AN27701 Hall Effect IC Application Guide PDF

Application Information
Hall-Effect IC Applications Guide
Allegro™ MicroSystems uses the latest integrated circuit Sensitive Circuits for Rugged Service
technology in combination with the century-old Hall The Hall-effect sensor IC is virtually immune to environ-
effect to produce Hall-effect ICs. These are contactless, mental contaminants and is suitable for use under severe
magnetically activated switches and sensor ICs with the service conditions. The circuit is very sensitive and provides
potential to simplify and improve electrical and mechanical reliable, repetitive operation in close-tolerance applications.
systems.
Applications
Low-Cost Simplified Switching Applications for Hall-effect ICs include use in ignition sys-
Simplified switching is a Hall sensor IC strong point. Hall- tems, speed controls, security systems, alignment controls,
effect IC switches combine Hall voltage generators, signal micrometers, mechanical limit switches, computers, print-
amplifiers, Schmitt trigger circuits, and transistor output cir- ers, disk drives, keyboards, machine tools, key switches,
cuits on a single integrated circuit chip. The output is clean, and pushbutton switches. They are also used as tachometer
fast, and switched without bounce (an inherent problem with pickups, current limit switches, position detectors, selec-
mechanical switches). A Hall-effect switch typically oper- tor switches, current sensors, linear potentiometers, rotary
ates at up to a 100 kHz repetition rate, and costs less than encoders, and brushless DC motor commutators.
many common electromechanical switches.
The Hall Effect: How Does It Work?
Efficient, Effective, Low-Cost Linear Sensor ICs The basic Hall element is a small sheet of semiconductor
The linear Hall-effect sensor IC detects the motion, position, material, referred to as the Hall element, or active area,
or change in field strength of an electromagnet, a perma- represented in figure 1.
nent magnet, or a ferromagnetic material with an applied A constant voltage source, as shown in figure 2, forces a
magnetic bias. Energy consumption is very low. The output
is linear and temperature-stable. The sensor IC frequency
response is flat up to approximately 25 kHz.
A Hall-effect sensor IC is more efficient and effective than
inductive or optoelectronic sensors, and at a lower cost. +VCC
+VHALL
–VHALL
Abbreviated Contents
Low-Cost Simplified Switching 1
Getting Started 6
Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion 16
Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators 20
Enhancement Considerations 26
Advanced Applications 40 Figure 1. Schematic representation of the active area of a Hall-effect
device, with the Hall element represented by the component marked
Glossary 44
with an X.
27701-AN, Rev. 3 October 31, 2016

MCO-0000300
constant bias current, IBIAS , to flow in the semiconductor sheet. If the biased Hall element is placed in a magnetic field with flux
The output takes the form of a voltage, VHALL , measured across lines at right angles to the bias current (see figure 3), the volt-
age output changes in direct proportion to the strength of the
the width of the sheet. In the absence of a magnetic field, VHALL magnetic field. This is the Hall effect, discovered by E. F. Hall in
has a negligible value. 1879.
IBIAS IBIAS
0 0
– + VHALL ≈ 0 V – + VHALL → V+
Figure 2. VHALL in the absence of a significant magnetic field Figure 3. Hall effect, induced VHALL, resulting from significant magnetic
flux (green arrows) perpendicular to the bias current flow.
Contents Rotor Design 21

Low-Cost Simplified Switching 1 Material 21
Efficient, Effective, Low-Cost Linear Sensor ICs 1 Vane / Window Widths, Rotor Size 21
Sensitive Circuits for Rugged Service 1 Steep Magnetic Slopes for Consistent Switching 22
Applications 1 Small Air Gaps for Steep Slopes 22
The Hall Effect: How Does It Work? 1 Flux Concentrators Pay Dividends 22
Linear Output Hall-Effect Devices 3 Temperature Stability of Operate Points 25
Digital Output Hall-Effect Switches 3 Calculating Dwell Angle and Duty Cycle Variations 25
Operation 3 Effects of Bearing Wear 26
Characteristics and Tolerances 6 Mounting Also Affects Stability 26
Getting Started 6 Quadrature 26
The Analysis 6 Enhancement Considerations 27
Total Effective Air Gap (TEAG) 6 Individual Calibration Techniques 27
Modes of Operation 8 Operating Modes: Head-On and Slide-By 28
Steep Slopes and High Flux Densities 8 Planar and Vertical Hall Devices 28
Vane Interruptor Switching 8 Operating Mode Enhancements: Compound Magnets 29
Electrical Interface for Digital Hall Devices 9 Biased Operation 32
Common Interface Circuits 9 Increasing Flux Density by Improving the
Rotary Activators for Hall Switches 11 Magnetic Circuit 34
Ring Magnets for Hall Switch Applications 12 Flux Concentrators 35
Bipolar Digital Switches 14 Feed-Throughs 37
Digital Latches 15 Magnet Selection 37
Planar and Vertical Hall Devices 15 Advanced Applications 40
Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion 16 Current Limiting and Measuring Current Sensor ICs 40
Temperature Effects 16 Multi-Turn Applications 40
An Inexpensive Alternative 16 Other Applications For Linear Sensor ICs 41
Ring Magnet Selection 18 Using Calibrated Devices 43
Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators 20 Glossary 44
A Ferrous Vane In Operation 20
Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 2

115 Northeast Cutoff
27701-AN, Rev. 3 Worcester, Massachusetts 01615-0036 U.S.A.
MCO-0000300 1.508.853.5000; www.allegromicro.com
Linear Output Hall-Effect Devices
The output voltage of the basic Hall element is quite small. This
can present problems, especially in an electrically noisy environ-
ment. Addition of a stable, high-quality DC amplifier and voltage Amp.
regulator to the circuit (see figures 4 and 5) improves the trans-
ducer output and allows the device to operate over a wide range
of supply voltages. The modified device provides an easy-to-use
analog output that is linear and proportional to the applied mag-
netic flux density.
Figure 4. Hall circuit with amplification of VHALL
For the most current list of linear output devices from Allegro, go
to http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Magnetic-Linear-
And-Angular-Position-Sensor-ICs/Linear-Position-Sensor-ICs.
aspx.
Reg.
VCC
Digital Output Hall-Effect Switches
The addition of a Schmitt trigger threshold detector with built-in
hysteresis, as shown in figure 6, gives the Hall-effect circuit digi-
tal output capabilities. When the applied magnetic flux density Output
exceeds a certain limit, the trigger provides a clean transition
from off to on without contact bounce. Built-in hysteresis elimi-
nates oscillation (spurious switching of the output) by introducing Ground
a magnetic dead zone in which switch action is disabled after the
threshold value is passed. Figure 5. Hall device with voltage regulator and DC amplifier
An open-collector NPN or N-channel FET (NFET) output tran-
sistor added to the circuit (see figure 7) gives the switch digital
logic compatibility. The transistor is a saturated switch that shorts
the output terminal to ground wherever the applied flux density
is higher than the turn-on trip point of the device. The switch is Reg.
VCC
compatible with all digital families. The output transistor can sink
enough current to directly drive many loads, including relays,
triacs, SCRs, LEDs, and lamps.
The circuit elements in figure 7, fabricated on a monolithic Output
silicon chip and encapsulated in a small epoxy or ceramic pack-
age, are common to all Hall-effect digital switches. Differences
between device types are generally found in specifications such Ground
as magnetic parameters, operating temperature ranges, and tem- Figure 6. Hall circuit with digital output capability
perature coefficients.
Operation
All Hall-effect devices are activated by a magnetic field. A mount
for the devices and electrical connections must be provided. Reg.
VCC
Parameters such as load current, environmental conditions, and
supply voltage must fall within the specific limits shown in the Output
datasheet.
Magnetic fields have two important characteristics: magnetic
flux density, B (essentially, field strength), and magnetic field
polarity (north or south). For Hall devices, orientation of the field
relative to the device active area also is important. The active Ground
area (Hall element) of Hall devices is embedded on a silicon chip Figure 7. Common circuit elements for Hall switches

located parallel to, and slightly inside of, one particular face of In the absence of any significant applied magnetic field, most
the package. That face is referred to as the branded face because Hall-effect digital switches are designed to be off (open circuit
it is normally the face that is marked with the part number (the at output). They will turn on only if subjected to a magnetic
datasheet for each device indicates the active area depth from field that has sufficient flux density and the correct polarity in
the branded face). To optimally operate the switch, the magnetic the proper orientation. In switches, for example, if a south pole
flux lines must be oriented to cross perpendicularly through the approaching the branded face would cause switching action, a
the active area (the branded face of planar Hall devices, or the north pole would have no effect. In practice, a close approach to
sensitive edge of vertical Hall devices), and must have the correct the branded face of a planar Hall switch or along the sensitive
polarity as it crosses through. Because the active area is closer edge of a vertical Hall switch by the south pole of a small per-
to the branded face than it is to the back side of the case, and is manent magnet (see figure 8) causes the output transistor to turn
exposed on the branded-face side of the chip, using this orienta- on. For a 3D Hall switch, the output(s) will turn on with a close
tion produces a cleaner signal. approach of a magnet from any direction.
Planar Hall Device Vertical Hall Device

e
rlin
Branded face nte
of package Ce Sensitive Edge: Top Sensitive Edge:
Right Side
Active area
S
N
n S S
tio N
Mo N
n n
tio tio
Mo Mo Sensitive Edge:
Left Side – Not Shown
3D Hall Device
N
S
N
S N
S
S
S N
N
S
N
Figure 8. Operation of a Hall-effect device is activated by the motion of a

magnet relative to the plane and centerline of the active area of the device

Transfer characteristic graphs can be used to plot this informa- element is exposed to increasing positive magnetic flux density.
tion. Figures 9 and 10 show output as a function of the magnetic At some point (240 G in this case), the output transistor turns on,
flux density, B, (measured in gauss, G; 1 G = 0.1 mT) presented and the output voltage approaches 0 V. That value of flux density
to the Hall element. The magnetic flux density is shown on the is called the operate point, BOP . Continuing to increase the field
horizontal axis. The digital output of the Hall switch is shown strength has no effect; the switch has already turned on, and stays
along the vertical axis. Note that there is an algebraic convention on. There is no upper limit to the magnetic field strength that may
applied, in which a strengthening south polarity field is indicated be applied to a Hall-effect sensor.
by an increasing positive B value, and a strengthening north
To turn the switch off, the magnetic flux density must fall to a
polarity field is indicated by an increasing negative B value. For
value far lower than the 240 G operate point because of the built-
example, a +200 B field and a –200 B field are equally strong,
in hysteresis of the device (these types of charts are sometimes
but have opposite polarity (south and north, respectively).
referred to as hysteresis charts). For this example, a 90 G hys-
As shown in figure 9, in the absence of an applied magnetic field teresis is used, which means the device turns off when the flux
(0 G), the switch is off, and the output voltage equals the power density decreases to 150 G (figure 10). That value of flux density
supply (12 V) due to the action of an external pull-up resistor. is called the release point, BRP .
A permanent magnet south pole is then moved perpendicularly
To acquire data for this graph, add a power supply and a pull-up
toward the active area of the device. As the magnet south pole
resistor to limit current through the output transistor and enable
approaches the branded face (for a planar Hall device) or the
the value of the output voltage to approach 0 V (see figure 11).
sensitive edge (for a vertical Hall device) of the switch, the Hall
Hysteresis
12 Off 12 Off
Device Switch State
Device Switch State

9
Output Voltage (V)
Output Voltage (V)
Operate Operate
Point, BOP Point, BOP
6 6
Release
Point, BRP
3 3
On On
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G) Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)
Figure 9. Transfer characteristics of a Hall switch being activated Figure 10. Transfer characteristics of a Hall switch being deactivated
(switched on) by the increase in magnetic flux density from an (switched off) by the decrease in magnetic flux density from an receding
approaching south pole south pole
VCC
RPU
Reg.
Output
V
VOUT ≈ 0 V
Ground
Figure 11. Test circuit for transfer characteristic charts

Characteristics and Tolerances Getting Started
The exact magnetic flux density values required to turn Hall Because the electrical interface is usually straightforward, the
switches on and off differ for several reasons, including design design of a Hall-effect system should begin with the physical
criteria and manufacturing tolerances. Extremes in temperature aspects. In position-sensing or motion-sensing applications, the
will also somewhat affect the operate and release points, often following questions should be answered:
referred to as the switching thresholds, or switchpoints.
• How much and what type of motion is there?
For each device type, worst-case magnetic characteristics for the
operate value, the release value, and hysteresis are provided in • What angular or positional accuracy is required?
the datasheet. • How much space is available for mounting the sensing device
and activating magnet?
All switches are guaranteed to turn on at or below the maximum
operate point flux density. When the magnetic field is reduced, all • How much play is there in the moving assembly?
devices will turn off before the flux density drops below the mini- • How much mechanical wear can be expected over the lifetime
mum release point value. Each device is guaranteed to have at of the machine?
least the minimum amount of hysteresis to ensure clean switching • Will the product be a mass-produced assembly, or a limited
action. This hysteresis ensures that, even if mechanical vibration number of machines that can be individually adjusted and cali-
or electrical noise is present, the switch output is fast, clean, and brated?
occurs only once per threshold crossing.
• What temperature extremes are expected?
A careful analysis will pay big dividends in the long term.
TEAG The Analysis

AG
Active Area Depth (AAD) AAD The field strength of the magnet should be investigated. The
400
strength of the field will be greatest at the pole face, and will
Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)
N S decrease with increasing distance from the magnet. The strength

300 of the magnetic field can be measured with a gaussmeter or a
Active
Magnet
area calibrated linear Hall sensor IC, and is a function of distance
Total Package along the intended line of travel of the magnet. Hall device speci-
Contribution Branded Planar
200 face Hall Device fications (sensitivity in mV/G for a linear device, or operate and
release points in gauss for a digital device) can be used to deter-
TEAG mine the critical distances for a particular magnet and type of
100 Branded
AG
AAD face
motion. Note that these field strength plots are not linear, and that
the shape of the flux density curve depends greatly upon magnet
0
shape, the magnetic circuit, and the path traveled by the magnet.
N S
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Magnet Total Effective Air Gap (TEAG)
Active Vertical
area Hall Device
Total effective air gap (TEAG), is the sum of the active area depth
(Sensitive Edge: (AAD, the depth of the Hall element below the branded face/edge of
Top – Shown) the device) and the air gap (AG, the distance between the package
surface and the magnet or target surface). The AG is a mechani-
Figure 12A. Definition of total effective air gap, active area depth, and cal clearance which should be as small as possible, consistent with
demonstration of the effects of the package itself on magnetic signal dimensional tolerances of the magnet, bearing tolerances, bearing
strength (for specifications of the magnet used for this data, see figure 25)
wear, and temperature effects on the Hall switch mounting bracket.
Figure 12A is a graph of flux density as a function of TEAG, and
illustrates the considerable increase in flux density at the sensor IC
provided by a thinner package (the Allegro UA package has an AAD
of about 0.50 mm). The actual gain depends predominantly on the
characteristic slope of the flux density for the particular magnet used
in the application. Note that the chart also shows the effect on flux
density of other physical factors, such as package contribution from
the device itself, and from any overmolding or protective covering of
the sensor assembly in the application.

G G
TEA TEA
1000 S S
N N
n n
tio tio
800 Mo Mo
Ø5.4 mm Ø5.4 mm
4.8 mm TEAG 4.8 mm TEAG
600
400
N S N S
200
0 Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor

0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 Alinco 8 Magnet Alinco 8 Magnet (Sensitive Side: Top – Shown)
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm)
Figure 12B. Demonstration of head-on mode of operation
G G
TEA TEA
S S
N N
1000
Mo Mo
D tio D tio
n n
800
Ø5.4 mm Ø5.4 mm
600
400
N S N S
200

Distance Between Centerlines of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm)
Figure 13. Demonstration of slide-by mode of operation, showing effect of changes
in displacement between the centerlines of the magnet and the active area
G G
TEA TEA
S S
N N
1000
Mo Mo
D tio D tio
n n
800
Ø5.4 mm Ø5.4 mm
600
(A)TEAG = 1.3 mm
400
N S N S
200
(B)TEAG = 2.5 mm

Figure 14. Example of slide-by mode of operation, comparing the effects of two
different Total Effective Air Gaps

Modes Of Operation Magnet manufacturers generally can provide head-on flux density
Even with a simple bar or rod magnet, there are several possible curves for their magnets, but they often do not characterize them
paths for motion. The magnetic pole could move perpendicularly for slide-by operation, possibly because different air gap choices
straight at the branded face of the planar Hall device, or the sensi- lead to an infinite number of these curves. However, after an air
tive edge of the vertical Hall device. This is called the head-on gap is chosen, the readily available head-on magnetic curves can
mode of operation. The curve in figure 12B illustrates typical be used to find the peak flux density (a single point) in the slide-
flux density (in gauss) as a function of TEAG for a cylindrical by application by noting the value at the total effective air gap.
magnet.
Steep Slopes and High Flux Densities
The head-on mode is simple, works well, and is relatively
For linear Hall devices, greater flux change for a given dis-
insensitive to lateral motion. The designer should be aware that
placement gives greater output—clearly an advantage. The
overextension of the mechanism could cause physical damage to
same property is desirable for digital Hall devices, but for more
the epoxy package of the Hall device if collision occurs.
subtle reasons. To achieve consistent switching action in a given
A second configuration is moving the magnet from side to side application, the Hall device must switch on and off at the same
across the Hall device, parallel to the branded face or the sensi- positions relative to the magnet.
tive edge of the device package. This is referred to as the slide-by
To illustrate this concept, consider the flux density curves from
mode of operation, as illustrated in figure 13. Note that now the
two different magnet configurations, in figure 14. With an oper-
distance plotted on the horizontal axis of the chart is not total
ate-point flux density of 200 G, a digital Hall-effect device would
effective air gap, but rather the perpendicular distance from the
turn on at a distance of approximately 3.6 mm in either case. If
centerline of the magnet to the centerline of the active area. Air
manufacturing tolerances or temperature effects shifted the oper-
gap is specified because of its obvious mechanical importance,
ate point to 300 G, notice that for curve A (steep slope) there is
but bear in mind that to do any calculations involving flux
very little change in the distance at which switching occurs. In
density, the package contribution must be added and the TEAG
the case of curve B, the change is considerable. The release point
used, as before. The slide-by mode is commonly used to avoid
(not shown) would be affected in much the same way. The basic
contact if overextension of the mechanism is likely. The use of
principles illustrated in this example can be modified to include
strong magnets and/or ferrous flux concentrators in well-designed
mechanism and device specification tolerances and can be used
slide-by magnetic circuits provides better sensing precision, with
for worst-case design analysis. Examples of this procedure are
shorter travel of the magnet, than the head-on mode.
shown in later sections.
Concentrator Vane
Vane Interruptor Switching
In this mode, the activating magnet and the Hall device are
mounted on a single rigid assembly with a small air gap between
Magnetic flux
them. In this position, the Hall device is held in the on-state by
S N
the activating magnet. If a ferromagnetic plate, or vane, is placed
S N
between the magnet and the Hall device, as shown in figure 15,
the vane forms a magnetic shunt that distorts the flux field away
Magnet from the Hall device.
Hall device
Use of a movable vane is a practical way to switch a Hall device.
Figure 15. Demonstration of vane interruptor operation: (left) normal The Hall device and magnet can be molded together as a unit,
magnetic flux path without vane interruption, (right) vane shunting
magnetic flux
thereby eliminating alignment problems, to produce an extremely
rugged switching assembly. The ferrous vane or vanes that inter-
rupt the flux could have linear motion, or rotational motion, as
in an automotive distributor. Ferrous vane assemblies, due to the
steep flux density/distance curves that can be achieved, are often
used where precision switching over a large temperature range is
required.
The ferrous vane can be made in many configurations, as shown
in figure 16. With a linear vane similar to that of figure 16B, it
Figure 16. Typical configurations for vane interruptors: (A) disk, (B), linear, is possible to repeatedly sense position within 0.05 mm over a
and (C) cup 125°C temperature range.

Electrical Interface for Digital Hall Devices iting that protects the output stage. Consult the device datasheet
The output stage of a digital Hall switch is usually an open- for details.
collector NPN transistor (see figure 17). The rules for use are the Hall devices switch very rapidly, with typical rise and fall times
same as those for any similar switching transistor. Certain digital in the 400 ns range. This is rarely critical, because switching
Hall devices, particularly micropower devices, may have push- times are almost universally controlled by much slower mechani-
pull output stages constructed using MOSFET devices. These cal parts.
devices do not require an external pull-up resistor. Consult the
device datasheet for details. Common Interface Circuits
When the transistor is off, there is a small output leakage current Figure 17 illustrates a simplified schematic symbol for Hall digi-
(typically a few nanoamperes) that usually can be ignored, and tal switches. It will make further explanation easier to follow.
a maximum (breakdown) output voltage (usually 24 V), which
Interfacing to digital logic integrated circuits usually requires
must not be exceeded.
only an appropriate power supply and pull-up resistor.
When the transistor is on, the output is shorted to the circuit
With current-sinking logic families, such as DTL or the popular
common. The current flowing through the switch must be exter-
7400 TTL series (figure 18A), the Hall switch has only to sink
nally limited to less than a maximum value (usually 20 mA) to
one unit-load of current to the circuit common when it turns on
prevent damage. The voltage drop across the switch, VCE(sat), will
(1.6 mA maximum for TTL). In the case of CMOS gates (fig-
increase for higher values of output current. Make certain this
ure 18B), with the exception of switching transients, the only
voltage is compatible with the off-state (or logic low) voltage of
current that flows is through the pull-up resistor (about 0.2 mA in
the circuit to be controlled. Certain digital Hall sensors, such as
this case).
those aimed at automotive applications, have built-in current lim-
VCC Output
Common
Figure 17. Hall-effect device with open-collector output stage (illustration

of Hall circuit simplified for clarity in later figures)
VCC = +5 V VCC = +10 V
10 kΩ 47 kΩ
TTL CMOS
Output
Output
Common
Common
Figure 18A. TTL logic interface Figure 18B. CMOS logic interface

Typically, loads that require sinking currents up to 20 mA can be any load current of 4 A or less.
driven directly by the Hall switch.
The Hall switch can source current to a load in its on- or off-state,
A good example is a light-emitting diode (LED) indicator that by configuring an external transistor. For example, figure 21 is an
requires only a resistor to limit current to an appropriate value. If example of sourcing current in the on-state, in an application to
the LED drops 1.4 V at a current of 20 mA, the resistor required turn on a 115 or 230 VAC load using a relay.
for use with a 12 V power supply can be calculated as:
A typical relay with a 12 V coil requires a current drive between
(12 V – 1.4 V) / 0.02 A = 530 Ω 40 and 60 mA (this varies from relay to relay) to trigger it to the
on-state, in which the high voltage contacts are closed. This
The nearest standard value is 560 Ω, resulting in the circuit of
could be done with an adequately sized PNP transistor.
figure 19.
When the Hall switch is turned on, 9 mA of base current flows
Sinking more current than 20 mA requires a current amplifier. For
out of the base of the PNP transistor, thereby saturating it and
example, if a certain load to be switched requires 4 A and must
allowing it to drive enough current to trigger the relay. When the
turn on when the activating magnet approaches, the circuit shown
Hall switch is off, no base current flows from the PNP, which
in figure 20 could be used.
turns it off and prevents coil current from passing to the relay.
When the Hall switch is off (insufficient magnetic flux to oper- The 4.7 kΩ resistor acts as a pull-up on the PNP base to keep
ate), about 12 mA of base current flows through the 1 kΩ resistor it turned off when the Hall switch is disabled. A freewheeling
to the Q1 transistor, thereby saturating it and shorting the base diode is placed across the relay coils in order to protect the PNP
of Q2 to ground, which keeps the load off. When a magnet is collector from switching transients that can happen as the result
brought near the Hall switch, it turns on, shorting the base of Q1 of abruptly turning off the PNP. Note that the +12 V supply com-
to ground and turning it off. This allows: mon is isolated from the neutral line of the AC line. This presents
a relatively safe way to switch high voltage AC loads with low
12 V / 56 Ω = 210 mA
voltage DC circuits. As always, be very careful when dealing
of base current to flow to Q2, which is enough to saturate it for with AC line voltage and take the proper safety precautions.
VCC = +12 V VCC = +12 V

Load
560 Ω 56 Ω
1 kΩ Q2
Q1
Output Output
Common Common
Figure 19. Example of small (≤20 mA) sinking current load being driven Figure 20. Example of driving a moderate (>20 mA) sinking current load
directly

Rotary Activators for Hall Switches • The accuracy of pole placement (usually within 2 or 3 degrees).
A frequent application involves the use of Hall switches to • Uniformity of pole strength (±5%, or worse).
generate a digital output proportional to velocity, displacement, These limitations must be considered in applications requiring
or position of a rotating shaft. The activating magnetic field for precision switching.
rotary applications can be supplied in either of two ways:
(b) Ferrous vane rotor assembly
(a) Magnetic rotor assembly
In this configuration, both the Hall switch and the magnet are
The activating magnets are fixed on the shaft and the station- stationary (figure 22, panel B). The rotor interrupts and shunts the
ary Hall switch is activated with each pass of a magnetic south flux (see figure 15) with the passing of each ferrous vane.
pole (figure 22, panel A). If several activations per revolution are
required, rotors can sometimes be made inexpensively by mold- Vane switches tend to be a little more expensive than ring mag-
ing or cutting plastic or rubber magnetic material (see the An nets, but because the dimensions and configuration of the ferrous
Inexpensive Alternative section). vanes can be carefully controlled, they are often used in applica-
tions requiring precise switching or duty cycle control.
Ring magnets also can be used. Ring magnets are commercially
available disk-shaped magnets with poles spaced around the Properly designed vane switches can have very steep flux density
circumference. They operate Hall switches dependably and at curves, yielding precise and stable switching action over a wide
reasonable costs. Ring magnets do have limitations: temperature range.
VCC = +12 V
115 VAC
4.7 kΩ
1.2 kΩ
Load
Output
40 mA
Common
Figure 21. Example of a relay-driving application, sourcing current in the Hall device off-state
Motion
Motion
Magnets
Magnet
Figure 22. Typical configurations for rotors: (A) magnetic, and (B) ferrous vane

Ring Magnets for Hall Switch Applications and the highest cost. They are generally too hard to shape except
Ring magnets suitable for use with Hall switches are readily by grinding and are fairly brittle, which complicates the mounting
available from magnet vendors in a variety of different materi- of bearings or arbor.
als and configurations. The poles may be oriented either radially Ceramic 1 ring magnets (trade names Indox, Lodex) have some-
(figure 23, panel A) or axially (figure 23, panel B) with up to 20 what lower flux densities (field strength) than the Alnicos, and
pole-pairs on a 25 mm diameter ring. For a given size and pole their field strength changes more with temperature. However,
count, ring magnets with axial poles have somewhat higher flux they are considerably lower in cost and are highly resistant to
densities. demagnetization by external magnetic fields. The ceramic mate-
Materials most commonly used are various Alnicos, Ceramic 1, rial is resistant to most chemicals and has high electrical resistiv-
and barium ferrite in a rubber or plastic matrix material (see ity. Like Alnicos, they can withstand temperatures well above that
table 4). Manufacturers usually have stock sizes with a choice of of Hall switches and other semiconductors, and must be ground if
the number of pole pairs. Custom configurations are also avail- reshaping or trimming is necessary. They may require a support
able at a higher cost. arbor to reduce mechanical stress.
Alnico is a name given to a number of aluminum-nickel-cobalt The rubber and plastic barium-ferrite ring magnets are roughly
alloys that have a fairly wide range of magnetic properties. In comparable to Ceramic 1 in cost, flux density, and temperature
general, Alnico ring magnets have the highest flux densities, the coefficient, but are soft enough to shape using conventional
smallest changes in field strength with changes in temperature, methods. It is also possible to mold or press them onto a shaft for
Physical
Models
A B
N Schematic
N
Views S
S
S
S
N
Figure 23. Common ring magnet types: (A) radial, and (B) axial; the
schematic views are used in alignment diagrams later in this text

some applications. They do have temperature range limitations, 25.4 mm in diameter, with a total effective air gap, TEAG, of
from 70°C to 150°C, depending on the particular material, and 1.7 mm (1.3 mm clearance plus 0.4 mm package contribution). It
their field strength changes more with temperature than Alnico or shows quite clearly both the errors in pole placement and varia-
Ceramic 1. tions of strength from pole to pole.
Regardless of material, ring magnets have limitations on the A frequent concern with ring magnets is ensuring sufficient flux
accuracy of pole placement and uniformity of pole strength density for reliable switching. There is a trade-off between the
which, in turn, limit the precision of the output waveform. Evalu- quantity of pole-pairs and the flux density for rings of a given
ations have shown that pole placement in rubber, plastic, and size. Thus, rings with a greater quantity of poles have lower flux
ceramic magnets usually falls within ±2° or ±3° of target, but densities. It is important that the TEAG be kept to a minimum,
±5° errors have been measured. Variations of flux density from because flux density at the Hall active area decreases by about
pole to pole will commonly be ±5%, although variations of up to 200 to 240 G per millimeter for many common ring magnets.
±30% have been observed. This is clearly shown in figure 25, a graph of flux density at a
pole as a function of TEAG for a typical 20–pole-pair plastic ring
Figure 24 is a graph of magnetic flux density as a function of
magnet.
angular position for a typical 4 pole-pair ceramic ring magnet,
1000
800 N
S S
600
400 180° 0°
N
200 S S
0 N
-200
TEAG =
-400 1.7 mm
-600
-800 25.4 mm
-1000
0 90 180 270 360
Magnet Rotation (degrees) Ceramic, 4 Pole-Pairs
Axial Poles
Figure 24. Magnetic flux characteristic of a ring magnet
400
N S NS N S N
NS
S
S N
N
SN S S
N S NS
300
Package
S S
SN
N
contribution
SN
N
N
200 N
S
SN
SN S N S
5.1 mm TEAG
100
3.2 mm
0 25.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Plastic 1, 20 Pole-Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 25. Demonstration of the effect of narrow pole pitch on magnetic signal strength

Bipolar Digital Switches (behaving like a digital latch, a Hall device type described in the
A bipolar switch has consistent hysteresis, but individual units next section). As can be seen in the VOUT traces at the bottom of
have switchpoints that occur in either relatively more positive figure 26A, for each of these possibilities, the duty cycle of the
or more negative ranges. These devices find application where output is different from each other, but consistent switching at
closely-spaced, alternating north and south poles are used (such each pole alternation is reliable.
as ring magnets), resulting in minimal magnetic signal amplitude, In applications previously discussed for other types of devices,
ΔB, but the alternation of magnetic field polarity ensures switch- the Hall switch was operated (turned on) by the approach of a
ing, and the consistent hysteresis ensures periodicity. magnetic south pole (positive flux). When the south pole was
An example of a bipolar switch would be a device with a maxi- removed (magnetic flux density approached zero), the Hall
mum operate point, BOP(max), of 45 G, a minimum release point, switch had to release (turn off). On ring magnets, both north and
BRP(min), of –40 G, and a minimum hysteresis, BHYS(min), of south poles are present in an alternating pattern. The release point
15 G. However, the minimum operate point, BOP(min), could flux density becomes less important because if the Hall switch
be as low as –25 G, and the maximum release point, BRP(max), has not turned off when the flux density approaches zero (south
could be as high as 30 G. Figure 26A shows these characteristics pole has passed), it will certainly turn off when the follow-
for units of a hypothetical device with those switchpoints. At the ing north pole causes flux density to go negative. Bipolar Hall
top of figure 26A, trace “Minimum ΔB” demonstrates how small switches take advantage of this extra margin in release-point flux
an amplitude can result in reliable switching. A “unipolar mode” values to achieve lower operate-point flux densities, a definite
unit would have switchpoints entirely in the positive (south) advantage in ring magnet applications.
range, a “negative unipolar mode” unit would have switchpoints A current list of Allegro bipolar switches can be found at
entirely in the negative (north) range, and a “Latch mode” unit http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Magnetic-Digital-
would have switchpoints that straddle the south and north ranges Position-Sensor-ICs/Hall-Effect-Latches-Bipolar-Switches.aspx.
7.5 BOP
B BHYS(min) Minimum ∆B
–7.5 BRP
VOUT Minimum ∆B
45 BOP(max)
BHYS(min) Unipolar mode unit
30 BRP(max)
7.5 BOP
BHYS(min) Latch mode unit
–7.5 BRP
–25 BOP(min)
BHYS(min) Negative unipolar mode unit
–40 BRP(min)
VOUT Unipolar mode unit
VOUT Latch mode unit
VOUT Negative unipolar mode unit
Figure 26A. Demonstration of possible switchpoint ranges for a bipolar switch, for use with low magnetic flux amplitude, narrow pitch
alternating pole targets

Bipolar Digital Switch Design Example Digital Latches
Given: Unlike bipolar switches, which may release with a south pole or
north pole, the latch (which is inherently bipolar) offers a more
• Bipolar Hall switch in Allegro UA package: Active Area Depth,
precise control of the operate and release parameters. This Hall
AAD, (and package contribution) of 0.50 mm,
integrated circuit has been designed to operate (turn on) with a
• Air Gap, AG, (necessary mechanical clearance) of 0.76 mm, south pole only. It will then remain on when the south pole has
• Operating temperature range of –20°C to 85°C, been removed. In order to have the bipolar latch release (turn
• Maximum operate point, BOP , of 200 G (from –20°C to 85°C), off), it must be presented with a north magnetic pole. This alter-
and nating south pole-north pole operation, when properly designed,
produces a duty cycle approaching 50%, as shown in figure 26B.
• Minimum release point, BRP , of –200 G (from –20°C to 85°C).
Allegro offers a wide selection of Hall effect latches designed
1. Find the total effective air gap, TEAG:
specifically for applications requiring a tightly controlled duty
▫ TEAG = AG + AAD cycle, such as in brushless DC motor commutation. Latches can
▫ TEAG = 0.76 mm + 0.50 mm = 1.26 mm also be found in applications such as shaft encoders, speedometer
2. Determine the necessary flux density, B, sufficient to operate elements, and tachometer sensors. For a current list of Allegro
the Hall switch, plus 40%. latching sensor ICs visit http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Prod-
ucts/Magnetic-Digital-Position-Sensor-ICs/Hall-Effect-Latches-
To operate the Hall switch, the magnet must supply a minimum Bipolar-Switches.aspx.
of ±200 G, at a distance of 1.26 mm, over the entire operating
temperature range. Good design practice requires the addition of Planar and Vertical Hall Devices
extra flux to provide some margin for aging, mechanical wear,
Planar and vertical sensors are based on the same physical
and other imponderables. With a pad of 100 G—a reasonable
phenomenon (the Hall effect), but differ in construction so that
number—the magnet required must supply ±300 G at a distance
sensing of a magnetic field differs based on the orientation of the
of 1.26 mm, over the entire operating temperature range.
magnetic field to the device. Planar Hall devices are constructed
with the Hall element in the same plane as the chip; it senses
magnetic fields perpendicular to its branded face. Vertical Hall
devices are constructed with the Hall element perpendicular to
the plane of the chip; it sense magnetic fields perpendicular to its
defined sensitive edge (top, right, or left, relative to the branded
face of the package).
150 BOP(max)
–150 BRP(min)
VOUT
Figure 26B. Demonstration of the bipolar latch characteristic, for use in

precise duty cycle control, alternating pole targets

Ring Magnets Detailed Discussion that is better suited to the application. On a custom basis, Hall
switches are available with operate and release point temperature
Temperature Effects coefficients of less than 0.3 G/°C, and with operate point flux
Unfortunately, magnet strength is affected by temperature to densities of less than 100 G.
some extent. Temperature coefficients of some common magnetic If the intention is to use a low-cost, low flux density ring magnet,
materials are given in table 1. then a device in the Allegro UA package (SIP, 1.55 mm overall
thickness) would be a good choice. The AAD is 0.50 mm, which
Table 1. Temperature Effects
results in a significant improvement in peak flux density from
Material Temperature Coefficient a magnet, as shown in figure 25. If an even smaller package or
Rubber/plastic –0.2% to –0.3% per °C closer air gap is required, the LH package (SOT23-W) is smaller
Ceramic 1 –0.15% to –0.2% per °C overall (1 mm overall thickness ) and has an AAD of 0.28 mm.
Alnico 2, 5 –0.02% to –0.03% per °C
If the rotor drive can withstand an increased torque require-
Alnico 8 ±0.01% per °C ment, consider a ferrous flux concentrator. Flux density can be
increased by 10% to 40% in this manner. A mild steel concentra-
When considering a ceramic ring magnet with a worst-case
tor of 0.8 mm thickness, having the same dimensions as, and
temperature coefficient of –0.2%/°C, add some extra flux density
cemented to, the back face of the Hall device case, will increase
to the requirement at room temperature to ensure that there is still
flux density by about 10%. A return path of mild steel from the
300 G per south pole at +85°C. This amount is:
back side of the device to the adjacent poles can add even more.
[(85°C – 25°C) × 0.2%/°C] 300 G = 36 G Often the functions of mounting bracket and flux concentrator
can be combined (see figure 59 for an example).
Thus, the flux density that will ensure that the Hall switch will
operate over temperature is 300 G + 36 G = 336 G per south pole
An Inexpensive Alternative
at +25°C.
Innovative design can produce surprisingly good results. Rubber
Follow the same procedure for the north pole requirements. If the and plastic magnet stock comes in sheets. One side of the sheet is
magnet will supply 300 G per south pole and –300 G per north magnetic north; the other side is south. This material is relatively
pole at +85°C, it will supply even more flux density per north inexpensive and can easily be stamped or die-cut into various
pole at –20°C because of the negative temperature coefficient. shapes.
In applications where temperature conditions are more severe, These properties prompted one designer to fabricate an inexpen-
Alnico magnets are considerably better than the ceramic magnets sive magnetic rotor assembly that worked very well. The rubber
considered. It is also possible to order custom Hall switches with magnet stock was die-cut into a star-shaped rotor form, as shown
specifications tailored to the application. For example, specify a in figure 27. A nylon bushing formed a bearing, as shown in
range of operate and release points at a particular temperature, figure 28.
with temperature coefficients for operate and release points, if
Figure 27. Demonstration of rubber magnet stock layout for inexpensive Figure 28. Demonstration of nylon bushing for inexpensive ring magnet
ring magnet

Finally, a thin mild-steel backing plate was mounted to the back The Hall switch was mounted with its active surface close to the
of the assembly to give mechanical strength and to help conduct top of the rotor assembly, facing the marked poles. There is some
the flux back from the north poles on the opposite side. This versatility in this approach, as asymmetrical poles can be used to
actually served to form apparent north poles between the teeth; fabricate a rotor that will allow trimmable on-time and thus work
the measured flux between south pole teeth is negative. Figure 29 as a timing cam. Figure 30 illustrates a cam timer adjusted to
shows the completed magnetic rotor assembly, essentially a ring 180° on and 180° off.
magnet with axial poles.
Figure 29. Demonstration of assembled inexpensive ring magnet Figure 30. Demonstration of adjustment of ring magnet to 180° on and
180° off

Ring Magnet Selection ▫ Flux density at a given TEAG (remember to add the Hall
When discussing an application with a magnet vendor, the fol- switch package contribution to the clearance figure)
lowing items should be considered: ▫ Magnetic temperature coefficient
• Mechanical factors • Environmental Factors
▫ Dimensions and tolerances ▫ Tolerance of the material to the working environment (tem-
perature, chemical solvents, electric potentials)
▫ Mounting hole type and maximum eccentricity
Flux density curves from several typical ring magnets are
▫ Rotational speed
included in the following figures, to present an idea of what can
▫ Mechanical support required be expected from various sizes and materials. Figure 31 shows
▫ Coefficient of expansion the curve for a ring similar in size and material to that of figure
• Magnetic Factors 25, but with 10 pole-pairs instead of 20 (note increased flux den-
sity values). Figure 32 shows the curve from a single pole-pair,
▫ Poles: number, orientation, and placement accuracy Alnico 8 ring.
400
S N S N
S
S N
N
300
S
N
N
S
S
200 N N
S N S
5.1 mm TEAG
100
3.2 mm
0 25.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Plastic 1, 10 Pole-Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 31. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Plastic 1 ring magnet
400
300
N
200
TEAG
100
5.1 mm
3.2 mm
0 19.1 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Alinco 8, 1 Pole-Pair
Axial Poles
Figure 32. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Alinco 8 ring magnet

Figure 33 shows the curve from a three-pole-pair Ceramic 1 ring. to be within the agreed-upon magnetic specifications by making
Figure 34 shows the curves from a four-pole-pair Ceramic 1 ring, measurements with a commercial gaussmeter, or a calibrated lin-
with and without a ferrous flux concentrator. Incoming inspection ear Hall device mounted in a convenient test fixture. Calibrated
of ring magnets is always advisable. The magnets can be ensured Hall devices and technical assistance are available from Allegro.
S N
400
300
S
200
S N
100 6.4 mm TEAG
0 19.1 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 44.5 mm
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Ceramic 1, 3 Pole-Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 33. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Ceramic 1 ring magnet
400
S
N
N
300
With flux
S
concentrator
N
200 S
Without flux
concentrator 6.4 mm TEAG
100
Concentrator
6.4 mm Ø3.2 mm
0 19.1 mm L = 6.4 mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm) Ceramic 1, 4 Pole-Pairs
Radial Poles
Figure 34. Example of magnetic flux density versus air gap for Ceramic 1 ring magnet, showing comparative results with a cylindrical ferrous flux
concentrator attached to back side of a Hall device case

Ferrous Vane Rotary Activators Ferrous-vane rotors are a good choice where precise switching
is desired over a wide range of temperatures. As the vane passes
A ferrous vane rotor assembly is the alternative to magnetic between magnet and Hall switch, progressively more flux will
rotors for rotary Hall switch applications. As shown previously, be blocked or shunted. Small variations in lateral position have a
a single magnet will hold a Hall switch on except when one of very small effect on the transition point.
the rotor vanes interrupts the flux path and shunts the flux path
away from the Hall switch. The use of a single stationary magnet A Ferrous Vane In Operation
allows very precise switching by eliminating ring magnet varia-
tions, placement, and strength. Unlike the evenly spaced poles Figure 35 combines views of a ferrous-vane magnet/Hall switch
on ring magnets, the width of rotor vanes can easily be varied. It system with the graph of flux density as a function of vane travel
is possible to vary the Hall switch off and on times, which gives produced by this system. Note that the drawings and the graph
the designer control over the duty cycle of the output waveform. are vertically aligned along the horizontal axis. Position is mea-
Cup target
Magnet N Device
S Vane
Vane Magnet
TEAG
(22.5°)
Hall
Device Element
Case
Top View
Side View
1000
800
600
Effective Vane
Width (24°)
400 Operate
Release Point, BOP
200 Point, BRP
Actual Vane
Width (22.5°)
0
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
Vane Travel (degrees)
Figure 35. Rotary single-vane assembly and characteristic magnetic profile, using a samarium-cobalt
magnet and Ø65 mm ferrous cup target (150 G/deg.)

sured from the leading edge of the vane to the centerline of the Rotor Design
magnet/Hall device. Two commonly used rotor configurations are the disk and the
Initially, when the vane is located entirely to the left of the cup, as shown in figure 36.
magnet, the vane has no effect and the flux density at the ele- The disk is easily fabricated and, hence, is often used for low-
ment is at a maximum of 800 G. As the leading edge of the vane volume applications such as machine control. Axial movement
nears the magnet, the shunting effect of the vane causes the flux of the rotor must be considered. Vane-activated switches tolerate
density to decrease in a nearly linear fashion. When the vane this quite well, but the rotor must not hit the magnet or the Hall
passes the device centerline, the magnet is covered by the vane switch.
and flux density is at a minimum. As the vane travels on, it starts
to uncover the magnet. This allows the flux to increase to its Cup rotors are somewhat more difficult to fabricate and so are
original value. After that, additional vane travel has no further more expensive, but dealing with a single radial distance simpli-
influence on flux density at the Hall element. fies calculations and allows precise control of the output wave-
forms. For cup rotors, radial bearing wear or play is the signif-
A Hall switch located in the position of the sensor IC would icant factor in determining the clearances, while axial play is rela-
initially be on because of the presence of the magnetic field. tively unimportant. Cup rotors have been used very successfully
Somewhere in the linearly decreasing region, the flux would fall in automotive ignition systems. The dwell range is determined
below the release point, and the Hall switch would turn off. It by the ratio of the vane-to-window widths when the rotor is
would remain off until the increasing flux reaches the operate designed. Firing point stability may be held to ±0.005 distributor
point for that particular Hall switch. Recall that the operate point degrees per degree Celsius in a well-designed system.
flux density is greater than the release point flux density by the
amount of the hysteresis for that particular Hall switch. Material
The interval during which the Hall switch remains off (from the Vanes are made of a low-carbon steel to minimize residual mag-
time of the Hall switch release point until the next operate point) netism and to give good shunting action. The vane thickness is
is determined by the actual width of the vane and the steepness chosen to avoid magnetic saturation for the value of flux density it
of the magnetic slope, as well as by the operate and release point must shunt. Vane material is usually between 0.8 and 1.5 mm thick.
flux density (switchpoint threshold) values for the Hall switch.
This interval is called the effective vane width, and it is always Vane / Window Widths, Rotor Size
somewhat greater than the physical vane width. Generally, the smallest vanes and windows on a rotor should be
at least one and one-half times the width of the magnet pole, to
provide adequate shunting action and to maintain sufficient dif-
ferential between the off and on values of flux density.
In table 2, the maximum flux density (obtained with window cen-
tered over the magnet, the minimum flux density (vane centered
over the magnet), and the difference between the two values are
tabulated for three cases:
• Vane and window width the same as magnet pole width
• Vane and window width one and one-half times magnet pole
width
• Vane and window width two times the magnet pole width
Figure 36. Illustration of rotor styles: (left) disk and (right) cup with multiple
vanes In each sample, the magnet is 6.4 × 6.4 × 3.2 mm samarium
Table 2. Magnetic Flux Density, B, at Various Vane and Window Positions and Relative Dimensions
Vane and Window Width Factor Relative to Magnet Pole Face
Position Relative to Magent Centerline
1× 1.5 × 2×
Window centered 630 G 713 G 726 G
Vane centered 180 G 100 G 80 G
Window centered - Vane centered 450 G 613 G 646 G

cobalt, the air gap is 0.3 mm, and the rotor vanes are made of netic circuit, and the total effective air gap. It is interesting to note
1 mm mild-steel stock. that, although slide-by operation can give very steep slopes, the
transition point is much affected by lateral motion (change in air
If a small rotor with many windows and vanes is required, a
gap); therefore, vanes are often preferred for applications involv-
miniature rare-earth magnet must be used to ensure sufficient
ing play or bearing wear.
flux density for reliable operation. For example, a 2.5 mm cubical
samarium cobalt magnet makes it practical to fabricate a 31.8 mm
Small Air Gaps for Steep Slopes
diameter rotor with as many as 10 windows and vanes. With
fewer vanes, even further size reduction is possible. The air gap should be as small as the mechanical system allows.
Factors to be considered are:
Steep Magnetic Slopes for Consistent Switching • Vane material thickness and vane radius
A graph of flux density versus vane travel, for most common • Maximum eccentricity (for cup vanes)
vane configurations, is very nearly linear in the transition regions
(see figure 35). The Hall switch operate and release points fall in • Bearing tolerance and wear
these linear transition regions, and it is easily seen that if these • Change in air gap with temperature due to mounting consider-
values change, the position of the vane which causes the switch- ations
ing must change also. Figure 37 shows the flux density as a In figure 38, two different samarium-cobalt magnets are used in
function of vane position for two different magnetic circuits. In a vane system to illustrate the effects of changes in air gap and
one case, the magnetic slope is 98 G/mm. In the second case, it is magnet size. Note that only the falling transition region is shown
107 G/mm. (the rising transition region would be symmetrical). The distances
If the 98 G/mm system is used with a Hall switch known to on the horizontal axis have been measured from the leading edge
have an operate point flux density of 300 G at 25°C, the device of the vane.
would switch on when the vane is 2.2 mm past the center of the The term “air gap” as used in figure 38 is not the total effective
window, at this temperature. If the Hall switch operate point air gap, but is simply the distance from the face of the magnet
went up to 400 G at a temperature of 125°C (this represents Hall to the surface of the Hall switch. It does not include the package
switch temperature coefficient of 1 G/°C), the vane must move contribution. The Allegro U package is often used in ferrous vane
to 3.1 mm past center, a change in switching position of about applications because it has a shallow active area depth.
1 mm. If the same Hall switch is used in the second system hav-
ing the 107 G/ mm slope, the operate point would shift only about Flux Concentrators Pay Dividends
0.5 mm, or half as much, because the slope is twice as steep. What if economic or size considerations dictated use of the
Slopes in typical vane systems range from 40 G/mm to smaller magnet sampled for figure 38, and mechanical consid-
590 G/ mm, and are affected by magnet type and size, the mag- erations dictated the larger (3 mm) air gap, but the resulting flux
1000
800 Magnetic slope =

107 G/mm
600
Magnetic slope =
98 G/mm
400
200 1.0 mm
0.5 mm
0
-7.6 -5.1 -2.5 0 2.5 5.1 7.6
Vane Position (mm)
Figure 37. Comparison of two applications, for flux density versus vane travel, showing linearity in the transition regions, despite varying rates

1000
4 3 2 1
900 5
6
800 7

700
600
500 Concentrator
Device
Vane
Magnet
400
CL
300 Concentrator
(if used)
Device
Branded
Face
200 Air Gap
D
Vane S
100 N Magnet
0
-5.1 -3.8 -2.5 -1.3 0 1.3
Distance from Vane Leading Edge to Device/Magnet Centerline, D (mm)

(Only leading edge curves shown; trailing edge curves symmetrical)
Figure 38. Relative strength of magnetic field using two sample samarium-cobalt magnets, versus
variances in air gap and flux concentrator usage (see key table)
Table 3. Key for Figure 38

Air Gap Transition Region Slope
Chart Symbol Concentrator* Usage
(mm) (G/mm)
1 2.5 551 Yes
2 2.5 388 No
3 2.5 354 Yes
4 3.0 343 Yes
5 2.5 307 No
6 3.0 248 No
7 3.0 220 Yes
8 3.0 177 No
Note: Samples using two samarium-cobalt cubic magnets, Allegro U package
*Concentrator cylindrical, composed of mild steel, Ø3.2 mm, length 6.4 mm, attached to non-branded
face of the Allegro U package case

density and slope (curve 8) were not good enough? Curve 7 in Temperature coefficients:
figure 38 shows the very substantial improvement that can be
• ΔBOP /Δ T, maximum = 0.7 G/°C
achieved by adding simple flux concentrators. Those used in the
example were 3.2 mm in diameter by 6.4 mm long, and were • ΔBRP /Δ T, maximum = 1 G/°C
fastened behind the Hall switch. Solid-state Hall-effect ignition systems can be designed to fire
either on the operate or release switchpoints of the Hall switch.
Flux Concentrator Design Example For this example, the system fires at the operate switchpoints
The magnet/concentrator configuration just considered (curve and, thus, the operate point specifications of the Hall switch
7, figure 38) seems to offer a high performance/cost ratio. The (between 300 and 450 G at 125°C) will determine the amount of
following is an evaluation of its use in an automotive ignition uncertainty in the initial timing of the spark. It is possible that the
system using a 63.5 mm diameter cup rotor. mechanical system would also make a contribution, but that is not
considered here.
The initial timing and wide operating temperature range require-
ments for this application have generally led designers to specify Figure 39 shows the measured flux density at the position of the
custom Hall switches in terms of the minimum and maximum sensor IC as a function of the vane travel. The shape of the curve
operate or release point at +25°C, plus a maximum temperature (which shows only the transition regions) requires explanation.
coefficient on these parameters over the operating temperature Because the regions of flat minimum and maximum flux are
range. irrelevant, it is convenient to measure from the vane leading edge
to the magnet centerline while plotting data for the falling transi-
Representative specifications might be: tion, and from the vane trailing edge to the magnet centerline
• 25°C operate point, minimum, BOP(min) = 300 G while plotting data for the rising transition. This results in a curve
that has the same appearance as if all data taken while a vane
• 25°C operate point, maximum, BOP(max) = 450 G
passed the magnet centerline were plotted, and then the low flux
• 25°C release point, minimum, BRP(min) = 200 G areas were deleted, and the sections containing the linear transi-
25°C Initial timing uncertainty

(1.2 distributor degrees)
700
600
500
25°C maximum
Magnetic slope = Operate Point
223 G/mm
400 125 G/distributor degree
25°C minimum
300 Operate Point
25°C minimum
200 Release Point
100
0
–5.1 –3.8 –2.5 –1.3 0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
Distance Between Vane Leading (–) or Trailing (+) Edge
and Centerline of Magnet / Hall Element (mm)
Figure 39. Design example of magnetic characteristic of a single-vane cup target (showing only magnetic flux transition regions)

tion regions were joined together. (The flat high flux regions are A typical samarium-cobalt magnet temperature coefficient is
simply omitted.) –0.04% per °C. At that rate, a magnetic field of 375 G at 25°C
would decrease to 360 G at 125°C. Applying that rate to the data
From this graph, the magnetic slope of the transition regions for
from figure 39 (with a magnetic slope of 223 G/mm), in figure 40
this system is approximately 223 G per mm of vane travel. Calcu-
the system has an additional vane travel requirement at 125°C.
lations based on the rotor diameter (63.5 mm) show 0.55 mm of
This can be calculated as:
vane travel per distributor degree. The 223 G/mm slope obtained
from figure 39 is equivalent to 125 G per distributor degree. (375 G – 360 G) × (1 mm / 223 G) = 0.1 mm
From the specifications, it is known that the Hall switch will
This translates to a timing change of:
operate when flux is between 300 G and 450 G, leaving a 150 G
window of uncertainty. At 25°C, this uncertainty will be: 0.1 mm × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) =
0.12 Distributor Degrees
150 G × (Distributor Degree / 125 G) =
1.2 Distributor Degrees for a temperature change of 100°C.
Additional contributions to the initial timing uncertainty will
Calculating Dwell Angle and Duty Cycle Variations
result if the total effective air gap is changed, because that would
affect the shape or slopes of the magnetic flux density/vane travel The dwell angle in a conventional system is the quantity of
curve of figure 39. Factors to be considered are the magnet peak distributor degrees during which the distributor points are closed.
energy product tolerances, as well as manufacturing tolerances in This corresponds to the amount of time current can flow in the
the final Hall switch/magnet assembly. ignition coil primary winding. In this example, current flows in
the coil primary from the time of the Hall release switchpoint
Temperature Stability of Operate Points until the next operate switchpoint (the effective vane width).
For nostalgic reasons, assume an eight-cylinder engine, which
An early Hall switch operate-point temperature coefficient was
requires a distributor rotor with eight windows and eight vanes
approximately 0.2 G/°C. To translate this into distributor degrees
of equal size. Thus, a single window-vane segment occupies 45
per degree Celsius, take:
distributor degrees and will fire one cylinder. Assuming a typical
(0.2 G / 1°C) × (Distributor Degree / 125 G) = Hall device operate switchpoint of 375 G at 25°C (A in figure
0.0016 Distributor Degrees / °C 40), and a 25°C release point of 260 G (B in figure 40), from
figure 40 the ignition points will close 1 mm before the vane
The distributor timing would, therefore, change 0.16 degrees for
leading edge passes the magnet centerline, and they will open
a temperature change of 100°C.
700
600
500 1.9 mm
(C) 125°C Operate
Magnetic slope = 1.5 mm 1.5 mm Point (445 G)
223 G/mm
400 125 G/distributor degree
1 mm (A) 25°C Operate
(D)125°C Release
300 Point (360 G) Point (375 G)
(B) 25°C Release

200 Point (260 G)
100
0
–5.1 –3.8 –2.5 –1.3 0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
Distance Between Vane Leading (–) or Trailing (+) Edge
and Centerline of Magnet / Hall Element (mm)
Figure 40. Design example of magnetic characteristic of a single-vane cup target (showing only magnetic flux transition regions), showing effects of
temperature change on switchpoints

1.5 mm after the vane trailing edge passes the magnet centerline. For the direction signal to be correct, the switchpoints of the
Calculate how much greater the effective vane width is than the Hall elements must be adequately matched, and a quadrature
mechanical vane width, as follows: relationship must be maintained between the target’s magnetic
poles and the spacing of the two Hall elements (E1 and E2). A
(1 mm + 1.5 mm) × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) = quadrature relationship produces Hall switch phase separation of
4.54 Distributor Degrees 90°. For optimal performance, the device should be actuated by
a ring magnet that presents to the front of the device fields with
This gives a dwell angle of (45° + 4.54°) = 49.54 Distributor a pole pitch two times the Hall element-to-element spacing. The
Degrees at 25°C. The duty cycle is then: period (T) is then equal to twice the pole pitch (P), as depicted
by figures 41 and 42 and the equation below. This will produce a
(49.54° / 90°) = 55%, at 25°C sinusoidal magnetic field whose period corresponds to four times
the element-to-element spacing. Please reference the product
Using the specified worst-case temperature coefficients, calculate datasheet for the element-to-element spacing for the specific
the new operate and release switchpoints at 125°C to be 445 G device in question, as this spacing is device type specific. In the
(C in figure 40) and 360 G (D in figure 40). The dwell angle at example below the spacing is defined as 1.63 mm:
+125°C would then be:
For P = 2 × 1.63 mm = 3.26 mm
45° + [(1.85 mm +1.47 mm) × (1 Distributor Degree / 0.55 mm) =
50.9 Distributor Degrees T = 2 × 3.26 mm = 6.52 mm
The duty cycle is then:

Direction of Rotation
51° / 90° = 57%
S S
Effects of Bearing Wear N S N
A ±0.3 mm radial movement of the vane, with its position Branded Face
Ring
adjusted to the approximate operate point of the Hall switch, gave of Package
Air Gap Magnet
a measured change of ±6 G. This translates into a change of: E2 A1232 E1
6 G × (1 Distributor Degree /125 G) = Pin 8 Pin 1
0.048 Distributor Degrees

Element Pitch
which is equivalent to 0.097 crankshaft degrees.
Figure 41. Target Profiling During Operation – Device Orientation to Target
Mounting Also Affects Stability
In the example above, it was assumed that the physical relation- Direction of Rotation
ship between the Hall switch and the magnet was absolutely S N S N S
stable. In practice, it is necessary to design the mountings with
some care if this is to be true. It has been found that supporting +B Ring
the magnet or Hall switch with formed brackets of aluminum or Magnet
Target
brass will often contribute a significant temperature-related error
to the system. Use of molded plastic housings has proven to be -B Target
Magnetic
one of the better mounting techniques. Element Pitch Profile
Figure 42. Target Profiling During Operation – Mechanical Position (target

Quadrature moves past device pin 1 to pin 8)
Dual element devices (including 2D devices that use a combina-
tion of planar and vertical elements) are integrated circuits that The 2D dual output devices use a combination of vertical and
contain two independent Hall-effect switches. The digital outputs planar Hall elements to sense in two dimensions (2D), deliver-
are out-of-phase when interfaced with a ring magnet. These sig- ing near-ideal quadrature signals independent of the magnet pole
nals can be processed to determine target speed and direction. pitch; no optimization is necessary.

Enhancement Considerations
Individual Calibration Techniques

In some applications, it may be required to have the vane-Hall
device assemblies operate within a narrower range of vane edge
positions than is possible with a practical operate point specifi-
cation for the Hall device, for example, if it were necessary to
reduce the initial timing window in the example of the ignition
distributor. One solution would be individual calibration. Possible
techniques include some or all of the following:
• Adjusting the air gap by changing the magnet position
• Adjusting the position of a flux concentrator on the back side of
the Hall device
• Adjusting the position of a small bias magnet mounted on the
back side of the Hall device
• Demagnetizing the magnet in small increments that would
decrease the magnetic slope and, thus, increase the temperature
effects
• Adjusting the position of the Hall device-magnet assembly rela-
tive to the rotor in a manner similar to rotating an automotive
distributor to change the timing

Operating Modes: Head-On and Slide-By The slide-by mode is also simple, can have reasonably steep
The most common operating modes are head-on (see figure 12B) slopes (to about 394 G/mm), and has no problem with mechanism
and slide-by (see figure 13). The head-on mode is simple and over-travel. It is, however, very sensitive to lateral play, as the
relatively insensitive to lateral motion, but cannot be used where flux density varies dramatically with changes in the air gap. This
overextension of the mechanism might damage the Hall device. can be seen clearly in the curves of figure 44, in which the flux
The flux density plot for a typical head-on operation (see fig- density curves are plotted for actual slide-by operation with vari-
ure 43) shows that the magnetic slope is quite shallow for low ous air gaps. It is apparent that the operating mechanism can have
values of flux density, a disadvantage that generally requires little side play if precise switching is required.
extreme mechanism travel and extreme sensitivity to flux changes
in the operate and release switchpoints of the Hall device. This Planar and Vertical Hall Devices
problem can be overcome by selecting Hall devices with higher The availability of both planar and vertical Hall devices offers
operate and release properties. application designers flexibility in the placement and orientation
of the Hall device and therefore the PCB on which it is mounted.
+ VCC
Relative Magnetic Flux Density, B
AAD and Package Contribution

Relative Output Voltage
TEAG TEAG
AAD AAD
N S N S
0 VOQ
Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor
0 2.5 5.1 7.6 10.2 12.7
(Sensitive Side: Top – Shown)
Total Effective Air Gap, TEAG (mm)
Figure 43. Example of the magnetic flux characteristic in head-on configuration
+ VCC
TEAG TEAG
5.3 mm 5.3 mm
TEAG = 1.3 mm
TEAG = 1.9 mm N S N S
D D
TEAG = 2.4 mm
0 VOQ
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4
Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor
Figure 44. Example of effect of lateral displacement on the magnetic flux characteristic in slide-by configuration

Operating Mode Enhancements: Compound Magnets can give much greater field strengths than are possible with any
single magnet (see figure 45). Perhaps more important, push-pull
Push-Pull arrangements are quite insensitive to lateral motion and are worth
Because the active area of a planar Hall switch is close to the considering if a loosely fitting mechanism is involved.
branded face of the package, it is usually operated by approach-
Figure 46 shows the flux density curve for an actual push-pull
ing this face with a magnetic south pole. It is also possible to
slide-by configuration that achieves a magnetic slope of about
operate a Hall switch by applying a magnetic north pole to the
315 G/mm.
back side of the package. While a north pole alone is seldom
used, the push-pull configuration (simultaneous application of a
south pole to the branded side and a north pole to the back side)
n
tio
Mo
Mo
tio
n
n
tio
Mo
Mo
tio
n
Figure 45. Examples of compound magnet configurations (either the Hall device or the magnet assembly can be stationary), with a south pole toward the
branded face and a north pole toward the back side: (left) push-pull head-on and (right) push-pull slide-by

2000

3.6 mm
1600
1200
Magnetic Slope = NS NS
–315 G / mm
800 D
400
Back face
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 Branded face
Figure 46. Example of magnetic flux characteristic in push-pull slide-by magnet configuration

Push-Push the magnetic fields cancel each other when the mechanism is cen-
Another possibility, a bipolar field with a fairly steep slope (which tered, giving zero flux density at that position. Figure 48 shows the
also is linear), can be created by using a push-push configuration in flux density plot of such a configuration. The curve is linear and
the head-on mode (see figure 47). moderately steep at better than 315 G/mm. The mechanism is fairly
insensitive to lateral motion.
In the push-push, head-on mode configuration shown in figure 47,
n n
tio tio
Mo Mo
Figure 47. Example of a push-push head-on compound magnet configuration (either the Hall device or the magnet assembly can be stationary), with
south poles toward both the branded face and the back side
500 Ø5.4 mm
4.8 mm 5.3 mm 4.8 mm

300
100
0 N S S N
-100 Magnetic Slope =

315 G / mm
-300
Alinco 8 Magnets
-500
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Magnet Assembly Travel (mm)
Figure 48. Example of push-push head-on mode magnet configuration, in which the fields cancel in the middle of the travel range

Biased Operation
It is also possible to bias the Hall device by placing a station- Figures 50-52 demonstrate additional slide-by techniques.
ary north or south pole behind it to alter the operate and release Compound magnets are used in push-pull slide-by configurations
points. For example, a north pole attached to the reverse face to achieve a magnetic slope of 685 G/mm. Rare-earth magnets
would configure the device as normally turned on, until a may be used to obtain substantially steeper slopes. A flux density
north pole providing a stronger field in the opposite direction curve of up to 3937 G/mm is obtainable.
approached the opposite face (figure 49).
Branded
Branded face
face S
N
Back-biasing
S Mo magnet
N N tio N
n
S S
n
tio Back-biasing
Mo magnet
Figure 49. Examples of back-biasing magnet configuration, (left) slide-by and (right) head-on
5.3 mm
+ VCC
4.8 mm
0 VOQ SN SN
Single
N S
magnets
– GND
S N
+ VCC NS NS
D
Compound VOQ
0
magnets
– GND
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm) Compound Single
magnets magnets
Figure 50. Examples of slide-by motion, magnets on both sides; compound and single magnets

+ VCC
4.8 mm 4.8 mm

S S
N N
0 VOQ
D D
– GND
-10.0 -7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet
and Hall Element, D (mm) Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor
Figure 51. Example of slide-by motion, magnet on one side, single magnet
Compound Magnet Compound Magnet

1000 Alinco 6
Alinco 6
Ø6 mm Ø6 mm
4.8 mm 4.8 mm
500
S N S N
0 N S N S
Magnetic Slope =
D D
–394 G / mm S N S N
–500
TEAG = 1 mm TEAG = 1 mm
–1000
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Distance Between Centerline of Magnet Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor
and Hall Element, D (mm) (Sensitive Side: Top – Shown)
Figure 52. Example of slide-by motion, magnets on one side, compound magnets

Increasing Flux Density by Improving the Magnetic Circuit In a Hall device application, the goal is to minimize the reluc-
Magnetic flux can travel through air, plastic, and most other tance of the flux path from the magnetic south pole, through the
Hall device, and back to the north pole. The best possible mag-
materials only with great difficulty. Because there is no incentive
netic circuit for a Hall device would provide a ferrous path for the
for flux from the activating magnet to flow through the (plastic
flux, as shown in figure 54, with the only “air gap” being the Hall
and silicon) Hall device, only a portion of it actually does. The device itself.
balance flows around the device and back to the other pole by
whatever path offers the least resistance (figure 53). While a complete ferrous flux path is usually impractical, unnec-
essary, and even impossible in applications requiring an undis-
However, magnetic flux easily flows through a ferromagnetic torted or undisturbed flux field, it is a useful concept that points
material such as mild steel. The reluctance of air is greater by a the way to a number of very practical compromises for improving
factor of several thousand than that of mild steel. flux density.
Flux paths
Flux paths
Mild steel
NS
NS
Hall device
Magnet Magnet Hall device
Figure 53. Typical magnetic field generated as magnetic flux passes Figure 54. Demonstration of use of mild steel to provide a low-reluctance
through free air, with only a small portion passing through the Hall device path for magnetic flux, with a preponderance passing through the Hall device

Flux Concentrators 6.4 mm). In panel A, there is a flux density of 187 G at the Hall
Flux concentrators are low-carbon (cold rolled) steel magnetic device active area. In panel B, with a concentrator 3.2 mm in
conductors. They are used to provide a low-reluctance path from diameter and 12.7 mm long, the flux density increases to 291 G.
a magnet south pole, through the Hall element, and back to the
Size of the Concentrator
north pole. Flux concentrators can take many forms and will
often allow use of smaller or less expensive magnets (or less The active area of the Hall device is typically 0.3 mm square.
expensive, less sensitive Hall devices) in applications where Best results are obtained by tapering the end of the concentra-
small size or economy are important. They are of value whenever tor to approximately the same dimensions. With the Allegro
it is necessary or preferred to increase flux density at the Hall UA package, however, there is 1.1 mm from the active area to the
back face of the package. Due to this distance, a slightly larger
device. Increases of up to 100% are possible.
end to the concentrator results in higher values of flux density at
An example of the effectiveness of a concentrator is illustrated in the active area. If the end is too large, the flux is insufficiently
figure 55. Both panels show the same magnet (a samarium-cobalt concentrated. Figures 56A, 56B, and 56C illustrate these effects
magnet 6.4 mm square and 3.2 mm long) and mounting (AG = using cylindrical flux concentrators and a 6.4 mm air gap.
Magnet Magnet
samarium cobalt samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm □6.4 mm
Concentrator
Ø3.2 mm
SN SN
6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm
B = 187 G B = 291 G
A B
Figure 55. Effect of back-side flux concentrator on magnetic flux intensity: (A) without concentrator and (B) with concentrator
Magnet Magnet Magnet

samarium cobalt samarium cobalt samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm □6.4 mm □6.4 mm
Concentrator Concentrator Concentrator
Ø3.2 mm Ø0.6 mm
Ø6.4 mm Ø3.2 mm
SN SN SN
12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 3.2 mm
B = 261 G B = 269 G B = 291 G
(A) (B) (C)

Figure 56. (A) Effect of back-side flux concentrator, diameter reduced too much, diminishing field strength, B; (B) Effect of back-side flux concentrator,
diameter increased too much, diminishing field strength, B; (C) Effect of back-side flux concentrator, diameter optimally matched to device

The length of the concentrator also has an effect on the flux den-
sity. This is illustrated in figure 57.
Magnet
Cylindrical concentrators were used here for convenience, but the samarium cobalt
body of the concentrator has little effect. The important factors □6.4 mm
Concentrator
are the shape, position, and surface area of the magnet end near- Ø3.2 mm
est the Hall element.
Concentrator
SN
The effectiveness of other concentrator configurations can be mild steel
measured easily by using a calibrated linear Hall device or a com-

□12.7 mm
12.7 mm 6.4 mm
mercial gaussmeter. 0.8 mm
3.2 mm
Mounting the Magnet to a Ferrous Plate
B = 357 G
Mounting the magnet to a ferrous plate gives an additional
increase in flux density at the Hall element. Using the same
configuration as in figure 56C, which produced 291 G, note the
available flux attained in figures 58A and 58B with the addition Figure 58A. Effect of 12.7 mm2 additional flux concentrator, attached to
of the ferrous plate. magnet
Figure 59 shows a possible concentrator for a ring-magnet

application. Using a flux concentrator that extends to both of the
adjacent north poles, flux density increases from 265 to 400 G
(0.4 mm air gap). Note that the concentrator has a dimple, or Magnet
mesa, centered on the Hall device. In most applications, the mesa samarium cobalt
□6.4 mm
will give a significant increase in flux density over a flat mount-
Concentrator
ing surface. Ø3.2 mm
Concentrator
SN mild steel
Attractive Force and Distorted Flux Field □25.4 mm
Whenever a flux concentrator is used, an attractive force exists
12.7 mm 6.4 mm
between magnet and concentrator. This may be detrimental to the
application.
0.8 mm
3.2 mm
B = 389 G
400 Figure 58B. Effect of 25.4 mm2 additional flux concentrator, attached to
magnet
200
S
N
N
S
S
N
0
N
S
0 12.7 25.4
Concentrator Length (mm)
Dimple
Figure 57. Effect of back-side flux concentrator length, using a samarium Figure 59. Demonstration of mesa-type bracket and flux concentrator
cobalt magnet of Ø3.2 mm and AG = 6.4 mm

Feed-Throughs bution by the flux concentrator behind the Hall switch. Values for
An example of the use of a magnetic conductor to feed flux curve A were obtained with the flux concentrator in place, those
through a nonferrous housing is shown in figure 60. A small elec- for curve B without it. In both cases, the highest flux densities
tric motor has a 3.2 mm cube samarium-cobalt magnet mounted were achieved with the shortest feed-through dimension L, which
in the end of its rotor, as shown. A 3.2 mm cube ferrous conduc- was 3.2 mm. Peak flux density was 350 G with flux concentrator
tor extends through the alloy case with a 0.8 mm air gap between in place, 240 G without it.
it and the magnet south pole. The Hall switch is mounted at the
other end with a flux concentrator behind it. Magnet Selection
In general, the feed-through should be of approximately the same A magnet must operate reliably with the total effective air gap in
cross-sectional area and shape as is the magnet pole end. This the working environment. It must fit the available space. It must
concept can be used to feed flux through any non-ferrous mate- be mountable, affordable, and available.
rial, such as a pump case, pipe, or panel.
The two curves of figure 61 illustrate the effects on flux density Figures Of Merit
of increasing the length of the feed-through, as well as the contri- The figures of merit commonly applied to magnetic materials are:
• Residual induction (Br) in gauss (G). How strong is the mag-
Feed-through netic field?
Magnet on rotor
• Coercive force (Hc) in oersteds (Oe). How well will the magnet
resist external demagnetizing forces?
SN • Maximum energy product (BHmax) in gauss-oersteds × 106. A
strong magnet that is also very resistant to demagnetizing forces
Rotor
has a high maximum energy product. Generally, the larger the
energy product, the better, stronger, and more expensive the
magnet.
• Temperature coefficient. The rate of change of the operate or
release switchpoints over the full operating temperature range,
measured in gauss per degree Celsius. How much will the
Figure 60. Typical application for feed-through of magnetic signal from strength of the magnet change as temperature changes?
target to Hall device
Magnet
Samarium Cobalt
□3.2 mm
400
300 L
(A) With flux
concentrator
N S
200
0.8 mm
100
(B) Without flux
concentrator Flux
concentrator
Feed-through
0 conductor
0 3.2 6.4 9.5 12.7 15.9 Ø3.2 mm
Feed-Through Conductor Length, L (mm)
Figure 61. Example of feed-through conductor length effect on magnetic flux, with and without a flux concentrator on the device

Magnetic Materials maximum energy product is approximately 1.4 × 106.
Neodymium (NeFeB). The new neodymium-iron-boron alloys fill Iron-chromium magnets have magnetic properties similar to
the need for a high maximum energy product, moderately priced Alnico 5, but are soft enough to undergo machining operations
magnet material. The magnets are produced by either a powdered before the final aging treatment hardens them. Their maximum
metal technique called orient-press-sinter (OPS) or a new process energy product is approximately 5.25 × 106.
incorporating jet casting and conventional forming techniques.
Current work is being directed toward reducing production costs, Plastic and rubber magnets consist of barium or strontium fer-
increasing operating temperature ranges, and decreasing tempera- rite in a plastic matrix material. They are very inexpensive and
ture coefficients. Problems relating to oxidation of the material can be formed in numerous ways including stamping, molding,
can be overcome through the use of modern coatings technol- and machining, depending upon the particular matrix material.
ogy. Their maximum energy products range from 7 to 15 MGOe Because the rubber used is synthetic, and synthetic rubber is also
depending on the process used to produce the material. plastic, the distinction between the two materials is imprecise.
In common practice, if a plastic magnet is flexible, it is called a
Rare-earth cobalt is an alloy of a rare-earth metal, such as samar- rubber magnet. Their maximum energy product ranges from 0.2 ×
ium, with cobalt (abbreviated as RE cobalt). These magnets are 106 to 1.2 × 106.
the best in all categories, but are also the most expensive by about
the same margins. Too hard for machining, they must be ground if Choosing Magnet Strength
shaping is necessary. Their maximum energy product, perhaps the
A magnet must have sufficient flux density to reach the Hall
best single measure of magnet quality, is approximately 16 × 106.
switch maximum operate point specification at the required air
Alnico is a class of alloys containing aluminum, nickel, cobalt, gap. Good design practice suggests the addition of another 50 G
iron, and additives that can be varied to give a wide range of to 100 G for insurance and a check for sufficient flux at the
properties. These magnets are strong and fairly expensive, but expected temperature extremes.
less so than RE cobalt. Alnico magnets can be cast, or sintered
For example, if the Hall device datasheet specifies a 350 G maxi-
by pressing metal powders in a die and heating them. Sintered
mum operate point at 25°C, after adding a pad of 100 G, it has
Alnico is well suited to mass production of small, intricately
450 G at 25°C. If operation to 70°C is required, the specification
shaped magnets. It has more uniform flux density, and is mechan-
should be 450 G + 45 G = 495 G. (For calculations, use 0.7 G/°C
ically superior. Cast Alnico magnets are generally somewhat
operate point coefficient and 1 G/°C release point coefficient.)
stronger. The non-oriented or isotropic Alnico alloys (1, 2, 3, 4)
Because the temperature coefficient of most magnets is negative,
are less expensive and magnetically weaker than the oriented
this factor would also require some extra flux at room tempera-
alloys (5, 6, 5-7, 8, 9). Alnico is too hard and brittle to be shaped
ture to ensure high-temperature operation.
except by grinding. Their maximum energy product ranges from
1.3 × 106 to 10 × 106.
Coercive Force
Ceramic magnets contain barium or strontium ferrite (or another Coercive force becomes important if the operating environment
element from that group) in a matrix of ceramic material that is will subject the magnet to a strong demagnetizing field, such as
compacted and sintered. They are poor conductors of heat and that encountered near the rotor of an AC motor. For such appli-
electricity, are chemically inert, and have high values of coercive cations, a permanent magnet with high coercive force (ceramic,
force. As with Alnico, ceramic magnets can be fabricated with Alnico 8, or, best of all, RE cobalt) is clearly indicated.
partial or complete orientation for additional magnetic strength.
Less expensive than Alnico, they also are too hard and brittle to Price and Peak Energy Product
shape except by grinding. Their maximum energy product ranges
The common permanent magnet materials and their magnetic
from 1 × 106 to 3.5 × 106.
properties are summarized in table 4. The Cost column shows
Cunife is a ductile copper base alloy with nickel and iron. It can the relationship between the price paid for a magnet and its peak
be stamped, swaged, drawn, or rolled into final shape. Their energy product.

Table 4. Properties of Magnetic Materials
Maximum Residual Temperature
Coercive Force
Material Energy Product Induction Coefficient Cost Comments
(Oe)
(G-Oe) (G) (%/°C)
Strongest,
smallest, resists
RE cobalt 16 × 106 8.1 × 103 7.9 × 103 –0.05 Highest
demagnetizing
best
Alnico 1, 2, 3, 4 1.3 to 1.7 × 106 5.5 to 7.5 × 103 0.42 to 0.72 × 103 –0.02 to –0.03 Medium Nonoriented
Alnico 5, 6, 5-7 4 to 7.5 × 106 10.5 to 13.5 × 103 0.64 to 0.78 × 103 –0.02 to –0.03 Medium to high Oriented
Oriented, high
coercive force,
Alnico 8 5 to 6 × 106 7 to 9.2 × 103 1.5 to 1.9 × 103 –0.01 to 0.01 Medium to high
best temperature
coefficient
Oriented, highest
Alnico 9 10 × 106 10.5 × 103 1.6 × 103 –0.02 High
energy product
Nonoriented,
high coercive
Ceramic 1 1 × 106 2.2 × 103 1.8 × 103 –0.02 Low
force, hard, brittle,
nonconductor
Partially oriented,
very high coercive
Ceramic 2, 3, 4, 6 1.8 to 2.6 × 106 2.9 to 3.3 × 103 2.3 to 2.8 × 103 –0.02 Low-medium
nonconductor
Fully oriented,
very high coercive
Ceramic 5, 7, 8 2.8 to 3.5 × 106 3.5 to 3.8 × 103 2.5 to 3.3 × 103 –0.02 Medium
nonconductor
Ductile, can cold
Cunife 1.4 × 106 5.5 × 103 0.53 × 103 – Medium
form and machine
Can machine
Fe-Cr 5.25 × 106 13.5 × 103 0.60 × 103 – Medium prior to final aging
treatment
Can be molded,
Plastic 0.2 to 1.2 × 103 1.4 to 3 × 103 0.45 to 1.4 × 103 –0.02 Lowest stamped,
machined
Rubber 0.35 to 1.1 × 106 1.3 to 2.3 × 103 1 to 1.8 × 103 –0.02 Lowest Flexible
Neodymium 7 to 15 × 106 6.4 to 11.75 × 103 5.3 to 6.5 × 103 –0.157 to –0.192 Medium-high Nonoriented

Advanced Applications r
Current Limiting and Measuring Current Sensor ICs

Hall-effect devices are excellent current-limiting or measuring
devices. Their response ranges from DC to the kHz region. The
conductor need not be interrupted in high-current applications. For
a list of Allegro current sensor ICs, visit http://www.allegromicro. I (A)
B (G) ≈
com/en/Products/Current-Sensor-ICs.aspx. 0.16 � r (mm)
The magnetic field about a conductor is normally not intense
enough to operate a Hall-effect device (see figure 62). The radius Figure 62. The magnetic flux density decreases with distance from a
conductor
(r) is measured from the center of the conductor to the active area
of the Hall device. With a radius of 12.7 mm and a current of
1000 A, there would be a magnetic flux density of 159 G at the
Hall device.
For low current applications, consider the use of a toroid, as
illustrated in figures 63A and 63B, to increase the flux density as
it passes through the Hall element. With a 1.5 mm air gap in the
toroid, for the Allegro UA package there will be a magnetic gain
of 6 G/A for just the circuit illustrated in figure 63B. To increase
the sensitivity of the circuit, consider winding multiple turns of
the conductor around the toroid, as shown in figure 63A. The
example in figure 63A has 14 turns, and would therefore have a
magnetic gain of 84 G/A. Figure 63A. Demonstration of use of coil and toroid for low-current sensing
The core material can be of either ferrite or mild steel (C-1010)

for low-frequency applications, and ferrite for high-frequency
measurements.
The main concerns are:
• The core should retain minimal field when the current is re-
duced to zero
• The flux density in the air gap should be a linear function of the
current
• The air gap should be stable over the operating temperature
range Figure 63B. Demonstration of use of toroid for current sensing for
moderate current (I > 25 A)
The cross-sectional dimensions of the core are at least twice the
air gap dimension to ensure a reasonably homogeneous field in
the gap. For example, a toroid with a 1.5 mm gap should have at Toroid
least a 3 mm × 3 mm cross-section.
Another simple and inexpensive application is illustrated in fig- 4.8 mm
ure 64. A toroid of the appropriate diameter is formed from mild-
steel stock, 1.6 mm thick and 4.8 mm wide. The ends are formed
to fit on each side of the central portion of the Hall device. One
advantage of this technique is that the toroid can be placed
around a conductor without disconnecting the conductor.
Conductor 1.6 mm
Multi-Turn Applications
There are several considerations in selecting the number of turns Figure 64. Demonstration of Hall current sensing application that allows
for a toroid such as the one in figure 63A. mounting without disconnecting the conductor

Hall Switches as shown in figure 65.
Keep the flux density in the 100 to 200 G range for a trip point. With this bobbin-bracket configuration, it is possible to measure
Devices can be supplied with a narrow distribution of magnetic currents in the low milliampere range or to replace a relay using
parameters within this range. For example, to turn the Hall switch a Hall switch. To activate a Hall switch at 10 mA (±20%), using
on at 10 A: a device with a 200 G (±40 G) operate point, bobbin windings
N = 300 G / (6 G/A × 10 A) = 5 turns require:
N = 200 G / (6 G/A × 0.01 A) = 3333 turns
Hall Linears
It would be practical to tweak the air gap for final, more precise
It is preferrable to have flux density above 100 G to maximize the
calibration. In all cases, be careful not to stress the package.
output signal/quiescent output drift ratio. The quiescent output
drift for ratiometric sensor ICs is typically 0.2 mV/°C, while the
Other Applications For Linear Sensor ICs
sensitivity temperature coefficient is typically 0.02%/°C. Some
Allegro devices allow the sensitivity and/or quiescent output drift Hall-effect linear sensor ICs are used primarily to sense relatively
to be customized for a specific application. For a current list of small changes in magnetic field—changes too small to operate a
Allegro linear ICs, visit http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Prod- Hall-effect switching device. They are customarily capacitively
ucts/Magnetic-Linear-And-Angular-Position-Sensor-ICs/Linear- coupled to an amplifier, which boosts the output to a higher level.
Position-Sensor-ICs.aspx. As motion detectors, gear tooth sensor ICs, and proximity detec-
For low-current applications in which many turns are required, tors (figure 66), they are magnetically driven mirrors of mechani-
wind a bobbin, slip it over a core, and complete the magnetic cal events. As sensitive monitors of electromagnets, they can
circuit through the Hall device with a bracket-shaped pole piece, effectively measure system performance with negligible system
loading while providing isolation from contaminated and electri-
cally noisy environments.
Hall device
Each Hall-effect integrated circuit includes a Hall element, linear
amplifier, and emitter-follower output stage. Problems associated
Pole piece
with handling tiny analog signals are minimized by having the
(concentrator) Coil Hall element and amplifier on a single chip.
The output null (quiescent) voltage is nominally one-half the
supply voltage. A south magnetic pole presented to the branded
face of the Hall-effect sensor IC will drive the output higher than
Core the null voltage level. A north magnetic pole will drive the output
below the null level.
Figure 65. Demonstration of Hall current sensing application using a coil In operation, instantaneous and proportional output-voltage levels
for low-amperage circuits
Branded face
Branded face
Figure 66. Examples of application of Hall devices for monitoring mechanical events: (left) north pole adjacent to sense the absence of ferrous material,
(right) south pole adjacent to sense the presence of ferrous material

are dependent on magnetic-flux density at the most sensitive area +V
N
of the device. Greatest sensitivity is obtained with the highest S 1 µF
470 kΩ
1 kΩ Load
supply voltage allowed, but at the cost of increased supply cur- +5 V
rent and a slight loss of output symmetry. The sensor IC output is Output
470 Ω
usually capacitively coupled to an amplifier that boosts the output Ground 10 kΩ
above the millivolt level.

In the two applications shown in figures 67 and 68, permanent
bias magnets are attached with epoxy glue to the back of the
epoxy packages. The presence of ferrous material at the face of Figure 67. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect
the package then acts as a flux concentrator. presence of target
The south pole of a magnet is attached to the back face of the

package if the Hall-effect IC is to sense the presence of ferrous
material. The north pole of a magnet is attached to the back face S
+V
if the integrated circuit is to sense the absence of ferrous material. N
470 kΩ
22 µF 2.2 kΩ Load
+5 V
Calibrated linear Hall devices, which can be used to determine
470 Ω
the actual flux density presented to the sensor IC in a particular Output
10 kΩ
Ground
application, are available.
Ferrous Metal Detectors

Two similar detector designs are illustrated in figures 69 and 70. Figure 68. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect
The first senses the presence of a ferrous metal; the other senses absence of target
an absence of the metal. The two sensing modes are accom-
plished simply by reversing the magnet poles relative to the sen-
sor IC. The pole of the magnet is affixed to the unbranded side of +V
N
the package in both cases. 470 kΩ
S 22 µF 2.2 kΩ Load
Frequency response characteristics of this circuit are easily con- +5 V
trolled by changing the value of the input decoupling capacitor Output
470 Ω
for the low-frequency breakpoint. If high-frequency attenuation is Ground 10 kΩ
required, a capacitor can be used to shunt the feedback resistor.
Metal Sensor IC The north pole of the magnet is affixed to the
back side of a linear sensor IC . The device is in contact with the
bottom of a 2.4 mm epoxy board. An output change (decrease) is
produced as a 25 mm steel ball rolls over the device. This signal Figure 69. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect the
presence of a ferromagnetic target
is amplified and inverted by the operational amplifier and drives
the NPN transistor on.
Notch Sensor IC The south pole of the magnet is fixed to the S
+V
backside of a linear sensor IC . The sensor IC is 0.8 mm from N
470 kΩ
1 µF 1 kΩ Load
the edge of a steel rotor. A 1.6 mm wide by 3.2 mm deep slot +5 V
in the rotor edge passing the sensor IC causes an output change 470 Ω
Output
(decrease). This signal is amplified and inverted by the opera- Ground 10 kΩ
tional amplifier and drives the NPN transistor on.
Note that, in both examples, the branded side of the sensor IC
faces the material (or lack of material) to be sensed. In both
cases, the presence (or absence) of the ferrous metal changes
the flux density at the Hall-effect sensor IC so as to produce a Figure 70. Typical external back-biasing application circuit to detect the
negative-going output pulse. The pulse is inverted by the ampli- absence of a ferromagnetic target
fier to drive the transistor on.

Printer Application Sensitivity is so great in this configuration that the output signal
The assembly in figure 71 senses lobes on a character drum. baseline quite closely tracks eccentricities in the drum. This
Lobes are spaced 4.8 mm apart around the circumference of the affects lobe resolution, but lobe position can still be measured.
drum; they are 6.4 mm wide, and have a depth of 0.3 to 0.4 mm
relative to the surface of the drum. Using Calibrated Devices
In this application, a Hall-effect linear sensor IC is back-biased The calibrated linear sensor IC is an accurate, easy-to-use tool for
with a magnet. The north pole is affixed to the back side of the measuring magnetic flux densities. Each device is individually
package. A flux concentrator is affixed to the branded face. calibrated and furnished with a calibration curve and sensitiv-
Although it does not provide a flux return path, the concentrator ity coefficient. Although calibration is performed in a north and
will focus the magnetic field through the switch. south 800 G field, the sensor IC is useful for measuring fields in
both polarities.
The concentrator, shown in figure 72, is aligned with the drum
lobe at an air gap distance of 0.254 mm. The output change is A closely regulated (±10 mV) power supply is necessary to
amplified to develop a 3 V output from the operational amplifier, preserve accuracy in calibrated flux measurements. An ambient
driving the transistor on, as illustrated in figure 73. temperature range of 21°C to 25°C must also be maintained.
0.381 mm MAX
0.254 mm
Concentrator
Magnet
S N
Branded face
Figure 71. Demonstration of printer drum monitoring application
+15 V
Ø0.8 mm S
1 MΩ
N 270 Ω
3.3 kΩ
3.2 mm +5 V
VCC
1 kΩ
Output
Ø1.6 mm
Ground 10 kΩ
Figure 72. Printer drum sensing application flux concentrator Figure 73. Printer drum typical application circuit

Connect the VCC pin to voltage VCC, GND pin to ground, and magnetic field is increased and decreased by moving the magnetic
the VOUT pin to a high-impedance voltmeter. Before use, the pole toward and away from the package face.
device should be powered up and allowed to stabilize for one maximum energy product (BHmax): the highest product of B and H
minute. from the demagnetization curve of a magnetic material. Given
The sensitivity coefficient can be used to calculate flux densities in gauss-oersteds × 106 (MGOe).
precisely. First, determine the null output voltage of the device maxwell (Mx): the CGS unit of total magnetic flux. One maxwell
under 0 G or null (quiescent) field condition. Then, read the out- equals 10–8 webers.
put of the device under an applied field condition by subjecting it oersteds (Oe): the CGS unit of magnetizing force. Equivalent to
to the flux in question. Magnetic flux density at the device can be gilberts per centimeter (gilberts/cm). One oersted equals 125.7
calculated by: ampere-turns per meter.
B = ( VOUT(B) – VOUT(Q) ) × 1000 / S planar Hall element: a Hall element that senses magnetic fields
perpendicular to die plane or packaging face.
where:
remnant induction (Bd): the magnetic induction that remains in a
VOUT(B) is the output voltage under the applied magnetic field, magnetic circuit after removal of an applied magnetomotive force.
in V, When there is no air gap in the magnetic circuit, remnant and
VOUT(Q) is the quiescent field output, in V, residual induction are equal. With an air gap, remnant induction
will be less than residual induction. Measured in gauss.
S is the sensitivity coefficient, in mV/G, and
residual induction (Br): the flux density remaining in a closed mag-
B is the magnetic flux density at the device, in G. netic circuit of magnetic material when the magnetizing force
adequate to saturate the material is reduced to zero. Measured
in gauss.
Glossary
slide-by: a method by which a Hall sensor IC is actuated. The mag-
active area: the site of the Hall element on the encapsulated IC chip. netic field is increased and decreased as a permanent magnet is
air gap: the distance from the face of the magnetic pole or target to moved laterally past the package face.
the face of the package. tesla (T): the mks unit of magnetic flux density. Equivalent to one
ampere-turn (NI): the mks unit of magnetomotive force. weber per square meter (Wb/m2). One tesla equals 104 gauss.
ampere-turns/meter (NI/m): the mks unit of magnetizing force. One toroid: a doughnut-shaped ring often composed of iron, steel, or
ampere-turn per meter equals 79.6 oersteds. ferrite.
bipolar: a method of operating a Hall sensor IC using both north total effective air gap (TEAG): the distance from the face of a mag-
and south magnetic poles. netic pole or target to the active area of a Hall-effect sensor IC.
coercive force (Hc): the demagnetizing force that must be applied unipolar: a method of operating a Hall sensor IC using a single
to reduce the magnetic flux density in a magnetic material to magnetic pole, usually the south pole.
zero; measured in oersteds. vane: any ferrous metal used to shunt a magnetic field away from
concentrator: any ferrous metal used to attract magnetic lines of force. the Hall sensor IC (at least 1.5 times the width of an associated
magnet).
gauss (G): the CGS unit of magnetic flux density. Equivalent to
one maxwell per square centimeter (Mx/cm2). One gauss equals vertical Hall element: a Hall element that senses magnetic fields
10–4 tesla. perpendicular to its sensitive edge (top, left, or right).
gilbert: the CGS unit of magnetomotive force. window: an opening in a vane at least 1.5 times the width of an
associated magnet.
head-on: a method by which the Hall sensor IC is actuated. The
Copyright ©1987-2016, Allegro MicroSystems, LLC

The information contained in this document does not constitute any representation, warranty, assurance, guaranty, or inducement by Allegro to the
customer with respect to the subject matter of this document. The information being provided does not guarantee that a process based on this infor-
mation will be reliable, or that Allegro has explored all of the possible failure modes. It is the customer’s responsibility to do sufficient qualification
testing of the final product to insure that it is reliable and meets all design requirements.
For the latest version of this document, visit our website:

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Hall-Effect IC Applications Guide

27701-AN, Rev. 3 October 31, 2016

Contents Rotor Design 21

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 2

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 3

Planar Hall Device Vertical Hall Device

Figure 8. Operation of a Hall-effect device is activated by the motion of a

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 4

Device Switch State

Output Voltage (V)

Figure 11. Test circuit for transfer characteristic charts

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 5

TEAG The Analysis

N S decrease with increasing distance from the magnet. The strength

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 6

0 Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor

Figure 12B. Demonstration of head-on mode of operation

0 Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor

0 Planar Hall Sensor Vertical Hall Sensor

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 7

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 8

Figure 17. Hall-effect device with open-collector output stage (illustration

VCC = +5 V VCC = +10 V

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 9

VCC = +12 V VCC = +12 V

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 10

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 11

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 12

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 13

VOUT Unipolar mode unit

VOUT Latch mode unit

VOUT Negative unipolar mode unit

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 14

Figure 26B. Demonstration of the bipolar latch characteristic, for use in

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 15

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 16

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 17

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 18

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 19

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 20

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 21

800 Magnetic slope =

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 22

Magnetic Flux Density, B (G)

Distance from Vane Leading Edge to Device/Magnet Centerline, D (mm)

Table 3. Key for Figure 38

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 23

25°C Initial timing uncertainty

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 24

(B) 25°C Release

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 25

The duty cycle is then:

a measured change of ±6 G. This translates into a change of: E2 A1232 E1

6 G × (1 Distributor Degree /125 G) = Pin 8 Pin 1

0.048 Distributor Degrees

Figure 42. Target Profiling During Operation – Mechanical Position (target

Allegro MicroSystems, LLC 26

Individual Calibration Techniques