SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

 A scalar quantity is a physical quantity

which has magnitude only.

 A vector quantity is a physical quantity

which has both magnitude and direction.

 Table shows examples of scalar quantities

and vector quantities.

Scalar Vector
Quantity Quantity

Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Mass Weight
Energy Momentum
Temperature Pressure
Time Impulse
Power Acceleration
Density Force

MEASUREMENTS

 We frequently need to make

measurements for physical quantities by
using standard measuring instruments.
1
 We must choose the appropriate
instruments for a given measurement.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

 We normally use ruler, measuring tape,

vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge
to measure length.

a) Vernier Calipers

 A pair of vernier calipers can be used

to measure thickness, diameter of a
wire and depth of a liquid.

 The main scale is marked in divisions of

1 mm, while the vernier scale is
marked in divisions of 0.1 mm.

 We need to check for zero error in

order to obtain accurate readings.

 When the jaws are closed, if the main

scale zero and the vernier scale zero
marking form a straight line, then
there is no zero error.

2
 Positive zero error occurs if the vernier
scale zero is to the right of the main
scale zero.

 For example the value of zero error is

+ 0.2 mm. If the observed reading is
23.8 mm, then the corrected reading
is….

 23.8 mm – ( + 0.2 mm ) = 23.6

mm

 Negative zero error occurs if the

vernier scale zero is to the left of the
main scale zero.

 For example the value of zero error is

- 0.4 mm.If the observed reading is

3
 23.8 mm, then the corrected reading
is…

 23.8 mm – ( - 0.4 mm ) = 24.2 mm

b) MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

 The micrometer screw gauge is used

to measure very small thickness and
diameters to the accuracy of 0.01
mm.

 The main scale is marked in divisions

of 0.5 mm while the vernier scale is
marked in divisions of 0.01 mm.
 When the jaws are touching each
other and if the main scale and the
vernier scale zero marking form a
straight line, then there is no zero
error.

 Positive Zero Error occurs when the

zero of the vernier scale is below the
main scale.

 For example the value of zero error is

+0.03 mm. If the observed reading is
3.45 mm, the corrected reading
should be…. 3.45 mm – ( + 0.03 mm )
= 3.42 mm

4
  Negative Zero Error occurs when the
zero of the vernier scale is above the
main scale.

 For example the value of zero error is

- 0.01 mm. If the observed reading is
3.45 mm, the corrected reading
should be…. 3.45 mm – ( - 0.01 mm )
= 3.46 mm
MEASUREMENT OF TIME

 Stop watches are used to measure

time intervals.

 Electronic Stop Watch can measure

the time intervals accurately to 0.01
seconds.

 Mechanical Stop Watch has a minute

scale and a second scale.

MEASUREMENT OF MASS

 The mass of an object can be

measured using a beam balance or an
electronic balance.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

5
  A thermometer is an instrument used
to measure temperature.

MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Electric currents are measured by

instruments called ammeters.

ACCURACY AND CONSISTENCY IN

MEASUREMENTS

 Accuracy is the degree of a measuring

instrument to record readings close to the
actual value.

 Consistency is the characteristic of a set

of measurements carried out by an
instrument on a particular quantity.

 To differentiate accuracy and consistency,

the distribution of gunshots on a target is
analyzed as shown below.

6
 Position of
gunshots

target

SENSITIVITY IN MEASUREMENTS

 Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability

to detect a small change in the quantity to
be measured.

 The smaller the change which can be

measured by the instrument, the more
sensitive the instrument is.

 A ruler can measure reading accurate to

0.1 cm. A pair of vernier calipers is more
sensitive because it can measure reading
accurate to 0.01 cm.

7
 However, a micrometer screw gauge is the
most sensitive of the three instruments
because it can measure readings accurate
to 0.001 cm.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

 In scientific research, a measurement

which is impossible. All measurements are
values of approximation only.

 In other words, it is a matter of how close

the measurement is to the actual
value.This is because errors exist in all
measurements.

EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

 When we measure, errors may occur. There

are two main type of experimental errors in
measurements : systematic errors and
random errors

 Systematic Error is the error that appears

in one direction only.It may be due to the
error in calibration of instrument which
makes the instruments defective.

 The measurement obtained is deviated

either consistently too high ( always

8
 positive ) or too low ( always negative )
from the actual value.

 The sources of systematic error :

a) Zero error of measuring instruments.

b) Incorrectly calibrated scale of
measuring instruments.
c) Repeated error in reaction time.
d) Wrong assumption.

 Systematic Errors due to error in calibration

of instrument can be overcome if we
examine the instruments carefully before
using them.

 Random Error occur due to the

carelessness the observer when making a
measurement.

 The sources of random error :

a) Parallax error when reading a scale.

9
 b) Changes in the surroundings such as
the temperature, air circulation or
pressure.

 To avoid random errors, we should always

place our eyes directly perpendicular in
front of the pointer or scale of an
instrument when taking measurements.

 Random error also can be reduced by

taking the mean value or average readings
of repeating measurements. For example, if
the diameter readings of a wire are
0.54mm, 0.52 mm, 0.54 mm and 0.52 mm,
then the mean value 0.54 + 0.52 + 0.54 +
0.52 mm = 0.53mm
4
can be reduce the random error.

ANALYSING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

IDENTIFYING THE QUESTION

 The question identified for scientific

investigation must be well defined,
measurable and controllable. The question
asked must also be one that can be solved
experimentally.

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 For example,the question “How does the
length of a simple pendulum affect its
period of oscillation? can certainly be
answered by experimentation.

 Whereas the question “What is ‘period’ ?”

is a question that can be answered simply
by finding the definition of the word
‘period’ in the dictionary and is thus not a
suitable question as far as scientific
investigation is concerned.

IDENTIFYING THE VARIABLES

 A variable is a situation or factor that can

change in a scientific investigation. There
are normally three types of variables that
you need to identify in your experiment,
namely

a) the manipulated variable

b) the responding variable
c) the constant variable

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a) Manipulated Variable is the variable which is
independent or changed by the
experimenter.

b) Responding Variable is the variable that is

measured and it changes in response to
the value of the manipulated variable.

c) Constant Variable are factors that are kept

constant throughout the experiment.

 Once the variables to be studied have been

identified, they need to be defined in terms
of how they will be measured.

 Defining a variable in terms of how it will

be measured is an operational definition.

FORMING A HYPOTHESIS

 The hypothesis is what we think the answer

to the question is and the hypothesis made
must be based on knowledge and research
about the problem to be studied.

 A hypothesis should be stated in terms of

the variables. A reasonable hypothesis in
the experiment to study the period of
oscillation of simple pendulum is as follows:

12
 The period of oscillation of a simple
pendulum will increase if the length of the
pendulum is increased.

DESIGNING AND CARRYING OUT AN

EXPERIMENT

 Once the hypothesis is made, an

experiment must be designed to test its
validity.

 The design of the experiment must include

the selection of apparatus and proper work
procedures.

 The results of the experiment should show

whether the hypothesis is right or wrong. If
necessary, repeat or redesign the
experiment to confirm the results.
RECORDING AND PRESENTING DATA

 A well designed experiment should provide

enough data to test the validity of the
hypothesis made.

 When data is organised in a table, it is

easier to analyse than when it is recorded
randomly.

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 A data table usually consists of several
roes and columns.

 The manipulated variable is usually written

in the first row or column.

 The responding variable is then recorded

from the second row or column onwards.

 The name and symbol of the physical

quantity as well as its unit have to be
written on the row or column chosen.

 All data have to be recorded according to

the sensitivity of the measuring
instruments used.

 Displaying the data obtained in graphs or

charts is often helpful. One of the most
common type of graph is an x-y graph.

ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING DATA

 While analysing and interpreting data, all

relationships between the variables need
to be stated in accordance with the
measurements or observation obtained.

 All steps in the calculation of a certain

physical quantity need to be shown clearly.

14
MAKING CONCLUSION

 The conclusion to an experiment is made

based on the analysis and interpretation of
the data obtained.

 The conclusion is a summary of the results

of the experiment and a statement of how
the results relate to the hypothesis.

 If the results support the hypothesis, the

conclusion can end by giving ideas for
further testing.

 In certain cases, the hypothesis may

become a scientific theory.

 If the results are contrary to the

hypothesis, reasons have to be included
and if necessary, a new hypothesis may be
suggested.
WRITING A REPORT

 The following is a sample format that can

be used to write a report on the
experiment that has been carried out.

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 State the aim of the experiment

List the variables according to :

# manipulated variable
# responding variable
# fixed variable

List of apparatus and materials

Arrangement of the apparatus

Procedures

Tabulation of data

Analysis of data
FORCES AND MOTION

ANALYSING LINEAR MOTION

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 Distance and Displacement

 Distance and displacement are two

quantities that may seem to mean the
same thing, yet have distinctly
different definations and meaning.

 Distance is the total path length

travelled from one location to another.
It is a scalar quantity.

 Displacement is the distance between

two location measured along the
shortest path connecting them, in a
specified direction. It is a vector
quantity.

 Speed and Velocity

 Speed and velocity are often thought to

mean the same thing. However there is
an important difference between speed
and velocity.

 Velocity involves direction as well as

magnitude and is therefore a vector
quantity. Speed on the other hand
involves magnitude only and is
therefore a scalar quantity.

17
 Speed is defined as the distance
travelled in a certain interval of time.
Speed can also be defined as the rate
of change of distance travelled with
time.

 The velocity of an object is defined as

the distance travelled in a given time
interval, in a specified direction.
Velocity can also be defined as the rate
of change of displacement with time.

Average Velocity = displacement, s (m)

time take,t (s)

 As a vector quantity, the velocity

should be stated with both the
magnitude and the direction.

 However in simple calculations that

deal with objects moving in a straight
line, in a constant direction the
direction of the velocity is at times
ignored.

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ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION

 An object accelerates when its velocity

changes with time.

 Acceleration is defined as the rate of

change of velocity with time.

Acceleration = change of velocity

time taken for the
change
 If u represents the initial velocity, v the
final velocity and t the time taken for
the change, then the acceleration a is
given by…
a =v–u
t
 The acceleration of an object is
measured in metres per second per
second ( ms-2 ).

 The acceleration of an object is

regarded as positive if its velocity
increases and negative if its velocity
decreases.

 Negative acceleration is also known as

deceleration.

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 An object is said to move with uniform
acceleration if the rate of change of its
velocity is constant.

 An object is said to move with zero

acceleration if its velocity remains
constant.

Example :

A car increases its velocity steadily

from 72 kmh-1 to 108 kmh-1 in 5 s. What
is its acceleration in ms-2 ?

Solution :

u = 72 kmh-1 = 72 x 1000 ms-1 = 20 ms-1

60 x 60

v = 108 kmh-1 = 108 x 1000 ms-1= 30 ms-1

60 x 60
t=5s Acceleration, a = v – u = 30 – 20 ms-1
t 5
-2
= 2ms
Example :

An object moves from rest with a

uniform acceleration of 2 ms-2. What is
the velocity of the object after 30 s ?

20
 Solution :

U = 0 , t = 30 s , a = 2 ms-2

a= v–u
t
v = u + at = 0 + ( 2 x 30 ) = 60 ms-1

Example :

A car moving at a constant velocity of

30 cms-1 came to a stop 6 s after its
brakes were applied. What was the
deceleration of the car ?

Solution :

U = 30 cms-1, v = 0 , t = 6 s

Acceleration, a = v – u = 0 – 30 cms-1
t 6s
= - 5 cms-2

Deceleration = 5 ms-2

RELATING DISPLEMENT, VELOCITY,

ACCELERATION AND TIME.

Ticker-tape Timer

21
 The velocity and acceleration of an
object can be measured using a ticker-
tape timer.

 The ticker-tape timer consists of a steel

strip that vibrates 50 times a second.
This enables the vibrating steel strip to
make 50 dots per second on the ticker-
tape being pulled through it.

 The constant time interval between

two successive dots on the ticker-tape
is called one tick. One tick is equal to
1/50 s or 0.02 s.

 The distance between successive dots

on a ticker-tape depends on the
velocity of the tape.

 If the tape moves quickly, the dots are

far apart. If the tape moves slowly, the
dots are close to each other.

 Changing distances between

successive dots on the ticker-tape
indicates a changing velocity and

22
 thereby indicates that the ticker-tape is
accelerating or decelerating.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

 Problem on linear motion with uniform

acceleration can often be solved
quickly using the equations of motion.
The following symbols are used in the
equations of motion :

u = initial velocity

v = final velocity

t = time interval

a = acceleration
v = u + at
s = displacement
s = ut + ½ at2

v2 = u2 + 2as

s=(u+v)t
2

23
 Example :

A car is accelerated at 6 ms-2 from an

initial velocity of 2 ms-1 for 10 seconds.
What is………..
a) the final velocity
b) the distance moved ?

Solution :

a) Final velocity,
v = u + at
= 2 + ( 6 x 10 ) = 62 ms-1

b) Distance moved,
s = ut + ½ at2
= ( 2 x 10 ) + ½ ( 6 x 102 ) = 320 m

Example :

A car accelerates from rest at 2.5 ms-2

for 10 s. Find the velocity reached and
the distance travelled after 10 s. The
driver then steps on the brake pedal
with a constant force. The car stops
after travelling a distance of 50 m.

24
 Calculate the deceleration of the car
after the brakes are applied.

Solution :

U = 0 ms-1, a = 2.5 ms-2, t = 10 s

v = u + at
= 0 + 2.5 x 10
= 25 ms-1

s = ut + ½ at2
= 0 x 10 + ½ x 2.5 x 102
= 125 m

v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 625 + 2 x a x 50
a = - 625
100
= - 6.25 ms-2

The negative sign shows deceleration

ANALYSING MOTION
GRAPHS

Displacement-Time Graph

25
 A displacement-time graph shows how the
displacement of an object changes with
time.

 The gradient of a displacement-time graph

represents the velocity of the object.

 Figure shows several types of

displacement-time graph.

Velocity-Time Graph

26
 A velocity-time graph shows how the
velocity of an object changes with time.

 The gradient of a velocity-time graph

represents the acceleration of the object.

 The area under a velocity-time graph

represents the distance travelled by the
object.

 Figure below shows several examples of

velocity-time graph.

 Example :

27
Describe the motion of a runner who is running
in a straight line.
Motion of the runner

O-A Running with a uniform

velocity of 3ms-1

A-B Runner at rest. Velocity is

zero

B-C Runner is running with a

uniform velocity of 5.0
ms-1

Runner is running with a

C-D velocity of -8.3 ms-1 and
returns to the starting
points

 Example :

28
The graph above represents the motion of a
motorcyclist in the first 20 seconds. Complete
the following table that describes the motion of
the motorcyclist.

Time Motion
0-4 s Travels with uniform acceleration of
2.5 ms-2
4-8 s Travels with uniform velocity of 10
ms-1
8-10 s Travels with uniform acceleration of
5.0 ms-2
10-14 Travels with uniform deceleration of
s – 5ms-2
14-18 At rest, velocity = 0 ms-1
s
18-20 Travels with uniform acceleration of
s 2.5 ms-2

29
 UNDERSTANDING INERTIA

 An object, once set in motion, would go on

moving forever with a constant velocity in
a straight line so long as no opposing
forces act on it.

 Inertia can thus be defined as the tendency

of an object to maintain its state of rest, or
if moving, to continue its motion in a
straight line.

INERTIA AND MASS

 The greater the mass of an object, the

more difficult it is to start it moving or to
stop it if is in a state of motion.

 The relationship between mass and inertia

enables mass to be stated in terms of
inertia. The mass of an object can thus be
defined as a measure of its inertia.

 The definition of mass in terms of inertia is

a better definition to the common definition
of mass as the amount of matter in an
object. This is due to the fact that the
amount of matter in an object cannot be
counted.

30
Situations Involving Inertia

 A passenger standing in a bus tends to

move backwards when the bus starts to
move forward because the passenger has
the inertia to remain at rest when the bus
moves forward.

 When the bus stops suddenly, the

passenger is thrown forward because the
inertia of the passenger has the tendency
to keep moving forward.

Reducing the Negative Effects of

Inertia

 Lorries carrying bulky and heavy objects

will need to have those objects properly
secured to prevent them from moving
forward and injuring the driver in case the
lorry stops suddenly or to prevent them
from falling off the lorry and thereby
damaging the vehicles behind them in case
of a sudden acceleration.

 An air bag is fitted inside the steering

wheel. It provides a cushion to prevent the
driver from hitting the steering wheel or
dashboard during a collision.
31
 ANALYSING MOMENTUM

Collisions

 An inelastic collision is a collision where the

two colliding objects stick together after
colliding. An inelastic collision occurs when
a lump of plasticine hits the floor without
bouncing.

 An elastic collision is a collision where the

two colliding objects separate after
colliding. An elastic collision occurs when a
rubber ball is dropped and bounces after
hitting the floor.

Momentum

 Momentum is a useful quantity to consider

when bodies are involved in collisions and
explosions.

 Momentum is defined as the mass of an

object multiplied by its velocity.

Momentum, P = mass (m) x velocity

(v) 32
 The unit of momentum is kilogram metre
per second ( kgms-1 ) when the mass is
measured in kilograms and the velocity in
metres per second.Momentum is a vector
quantity since it has both magnitude and
direction.

 Example :

Trolley P moves from left to right and

trolley Q moves from right to left as shown
in figure above. Trolley P weighs 2 kg while
trolley Q weighs 3 kg. The velocity of
trolley P and trolley Q are as shown. What
is the momentum of..

a) trolley P
b) trolley Q

Solution :

Momentum of trolley P = mv = 2 x 5 kgms-1

= 10 kgms-1

33
Momentum of trolley Q = mv = 3 x ( - 4 ) kgms -
1

= -12 kgms-1

Conservation of Momentum

 The principle of conservation of momentum

states that in a collision, the total
momentum of the objects before the
collision is equal to the total momentum
after the collision, provided that there is no
external force acting on the colliding
objects.
Total momentum = Total
momentum
before collision after collision
 Elastic Collision

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 +

m2v2

 Inelastic Collision

m1u1 + m2u2 = ( m1 + m2
)v
 Explosions

Mxv=mxu
34
Problems Involving Linear Momentum

 Example :

For an elastic collision as shown in figure

above, given m1 = 2.0 kg, m2 = 3.0 kg,
u1= 5ms-1, u2 = 2ms-1 and v1 = 2ms-1. What
is the velocity, v2 after collision ?

Solution :

Using m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

2.0 x 5 + 3.0 x 2 = 2.0 x 2 + 3.0 x v2
10 + 6 = 4 + 3.0v2
v2 = 12.0 / 3 = 4.0 ms-1

Example :

35
 For an elastic collision as shown in figure
above, given that m1= 1.0 kg, m2= 3.0 kg,
u1= 4ms-1, u2= 2ms-1 and v2= 0.5 ms-1.
What is the velocity, v1 after collision ?

Solution :

Using m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

1.0 x 4 + 3.0 x (- 2 ) = 1.0 x (-v1) + 3.0 x
0.5
4 – 6 = -v1 + 1.5
v1 = - 3.5 ms-1

Example :

For an inelastic collision as shown in figure,

given that m1= 3.0 kg, m2= 2.0 kg, u1= 5
ms-1 and u2= 1ms-1. What is the common
velocity, v after collision ?

Solution :

Using m1u1 + m2u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v

3.0 x 5 + 2.0 x 1 = ( 3.0 + 2.0 )v
15 + 2 = 5v
17 = 5v

36
 17 = v
5
v = 3.4 ms-1

Example :

A bullet of mass 10 g is fired from a rifle of

mass 2.0 kg. The velocity of the bullet is
found to be 100 ms-1. Find the recoil
velocity of the rifle.

Solution :
Mv = mu
2.0kg (v) = 0.01kg ( 100ms-1 )
2v = 1
v = 1 = 0.5ms-1
2

UNDERSTANDING
THE EFFECTS OF A
FORCE
Balanced Forces on an Object

 The action of pushing or pulling is a force.

A force can cause :

37
 a) a stationary object to move.
b) a moving object to change its speed.
c) a moving object to change its direction
of motion.
d) an object to change in size and shape.

 When two or more external forces acting

on a body produce no net force, we can say
that the forces are balanced.

 No net force does not mean that there

are no forces acting on the object. It simply
means that all the forces are balanced.

 The following are some of the situations

where forces are balanced on a body :

a) A pile of book resting on a hard

surface. The weight, W of the books is
acting vertically downwards. At the
same time, an equal and opposite force
known as normal reaction, R from the
surface acted on the books. The net
force acting on the books is zero. The
books remain at rest.

38
 b) A car moving at constant velocity along
a straight road.The net force acting on
the car is zero. The car travels with its
original constant velocity.

 A balanced force does not change the state

of rest or state of motion of an object.

 When an object is at rest or moves with

constant velocity it behaves as if there is
no force acting on it.

Unbalanced Forces on an Object

 When two or more forces acting on a body

are not balanced, there must be a net force
acting on it.

 This net force is known as the unbalanced

force or the resultant force.

 There is the effects of unbalanced forces

acting on an object :

When golfer hits a stationary golf ball, a

force acts on the ball and causes it to
fly off from rest. The net force or the
unbalanced force causes the golf ball to
accelerate.

39
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCE,
MASS AND ACCELERATION ( F =

 Newton’s Second Law states that the rate

of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force
acts.


Force  final momentum – initial momentum
time

 If a force, F acts on an object of mass, m

and its velocity changes from u to v in
time, t, then..

Force  mv – mu
t

m(v–u)
time

40
  Force  ma

 The relationship F  ma can be turned into

an equation by adding a constant, k that is
F =kma
 The unit of force is Newton (N) and a force
of 1 N is defined as the force that can
produce an acceleration of 1 ms -2 when it
acts on an object of mass 1 kg.

 When F is in Newtons, m in kilograms and a

in metres per second per second, the
equation F = kma becomes….
F =ma

 The SI unit of force is newton ( N ) or kgms -

2
in base unit.

 Figure shows a trolley of mass 2.0 kg

placed on a rough horizontal table and
being pulled by a force of 0.8 N. The trolley
moves at constant velocity.

41
 a) What is the frictional force between the
trolley and the table ?
b) The force, F is then increased to 1.2 N.
What is the acceleration of the trolley ?
c) The string is then broken when the
trolley is moving. Find the subsequent
acceleration of the trolley.

Solution :

a) Since the trolley moves at constant

velocity, the acceleration, a = 0 ms -2. Then
the unbalanced force, F = ma
0.8 N – G = 2.0 kg x
(0)
0.8 N – G = 0
Frictional force, G = 0.8 N

b) Net force = 1.2 N – G = m x a

1.2 – 0.8 = 2.0 x a
a = 0.4 = 0.2 ms-2
2.0
The acceleration of the trolley = 0.2 ms-2

c) F = ma
0N – 0.8 N = 2.0 x a
a = - 0.8 = - 0.4 ms-2
2.0

42
 The acceleration is negative. This means
that the trolley is decelerating or moving
with a retardation of 0.4 ms-2.

ANALYSING IMPULSE AND

IMPULSIVE FORCE

Impulsive Force

 Impulsive force is defined as the rate of

change of momentum in a collision or
explosion.

F = mv – mu
t

 The definition of impulsive force shows that

it is..

a) inversely proportional to the time for

which it acts.

43
 c) directly proportional to the change in
momentum.

 Since impulsive force is inversely

proportional to the time for which it acts,

a) increasing the time of impact will

reduce the magnitude of the force.

b) decreasing the time of impact will

increase the magnitude of the force.
 Example of situations involving impulsive
forces of a large magnitude are :

a) the deformation on a tennis ball when

struck by tennis racket.

b) the huge acceleration on a football

when it is kicked.

c) driving a pile into the ground using a

pile rider.

 Example :

A car with a mass of 1000 kg is moving

with a velocity of 25 ms -1. It then collides
with a tree and is stopped in 0.05 seconds.
Calculate the impulsive force acted on the
car.

44
 Solution :

F = mv – mu = ( 1000 x 0 ) – ( 1000 x 25 )
t 0.05
= - 500 000 N

The negative sign denotes the force which

is acting on the car, against its direction of
motion.

Impulse

 Impulse is defined as the change of

momentum.

Impulse = mv -
mu

 From the equation F = mv – mu

t
Impulse = Ft = mv –
mu
 The unit of impulse is the same as the unit
of momentum, which is kgms-1 or Ns.

 Example :

45
 A baseball approaching a bat with an initial
velocity of – 30ms-1. A force is applied by
the bar to hit the ball and sends it in the
opposite direction with a velocity of 50 ms -
1
. If the mass of the baseball is 150 g and
the time of contact between it and the bat
is 1.6 x 10-3 s, calculate.

a) the impulse applied to the ball

b) the impulse force exerted on the ball

by the bat.

Solution :

a) The impulse applied to the ball

= mv –mu
= 0.15 x 50 – 0.15 x ( - 30 ) = 7.5 + 4.5
= 12.0 kgms-1

b) The impulsive force exerted on the ball by

the bat.
F = mv – mu
t
= 12.0
1.6 x 10-3

= 7.5 x 103 N

 Example :

46
 A volleyball approaching a player at a
velocity of -8ms-1 is spiked so that it moves
back in the opposite direction with a
velocity of 40ms-1. The mass of the ball is
0.20 kg. How much impulse does the
player apply to the ball ?

Solution :

Ft = mv –mu = (0.20) x (40) – (0.20) x (-

8.0)
= 8 + 1.6
UNDERSTANDING
= 9.6 kgms-1
GRAVITY

Acceleration Due To Gravity

 All objects fall freely with the same

constant acceleration regardless of its
mass.

 The constant acceleration experienced by

free falling objects due to the force of
gravity is known simply as the acceleration
due to gravity.

 It has been found that the acceleration due

to gravity for a freely falling body has a
value of about 9.8 ms-2.
47
Gravitational Field

 A gravitational field ia a region in which an

object experiences a force due to
gravitational attraction.

 The force that acts on an object in a

gravitational field is called the force of
gravity.

 It is the force of gravity that pulls all

objects towards the centre of the Earth.

 The gravitational field strength is defined

as the force acting on unit mass in the
field.

 The gravitational field strength, g can be

calculated as :
g=F
m

where F = gravitational force

m = mass of body

 The SI unit for g is Nkg-1. An object that falls

due to gravitational force only, is said to
experience a free fall.

48
 Measurements show that on the earth’s
surface, a mass of 1 kg experiences a force
of about 9.8 N, that is, its weight is about
9.8 N.

 The gravitational strenght on earth is

therefore about 9.8 Nkg-1.

Weight

 The weight of an object is defined as the

gravitational force acting on the object.

 If the mass of an object is m kg, its weight

can be calculated as follows :

Weight, w = mg

Where g = gravitational field strength

 The SI unit for weight is newton (N) and it

is a vector quantity.

 The difference between weight and mass.

Weight Mass
Dependent on the Is a constant quantity

49
 acceleration due to gravity
Is a vector quantity Is a scalar quantity
Is measured in newtons Is measured in
kilograms

 Example :
An astronaut has a mass of 80 kg. What is
his weight if….

a) he is on the surface of the Earth where

the gravitational field strength is
9.8Nkg-1
b) he is on the surface of the Moon where
the gravitational field strength is 1/6 of
that on the surface of the Earth ?

Solution :

a) On the surface of the Earth, his weight,

W=mxg
= 80 x 9.8 = 784 N

b) On the surface of the moon

gravitational field strenght,g = 1/6 x
9.8 = 1.63 Nkg-1

His weight, w = m x g
= 80 x 1.63
= 130.7 N

50
 Example :

A marble is dropped from the top of a

building and takes 2 s to reach the surface
of the Earth. What is the height of the
building ?
( g = 9.8 ms-2 )

Solution :

Using the formula, s = ut + ½ gt2

=0+½x
9.8 x 22
The height of the building = 19.6 m

 Example :

A stone is dropped from a height of 8 m

above the surface of the Moon. Calculate
the time taken for the stone to reach the
surface of the Moon.
[ Moon’s gravitational acceleration = 1/6 of
Earth’s gravitational acceleration ]

Solution :

51
 s = ut + ½ gt2
8 = 0 + ½ x 1/6 x 9.8 x t2
t = 3.13 s

 Example :

The following data was obtained from an

experiment to measure the acceleration
due to gravity.
Mass of steel bob = 200 g
Distance covered = 2.40 m
Time of fall = 0.702 s
Calculate the acceleration due to gravity of
the steel bob.

Solution :

s = ut + ½ gt2
2.4 = 0 (0.702 ) + ½ g(0.702)2
g =ANALYSING
9.74 ms-2 FORCES
IN EQUILIBRIUM

EQUILIBRIUM

 An object at rest is in equilibrium. This is

because the forces acting on it are
balanced and the resultant force is zero.

52
 The cat resting on an inclined plane is also
in equilibrium. The three forces acting on
the cat cancel out each other so that the
resultant force is zero.

ADDITION OF FORCES

 A resultant force is a single force that

represents the combined effect of two or
more forces with magnitude and direction.

 Two forces that act in same directions :

Forces Resultant force = F = F1 + F2

Magnitude = 2 +3 = 5 N

 Two forces that act in opposite directions :

53
 Forces Resultant force = F = F1 – F2
Magnitude = 3 – 2 = 1 N

 Two forces acting at a point at an angle to

each other:

When two forces acting at a point at an

angle to each other, the resultant force can
be determined by using the parallelogram
of forces. Figure shows two forces F1 and F2
acting at an angle,  with each other. The
following steps show how to determine the
resultant force, F.

 Steps :

a) Draw the forces F1 and F2 from a point

with an angle of  with each other.

54
 b) Draw another two line to complete the
parallelogram.

c) Draw the diagonal of the

parallelogram. The length of this
diagonal represents the magnitude
resultant force, F and its direction, 
can be determined by measuring the
angle between the diagonal with either
one side of the parallelogram.

 Example :
A football is kicked simultaneously by two
players with forces 140 N and 200 N
respectively, as shown in figure. Calculate
the magnitude of the resultant force.

Solution :

244.1 N
140 N

200 N

F =  1402 + 2002
= 244.1 N

 Example :

55
An ocean liner is being towed into harbour
by two tug boats A and B. Tug boats A and
B exert a force of 2400 N and 3000 N
respectively in the direction as shown in
figure. Find the magnitude and direction of
the resultant force that acts on the liner.

Solution :

Problems of this type can be solved either

by scale diagrams or by calculation.

a) By a scale of 1 cm : 600 N, a diagram is

drawn to find the resultant of the two
forces using the ‘tip-to-tail’ method as
shown in figure.

56
 Magnitude of the resultant force
= length of OB x 600
= 6.4 x 600
= 3840 N

Direction of the resultant force =  =

51o east of tug boat A.

b) By calculation
A vector diagram based on the ‘tip-to-
tail’ method is drawn as shown in
figure. This diagram need not be drawn
to scale.

From Pythagorans’ Theorem,

OB2 = OA2 + AB2
= 24002 + 30002 = 14 760 000
OB = 3841.87 N

Resultant force = 3841.87 N

tan  = AB = 3000 N = 1.25

AO 2400 N
 = 51o21’

57
 Direction of the resultant force
= 51o21’ east of tug boat A.

RESOLUTION OF FORCES

 Two forces can be replaced by a single

force which is the vector sum of these
forces.

 Conversely, it is also possible to split or

resolve one force into two forces. These
forces are called the components of the
original force.

 The process of splitting or resolving a force

into its components is called resolution.
Usually it is most useful to take the
components at right angles to each other.

 Figure shows a force F is resolved into two

perpendicular components Fx and Fy.

58
 With that, Fx = F cos 
Fy = F sin 

 Fx is the horizontal component of force F

whereas Fy is the vertical component of
force F.

 Example :

A student is pulling a bag with a force of

12.0N at an angle of 60o to the horizontal
floor. What is the horizontal and vertical
component of the force ?

Solution :

Fx and Fy are the vertical and horizontal

components of the force.

Magnitude of Fx = 12.0 cos 60o = 6.0 N

Magnitude of Fy = 12.0 sin 60o = 10.4 N

 Example :

59
 A 30 kg box slides down a slope inclined at
30o to the horizontal as shown in figure
above.

a) What is the component of the weight

that enables the box to slide down the
slope ?
b) What is the acceleration of the box
down the slope if the friction is 30 N ?
( g = 10ms-2 )

Solution :

a) Weight of the box, W = mg = 30 (10)

=
300N
Component down the slope = W sin 30o
=
300 ( 0.5 )
= 150 N

b) Friction = 30 N
Resultant force down the slope,
F = 150– 30 = 120 N
Acceleration of the box, a = F = 120 = 4 ms-2
m 30

60
 ACTION AND REACTION

 Forces always occur in pairs. The forces

that act in pairs are called action and
reaction.

 Action and reaction are equal in magnitude

but act in a direction that opposes one
another.

 Newton’s Third Law of motion states that

for every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.

FORCE IN
EQUILIBRIUM

 An object is said to be in equilibrium if the

object is at rest or is moving with a
constant velocity in a straight line.

 The resultant force that acts on an object is

zero if it is in equilibrium. In other words,
the forces that act on the object are
balanced in all directions.
61
 Example :

An object of mass 30 kg is supported by a

force F in the pulley system shown in
figure. Assuming that the pulley is smooth
and that the string is of negligible mass,
find the force F when..

a) the object moves upwards with a

constant velocity.
b) the object moves upwards with an
acceleration of 2 ms-2.

Solution :
a) When the object moves with a constant
velocity, the forces that act on it are in
equilibrium, thus the applied force F will be
equal to the weight of the object W.

F=W
= mg = 30 kg x 10ms-2 = 300 N

62
 b) Resultant force F’ = F - W
F’ = ma ma = F – W
30 (2) = F – 300
F = 360 N

* the force F = 360 N when the object

acceleration at 2ms-2.

 Example :

A 5 kg mass is used to accelerate a 3 kg

trolley along a table as shown in figure. The
friction between the table and the trolley is
10 N. Assuming that the pulley is smooth
and the string is of negligible mass, find

a) the resultant force that acts on the

system.
b) the acceleration of the system
c) the tension in the string
Solution :

a) Resultant force,
F=W–f
63
 = 5 (10) – 10 = 40
N

b) F = ma
a = F = 40 = 5 ms-2.
m 5+3

c) F=T–f
ma = T – f
T = ma + f = 3(5) + 10 = 25 N.

Alternative :
F=W–T
ma = mg – T
T = mg – ma = 5(10) –
5(5)
= 25 N

THREE FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

64
 A point O is acted upon by three forces P, Q
and R as shown in figure above.

 If the three forces are in equilibrium, the

vector diagram representing P, Q and R will
form a closed triangle with the force arrows
all following one another in the same
direction as shown in figure below.

 When the magnitude and direction of one

of the three forces in equilibrium is known,
the magnitude and direction of the other
two forces can be found with the aid of a
vector diagram.

 Example :

65
A 20 kg mass suspended from a hook in
the ceiling is pulled aside by a horizontal
string until the supporting string makes an
angle of 30o with the vertical as shown in
figure. Find..

a) the tension T in the supporting string,

b) the force F exerted on the horizontal
string. ( g = 10 ms-2 )

Solution :

The tension T in the supporting string and

the force F exerted on the horizontal string
can be found by using a scale diagram of 1
cm : 50 N as shown in figure.

The tension T is represented by the line AB

66
 T = 4.6 x 50 = 230 N

The force F is represented by the line OA

F = 2.3 x 50 = 115 N

UNDERSTANDING WORK, ENERGY,

POWER AND EFFICIENCY

 In science, work is done only when a force

produces motion. Work is done when you
walk to school, as does a crane when it lifts
a load.

 No work is done when a force is applied but

no displacement occurs. This happens
when a students pushes as hard as he can
against a stationary wall.

 This is because the force exerted on the

wall produces no displacement.

 Work is also not done when an object

undergoes a displacement with no applied
force acting on it.
 This happens when a satellite moves at a
constant velocity in space.

67
 Work is defined as the product of the
applied force and the distance moved in
the direction of the force.

 If a force F that acts on an object causes

the object to move through a distances,S in
the direction of the force, then the work
done W is given by :

W=Fxs

 The SI unit of work is the joule ( J ) and is

the work done when a forces of 1 newton
( N ) moves through a distance of 1 metre
(m)

 Example :
A student lifts a 12 kg bag onto his
shoulders through a vertical distance of 1.5
m as shown in figure. What is the work
done by the student ?

Solution :

Force, F = weight of the bag

= mg = 12 x 10 = 120 N
Work, W = F x s
= 120 x 1.5 = 180 J
 Example :

68
A student pulls a 50 kg box up a plane
inclined at 30o to the horizontal as shown in
figure. If the the length of the plane is 5 m,
find the work done in pulling the box to the
top of the plane.

Solution :
Work is done to overcome the weight of the
box while it is being pulled upwards.
Weight of the box = mg
= 50 x 10 = 500 N

Component of the weight parallel to the

plane
= mg sin 30o
= 500 x 0.5 = 250 N

Work done in pulling the box up the plane

= 250 x 5 = 1250 J

69
 ENERGY
 Energy is normally described as something
that enables useful work to be done.

 Energy can be defined as the capacity to

do work.

 The SI unit of energy is the same as the

unit of work, which is the joule ( J ).

 Energy has many different forms and can

be converted from one form to another.

 Work is done when energy is converted

from one form to another.

KINETIC
ENERGY
 Kinetic energy is the energy an object
possesses due to its motion. Any object
which is moving has kinetic energy.

 The work done by the force in accelerating

the object is converted into kinetic energy,
Ek of the object.

 Thus the kinetic energy of an object of

mass, m moving with a velocity, v is given
by :
70
 Example : Ek = ½ mv2
The velocity of a 3 kg trolley is increased
from 10 ms-1 to 16 ms-1 over a distance of
10 m. Find….

(a) the change in the kinetic energy of the

trolley.
(b) The force that acts on the trolley.

Solution :

(a) Change in kinetic energy

= ½ mv2 – ½ mu2

= ½ x 3 x 162 – ½ x 3 x 102

= 384 – 150 = 234 J

(b) The work done to accelerate the trolley

is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy.

Work done = force x distance

= change in kinetic energy
F x 10 = 234
F = 23.4 N

Force that acts on the trolley = 23.4 N

71
 GRAVITATIONAL
POTENTIAL ENERGY

 Gravitational potential energy is the energy

which an object has because of its position.

 To raise an object of mass,m through a

vertical height, h an upward force equal to
its weight, mg must be applied.

 The work done in raising the object is

‘stored’ in the object as gravitational
potential energy, Ep.

 The gravitational potential energy of an

object is thus given by :

Ep = work done = force x distance

= mg x h

72
 Example :
Ep = mgh

An object of mass 5 kg is placed on a shelf

which is 0.2 m above a table. If the table is
0.5 m above the floor as shown in figure.
Find the potential energy of the object with
reference to

(a) the table top

(b) the floor

Solution :

(a) Potential energy of the box with

reference to the table is given by

Ep = mgh = 5 x 10 x 0.2 = 10 J

(b) Potential energy of the box with

reference to the floor is given by
73
 CONSERVATION
Ep = mgh = 5 x 10 x OF
0.7 ENERGY
= 35 J

 Principle of Conservation of Energy states

that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can be converted from one
form to another.

 This principle implies that the total amount

of energy in a closed system remains
constant.

 For an object of mass, m falling vertically

downwards from a state of rest, its loss in
potential energy is equal to the amount of
kinetic energy gained, assuming that no
energy is lost due to air resistance.

 Thus,

mgh = ½ mv2
Where v is the velocity of the object just
before it hits the ground.

 Example :

A rubber ball of 2 kg is released from a

height of 6 m from the ground. On hitting

74
 the ground, the ball rebounds to a height of
3.0 m as shown in figure below.

6.0 m
3.0 m

a) If air resistance can be neglected and the

acceleration due to gravity g = 10ms-2, find

(i) the kinetic energy of the ball as it

reaches the ground.
(ii) the velocity of the ball on reaching
the ground.
(iii) the kinetic energy of the ball as it
leaves the ground on rebound.
(iv) the velocity of the ball on rebound

Solution :

(a) (i) The kinetic energy of the ball as it

reaches the ground is equal to its
original gravitational potential energy.

Ek = mgh1 = 2 x 10 x 6 = 120 J

(ii) The velocity V1 of the ball on reaching

the ground is given by

75
 Ek = ½ mv12
120 = ½ x 2 x v12
v12 = 120
v1 = 10.95 ms-1
(iii) the kinetic energy of the ball as it
leaves the ground is equal to its
maximum potential energy on rebound.

Ek = mgh2 = 2 x 10 x 3 = 60 J

(iv) the velocity of the ball on rebound is

given by

Ek = ½ mv22
60 = ½ x 2 x v22
V22 = 60
V2 = 7.75 ms-1

 Example :

An aeroplane of mass 4.0 x 105 kg flying at

a height of 8000 m at a velocity of 240 ms -1.
Calculate the kinetic energy and
gravitational potential energy of the
aeroplane.

Solution :

Kinetic energy = ½ x 4.0 x 105 x 2402

= 1.152 x 1010 J

76
 Gravitational potential energy
= 4.0 x 105 x 9.8 x 8000 = 3.1 x 1010J

POWE
 Power is defined as the rate at which work
is done.

Power = work
done
 If W is the work done and t is the time
taken,power P is given by…

P=
W
 The SI unit of power is watt ( W ). One watt
is the power generated when 1 joule of
work is done in 1 second.

 Power can be expressed in another form as

follow :

P=W=Fxs=Fxs=Fxv
77
t t t
 Example :

A student of mass 60 kg runs up a flight of

50 steps, each of 20 cm high. What is the
power generated by the boy if he takes 20
s to climb to the top of the stairs ?
( g = 10ms-2 )

Solution :

Height of the stairs,s = 50 x 0.2 = 10 m

Work done by the boy, W = F x s

= mg x s
= 60 x 10 x
10
= 6000 J

Power generated, P = W = 6000 = 300 W

t 20

 Example :

In the snatch event of a weightlifting

competition, a weightlifter lifts 180 kg from
the floor to a height of 1.65 m above the
78
 floor in one complete movement in a time
of 1.5 s. What is the power generated by
the weightlifter during this time ?
[ Assume g = 10ms-2 ]

Solution :

F = 180 x 10 = 1800 N

Displacement, s = 1.6 m
Time taken,t = 1.5 s

Work done, W = 1800 x 1.65 = 2970 J

Power generated, P = W = 2970 = 1980 W

t 1.5

EFFICIEN
CY
 Efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the
useful output energy to the total energy put
into the machine.

 This ratio is normally expressed as a

percentage.

efficiency = energy
output x 100 %
energy 79

input
 Machine with an efficiency of 100 % does
not exist. Some energy is always wasted in
overcoming friction and in moving parts of
the machine itself.

 Maximising efficiency is important as this

helps to conserve resources. This can be
achieved by producing machines that have
a high level of efficiency.

 When a device is operating at the maximum

possible efficiency :

 Less input energy is required to

produce the same useful output
energy.

 The cost of operating the device is

reduced

 The unwanted output energy ( which

may be harmful to the environment ) is
reduced.

80
  The energy resources in this world can
be used over a longer period of time.

 Example :

A force of 250 N is used to raise a load of

1000 N through a distance of 5 m in a
pulley system. If the force moves through a
distance of 30 m, find

(a) the work done in raising the load

(b) the work done by the effort
(c) the efficiency of the pulley system.

Solution :

(a) Work done in raising the load

1000 x 5 = 5000 J

(b) Work done by the effort = 250 x 30

= 7500 J

(c) Efficiency of the pulley system is given

by

81
 efficiency = energy output x
100 %
energy
input
= 5000 x 100
% = 66.7 %
7500

UNDERSTANDING
ELASTICITY

 An elastic material recovers its original

shape and size after it has been stretched,
compressed or bent.

 Elasticity is defined as the ability of a

material to recover its original shape and
size after the force that distorts it is
removed.

 Consider a pair of molecules of a solid.

 When no external force is applied on

the solid, the molecules are at their

82
 equilibrium separation and there is no
resultant intermolecular force.

 When the solid is stretched, the

molecules are displaced away from
one another. A strong attractive
intermolecular force acts between the
molecules to oppose the stretching.

 When the solid is compressed, the

molecules are pushed closer to one
another. A strong repulsive
intermolecular force acts between the
molecules to oppose the compression.
 Springs are normally very elastic. However
a spring can be loaded with such a large
weight that it can be permanently
stretched.

 The maximum weight that can be loaded

on a spring so that it just remains elastic is
called the elastic limit of the spring.

Relationship Between
Force and
Extension of a Spring
 Springs are found in many of devices. A
spring in the suspension system of a car
will experience repeated compression
83
 when the car moves along an uneven road
surface.

 The spring in a weighing scale is stretched

each time it is used to weigh an object.

 Some springs require a large force to

stretch or to compress it while other
springs can be easily stretched or
compressed by a small force.

HOOKE’S
 Hooke’s Law states that if a spring is not
stretched beyond its elastic limit, the force
that acts on it is directly proportional to the
extension of the spring.

 If the extension of a spring produced by a

force F is x, then

F x
F = kx
84
 Where,
k = spring constant.
F = force on the spring
x = extension
x = extended length - original
length

 The spring constant k can be defined as

the force that is needed to extend a spring
by a unit length.

 Spring constant is measured in newton per

metre ( Nm-1 )

 The force constant of a spring is the force

that is required to produce one unit of
extension of the spring.

 A spring with a force constant of 15 Ncm-1

requires a force of 15 N to produce an
extension of 1 cm.

 The force constant is a measurement of the

stiffness of the spring.

 A spring with a larger force constant is

harder to extend and is said to be more
stiff.

85
 A spring with a smaller force constant is
easier to extend and is said to be less stiff
or softer.

 Example :

The length of a spring is increased from

20.0 cm to 25.0 cm when a mass of 6 kg
was hung from the end of a spring.
(a) What is the load on the spring in
newtons?
(b) What is the extension of the spring ?
(c) Calculate the force constant of the
spring.
[ Assume g = 10 ms-2 ]

Solution :

(a) Load on the spring, F = mg

= 6 x 10 =
60 N

(b) Extension, x = 25.0 - 20.0 = 5.0 cm

(c) F = kx
k = F = 60 N = 12 Ncm-1
x 5 cm

 Example :

86
 A spring has a force constant of 30 Ncm -1.
What is the force that will cause a 5 cm
extension of the spring ?

Solution :

Force constant, k = 30 Ncm-1

Extension, x = 5 cm
F = kx
F = 30 x 5 = 150 N

 Two springs can be connected in series or

in parallel.

 When two springs are connected in series,

the applied force acts on each of the
springs.

 When two springs are connected in

parallel, the applied force is shared equally
among the springs.

 Example :

X, Y and Z are three similar springs, each

with a length of 10.0 cm. The springs
extend by 1.2 cm each when a load of 40 g
is attached to it. If a load of 80 g is
attached to spring Z as shown in figure,
what would the total length y of the spring

87
be ? ( Assume that the elastic limit is not
exceeded )

Solution :

The spring Z is subjected to a load of 80 g.

Thus the extension of spring Z
= 1.2 x 2 = 2.4 cm

Since spring X and Y are connected in

parallel, the load of 80 g is equally shared
by them.

88
 Thus each of the spring X and Y are
subjected to 40 g only.
The extension for each of the spring X and
Y = 1.2 cm.

The total length y of the springs is

therefore
= ( 10 + 1.2 ) + ( 10 + 2.4 ) = 23.6 cm.

ELASTIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY
 When a force is applied to extend a spring :

 The magnitude of the force increases

as the extension increases.

 There is a displacement in the direction

of the force equal to the extension.

 When a force extends a spring, work is

done
because the force moves through a
distance.

 Consider a force, F that produces an

extension, x in a spring. The work done on
the spring,

89
 W = Avarage force x Extension
W=(0+F)x
2
W = ½ Fx

 The work done on the spring is the energy

transferred to the spring and stored as
elastic potential energy.

 Elastic potential energy stored in a

stretched spring, Ep = ½ Fx

 From Hooke’s Law, F = kx

Therefore, Ep = ½ ( kx ) x

Ep = ½
kx2
 Therefore, the elastic potential energy
stored in a stretched spring is also given by
………..
Ep = ½ kx2

 Example :

A spring is fixed vertically as shown in

figure. When a 500 g block of wood is
placed on top of the spring, its length is
reduced from 20 cm to 16 cm. Find the
90
elastic potential energy stored in the
spring. ( Assume that the elastic limit is not
exceeded )

Solution :

Compression, x = 20 - 16 = 4 cm = 0.04 m

Compressing force = mg = 0.5 kg x 10ms-2

=5N

Elastic potential energy stored

= ½ Fx
= ½ x 5 N x 0.04 m = 0.1 J

FORCE-EXTENSION
GRAPH

91
 When a spring that obeys Hooke’s Law is
not stretched beyond its elastic limit, the
force-extension graph is a straight line
passing through the origin.

 The force is directly proportional to the

extension.

 The gradient of the graph is equal to the

force constant of the spring.

 The area under the graph is equal to the

work done to extend the spring. It is also
the elastic potential energy stored in the
spring.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT

ELASTICITY
92
 The elasticity of a spring depends on its
spring constant.

 The spring constant of a spring depends on

:

 the length of the spring

 the diameter of the spring

 the size of the spring

 the material used to built the spring

APPLICATIONS OF

 The elasticity of materials enables lots of

items to return to their original shape and
size despite being used repeatedly.

 The following are some applications of

elasticity in our daily lives :

a) Spring balance
b) Spring mattress
c) Bow and Arrow
d) Cushions
CHAPTER 3
FORCES AND
PRESSURE 93
 UNDERSTANDING
PRESSURE

 Pressure is defined as the magnitude of the

force acting perpendicularly to a surface
per unit area of the surface.

Pressure =
Normal force, F

 If the force is measured in newton ( N ) and

the area of contact in square metre (m 2),
then the unit for pressure is newton per
square metre ( Nm-2).

 The SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 and is often

referred to as pascal ( Pa ).

 Example :

A cylindrical container with a base

diameter of 0.4 m in contact with the floor
exerts a pressure of 8730 Pa on the floor.
What is the mass of the container ?
[ Assume g = 9.8 Nkg-1 ]

Solution :
94
 Pressure, P = Weight of container,W
Area of base, A

= 8730 Pa
A =  ( 0.4 )2
2
= 0.126 m2
W = 8730
0.126

W = 8730 x 0.126 = 1100 N

Hence, mass of the container = 1100 = 112

kg
9.8

 Example :

A fruit seller uses a knife with a sharp edge

and a cross-sectional area of 0.5 cm 2 to cut
open a watermelon.

(a) If the force applied on the knife is 18 N,

what is the pressure exerted by the
knife on the watermelon ?

(b) After that, he cuts open a papaya using

the same knife by exerting a pressure
of 2.7 x 105 Pa. Calculate the

95
 magnitude of force applied to cut the
papaya.
Solution :

(a) Cross-sectional area of the knife edge,

A = 0.5 cm2 = 0.5 x 10-4m2

Force applied, F = 18 N
Pressure exerted,
=F= 18 N = 3.6 x 105
Nm-2
A 0.5 x 10-4m2

(b) Using the formula,  = F

A
F =xA
Force applied,
F = ( 2.7 x 105 Nm-2 ) ( 0.5 x 10-4 m2 )
= 13.5 N

APPLICATIONS OF
PRESSURE IN

 High and low pressure have been used in

different situations.

 The magnitude of pressure exerted on a

surface can be increased by ..

(i) applying a larger force, or

96
 (ii) reducing the surface area of contact.

APPLICATIONS OF HIGH
PRESSURE
 A sharp knife can be used to cut an object
easily. This is because a small force applied
on a very small area of the knife edge can
produce a large pressure for cutting the
object.

 Spiked running shoes can provide a better

grip for athletes running on a track
because these shoes have spikes that
produce large
pressure to pierce the track.

APPLICATIONS OF LOW
PRESSURE
 Heavy lorries and buses are usually fitted
with more than four wheels of larger
surface area to decrease pressure exerted
on the road.

 This can prevent the tyres from bursting

and sinking into soft ground.

 Bulldozers are usually moved by a chain

with sharp edges in between surfaces of

97
 large area to decrease the pressure
exerted on the ground.

 In this way, the chain can prevent the

bulldozers from sinking into soft ground.
 Example :

A glass block of mass 420 g and vertical

height 7 cm is shaped as shown in figure.
The glass block is placed on a table.
Calculate

(a) the maximum pressure exerted on the

table.
(b) the minimum pressure exerted on the
table

Solution :

(a) Minimum area, Amin = ( 2 cm ) x ( 7

cm )

98
 = ( 0.02 m) x
( 0.07 m)
= 0.0014 m2

Force exerted, F = weight of glass block,mg

= (0.420 kg) x (10
Nkg-1)
= 4.2 N
Maximum pressure, Pmax = F
Amin
= 4.2 N
0.0014 m2
= 3000 Pa

(b) Maximum area,

Amax = (5 cm) x (7 cm)
= ( 0.05 cm) x ( 0.07 cm)
= 0.0035 m2

Minimum pressure,
min = F
Amax
= 4.2 N
0.0035 m2
= 1200 Pa

99
 PRESSURE IN
 The pressure at any point in a liquid is due
to the weight of the liquid above that point.

 When a liquid such as water is poured into

the Pascal’s vases, the water in each tube
rises to the same height, h.

 This shows that a liquid always finds its

own level.

 At the same level or depth, the liquid

pressure must be the same, otherwise
liquid will flow to equalise any pressure
differences.

100
 This confirms the fact that the pressure in a
liquid:

(a) depends on vertical depth

(b) is independent of the shape and cross-
sectional area of the containing vessel.

 The pressure at any point in a liquid acts

equally in all directions.

RELATIONSHIP OF DEPTH,
DENSITY AND GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD STRENGTH TO PRESSURE
IN LIQUIDS
 Figure below shows a column of liquid with
a density of  kgm-3 and base surface area
of A m2. The depth of the base is h m.

 The column of liquid exerts a pressure on

the base due to its weight.

 Volume of the liquid = Ah m3

Mass of the liquid = Ah kg

101
 Weight of the liquid = Ah g N
Pressure in liquid, P = Weight of liquid
Surface area
= Ah g
A

P=
 Example :
hg
A huge metal tank is used to store a certain
type of oil. What is the pressure exerted by
the oil at a depth of 3.5 m if the density of
the oil is 840 kgm-3 and g is 9.8 Nkg-1 ?

Solution :

The pressure, P exerted by the oil at a

depth of 3.5 m is given by :

P = hg
= 3.5 x 840 x 9.8 = 28 812 Pa.

 Example :

A submarine has submerged to a depth of

80m below the sea. Calculate

(a) the maximum pressure exerted by the

sea water on the submarine.
102
 (b) the maximum force acting on the
submarine, if the total surface of the
submarine is 1 200 m2.
[ The density of sea water = 1.03 x 10 3
kgm-3 ]

Solution :

(a) Maximum pressure on the submarine,

P = hg
= ( 80 m )( 1.03 x 103 kgm-3 )( 10
Nkg-1)
= 8.24 x 105Nm-2 or 8.24 x 105 Pa

(b) By using the formula,

=F
A
Maximum force on the submarine,

F = A
= ( 8.24 x 105 Nm-2 ) x ( 1200 m2 )
= 9.89 x 108 N
 Example :

A building is supplied with water from a

water tank situated on its roof. If the water
pressure at the ground floor is 1.96 x 10 5
Pa,
what is the height of the building ?
103
 [ Density of water = 1.0 x 103 kgm-3 ]

Solution :
Let the height of the building be
h,
Water pressure,hg = 1.96 x 105 Nm-2
h= 1.96 x 105 Nm-2
( 1.0 x 103 kgm-3 )( 10 Nkg-1)
= 19.6 m

APPLICATIONS OF
PRESSURE
 Public Water Supply System

 The Wall of A Dam

 Fire Hose Used by a Fire-fighter

 Sphygmomanometer for Measuring Blood

Pressure

 IV Injection Under Gravity

 Example :

A nurse is fixing an IV bottle for a patient’s

IV injection. The density of blood in the
patient’s vein is 1.05 x 103 kgm-3. The
blood gauge pressure in the vein of the

104
 patient is 20.0 mmHg. Above what height
should the IV bottle be placed for the IV to
function properly ?
[ Density of mercury = 13.6 x 103 kgm-3 ]

Solution :

For the intravenous fluid to flow into the

vein, its pressure at the injection site must
be greater than the blood pressure in the
vein. If the height of the surface of the
intravenous fluid above the injection site is
h, than

hbloodg > hvHgg

h > hvHgg
blood
h > ( 0.0200 m ) ( 13.6 x 103 kgm-3 )
1.05 x 103 kgm-3

h > 0.259 m or 25.9 cm

The IV bottle needs to be at least 25.9 cm

above the injection point.

105
 GAS PRESSURE AND
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Existence of Gas Pressure

 Gases exert pressure in all directions just

like liquids.

 According to the Kinetic Theory Of Gases,

molecules in a gas are always moving
randomly and constantly colliding with the
walls of its container.

 Collisions of gas molecules with the walls of

the container occur frequently, resulting in
a change of momentum which exerts a
force on the wall of the container.

 The force per unit area produced by

collisions of gas molecules on the walls of
the container is the gas pressure.

Existence of Atmospheric Pressure

 The air molecules near Earth’s surface are

subjected to compression that produces
higher air pressure. It is this air pressure

106
 that supports the atmosphere and prevents
it from collapsing.

 At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is

about 105 Pa ( equivalent to the pressure
that supports a mercury column of 760 mm
and a water column of 10 m ).

 However, we do not normally feel the large

atmospheric pressure because the blood
pressure inside our bodies can balance the
external pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure
exerted by the atmospheric on the
surface of the Earth as well as all
objects on Earth.

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
ON THE MAGNITUDE
OF ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
 The atmospheric pressure decreases
with altitude, that is the height above
sea level.

 At high altitudes, the density and

temperature of air become lower.

107
 Therefore, the frequency of collision of
the air molecules decreases producing
a lower atmospheric pressure.

 At sea level, the atmospheric pressure

is 760 mm Hg. It is estimated that air
pressure falls by 10 mm Hg for every
120 m of ascent.

 At high altitude where the air pressure

is lower, breathing is difficult and nose-
bleeds may occur.

INSTRUMENTS FOR
MEASURING GAS
PRESSURE AND
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

BOURDON

108
 A Bourdon Gauge is an instrument
used to measure the pressure of gas in
gas cylinders, air conditioners and
boilers.

SIMPLE
MERCURY
BAROMETER
 A simple mercury barometer can be
made by inverting a glass tube of
about 100 cm filled with mercury.

109
 The mercury level will drop as mercury
flows into a bowl to until a vertical
height of above 76 cm from the
surface of mercury in the bowl. A
vacuum is created in the space above
the mercury column.

 The column of mercury is held up by

the atmospheric pressure.

 It is known that the density of mercury

is 1.36 x 104 kgm-3, and g is 9.8 Nkg-1.
The atmospheric pressure, P can be
calculated as :

P = hg
= 0.76 m x 1.36 x 104kgm-3 x 10 Nkg-1
= 101 300 Pa @ 1.01 x 105 Pa.

FORTIN
BAROMET
ER
 The function of a Fortin Barometer is
based on that of a simple mercury
barometer. It has a vernier scale for
110
 more accurate reading of the
atmospheric pressure.

ANEROID

 An Aneroid Barometer consists of a

flexible metal can which most of the
air inside the can has been taken out
of it.

 When the surrounding pressure

increases, the top of the can is
squeezed down slightly causing the
pointer to move along the curved scale
measuring the corresponding pressure.

111
 The aneroid barometer can be
calibrated to measure altitude. Such a
meter is called an altimeter.

MANOMETE
R
 A manometer consists of a U-tube that
is filled with a liquid like water, oil or
mercury.

 In figure (a), when both ends of the

tube is exposed to atmospheric
pressure, both levels are the same.

112
 In figure (b), when one end is
connected to a gas supply, the
difference in level, h gives the pressure
of the gas, P. Where P = Atmospheric
pressure + hg.

 Example :

A mercury manometer with one end

attached to a gas supply measures a
difference in the level of mercury of 32 cm
as shown in figure.
Calculate the pressure of the gas supply
in…
(a) cm Hg
(b) Pascal
[ Atmospheric pressure = 76 cm Hg;
g = 9.8Nkg-1;
density of mercury = 1.36 x 104kgm-3 ]

Solution :

113
(a) Pressure of gas supply = Atmospheric
pressure + Pressure due to the column of
mercury.
= 76 cmHg + 32 cmHg = 108 cmHg.

(b) Pressure of gas supply

= 108 x 1.36 x 104 x 9.8 = 1.44 x 105 Pa.
100

 Example :

A mercury manometer as shown in figure is

used to measure the pressure of a certain
gas in a metal container.

What is the pressure of the gas ?

[ Atmospheric pressure = 76 cm Hg;
density of mercury = 1.36 x 104 kgm-3;
g=9.8 Nkg-1 ]

Solution :

From figure, it is seen that the atmospheric

pressure is balanced by the pressure of the gas
114
in the metal container and 20 cm column of
mercury.

Pressure of gas + Pressure due to 20 cm of

mercury = Atmospheric pressure.

P gas + 20 cm Hg = 76 cm Hg
P gas = 76 - 20 = 56 cm Hg
P gas = 56 x 1.36 x 104 x 9.8 = 7.5 x 104 Pa.
100

APPLICATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERIC
a) Drinking straw
b) Syringe
c) Siphon
d) Rubber sucker
e) Vacuum cleaner
APPLYING
PASCAL’S

 Pascal’s Principle states that pressure

applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted
equally to every part of the liquid.

115
 Pascal’s principle can be written in the form
of the following equation.

F1 = F2
A1 A2
Where,

F1 = Input force
A1 = Cross-sectional of the input cylinder
F2 = Output force
A2 = Cross-sectional of the output
cylinder

HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM
 In a hydraulic system, Pascal’s principle not
only allows us to transmit force from one
place to another, but also to multiply that
force.

 The force multiplier of a hydraulic system

can be represented by the equation :

Output force = Output

piston area
Input force
116
 Example :

Figure shows a 10 N weight balancing a X N

weight placed on a bigger syringe.
What is the value of X ?.

Solution :

F1 = F2
A1 A2

10 N = XN
1.5 cm2 4.5 cm2

Therefore, X = 10 x 4.5
1.5
= 30 N.
Example :

The cylindrical piston of a hydraulic jack has a

cross-sectional area of 0.06 m2 and the plunger
has a cross-sectional area of 0.002 m2.

117
(a) The upward force for lifting a load placed
on top the large piston is 9 000 N.
Calculate the downward force on the
plunger required to lift this load assuming a
100% work efficiency.

(b) If the distance moved by the plunger is 75

cm, what is the distance moved by the
large piston.

Solution :

(a) F1 = F2
A1 A2

F1 = A1 x F2
A2

118
 = 0.002 m2 x 9000 N = 300 N
0.06 m2

(b) The volume of liquid transmitted =

constant.
Thus A2X2 = A1X1
And X2 = A1 x X1
A2
= 0.002 m x 75 cm = 2.5 cm.
2

0.06 m2

Example :

Figure shows a garage hydraulic lift with two

pistons. The smaller piston has a cross-
sectional area, A1 = 8.0 cm2. The bigger piston
has a cross-sectional area, A2 = 240 cm2.

If the
maximum force
that can be applied on the smaller piston is 400
N. What is the maximum weight of a car that
can be lifted by the bigger piston ?

119
Solution :

The force multiplier of a hydraulic system,

Output force = Output piston area

Input force Input piston area
F1 = F2
A1 A2

F2 = A2 x F1
A1

= 240 x 400 = 12000 N

8.0

Therefore, the maximum weight of car that can

be lifted by this garage hydraulic lift is 12000
N.

ARCHIMEDES’
Buoyant
Force 120
 The buoyant force is an upward force
resulting from an object being wholly or
partially immersed in a fluid.

 Consider the weight of an object in air as

its actual weight and the weight measured
when the object is immersed in a fluid is its
apparent weight.

 Therefore the apparent weight equals to

actual weight minus buoyant force.

Apparent weight, W 2 = Actual weight, W 1 - Buoyant

force

 Archimedes’ Principle states that for a body

immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, the
upward buoyant force acting on the body is
equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.

Buoyant Force = Weight of liquid displaced

= Vg

Where,

V = Volume of liquid displaced by the object.

121
 = Density of the liquid
g = Gravitational field strength

Example :

A stone weighs 2.5 N. When it is fully

submerged in a solution, its apparent weight is
2.2 N. Calculate the density of the solution if its
volume displaced by the stone is 25 cm3. ( g =
9.8 Nkg-1)

Solution :

Buoyant force = Actual weight - Apparent

weight
= 2.5 - 2.2 = 0.3 N.

Buoyant force = Weight of the solution

displaced
0.3 N =  x ( 25 x 10-6 ) x 9.8 where
 is the density of the solution.

Therefore,  = 0.3 = 1224 kgm-3

25 x 10-6 x 9.8

 Applications of Archimedes’ principle can

be found in ships, submarines, hot-air
balloons and the hydrometer.

122
 BERNOULLI’
S PRINCIPLE

 Bernoulli’s Principle states that when the

velocity of a fluid is high, the pressure is
low and when the velocity is low, the
pressure is high.

 A resultant force exists due to a difference

in fluid pressure between two surfaces.

 The Bernoulli’s effect can be seen in

the lifting of an aeroplane. The wing of
an aeroplane has the shape of an
AEROFOIL.

123
 When the plane is moving horizontally,
air flows over the aerofoil.

 The wing is curved at the top and

relatively flatter at the bottom because
of the shape and orientation of the
wing are slightly tilted.

 The streamlines are closer together at

the top, hence, the air speed is greater
above the wing than below it.

 The difference in the speed causes

lower air pressure above the wing than

124
 below it. A net upward force or lift is
resulted.
 Applications of Bernoulli’s principle include
the aerofoil, carborettor, Bunsen burner
and insecticide spray.

CHAPTER 4
HEAT

THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 Two objects are in thermal contact when
heat energy can be transferred between
them.

 When two objects with different degrees of

hotness come into thermal contact, heat
energy is transferred between the two
objects.

 After sometimes, the rates of energy

transfer between the two objects become
equal.

 There is no net heat transfer between the

two objects. The two objects are said to be
in Thermal Equilibrium.
125
 Thermal equilibrium can be summarised as
:

There is no net flow of heat between

two objects that are in thermal
equilibrium. Two objects in thermal
equilibrium have the same
temperature.

 Two objects at different temperatures in

thermal contact will eventually come to a
state of thermal equilibrium. It does not
depend on the….

1. Mass
2. Type of material
3. Size
4. Shape

 Good thermal contact will ensure that the

objects come to thermal equilibrium after a
shorter period of time.

LIQUID-IN-
GLASS
THERMOMETER
126
 The temperature of an object is its degree
of hotness and is measured in degrees
Celsius (oC ).
 The higher the temperature of an object,
the more thermal energy the object
possesses.

 Temperature can be conveniently

measured by a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

 Mercury and coloured alcohol are the usual

thermometer liquids.

 The liquid used in a thermometer must

have the following characteristics :

a) easily visible
b) expands rapidly over a wide range
of temperature.
c) Does not stick to the inside of the
capillary tube.

 The bulb of the thermometer contains a

fixed mass of mercury. When temperature
increases, the volume of the mercury
increases.

 The following are the advantages of

mercury as a thermometric liquid :

127
 a) It does not vaporise
b) It does not wet glass
c) It is opaque and easily seen
d) It is a good conductor of heat
e) It has a relatively high boiling point.
 The mercury expands into the capillary
tube in the stem of the thermometer. The
length of the mercury column increases as
temperature increases.

 Liquid-in-glass thermometer uses the

Celcius scale. The Celsius scale is defined
by two fixed points of temperature, which
are the ice point and the steam point.

HEAT
CAPACITY
 Heat is the amount of thermal energy that
can be transferred from one object to
another and is measured in Joules ( J ).

 The amount of heat that can be obtained

from an object does not depend on its
temperature alone but mainly on the
amount of thermal energy that the object
possesses.

128
 Heat Capacity of an object is the amount of
heat required to increase the temperature
of the object by 1 oC.

 Heat capacity is measured in jules per

degree Celsius ( JoC-1 ).

 The heat capacity of an object depends on

the :

a) Mass of the object.

b) Type of material.

 An object with a larger mass will have a

larger heat capacity than an object with
smaller mass of the same material.

SPECIFIC
HEAT
CAPACITY
 Specific Heat Capacity of a substance is the
amount of heat that must be supplied to
increase the temperature by 1 oC for a
mass of 1 kg of the substance.

 The unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg-1oC-1

Its symbol is c.

129
 Specific heat capacity, c can be calculated
from amount of heat supplied, Q to a mass,
m of a substance and the increase in
temperature, .

c=Q Q = mc

m
Example :

How much heat energy is required to raise

the temperature of a 4 kg iron bar from
32oC to 52oC ? [ specific heat capacity of
iron = 452 Jkg-1oC-1 ]

Solution :

Mass,m = 4 kg
Change in temperature,  = ( 52 – 32 ) =
20 C
o

Amount of heat energy required,

Q = mc
Q = 4 x 452 x 20 = 360160 J

 Example :

A bottle containing 1.5 kg of water at 34oC

is put into a refrigerator. What is the
temperature of the water after 1.575 x 10 5

130
 J of heat has been removed from the
water ?
[ specific heat capacity of water =
4200 Jkg-1oC-1 ]

Solution :
Mass, m = 1.5 kg
Heat removed, Q = 1.575 x 105 J
Q = mc , 1.575 x 105 = 1.5 x 4200 x 
 = 1.575 x 105 = 25oC
1.5 x 4200
Final temperature of the water = 34 – 25 =
19oC
 The heat energy cannot be created.
However, electrical energy, potential
energy and kinetic energy can be
converted to heat energy.

Electrical Heater Heat energy

Power = P Pt = mc
energy
Potential Object falls from Heat energy
a high position mgh = mc
energy
Kinetic Moving object Heat energy
stopped due to ½ mv 2 = mc
energy friction

131
132