Lecture Notes For DBMS

Set Operations
 union, intersect and except operations are set operations available in SQL.
 Relations participating in any of the set operation must be compatible; i.e. they must have
the same set of attributes.
 Union Operation:
o Find all customers having a loan, an account, or both at the bank
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
union
(select customer-name
from Borrower )
It will automatically eliminate duplicates.
o If we want to retain duplicates union all can be used
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
union all
(select customer-name
from Borrower )
 Intersect Operation
o Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
intersect
(select customer-name
from Borrower )
o If we want to retail all the duplicates
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
intersect all
(select customer-name
from Borrower )
 Except Opeartion
o Find all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
except
(select customer-name
from Borrower )
o If we want to retain the duplicates:
(select customer-name
from Depositor )
except all
(select customer-name
from Borrower )

Department of Computer Science By: Dipendra Air

Aggregate Functions
 Aggregate functions are those functions which take a collection of values as input and
return a single value.
 SQL offers 5 built in aggregate functions-
o Average: avg
o Minimum:min
o Maximum:max
o Total: sum
o Count:count
 The input to sum and avg must be a collection of numbers but others may have
collections of non-numeric data types as input as well
 Find the average account balance at the Sadar branch
select avg(balance)
from Account
where branch-name= “Sadar”
The result will be a table which contains single cell (one row and one column) having
numerical value corresponding to average balance of all account at sadar branch.
 group by clause is used to form groups, tuples with the same value on all attributes in
the group by clause are placed in one group.
 Find the average account balance at each branch
select branch-name, avg(balance)
from Account
group by branch-name
 By default the aggregate functions include the duplicates.
 distinct keyword is used to eliminate duplicates in an aggregate functions:
 Find the number of depositors for each branch
select branch-name, count(distinct customer-name)
from Depositor, Account
where Depositor.account-number = Account.account-number
group by branch-name
 having clause is used to state condition that applies to groups rather than tuples.
 Find the average account balance at each branch where average account balance is more
than Rs. 1200
select branch-name, avg(balance)
from Account
group by branch-name
having avg(balance) > 1200
 Count the number of tuples in Customer table
select count(*)
from Customer
 SQL doesn’t allow distinct with count(*)
 When where and having are both present in a statement where is applied before having.

Department of Computer Science By: Dipendra Air

Nested Subqueries
 A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query.
 Set Membership
o The in and not in connectives are used for this type of subquery.
o “Find all customers who have both a loan and an account at the bank”, this query
can be written using nested subquery form as follows
select distinct customer-name
from Borrower
where customer-name in(select customer-name
from Depositor )
o Select the names of customers who have a loan at the bank, and whose names are
neither “Smith” nor “Jones”
select distinct customer-name
from Borrower
where customer-name not in(“Smith”, “Jones”)
 Set Comparison
o Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than those of at least one
branch located in Mathura
select branch-name
from Branch
where asstets > some (select assets
from Branch
where branch-city = “Mathura” )
o Apart from > some others comparison could be < some , <= some , >= some ,
= some , < > some.
o Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than that of each branch
located in Mathura
select branch-name
from Branch
where asstets > all (select assets
from Branch
where branch-city = “Mathura” )
o Apart from > all others comparison could be < all , <= all , >= all , = all ,
< >all.

Department of Computer Science By: Dipendra Air