Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture.

Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22

September 2004 Page 1 of 6

The Vernacular and the Environment

Towards a Comprehensive Research Methodology

I.A. Meir1, S.C. Roaf2, I. Gilead3, T. Runsheng4, I. Stavi5, J. Mackenzie-Bennett6

1
DAUP, Dept. of Man in the Desert, Blaustein Institute for Desert Research (BIDR), Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev (BGU), Sede Boqer Campus, Israel
2
School of Architecture – Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford, UK
3
Archaeology Division, Dept. of Bible and Ancient East Studies, Faculty of Humanities, BGU, Beer Sheva, Israel
4
Solar Energy Research Institute, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming 650092, PR China
5
Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies – Dept. of Man in the Desert – BIDR, BGU, Sede Boqer
Campus, Israel
6
MSc Studies Programme - School of Architecture – Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington,
Oxford, UK

ABSTRACT: Historical, traditional and vernacular housing prototypes have been considered as
inherently adapted to the constraints of the natural environment. Such a deterministic attitude has
often led to the wrong conclusions regarding appropriate technologies and solutions in general, and in
particular those relevant to low cost housing for developing countries. This paper analyses a number
of generic types of housing common around the Middle East and the Mediterranean, and assesses
their performance vis-à-vis different low-tech upgrade and retrofit strategies. A number of methods
and techniques were employed, including monitoring, modeling, numerical analysis, simulation, and
infrared thermography. Investigations included different building technologies and materials,
morphologies and details, under different arid conditions typical of the Middle Eastern climatic
regions.

Conference Topic: 8 Traditional solutions in sustainable perspective

Keywords: arid, climate, construction, comfort, energy, modelling, parametric study, vernacular

This, of course, is only an illustration. Similar

INTRODUCTION examples are numerous and can be encountered
throughout the professional (and academic)
It has become rather common to encounter in literature.
architectural publications statements advocating the To address such issues in a systematic way, the
study of vernacular and historical housing prototypes paper presents a combined operation including
as a base for environmentally conscious design. One theoretical and fieldwork studies undertaken by the
such typical statement is the following: Desert Architecture and Urban Planning Unit in the
“…Temperatures (within Nabatean buildings) Negev Desert, Israel, with theoretical, simulated
were controlled by proper construction of the walls. model studies undertaken within the Energy Efficient
These were made three layers thick and were Buildings program in Oxford Brookes University. The
hermetically sealed on the outside and the inside parametric studies undertaken include in-situ
with a porous insulating layer between. In addition, monitoring; 1:1 scale model monitoring; infrared
all openings of the living rooms faced south and west thermography; thermal and daylight simulations; and
in order to benefit fully from the sun. Slot like numerical analysis. In several cases, 1:1 scale
windows placed below the ceiling facilitated models were used to calibrate simulation tools.
ventilation but prevented, at the same time, the Investigations included different building
penetration of dust. In this way temperatures were technologies and materials, morphologies and
always much higher in the rooms in winter and details, under different arid conditions typical of the
considerably lower than the heat on the outside of Middle Eastern climatic regions, as well as semiarid
the building in the summer. The extremely small and drylands conditions typical of much of the
courts around which were grouped the living rooms Mediterranean area. Indoor climate was analyzed
only helped in this matter…” [1]. vis-a-vis visual and thermal comfort. The results
have been used to assess heating loads, and these
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were used to estimate the probable indoor air quality

due to and environmental implications of the use of 3.1 Materials, thermal mass and thermal comfort
combustible fuels under poorly ventilated conditions. Most historical and vernacular prototypes are, by
This paper sums interim results of ongoing nature, of high thermal mass, with very limited
research, parts of which have been presented at fenestration area, usually unglazed. These
previous PLEA and other conferences. properties make them very inert in relation to
ambient daily fluctuations. However, this extreme
2. METHODS inertia is counterproductive due to the inability of
such structures to take advantage of solar gains in
In situ surveys, data collection and literature winter and of night cooling by cross ventilation in
survey indicated that although the overall number of summer, primarily – but not only! – due to their
specific cases was relatively large, these could be limited fenestration size. Thus, the construction
easily grouped under generic types. Such grouping technology and building types traditionally
allowed the creation of a relatively limited - and considered to be by default adapted to the
manageable - number of prototypes common environmental constraints proved uncomfortably hot
throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean in summer and very much so in winter for most of the
[2-5]. These included various forms, morphologies hours of the day.
and geometries, materials and technologies, The thermal performance of such buildings
geoclimatic location and dispersal, details and proved to be better on highland and mountain
variations. Their systematic study would eventually regions rather than the lowlands and more humid
need in situ monitoring, but first of all there was need coastal plains. No significant differences were found
for the development of a methodology that would between stone masonry and adobe construction.
allow control and coordination of actions. This
methodology would have to provide appropriate 3.2 Roofs and their thermal performance
strategies and solutions to overcome several Curved roofs were found to perform thermally
problems and limitations, such as access to potential better than flat ones by promoting more comfortable
sites, partial preservation of buildings, monitoring indoors. The geometric advantages of such roofs
occupied buildings, security and safety, and a large were originally investigated experimentally [17] on
numbers of parameters. The solution chosen was a test cells with negligible mass roofs. Numerical
multi-partite system based on the following modelling undertaken within the broader framework
procedures and protocols: of the research described here showed similar
results for massive curved roofs modelled under arid
. classification of types in time and space/climate conditions [15,16]. Results showed that a domed or
. monitoring of available/accessible case studies vaulted roof will absorb more solar radiation than its
. construction of scale and full size physical corresponding flat roof. This increases with the
models increase of the half dome or vault angle but is
. monitoring under real conditions insignificantly affected by climate characteristics and
. use of model monitoring results for the calibration latitude of the location.
of simulation programs However, the main reason for improved indoor
. simulation of case studies and variations conditions under a curved roof is exactly this
. infrared thermography for the verification of enlarged surface area, which allows for more heat to
simulation results be dissipated at night through radiation and
. numerical modeling combining parameters of convection. This, of course, limits the suitability of
simplified physical and simulated models such geometry to areas with clear night skies, typical
. parametric studies of simulated upgrade and of continental and especially highland deserts, but
retrofit not necessarily coastal ones.
Minor differences were found between vaults of
The prototypes examined up to the preparation of different orientations. To quantify such
this paper, and the procedures and protocols discrepancies, numerical modelling was performed
followed are summed in Table I. They represent to estimate the insolation absorbed by vaulted and
hundreds of runs of simulated models (primarily with domed roofs, based on angular dependence of
Quick/Easy and Toolbox, but also Ecotect, Daylight, absorptance and solar geometry. A south–north
and others), and hundreds of days of in situ facing vaulted roof was found to both reduce the
surveying, photographing and monitoring. Some of solar heat gain of buildings in summer months and
the results have been discussed and analyzed, increase solar heat gain in winter months compared
many of them summed in a number of papers to identical vaults facing east–west; the greater the
submitted by graduate students as part of their proportion of area exposed to the sun, the smaller
assignments. Many of these have already been the amount of beam radiation that will be absorbed
published as partial, type- or site-specific studies [6- by a curved roof. Furthermore, results showed that
16]. even if absorptance is assumed to be constant this
would affect the total solar heat gain of the roofs
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION studied by less than 4% [15,16]. The role of the
seemingly negligible windows positioned on the
Interesting and sometimes even unexpected upper part of gable walls in such structures proved to
results have been reached to day. be of very significant importance in the overall
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Table I: Types and parameters used in this study, and activities undertaken within this research up to the
preparation of this paper.

Coastal Lowlands Highlands Deep valleys

Building Type

subterranean (cave/complex/earth integrated) *+à *+Û *+Ã

conventional 1storey *+¯ *+ï *+ï› *+¯
conventional 2 stories *+¯ *+¯› *+ï *+¯
conventional 3 stories *+¯ *+¯ *+¯› *+¯

Building Material

adobe *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

stone *+¯ *+¯ *+#¯› *+¯
light: woven fabrics, reeds etc *+ *+ *+ *
light: reused fabrics, metal sheets etc +¯ +¯ +ï

Plan

square *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

rectangular *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

Wall Section & Details

2 layers dry ± plaster (mud/lime) *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

2 layers + mortar ± plaster (mud/lime) *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

Fenestration

door only *¯ *¯ *¯ *¯

door + window (various orientations) *+¯ *+¯ *+¯ *+¯

door + windows (various orientations) *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

Roof

flat *+¯ *+­¯› *+­#¯ *+¯

vault *+¯ *­¯› *+­#¯› *+¯

dome *+¯ *­¯› *+­#¯› *+¯

light pitched *+¯ *+¯› *+­¯ *+¯

Courtyard
enclosed * *+Ã *+Ã *+

semi-enclosed *+ *+Ã *+Ã *+

adjacent *+ *+ *+Ã *+

portico *+ *+Ã *+ *+

peristyle *+ *+Ã *+ *+

Legend: * historical, + contemporary vernacular, ­ numerical modeling, # physical modeling, ¯ computer

simulation,à monitoring, › infrared thermography.

behavior of the structures, when ventilation was thermal mass of the buildings is reduced. It was also
applied to the model and the simulations. demonstrated that the shading of heavy flat roofs
The worst indoor temperature conditions can have a significant effect, lowering indoor
measured and simulated were within buildings with temperatures by up to 3°C under certain conditions.
light roofs. Simulation results showed that insulation Shading of roofs may have been a common practice
plays a significant role only when the typically high in the past and can still be seen in Middle Easters
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004 Page 4 of 6

and Mediterranean villages, where vines provide

summer shading, or where temporary shading is 3.3 Indoor climate, air quality, energy implications
provided by “transient layers”, such as tobacco, Energy input for heating in winter - a necessity in
peppers and other agricultural produce dried on the most drylands - turned out to be a significant burden.
roofs. Fabrics may also have been used in the past, The most common sources of energy are firewood
as indicated by details identified on the parapets of and dried dung. Whereas the use of the former is
roofs. considered one of the main contributors to
desertification in semiarid regions, the use of both
3.3 Fenestration has serious health implications, especially when
Fenestration alterations and enlargement were burned within confined and poorly ventilated spaces,
identified as vital for the improvement of thermal where the pollutants produced (some of which may
performance, provided they were coupled with a well be carcinogenic) make respiratory complications
lower thermal mass. as high as 1000 times more likely than when such
Fenestration in such structures is typically biofuels are burned outdoors.
negligible. In many cases it is limited to one only – a In many traditional settlements cooking is still
door. Where windows do exist they tend to be very done outside the main living quarters, either in a
small – a fact dictated by the construction technology separate structure or in the open air courtyard.
and materials as mentioned previously. Traditionally However, winter heating is still a problem, since in
such apertures were unglazed, often totally blocked many cases it is still based on open fire. Although no
in winter to avoid heat losses, thus also minimizing studies were done within this research regarding
daylighting, while not solving the problems of particles and pollutants common in the stone, mud or
infiltration. This lack of fenestration and proper concrete buildings, or tin huts and tents, heated thus
glazing materials did not allow the structures in winter, the data available through parallel
monitored and simulated to take advantage of the investigations point to some very disconcerting facts.
otherwise advantageous ambient conditions and Indoor air exposure to suspended particulate matter
temperature differences. In cases simulated with increases the risk of acute respiratory infections, one
modified fenestration and operation regimes the of the leading causes of infant and child mortality in
improvement was limited, again due to excessive developing countries. In Asia, such exposure
thermal mass. accounts for between half and one million excess
One such case monitored and simulated is a deaths every year. In sub-Saharan Africa the
stone structure typical of the Roman period Negev estimate is 300,000-500,000 excess deaths. Around
Highlands in Israel. It has an entrance door and four 30-40% of cases of asthma and 20-30% of all
narrow and high slots (15 by 85 cm) located at about respiratory diseases may be linked to air pollution in
4 meters above the floor in the wall perpendicular to some populations [18]. Such cases may be linked to
that of the door. Both measured and simulated poorly heated indoor spaces which encourage the
temperatures (for different orientations and operation growth of moulds whose spores are often allergenic
modes of the windows and door) indicated a [19].
marginal rise of indoor temperature in comparison
with an identical room simulated without windows. 3.4 Behavioral adaptation
This marginal rise of approximately 0.5°C was The above results regarding indoor temperatures
similar in winter and summer and may be attributed in extra-massive buildings explain the phenomenon
to air movement due to buoyancy differences and of “intramural migration”, namely the use of different
wind [7]. parts of traditional housing prototypes for different

Figure 1: Winter temperatures in historical and vernacular prototypes on the Negev Desert Highlands. Left – stone
masonry building with interior plaster, in four locations. Right – Transitional Bedouin dwellings. Vertical axis –
temperature in deg.C; horizontal axis – time in hours.
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parts of the year or the day, and especially the habit

of sleeping on rooftops, balconies or in patios, where
the summer night conditions may seem to be
significantly better than the indoor ones. Daylight
measurements and simulations substantiate the
common practice of performing house chores in
open spaces such courtyards.

3.5 Educational aspects

Many of the students had been aware of the
advantages of thermal mass in dry climates. Their
intuitive reaction to the poor indoor conditions
indicated by simulation was addition of more thermal
mass, which proved at best to have no effect. As a
result, students participating in the project developed
a much more realistic and practical attitude toward
traditional building technology and details, and
appropriate methods for the improvement of indoor
climate and energy conservation. In most cases it
was realized quite early on that that lowering the
amount of thermal mass was indeed a necessity,
and that the excessive thermal mass could be
effectively replaced by insulation in the centre or
outside of compound wall constructions resulting in
significant improvements to wall and building
performance.
The study also demonstrated that although
cooling needs in summer may be an important issue
for certain arid regions (especially the hot continental
valleys and the humid coastal plains), heating is vital
for most arid regions, extremely so for the highlands
and mountains.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This ongoing study has shown the need for the

systematic research of historical, traditional and
vernacular building types and technologies towards
establishing the base for a better understanding of
living conditions in the past, as well as in the
present. Such an understanding is vital for the
upgrade of living conditions within a sustainable
development framework. This should take into
account commonly available materials, construction
methods and know-how, simple improvements and
alterations, and especially the possibility to create
comfortable indoor environments with minimum
auxiliary energy input. The ramifications of current
practices are more than worrying both from an
environmental and a health point of view. They are
exacerbated by the growing numbers of people living
in unsustainable housing types, by the enhanced
desertification processes witnessed in the last few
decades, and by the interface of these two.
One of the important outcomes of this study so
far stems from the counterintuitive results of
monitoring and simulation studies. It is such
“intuition” stemming from “common knowledge” and
theoretically “thoroughly established” historical
paradigms that cause misconceptions and assorted
Figure 2: Thermal stability (July) in subterranean problems, not least among NGOs and development
dwellings, Negev Desert Highlands. From top: entrance; organizations operating in developing countries,
infrared images of entrance at noon, midnight, dawn. many of which are defined as deserts. Such
Interior background temperature remains stable at appr. misconceptions have given birth to housing units
24°C. with massive walls and lightweight sheet metal
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roofing - as bad a solution as one could possibly [8] I.A. Meir & I. Gilead, Underground dwellings and
th
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [9] I.A. Meir, J. Mackenzie Bennett, S.C. Roaf,
Learning from the past - shaping the future:
Numerous individuals, groups and institutions have Combining archaeology and simulation tools to teach
th
contributed so far to this ongoing research. Parts of building physics and appropriate solutions. Proc. 18
the parametric studies were undertaken by graduate PLEA Int. Conf. Florianopolis, 2(2001)951-956.
students at the School of Architecture of Oxford [10] I.A. Meir, D. Pearlmutter, Y. Etzion, On the
Brookes University, UK (2000-1), and the Albert Katz microclimatic behavior of two semi-enclosed
International School for Desert Studies, at the attached courtyards in a hot dry region. Bldng &
Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Israel (2001- Env.30(1995)563-572.
3). Infrared thermography processing was done in [11] I.A. Meir & S.C. Roaf, Thermal comfort - thermal
th
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others is kindly acknowledged. climatic implications of lightweight housing in a
peripheral arid region. Bldg & Env. 30(1995)441-451.
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