart. The error can be removed by errors
misaligning the repeater with the master gyrocompass but this is not a very satisfactory
solution. A better solution is to fix the cause of the error, and this may require the
services of a technician.
Limitations of gyrocompasses (errors)
The Bridge Watchkeeper should be aware of the errors that may in certain
circumstances, cause unreliability to the ships directional heading.
(i) Lubber Line
(ii) Latitude Error (Also known as ‘Damping’ or ‘Settling Error’)
(iii) Latitude course and speed error ( do not confuse this error with the above)
Lubber Line
Very often the technicians who install gyrocompasses do not align the master
gyrocompass correctly.
The gyroscope must be aligned with its lubber line in the fore and aft direction. This is
not as easy as it sounds because the master gyroscope is often in a cupboard with no
view. Probably the easiest way to check that the gyroscope is aligned properly is as
follows:
i) Correctly align a bearing repeater in the fore and aft direction.

ii) Align the bearing repeater card with the true bearing of some object such as
the sun or a mountaintop or a transit line you happen to be on.
iii) Note the heading on the bearing repeater.

iv) Set the master gyrocompass latitude and speed control settings to the currently
correct values. The master compass should then show the same heading as the
bearing repeater. If not then check everything again.
v) After checking that all is correct and the two compasses are still not reading the
same, slacken off the holding down bolts in the base of the master gyro and
turn the gyrocompass housing by the required number of degrees until it reads
the same as the repeater.
145
vi) Wait until the gyro settles, which may take some time. Learning Outcome
LO3-3
vii) Repeat the exercise until the master gyrocompass heading against its lubber
line reads the same as the repeater heading. Analyse the
principles of the
It is important to make sure that all repeaters are properly aligned. A good officer operation and
always makes this check before sailing. Also, check the gyro error every watch. errors of a marine
gyro compass
Latitude Error
This error occurs in all gyrocompasses that are damped in tilt as described previously.  Gyrocompass
errors
The settling position of a “damped in tilt” gyrocompass is to the east of the meridian in
the northern hemisphere and to the west of the meridian in the southern hemisphere.
The angle the gyro settles out of the meridian is known as latitude error.
Its value is about 1½° x Tan Lat in a tilt-damped gyrocompass.
The main error we will be looking at in detail is called “latitude course and speed error”
and some of the topic areas already covered will be revisited in a simple format
Latitude, course and speed error
Firstly, some gyro theory is necessary prior to a full understanding of gyro errors, and
how to apply the errors to maintain a true track.
Spinning wheel gyro compasses are weight controlled and damped to give the axis of
spin some directional stability in the meridian.
In other words, the compass is designed so that the spin axis of the wheel will naturally
try to settle in the horizontal plane, and align with the meridian thus indicating true
geographical north.
Referring to the diagram below, it makes sense to place the compass card affixed to the
gyro compass with the North and South points in line with the spin axis:
Plan view of compass card mounted on top of gyro.

146
Another important point to remember, is that due to its design, the axis of the spinning Learning Outcome
wheel in a gyro compass, will always try and settle horizontally and at right angles to LO3-3
the path of the gyro through space.
Therefore, if the path of the gyro through space is in an easterly direction, then the axis Analyse the
of spin will always settle in the N-S plane. principles of the
operation and
N
errors of a marine
gyro compass
 Gyrocompass
E errors
But, if the gyro track through space is not in an easterly direction, then the spin axis will
settle one side or the other on the meridian, thus:
350°
080°
010°
100°
Consider the gyro compass which is situated on a ship moving in a northerly direction.
Then the resultant movement through space of the gyro will be the resultant of the
Earth’s spin in space, and the ships movement northerly through space, thus:
Resultant speed & direction of gyro

Error Through space
west of
meridian
Speed &
direction of
gyro on earth
Speed of gyro through space due to earths
spin in space
147
Now if you look at the compass card in relation to the ships lubber line, you will notice Learning Outcome
that it is reading higher than it would be with no error. For example, if the error due to LO3-3
steaming north was 4° High, then when the ship is on track (000°) the ships head will be
reading 004° on the gyro compass card. Analyse the
This gives us a lesson to remember - if the error is high, then you must steer high to principles of the
remain on track. operation and
errors of a marine
gyro compass
Ship tracking 000°
 Gyrocompass
errors
N
Compass
card reading
004°
Now let’s consider the gyro compass on a ship steaming south.

Studying the diagram below, you will notice that the path of the gyro through space is
again the resultant of the earth’s spin through space, and the ships track through space.
Sticking to the golden rule, the spin axis will always settle at right angles to the gyros
path through space, this time when the ship is on track (180°)
Notice that the compass card at the lubber line is reading low.
148
For example, if the error was 4° Low, then when the ship was on track (180°) Learning Outcome
The compass card would be reading 176°. LO3-3
This also gives us a lesson to remember – if the error is low, then you must steer low to
remain on track. Analyse the
Now we need to study the Earths movement through space, and discover at what principles of the
velocity the gyro is moving through space. operation and
Studying the diagram below, which is a view from an observer in space above the north errors of a marine
pole. gyro compass
During the course of a day, (24 hours) it should be apparent that a gyro at the equator is  Gyrocompass
going to move through space a lot faster than a gyro at 60°north Latitude, because it errors
has further to travel.
Also during the 24 hour period, the gyro at the equator will have travelled through
space 360 x 60 nautical miles which is 21600 miles
The velocity of the gyro through space is then 21600 ÷ 24 in mph. = 900 mph
But, at 60° north the speed of the gyro through space will be 900 mph x Cosine of 60° =
450 mph. because the speed varies as the cosine of the Latitude.
Similarly, if we placed the gyro at the pole, then it will not be travelling through space
with the spin of the Earth, therefore it will not work as a compass.
Let’s go back to the resultant triangle of the gyro movement through space, and
discover how a change in Latitude affects the size of the error
Speed of
ship going
north =
15k
Speed of gyro through space due to the earths

spin at the equator = 900 mph
The above diagram shows the size of the tangent of the error for a ship travelling north
at 15 knots at the equator = 15 ÷ 900
149
The diagram below shows the ship travelling north at 15 knots in Latitude 60° north, Learning Outcome
now the tangent of the error is 15 ÷ 450 giving a bigger tangent, thus a bigger error LO3-3
Analyse the
principles of the
Ships speed operation and
through space errors of a marine
travelling gyro compass
north = 15 k  Gyrocompass
errors
Speed of gyro through space due to the earths spin

in Lat 60° N = 900 Cos 60 = 450 mph
The lesson learned so far is that the higher the ships speed the bigger the tangent, then
the bigger the error.
Also, the higher the Latitude the bigger the tangent, the bigger the error.
So far we have looked at two elements that will cause an error, namely, Latitude, and
speed.
To understand how the ships course comes into the equation, we must first look at
some simple trigonometry.
The diagram below shows a gyro compass on a ship heading North, travelling at a speed
of 30 knots in Latitude 60° north.
Resultant direction & speed of

θ gyro through space Ships
speed =
θ 30 knots
Speed of gyro through space due to earths

spin
Through space 900 x Cos 60° = 450 knots
If we study the triangle in the diagram we discover that the Tangent of θ(the error ) can
be found by dividing the opposite side by the adjacent side which in this case is 30 ÷ 450
which gives an error of 3.8° High.
150
This is quite acceptable so long as the ship is tracking North or South. Learning Outcome
LO3-3
If the ship is steering any other course we have to allow for that course angle.
Consider our ship now travelling at 30 knots on a course of 045° Analyse the
principles of the
Studying the diagram below, we discover that the opposite side in our triangle is now a operation and
bit smaller than it was travelling north, therefore the error will be smaller. errors of a marine
gyro compass
Let’s now analyse the small triangle in our diagram, side AB is the side we need to know
 Gyrocompass
the value of, and side AC is the ships speed 30 knots, errors
The angle A is our course of 045°, and the Cosine of 045 is side AB ÷ AC
Then side AB = side AC x Cos 45
Now Tan θ = 30 x Cos 45 ÷ 900 x Cos Lat
Which now gives us an error of only 2.7° C
B
Sp x Cos Co.
Sp.
900 x Cos Lat A
Now we have a formula which will cope with Latitude, course and speed, thus:
Tan error = ( speed x Cos Course ) ÷ ( 900 x Cos Lat )
The pioneers of gyro compasses who developed this formula were not entirely happy at
giving mariners trigonometrical functions to play with.
They agreed it would be better to find a formula which would give sailors the error in
degrees, so they could directly adjust their course.
We can prove that the maths are correct by using each stage of the formula to find the
Latitude, course & speed error in the example below.
A ship is travelling at 26 knots in Latitude 60° north, on a course of 050° gyro.
The answer you get will be the same in each case = 2.13° High.
Familiarise yourself with the formula:
TRACKING NORTH - ERROR IS HIGH

TRACKING SOUTH - ERROR IS LOW
DON’T FORGET
IF THE ERROR IS NAMED HIGH, STEER HIGH
IF THE ERROR IS NAMED LOW, STEER LOW

151
Settling error Learning Outcome

LO3-3
We will now look briefly into another error called settling error which will affect all
spinning wheel gyro compasses. Analyse the
Before we can understand this error we need to look briefly at some more gyroscopic principles of the
theory. operation and
errors of a marine
A spinning wheel gyro compass is made to settle in the meridian by weight controlling gyro compass
the spin axis to make the axis ‘tilt’ vertically, and ‘precess’ horizontally, to compensate  Gyrocompass
for the spinning of the Earth every 24 hours. errors
This causes the gyro spin axis to move or oscillate up and down and from side to side.
With a compass card fastened to it, this gyro would not stay stable in the meridian, so
the spin axis is further stabilised by ‘damping’.
This damping effect causes the spin axis to eventually settle horizontally and in the
meridian, but, only if it is situated at the equator.
Because the Earths is spherical, as we move the gyro compass north or south, the
damping effects can no longer keep the axis horizontally in the plane of the horizon
other than that at the equator.
This ‘over damping’ effect causes the spin axis to tilt slightly, which then causes
precession in azimuth, thus causing the gyro to settle slightly out of the meridian in
places other than at the equator.
It is worthy of note that gyro compasses damped in tilt will have the north end of the
spin axis slightly above the horizon in north Latitudes, causing Easterly precession of the
north end, and the north end of the spin axis slightly below the horizon in south
Latitudes causing westerly precession of the north end.
Therefore the settling error in north Latitudes will be Low, and in south Latitudes will be
High.
The Bridge Watchkeeper should familiarise him/herself with the operators handbook on
the type of compass being carried on each particular ship, as the methods of
compensation of the gyro errors will vary.
Some spinning wheel gyros have Latitude and speed dial settings which must be
adjusted as the speed and Latitude change.
152
INTERFACE WITH OTHER EQUIPMENT Learning Outcome

LO3-4
Follow-up
The purpose of having a gyrocompass is to obtain a reliable steady direction known as Analyse the
gyro north. Many devices use this direction to control other navigation equipment such principles of the
as: operation and
 bearing repeaters errors of a marine
 steering repeaters gyro compass
 auto pilots
 Gyrocompass
 radar heading and bearings
Interfaces
 ECDIS
 ARPA etc.
The gyroscope part of the compass cannot turn other instruments. The sensitive part of
the gyrocompass must do no work and it must be completely free without any restraint.
The sensitive element is supported by means of a follow-up.
Very simply, at the end of the gyroscope axis is an electromagnet and on the follow-up,
in line with the gyroscope axis, is a sensing coil. Any misalignment between the
electromagnet and the sensing coils generates a current in the sensing coils. After
amplification this current is fed to an azimuth motor mounted on the gyrocompass
housing, which is attached to the vessel. The azimuth motor turns and drives the
follow-up to realign itself with the sensitive element. This makes the follow-up also
align itself with gyro north.
The azimuth motor turns the follow-up by means of a gear. This gear is made to turn a
transmitter gear which drives a step-by-step motor or servo motor control. This send
signals to the various repeaters and keeps them lined up to the sensitive element.
The sensing coils are energised when the follow-up is misaligned with the gyroscope.
They send this signal to the azimuth motor, which keeps the follow-up aligned with the
sensitive element. The transmitter gear turns when the follow-up turns and generates a
signal to drive the repeaters.
153

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HigherNational

This publication is owned and the copyright of Fleetwood Nautical Campus of

Unit code: F0LW35

It is primarily aimed at candidates who intend to seek sea going employment as a

On completion of this Unit the candidate should be able to:

1 Establish watchkeeping arrangements and operational and safety procedures

2 Explain how to manoeuvre and handle the ship in all conditions.

Management of Bridge Operations

On completion of this Learning Outcome the candidate should be able to:

3. Outline the requirement for data on manoeuvring characteristics on board ship.

4. Demonstrate manoeuvring procedures when berthing and un-berthing, in all conditions

5. Demonstrate the manoeuvring procedures when involved in anchor operations in any

Books that are available to buy or view online include

An extensive list of books is available on Onefile

Recommended Tutor Marked Test completion point

 Start the manoeuvre at a minimum safe speed, maintaining steerage way.

Principles of Ship Handling

A piston draws in a new charge of air as it

A steam turbine uses superheated steam which is generated by a boiler therefore a

Diesel Electric Learning Outcome

Contra-rotating Propulsion (CRP) Learning Outcome

An advantage of the CRP

Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPP)

Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

 Bridge control has a quicker response – easier to stop / come astern

In addition to advantages, CPPs also have disadvantages when compared to a FPP.

Engine power is delivered to the propeller by means of

Voith Schneider Propeller (VSP)

Particularly with tugs, Voith Schneider is considered to be a favourable system as it

 A tug with twin units Explain how to

< Diagram demonstrating how blades are set

Some examples of vessels that

< Thruster arrangement

Tunnel Thrusters Learning Outcome

Either a controllable pitch propeller or a reversible

A propeller is placed inside a tube

Water Jet Thrusters Learning Outcome

This azimuthing or rotatable thruster is a retractable unit

The types of thruster that provide multi directional thrust are

Conventional Rudders Learning Outcome

Unbalanced Semi-balanced Balanced

High Lift Rudders Learning Outcome

Schilling Rudder Learning Outcome

 Reduced overshoot angles

Fish Tail Rudder

Pleuger Rudder Learning Outcome

Factors Affecting Manoeuvring Learning Outcome

Pivot Point when stopped

Pivot Point when making headway

Pivot Point when making sternway

 Turning with thrusters

Dynamics of a turn Learning Outcome

Turning Circle Learning Outcome

Transfer - The sideways distance travelled by the centre of gravity

Tactical Diameter - The sideways distance travelled by the centre of gravity

Total Diameter - This is the extreme diameter of the turning circle.

Shallow Water Effect Learning Outcome

Bow and Stern Wave Effect

- - + Positive pressure fields