VDI-Buch

Andreas Küchler

High Voltage Engineering

Fundamentals · Technology · Applications
VDI-Buch
Andreas Küchler

High Voltage
Engineering
Fundamentals – Technology – Applications
Andreas Küchler
Schweinfurt, Germany

VDI-Buch
ISBN 978-3-642-11992-7 ISBN 978-3-642-11993-4  (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017941508

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Preface
The main task of high voltage engineering is to gain technological control of high electrical field
strengths and voltages. Their effects can impressively be observed in nature (or in a high voltage
laboratory) as “lightning and thunder phenomena” if the “insulation system consisting of air” is
failing. Formerly, historical authorities such as Zeus, Jupiter or Wotan have been responsible for
these natural forces and their risks. But now, the high voltage engineers guarantee for the safe and
reliable function of all electrical insulation systems. Only in this way, all the other technical appli-
cations of electricity are made available. In consequence, high voltage technology is both a key
technology for a wide spectrum of technical applications that are indispensable for the modern soci-
ety and a cross-sectional technology integrating different scientific disciplines. High voltage engi-
neering is a fascinating, challenging, interdisciplinary and multifaceted field of activity that will al-
ways be a prerequisite and essential support for the technical progress.

High voltages enable the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy at relatively
low currents and ohmic losses. The minimization of power loss preserves resources and reduces
emissions and it is therefore a prerequisite for secure, economical and eco-friendly electricity sup-
ply. Furthermore, high voltage and ultra-high voltage AC and DC networks are prerequisites for the
development of remote energy sources, for the large-area load balancing and for a transnational en-
ergy market. Additionally, high voltage technology has wide-ranging industrial applications, such
as for example X-ray devices, lasers, high efficiency light sources, lithotripters, shock wave gener-
ators, fragmentation devices, accelerators, transmitter tubes, copiers, electrostatic precipitator or
coating and enameling devices. Problems of high voltage engineering must also be tackled in power
electronics and for the electromobility, in the area of electromagnetic compatibility, in physical and
technological research, or in the field of high-temperature superconductivity. For all applications it
is common to choose high electrical field strengths on the one hand in order to ensure that the di-
mensions, weight, material usage, costs, losses and environmental pollution remain as low as possi-
ble. On the other hand,

the electric field stress must always be lower than

the dielectric strength of the insulating materials

so that discharges and a destructive breakdown can definitely be excluded. Between these poles, the
tasks of engineers are largely to implement economical and technically optimal system solutions.
For that purpose, high voltage engineers should be primarily wide ranging and practice oriented and
should have a theoretically sound overview.

The concept of the book consists of a systematic, coherent and comprehensive presentation of

fundamentals, technologies and applications.

For this purpose, high voltage engineering is classified into six main topics:

• Electrical stresses by fields and waves (Chapter 2)

• Dielectric strength of gases, liquids and solids (Chapter 3)
• Dielectric system characteristics of insulating materials (Chapter 4)
• Insulating materials and their technology (Chapter 5)
• Testing, measurement and diagnosis (Chapter 6)
• Typical insulation systems for different types of stresses (Chapter 7).
VI Preface

Already the basic Chapters 2, 3 and 4 include practical examples, applications, notes and exercises.
Also the description of technologies and applications in the Chapters 5, 6 and 7 is always related to
the fundamentals. Special emphasis is laid on the presentation of scientific and practical contexts as
well as on clarity in words and illustrations. A comprehensive keyword index and an extensive bib-
liography shall facilitate access to special issues and to further sources for the reader.

The book is therefore suitable both for the initial training of high voltage engineering in class-room
studies or private studies and for the deeper guidance to specific areas and to specialist technical lit-
erature. It is intended to be useful as a workbook in academia and in the professional work.

This edition of “High Voltage Engineering” is equivalent to the fourth edition of the German refer-
ence book “Hochspannungstechnik”, and for the first time it is also published in English language.
For more than 20 years, the previous German editions are widely used by undergraduate and post-
graduate students, engineers, scientists, universities, manufacturers, service companies and utilities.
In 1996 the first edition was initially developed from the author’s lectures at the University of Ap-
plied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt. The new editions in 2004, 2009 and 2017 were always stim-
ulated by strong interests of the readership. In each case, comprehensive revisions, adaptions to the
state of the art, stronger involvements of application subjects and inclusions of new and innovative
topics were made.

Therefore, the English edition includes numerous improvements in details and many extensions
and new features being related to the great actual challenges in high voltage engineering. For
example, ultra-high voltage AC and DC transmission with voltages of more than 1,000 kV, DC
cable runs with more than 500 kV, switchgear with alternative insulating gases and transformers
with alternative insulating liquids are built. That’s why the sections about insulation systems for
high voltagc DC transmission in Chapter 7 were fundamentally revised and much expanded,
regarding stresses, dielectric strength and design for DC voltages and with regard to transformers,
bushings, cables and fittings for HVDC. This is supplemented in Chapter 3 and 6 by sections about
the generation and evaluation of partial discharges at DC voltage. Additional current topics are the
introduction of so-called “alternative” climate-friendly insulating gases instead of SF6 and the use
of so-called “alternative” eco-friendly insulating liquids instead of minearal oil. Revisions have
also been made in the sections about the conduction behavior and the dielectric behavior of solid
and liquid dielectrics (Chapter 4), about the oscillating behavior during impulse voltage tests
(Chapter 6) and about transformer testing (Chapter 7). On the suggestion of renowned expert
colleagues, it is finally proposed in Chapter 3 that the term “electronegativity”, which is commonly
used in high voltage engineering, should be replaced by the term “electron affinity”.

At various places in the text, references to new technical regulations and standards are also made.
This is, however, possible only in extracts or examples, according to the current but impermanent
status of standardization. The reader must finally consult the appropriate valid and updated regula-
tions and standards directly. The limited space of the book naturally necessitates also intense
abridgement of many contents and a very subjective compromise between completeness and depth.
I therefore request all experts to be lenient towards the author if they find their special subject to be
inadequately dealt with. I hand over this book to the reader, with a request for comments and
suggestions which are always welcome. Please contact [email protected].

Now, my personal recommendation would be “to read with a pen”, that is, to understand the exam-
ples, exercises and field plots through own calculations and to delve into interesting topics through
Preface VII

written side notes and extracts. Useful supplements for this could be a mathematical formulary and
textbooks on experimental physics, basic electromagnetic theory or material sciences.

Many expert colleagues and friends have supported me during the creation of the first three Ger-
man editions. As I could already express my gratitude for their help in these preceding editions, I
now want to thank all direct and indirect supporters who were the prerequisite for the fourth Ger-
man edition and for the first Englisch edition of “High Voltage Engineering” in the present form.

With many colleagues from universities I could conduct an intensive scientific discourse, for which
I would like to give my thanks to the professors Dr. R. Bärsch, Dr. F. Berger, Dr. G. Chen, Dr. Ch.
Frank, Dr. S. Grossmann, Dr. S. Gubanski, Dr. V. Hinrichsen, Dr. F. Jenau, Dr. M. Koch, Dr. J.
Kindersberger, Dr. M. Liebschner, Dr. H. Okubo, Dr. R. Patsch, Dr. R. Plath, Dr. K. Rethmeier, Dr.
M. Rossner, Dr. S. Tenbohlen, Dr. W. S. Zaengl (†) and Dr. M.H. Zink.

Furthermore, my sincere thanks go to Dr. I. Atanasova-Höhlein, Dr. K. Backhaus, S. Bhumiwat, M.

Chmielewski, Dr. W. Exner, S. Eyring, Dr. J. Fabian, Dr. R. Färber, R. Fritsche, Dr. J. Fuhr, Dr. W.
Hauschild, A. Hopf, M. Hörmann, Dr. Ch. Hurm, Dr. S. Jaufer, Dr. U. Kaltenborn, Ch. Krause, Dr.
M. Krüger, N. Kurda, A. Langens, Dr. C. Leu, L. Lundgaard, M. Pegelau, Dr. R. Pietsch, Dr. U.
Piovan, B. Preidecker, Dr. U. Prucker, K. Rädlinger, M. Rösner, J. Roßmann, Dr. J. Schiessling, B.
Schlittler, Ph. Schmitt, T. Schnitzer, J. Seiler, B. Spatta, Dr. J. Speck, Th. Steiner, J. Titze and E.
Zerr for many expert discussions and suggestions. I am also grateful to the companies that
contributed to the preparation of the editions by photographic material and professional exchange.

The University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt (FHWS) and the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering provided a sound scientific basis for this publication by the implementation of high
voltage engineering in teaching and research. And of course, my students have been a great help
owing to their questions, contributions and theses. Important scientific and professional support was
also given by our current and former staff members M. Fell, S. Harrer, B. Hochbrückner, F.
Hüllmandel, F. Klauer, H.-P. Öftering, A. Reumann, Dr. F. Schober, S. Sturm, F. Swobodnik and I.
Wirth. I am also very grateful for that.

Furthermore, Omicron Electronics GmbH and B. Walker deserve very high recognition and reward
for the great assistance in translating from German to English.

Finally, special thanks go to Ms. S. Bromby, to Mr. Th. Lehnert and to Springer-Verlag GmbH for
editing the book, for great patience and understanding and for very good cooperation.

Last but not least, these thanks also include my family. My sons Florian and Sebastian could pro-
vide valuable tips from the students’ perspective. Also my parents Ursula and Johannes contributed
significantly to the development of the work because of their continuous encouragement and per-
manent support. Nevertheless, the realization of the edition was primarily achieved due to the great
understanding, the strong backing and the enormous patience of my wife Christiane.

Schweinfurt and Hammelburg, March 2017

Andreas Küchler
Contents

Preface …………………………………………………………………………………… V

Contents ……………………………………………………………………………….. IX

Symbols and Abbreviations ………………………………………………………… XIX

1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1
1.1 The Function of High Voltage Technology ............................................................................ 1
1.2 Applications of High Voltage Technology.............................................................................. 1
1.3 Perspectives of High Voltage Engineering ............................................................................. 2
1.4 Overview ................................................................................................................................... 3

2 ELECTRIC STRESSES .....................................................................................................5

2.1 Basic Field Theory.................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Field Quantities ................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Equipotential Lines, Potential, Voltage and Capacitance ................................................. 7
2.1.3 Maxwell’s Equations......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.3.1 Maxwell’s Main Field Equations 10
2.1.3.2 Maxwell’s Continuity Equations 10
2.1.3.3 Material Equations 12
2.1.4 Classification of Fields.................................................................................................... 13
2.1.4.1 Static and Stationary Fields 14
2.1.4.2 Quasi-stationary (Inductive) Fields in Conductors 15
2.1.4.3 Quasi-stationary/ Quasi-static (Capacitive) Displacement Fields in Dielectrics 17
2.1.4.4 Non-stationary, Time-varying Fields (Electromagnetic Waves) 20
2.2 Electrical Stresses in High Voltage Engineering ................................................................. 21
2.2.1 DC Voltage Stress ........................................................................................................... 22
2.2.2 AC Voltage Stress ........................................................................................................... 23
2.2.3 Switching Impulse Voltage Stress (“Internal Overvoltages”) ........................................ 25
2.2.4 Lightning Impulse Voltage Stress (“External Overvoltages”) ........................................ 25
2.2.5 Fast-rising Impulse Stresses (“Fast Transients”) ............................................................ 26
2.2.6 Mixed-field Stresses ........................................................................................................ 28
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics ................................... 29
2.3.1 Analytic Evaluation of the Continuity Equation (Gauss’s Law) ................................... 30
2.3.1.1 General Calculation Method 30
X Contents

2.3.1.2 Spherically Symmetric Fields 31

2.3.1.3 Cylindrically Symmetric Fields 33
2.3.1.4 Uniform (Homogeneous) Fields 37
2.3.1.5 Field Distortions by Space Charges 38
2.3.2 Analytic Solution of Poisson’s Equation ........................................................................ 39
2.3.3 Graphical Field Mapping (for Plane Fields) .................................................................. 40
2.3.4 Conformal Mapping (for Plane Fields) ........................................................................... 44
2.3.5 Charge Simulation Method ............................................................................................. 48
2.3.5.1 Conducting Spheres (Point Charges) 48
2.3.5.2 Field between Two Conducting Spheres (Sphere-to-sphere Gap) 54
2.3.5.3 Parallel Line Charges 58
2.3.5.4 Fields in the Vicinity of Cylindrical Conductors 60
2.3.6 Similarity Relations, Field Efficiency Factor (Schwaiger’s Utilization Factor) ............. 71
2.3.7 Measurement of Stationary Conduction Fields .............................................................. 74
2.3.7.1 Analogy between Dielectric Displacement Field and Static Conduction Field 75
2.3.7.2 Measurements on Semi-conductive Paper (“Resistive Paper”) 75
2.3.7.3 Measurements in Semi-conductive Liquids (“Electrolytic Tank”) 76
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics ................................ 76
2.4.1 Conductivity and Polarization ......................................................................................... 77
2.4.1.1 Conductivity 77
2.4.1.2 Polarization 78
2.4.2 Multi-dielectric Arrangements ........................................................................................ 81
2.4.2.1 Boundary Conditions at Interfaces 81
2.4.2.2 Interface Orthogonal (Normal) to the Field („Field Displacement“) 82
2.4.2.3 Interface Parallel to the Field (Tangential Interface) 84
2.4.2.4 Interface Inclined (at an Angle) to the Field (“Refraction Law”) 85
2.4.3 Analytical Calculation of Multilayer Dielectric Arrangements ...................................... 86
2.4.3.1 Plane, Cylindrically Symmetric and Spherically Symmetric Multi-layer Arrangements 87
2.4.3.2 Gaps and Cracks 92
2.4.3.3 Interstices (Triple-Points) 93
2.4.3.4 Dielectric Cavities and Spheres 97
2.4.3.5 Electric Forces at Interfaces 98
2.4.4 Direct Voltage and Transients......................................................................................... 99
2.4.4.1 Analogies to the Dielectric Displacement Field 99
2.4.4.2 Typical DC fields 102
2.4.4.3 Transient Processes 105
2.4.5 Field Grading at Interfaces ............................................................................................ 110
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation ............................................................................................... 113
2.5.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 113
2.5.2 Charge Simulation Method ........................................................................................... 115
2.5.3 Finite Difference Method .............................................................................................. 116
2.5.4 Finite Element Method.................................................................................................. 119
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves ................................................................ 124
2.6.1 Guided TEM Wave ....................................................................................................... 125
2.6.2 Reflection Processes ..................................................................................................... 129
2.6.2.1 Basics 129
2.6.2.2 Equivalent transmission-line circuit 131
2.6.2.3 Multiple Reflections 132
2.6.3 Examples ....................................................................................................................... 135
2.6.3.1 Gas-Insulated Switchgear (“Fast Transients”) 135
2.6.3.2 Protection Zone of a Lightning Arrester 137
2.6.3.3 Traveling-Wave Generators (Transmission-Line Generators) 138
Contents XI

3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH ...............................................................................................141

3.1 Introduction to Statistics ..................................................................................................... 141
3.1.1 Statistical Descriptions of Discharge Processes............................................................ 141
3.1.1.1 Random Variables 141
3.1.1.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions 142
3.1.1.3 Parameter Estimation 144
3.1.1.4 Example: Series of Measurements 145
3.1.2 Description of Discharge Processes by Distribution Functions .................................... 147
3.1.2.1 Comparison of Empirical and Theoretical Distribution Functions 147
3.1.2.2 Gaussian Normal Distribution 148
3.1.2.3 Weibull Distribution 150
3.1.2.4 Parameter Estimation 153
3.1.3 Statistical Size Effects ................................................................................................... 153
3.1.4 Correlation and Regression, Lifetime-stress Relationship ............................................ 157
3.2 Gas Discharges...................................................................................................................... 159
3.2.1 Gas Discharge Characteristics ...................................................................................... 159
3.2.1.1 Non-self-sustained and Self-sustaining Discharge 159
3.2.1.2 Gas Discharge Characteristic, Operating Points 160
3.2.1.3 Manifestations of Gas Discharges 162
3.2.2 Space-charge-free Discharge in a Uniform Field (Townsend and Paschen) ............... 164
3.2.2.1 Townsend’s Ignition Condition (Avalanche generations, Townsend Mechanism) 165
3.2.2.2 Ionization and Attachment 169
3.2.2.3 Electron Affinity and Electronegativity 173
3.2.2.4 Paschen’s Law 174
3.2.3 Space-charge-dominated Discharge, Streamer Discharge ............................................ 180
3.2.4 Impulse and High-frequency Breakdown ..................................................................... 183
3.2.4.1 Statistical and Formative Time Lag (Discharge Delay) 183
3.2.4.2 Voltage-time Characteristics 186
3.2.4.3 High-frequency Breakdown 187
3.2.5 Discharges in Non-uniform Fields ................................................................................ 188
3.2.5.1 Pre-discharges and Breakdown 188
3.2.5.2 Polarity Effect 189
3.2.5.3 Corona Inception, Pre-Discharges 192
3.2.5.4 Breakdown Voltages 194
3.2.5.5 Impact of Different Parameters 196
3.2.6 Surface Discharges ........................................................................................................ 199
3.2.6.1 Arrangements with Surfaces 199
3.2.6.2 Ignition of Surface Discharges 200
3.2.6.3 Development of Surface Discharges 202
3.2.6.4 Pollution Flashover 203
3.2.7 Spark, Arc and Lightning Discharges ........................................................................... 206
3.2.7.1 Spark discharge 206
3.2.7.2 Arc Discharge 208
3.2.7.3 Lightning Discharges 211
3.2.7.4 “Ball Lightning” 215
3.3 Discharges in Liquid and Solid Dielectrics ........................................................................ 215
3.4 Discharges in Liquids ........................................................................................................... 217
3.4.1 Discharge Mechanisms in Mineral Oil ......................................................................... 217
3.4.1.1 Stages of Oil Breakdown 218
3.4.1.2 The Liquid before Ignition 220
3.4.1.3 Initial Processes 222
3.4.1.4 Discharge Propagation 226
3.4.2 Important Parameters Influencing Breakdown in Mineral Oil ..................................... 231
XII Contents

3.4.2.1 Water and Pollution 231

3.4.2.2 Temperature Dependence 233
3.4.2.3 Pressure Dependence 234
3.4.2.4 Barriers and Insulated Electrodes, Dependence on Gap Width 234
3.4.2.5 Time Dependences, Time Factors 236
3.4.3 Partial Discharges (PD) in Mineral Oil ......................................................................... 238
3.4.4 Other Insulating Liquids ............................................................................................... 239
3.5 Discharges in Solids.............................................................................................................. 240
3.5.1 Electrical Breakdown .................................................................................................... 241
3.5.2 Thermal Breakdown ...................................................................................................... 242
3.5.3 Ageing, Erosion Breakdown and Lifetime ................................................................... 246
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) ....................................................................................................... 249
3.6.1 Causes of Partial Discharges ......................................................................................... 249
3.6.1.1 Corona Discharges 250
3.6.1.2 Internal Partial Discharges at AC Voltage 251
3.6.1.3 Internal Partial Discharges at DC Voltage 254
3.6.1.4 Surface Discharges 255
3.6.2 Sources of Partial Discharges ....................................................................................... 256
3.6.2.1 Sources of Partial Discharges in Gases 256
3.6.2.2 Sources of Partial Discharges in Liquids 256
3.6.2.3 Sources of Partial Discharges in Solids 257
3.6.3 Classical Interpretation of Partial Discharges ............................................................... 258
3.6.3.1 Classical Interpretation of Partial Discharges for AC Voltage 258
3.6.3.2 Interpretation of Partial Discharges for DC Voltage 262
3.7 Vacuum Breakdown............................................................................................................. 263
3.7.1 Physical Process ............................................................................................................ 263
3.7.2 Technical Strengths ....................................................................................................... 265
3.7.3 Applications .................................................................................................................. 266

4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................269

4.1 Polarization in the Time and Frequency Domain ............................................................. 269
4.1.1 Description in the Time Domain ................................................................................... 269
4.1.2 Description in the Frequency Domain .......................................................................... 272
4.2 Dielectric Parameters ........................................................................................................... 272
4.2.1 Permittivity Hr ................................................................................................................ 273
4.2.1.1 Polarization Mechanisms 273
4.2.1.2 Frequency Dependence (Dispersion) 274
4.2.1.3 Temperature Dependence 275
4.2.1.4 Field Strength Dependence 276
4.2.1.5 Mixed Dielectrics 276
4.2.2 ConductivityN................................................................................................................ 276
4.2.2.1 Conductivity in Gases 277
4.2.2.2 Conductivity in Liquids 277
4.2.2.3 Conductivitiy in Solids 279
4.2.2.4 Influence of Field Strength and Temperature 281
4.2.3 Loss or Dissipation Factor tan G ................................................................................... 282
4.2.4 Complex Permittivity .................................................................................................... 284
4.3 Description of Dielectrics ..................................................................................................... 287
4.3.1 Classic Parallel and Series Equivalent Circuits ............................................................ 287
4.3.2 Description of Dielectric Material Properties ............................................................... 289
Contents XIII

4.3.2.1 Linear Polarization Equivalent Circuit for Solid Materials 290

4.3.2.2 Dependence on Temperature 291
4.3.2.3 Drift, Diffusion and Injection in Liquids 293
4.3.3 Description of Geometrical Properties .......................................................................... 296
4.3.3.1 Maxwell’s Two-layer Model 296
4.3.3.2 Simple Layered Arrangements 298
4.3.3.3 Complex Geometries 298

5 INSULATING MATERIALS ........................................................................................301

5.1 Gases ...................................................................................................................................... 301
5.1.1 Air ................................................................................................................................. 302
5.1.2 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) ............................................................................................. 302
5.1.3 Alternative Insulating Gases ......................................................................................... 304
5.2 Inorganic Solid Insulating Materials .................................................................................. 306
5.2.1 Porcelain and Ceramics ................................................................................................. 306
5.2.2 Glass .............................................................................................................................. 308
5.2.3 Mica Products ............................................................................................................... 309
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics ................................................................................................ 309
5.3.1 Reactions of Formation and Cross-linking ................................................................... 310
5.3.2 Thermoplastic Insulating Materials .............................................................................. 311
5.3.2.1 Polyethylene (PE and XLPE) 311
5.3.2.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 313
5.3.2.3 Polypropylene (PP) 314
5.3.2.4 High-temperature Resistant Thermoplastics 315
5.3.2.5 Polyamides (PA) and Aramides 315
5.3.2.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 316
5.3.2.7 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), Acrylic Glass 316
5.3.3 Thermosetting Materials and Elastomers ...................................................................... 317
5.3.3.1 Epoxy Resins (EP) 317
5.3.3.2 Polyurethanes (PU) 322
5.3.3.3 Phenolic Resin and Resin-bonded Paper (RBP) 323
5.3.3.4 Elastomers and Shrinkable Sleevings 324
5.3.4 Silicones ........................................................................................................................ 325
5.3.4.1 Properties of Silicones 325
5.3.4.2 Hydrophobic Insulators 326
5.3.4.3 Other Applications of Silicones 329
5.3.5 Nano-dielectrics ............................................................................................................ 330
5.3.5.1 Introduction 330
5.3.5.2 Principle of Nanostructuring 331
5.3.5.3 Dielectric Properties 331
5.3.5.4 Applications 332
5.4 Insulating Liquids ................................................................................................................ 333
5.4.1 Technology of Insulating Liquids ................................................................................. 333
5.4.2 Mineral Oil .................................................................................................................... 334
5.4.3 Synthetic Insulating Liquids ......................................................................................... 337
5.4.3.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) 337
5.4.3.2 Silicone Liquids ("Silicone Oils") 337
5.4.3.3 Other Organic Liquids 338
5.4.4 Vegetable Oils and “Natural Ester Liquids” ................................................................. 339
5.4.4.1 Vegetable Oils 340
5.4.4.2 Natural Ester Liquids 340
5.4.5 Water ............................................................................................................................. 341
XIV Contents

5.4.6 Liquefied Gases............................................................................................................. 342

5.5 Fibrous Materials ................................................................................................................. 345
5.5.1 Paper and Pressboard .................................................................................................... 345
5.5.1.1 Electric Strength 345
5.5.1.2 Dielectric Properties, Moisture and Ageing 346
5.5.1.3 Condition Assessment 349
5.5.1.4 Manufacture and Processing 349
5.5.2 Synthetic Fibrous Materials .......................................................................................... 354

6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS .............................................................355

6.1 Quality Assurance ................................................................................................................ 355
6.1.1 Quality Assurance Systems ........................................................................................... 355
6.1.2 Certification and Accreditation ..................................................................................... 356
6.1.3 Calibration ..................................................................................................................... 356
6.1.4 Insulation Coordination................................................................................................. 358
6.1.4.1 Principle of Insulation Coordination 358
6.1.4.2 High Voltage Tests 362
6.1.4.3 Surge Arresters 363
6.2 Generation of High Voltages ............................................................................................... 365
6.2.1 Generation of AC Voltages ........................................................................................... 367
6.2.1.1 Principles of Generation 367
6.2.1.2 Test Transformers 368
6.2.1.3 Cascade Arrangement 370
6.2.1.4 Capacitive Voltage Rise in Transformers 371
6.2.1.5 Series Resonance Test Systems 373
6.2.1.6 Requirements for Test Voltages in Laboratories and On-site 376
6.2.2 Generation of DC Voltages ........................................................................................... 379
6.2.2.1 High-voltage Rectifier 380
6.2.2.2 Rectifier Circuits 380
6.2.2.3 Switched-mode Power Supplies 383
6.2.2.4 Electrostatic Generators 384
6.2.3 Generation of Impulse Voltages ................................................................................... 386
6.2.3.1 Impulse Voltage Waveforms 386
6.2.3.2 Single-stage Impulse Voltage Generators 389
6.2.3.3 Multi-stage Impulse Voltage Generators 391
6.2.3.4 Overshoot and Back Swing 394
6.2.3.5 Impulse-current Generators 396
6.2.3.6 Combined Test Circuits 397
6.2.3.7 Special Impulse Generators 398
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques ............................................................................ 401
6.3.1 Measuring Spark Gaps .................................................................................................. 401
6.3.1.1 Sphere-to-sphere Spark Gap 401
6.3.1.2 Rod-to-rod Spark Gap 404
6.3.2 Electrostatic Voltmeter ................................................................................................. 405
6.3.3 Field Sensors ................................................................................................................. 406
6.3.3.1 Electrically Short Sensors 406
6.3.3.2 Electrically Long Sensors 407
6.3.3.3 Potential-free Probes 407
6.3.3.4 Generator-mode Sensors (“Field Mills”) 407
6.3.3.5 Electro-optical and Magneto-optical Field Sensors 408
6.3.4 Voltage Dividers ........................................................................................................... 412
6.3.4.1 Response Characteristic 412
6.3.4.2 Divider Designs 413
Contents XV

6.3.4.3 Stray Capacitances 416

6.3.4.4 Low-voltage Arms 417
6.3.4.5 Coupling Circuits 418
6.3.5 Instrument Transformers ............................................................................................... 419
6.3.5.1 Voltage Transformers 419
6.3.5.2 Current Transformers 420
6.3.6 Measurements of R.m.s. Value, Peak Value and Harmonics ....................................... 422
6.3.7 Current Measurement .................................................................................................... 424
6.3.8 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) ......................................................................... 425
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring ................................................................................................... 426
6.4.1 Dielectric Measurements............................................................................................... 426
6.4.1.1 Dissipation Factor and Capacitance 426
6.4.1.2 Insulation Resistance, Conductivity 429
6.4.1.3 Dielectric System Response 431
6.4.2 Partial Discharge (PD) Measurement and Diagnosis .................................................... 433
6.4.2.1 Partial Discharge Measurement Circuit 434
6.4.2.2 Apparent Charge, Partial Discharge Energy 435
6.4.2.3 Sensitivity and Calibration 437
6.4.2.4 Signal Processing and Signal Evaluation 438
6.4.2.5 Interference-free measurement 441
6.4.2.6 Partial Discharge Diagnosis 443
6.4.2.7 Synchronous Multi-channel Partial Discharge Measurement 447
6.4.2.8 UHF Partial discharge Diagnosis 452
6.4.2.9 Non-electrical Methods of Partial Discharge Diagnosis 453
6.4.3 Chemical Analyses ........................................................................................................ 454
6.4.3.1 Determination of Water Content 454
6.4.3.2 Gas-in-oil Analysis 455
6.4.3.3 High-pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 460
6.4.3.4 Determination of Degree of Polymerization of Cellulose 461
6.4.4 Insulating Material Tests ............................................................................................... 461
6.4.4.1 Dielectric Measurements 461
6.4.4.2 Breakdown measurements 461
6.4.4.3 Creepage Currents and Tracking Resistance 464
6.4.4.4 Arc Resistance 465
6.4.4.5 Additional Tests for Insulating Materials 466
6.4.5 Optical and Acoustic Diagnosis Methods ..................................................................... 466
6.4.5.1 Optical Waveguides 466
6.4.5.2 Visual Diagnostics 467
6.4.5.3 Acoustic Diagnostics 467
6.4.6 Determination of System Properties ............................................................................. 468
6.4.6.1 Impulse-current Waveshapes 468
6.4.6.2 Transfer Functions, Frequency Response Analysis FRA 468
6.4.6.3 Frequency Response Measurements 470
6.4.6.4 Reflectometry 470
6.4.7 Dielectric Diagnosis ...................................................................................................... 470
6.4.7.1 Time and Frequency Domain 471
6.4.7.2 Selective Measurements 472
6.4.7.3 Discharge-voltage Measurement 474
6.4.7.4 IRC Analysis 474
6.4.7.5 Recovery Voltage Analysis 475
6.4.7.6 PDC Analysis 477
6.4.7.7 Frequency Domain Analysis 485
6.4.7.8 Dielectric Diagnosis in Time Domain and Frequency Domain 486
6.4.8 Online monitoring ......................................................................................................... 487
6.4.8.1 Monitoring of Transformers 488
6.4.8.2 Monitoring of Bushings 490
XVI Contents

6.4.8.3 Monitoring of Rotating Machines 492

6.4.8.4 Monitoring of XLPE Cables and Fittings 493
6.4.8.5 Monitoring Other Equipment 494

7 APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................................497
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages ..................................................................... 497
7.1.1 Cables and Accessories ................................................................................................. 497
7.1.1.1 Paper-insulated Cables 497
7.1.1.2 Plastic-insulated Cables 499
7.1.1.3 Gas-insulated Lines (GIL) 501
7.1.1.4 Cable Accessories (Cable Fittings) 501
7.1.1.5 Testing Cable Systems 505
7.1.2 Bushings ........................................................................................................................ 507
7.1.2.1 Field Grading or Potential Grading 508
7.1.2.2 Calculation of Capacitive Grading 508
7.1.2.3 Designs 510
7.1.3 Transformers ................................................................................................................. 512
7.1.3.1 Oil-filled Transformers and Dry-type Transformers, Reactors 513
7.1.3.2 Windings and On-load Tap Changer 514
7.1.3.3 Design of Oil-board Insulation 517
7.1.3.4 Manufacture 524
7.1.3.5 Transformer Testing 525
7.1.3.6 Operation, Diagnosis and Maintenance 533
7.1.4 Capacitors...................................................................................................................... 537
7.1.4.1 Structure of the Dielectric 537
7.1.4.2 Drying and Impregnation 538
7.1.4.3 Capacitor Designs 539
7.1.4.4 Measuring Capacitors 539
7.1.5 Circuit-breakers ............................................................................................................. 540
7.1.5.1 Development of Switching Devices 540
7.1.5.2 SF6 Compressed-gas Circuit-Breaker 541
7.1.5.3 Vacuum Circuit-breaker 544
7.1.6 Electrical Machines ....................................................................................................... 546
7.1.6.1 Low-voltage Motors 547
7.1.6.2 Machines for High Powers 548
7.1.6.3 Cable Generators, Cable Machines 551
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages ..................................................................... 552
7.2.1 Electrical Stess, Strength and Design for DC Voltage.................................................. 552
7.2.1.1 Dielectric Stresses at DC Voltage 553
7.2.1.2 Dielectric Strength at DC Voltage 553
7.2.1.3 Dielectric Properties of Materials 554
7.2.1.4 Design of Insulation Systems for DC Voltage 559
7.2.2 Capacitors for Direct Voltage (DC Capacitors) ............................................................ 560
7.2.3 HVDC Transformers ..................................................................................................... 561
7.2.3.1 Dielectric Stresses 561
7.2.3.2 AC and Steady-state DC Voltage Stresses 564
7.2.3.3 Stresses during Voltage Variations 567
7.2.3.4 Transition Processes (Transients) 568
7.2.4 HVDC Bushings ........................................................................................................... 571
7.2.4.1 Internal Insulation 571
7.2.4.2 External Insulation 572
7.2.5 HVDC Cables and Accessories..................................................................................... 574
7.2.5.1 DC Cables 574
7.2.5.2 Paper-insulated HVDC Cables 576
7.2.5.3 Plastic-insulated HVDC Cables 576
Contents XVII

7.2.5.4 Emerging HVDC Cable Technologies 578

7.2.5.5 HVDC Cable Accessories 578
7.2.5.6 HVDC Cable Testing 580
7.2.6 High-frequency Chopped DC Voltages ........................................................................ 580
7.2.6.1 Applications 580
7.2.6.2 Insulation Problems 581
7.2.6.3 Test Techniques 581
7.3 Typical Insulation Systems for Impulse Voltages ............................................................. 581
7.3.1 Electrical Stress and Strength ....................................................................................... 581
7.3.2 Energy Storage .............................................................................................................. 582
7.3.3 Impulse Capacitors (Energy Storage or Surge Capacitors) .......................................... 583
7.3.3.1 Capacitor Design 583
7.3.3.2 The so-called “Capacitor Inductance” 584
7.3.3.3 Dielectric and Service Life 584
7.3.4 Barrier Systems ............................................................................................................. 585
7.4 Other Applications ............................................................................................................... 587
7.4.1 Lightning Protection ..................................................................................................... 587
7.4.1.1 Ensuring EMC 587
7.4.1.2 External Lightning Protection 588
7.4.1.3 Internal Lightning Protection 590
7.4.1.4 Lightning Protection Zone Concept 591
7.4.2 Pulsed Power Technology ............................................................................................. 592
7.4.2.1 Impulse current circuits 592
7.4.2.2 Acoustic Shock Waves 592
7.4.2.3 Pulsed Particle Beams and Laser Beams 593
7.4.2.4 Electrodynamic Generation of Nanocrystalline Materials 594
7.4.2.5 Electrodynamic Fragmentation 594
7.4.2.6 Electrohydraulic Fragmentation 595
7.4.2.7 Electroporation in Biological Cells 595
7.4.3 Light Technology and Laser Technology ..................................................................... 596
7.4.4 X-ray Technology ......................................................................................................... 597
7.4.5 Electrostatic Particle Precipitation, Ionization .............................................................. 597
7.4.6 Spark Plug ..................................................................................................................... 598
7.5 Superconducting Equipment............................................................................................... 600
7.5.1 Superconductivity ......................................................................................................... 600
7.5.2 HTSC Conductor Materials .......................................................................................... 602
7.5.3 Insulation and Cooling with LN2 .................................................................................. 603
7.5.4 Applications .................................................................................................................. 604
7.5.4.1 SMES Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 604
7.5.4.2 Fault Current Limiter, Switch 605
7.5.4.3 Cables 606
7.5.4.4 Motors, Generators 607
7.5.4.5 Transformers 607

8 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................611

9 INDEX ..............................................................................................................................631
Symbols and Abbreviations

Variable scalar quantities are written in ital- d Distance, flashover distance
ics, vectorial quantities are represented in e Elementary charge, unit charge
bold and italics, e.g. v(t) and E(x,t). e e = 2.718281..., , Euler number,
base of the natural logarithm
For time-dependent currents, voltages and
f Frequency,
charges, small letters, such as i, v and q are
impulse factor,
used, for time-dependent field quantities,
shape factor
capital letters such as E(t) are used.
f (...) Function of ...
g Acceleration due to gravity
Peak values are characterized by umbrella hat
g (...) Function of ...
or caret on the letter, for example, Ê and ÛV.
h Height,
Constant quantities and r.m.s. values are
frequency or empirical
symbolized by capital letters, such as E, I, V
distribution function (statistics),
and Q.
absolute air humidity
Symbols with underlining signify complex i Current,
quantities, for example z, i and v. counting index
j Imaginary unit,
The applied units generally correspond to the
counting index
International System of Units (SI units). Only
k Constant,
for the units of pressure, temperature and
counting index,
time, also the traditional and descriptive units
5 lifetime exponent
of bar (1 bar = 10 Pa), degrees Celsius (°C) k Boltzmann constant
and the usual time units are resorted to. l Length,
counting index
m Mass,
Symbols counting index
n Number (quantity),
In the following section, the most important counting index,
symbols are explained. They are arranged ac- optical refractive index
cording to small letters, capital letters and p Geometry factor,
Greek letters. The meanings of different indi- potential coefficient,
ces result from the text. Unfortunately, using pressure,
the same symbols for totally different quanti- power loss density,
ties cannot be completely avoided because of p-factor,
the overlapping of different science disci- probability
plines in the fields of high voltage engineer- q Charge
ing. The reader is therefore requested to infer r Radius, distance,
the applicable meaning from the context of divider ratio,
the text. relative air humidity
a Distance, width, s Distance,
coefficient, Laplace operator,
exponent steepness,
b Regression coefficient, empirical standard deviation
constant s Spatial vector
c Constant t Time
XX Symbols and Abbreviations

tan G Dissipation factor I, I Current, complex r.m.s. phasor

u Velocity, J, J Conduction current density
coordinate (w-plane), J Complex r.m.s. phasor for the
measurement uncertainty conduction current density
v Voltage, J Iodine (chemical symbol)
coordinate (w-plane), K Capacitance coefficient,
empirical variation coefficient constant,
w Energy density, Kerr constant
water content (relative or absolute) K Potassium (chemical symbol)
w Complex number L Inductance,
x Space coordinate, length length
x Spatial vector M Mutual inductance
x Definite value of a random variable Mg Magnesium (chemical symbol)
y Space coordinate N Number
z Space coordinate, axial length N Nitrogen (chemical symbol)
z Complex number Ne Neon (chemical symbol)
O Oxygen (chemical symbol)
A, A Area (vector and magnitude) P, P Electrical polarization
A Voltage-time area, P Real power, power loss
Constant (Paschen’s law), P Phosphorous (chemical symbol),
Al Aluminium (chemical symbol) Q Charge,
Ar Argon (chemical symbol) reactive power
B, B Magnetic flux density R Resistance,
B Constant (Paschen’s law) radius,
B Boron (chemical symbol) range (statistics)
C Capacitance R General chemical group
C Carbon (chemical symbol) S, S Complex power, apparent power
Ca Calcium (chemical symbol) S Sulfur (chemical symbol)
Cl Chlorine (chemical symbol) Si Silicon (chemical symbol)
Cu Copper (chemical symbol) T Time, period,
D, D Dielectric displacement density temperature
D Complex r.m.s. phasor for the V Volume,
dielectric displacement density variation coefficient
D Distance, V, V Voltage, complex r.m.s. phasor
diameter, W Energy,
theoretical density function (statistics) Probability (statistics)
E, E Electric field strength / intensity / X Reactance, random variable
stress (vector and magnitude) Y Random variable
E Complex r.m.s. phasor for the electric Y Admittance (complex conductance)
field strength Z Characteristic line impedance,
F, F Force (vector and magnitude) intrinsic impedance
F Theoretical distribution function, Z Impedance, complex phasor
probability (statistics)
F Fluorine (chemical symbol)
Fe Iron (chemical symbol) D Angle,
G Conductance, shear modulus ionization coefficient
H, H Magnetic field intensity (... strength) E Ionization coefficient
H Hydrogen (chemical symbol) J Surface ionization coefficient
He Helium (chemical symbol) G Loss angle, relative air density,
Symbols and Abbreviations XXI

Weibull exponent CCA Charging current analysis

tan G Dissipation factor CD Coupling device
H Permittivity CIGRÉ Conseil International des Grands
K Field efficiency factor, Réseaux Electriques
space charge density, CISPR Comité International Special Des
attachment coefficient, Perturbations Radiophoniques
capacitive voltage overshoot, CO Carbon monoxide
voltage efficiency (impulse circuit) CO2 Carbon dioxide
- Temperature CSM Charge simulation method
N Electrical conductivity CTI Comparative tracking index
O free path length,
thermal conductivity D Discharge
DAC Damped AC voltage
P Permeability,
DBT Dibenzyl toluene
ion mobility,
DC Direct current
expectation value
DC Prefix characterizing time-
Q Optical frequency,
independent electric quantities
continuous index
DCA Discharge current analysis
U Resistivity, DEC Dielectric equivalent circuit
reflection, refraction or transmission DFT Discrete fourier transform
coefficient (traveling waves) DIL Design insulation level
V Surface charge density, DKD German calibration service
force per area, DP Mean degree of polymerization
standard deviation DSP Digital signal processor
V(t) Step function DTE Ditolylether
W Time constant, DVA Discharge voltage analysis
propagation time (traveling waves)
M Potential EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
Z Angular frequency EN European standard
EP Epoxy resin
4 Contact angle EPR Ethylene-propylene rubber
EPS Equipotential surface
Eq. Equation
Abbreviations ESD Electrostatic discharge

AC Alternating Current (amplitude FCL Fault current limiter

current) FDA Frequency domain analysis
AC Prefix characterizing alternating FDM Method of finite differences
electric quantities FDS Frequency domain spectroscopy
ACLD AC long duration test (outdated) FEM Finite element method
ACSD AC short duration test (outdated) FeO Iron oxide
AMF Axial magnetic field contacts FFT Fast Fourier transform
ASTM American Society for Testing and FID Flame ionization detector
Materials FT Fast transients
AV Applied voltage test FW Filament winding

BEM Boundary element method G1, 2 Spark gap 1, 2

BNC Benzyl neocaprate GC Gas chromatograph
GIL Gas-insulated line
XXII Symbols and Abbreviations

GIS Gas-Insulated Switchgear OFC Oxygen-free copper

GRP Glass-fiber reinforced plastic OIP Oil-impregnated paper
GWP Global warming potential OLI Oscillating lightning impulse voltage
HDPE High-density polyethylene OLTC On-load tap changer
HEMP High altitude electromagnetic pulse OSI Oscillating switching impulse voltage
HPLC High Pressure/Performance Liquid
Chromatography PA Polyamide
HTSC High-temperature superconductivity PAI Polyamidimide
HTV High-temperature vulcanization PC Polycarbonate
(silicone) PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
HV High voltage PD, pd Partial discharge
HVAC High voltage alternating current PDC Polarization / Depolarization current
HVDC High voltage direct current PDE Partial discharge extinction
PDI Partial discharge inception
IEC International Electrotechnical PDM Partial discharge measuring device
Commission PE Polyethylene
IEEE The Institute of Electrical and PES Polyethersulfone
Electronic Engineers PF Phenolic resin (phenol formaldehyde
IEM Integral equation methods resin)
IR Infrared light PFL Pulse forming line
IRC Isothermal relaxation current PI Polyimide
IVPD Induced voltage test with PD PMMAPolymethylmethacrylate
measurement PP Polypropylene
IVW Induced voltage withstand test PR Polarity reversal
PSU Polysulfone
KFT Karl Fischer titration PTB Physikalisch-technische Bundesanstalt
(Federal Institute of Metrology)
LCC Line-commutated converter PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
LDPE Low-density polyethylene PTI Proof tracking index
LFH Low-frequency heating PU Polyurethane
LHe Liquefied helium PVC Polyvinylchloride
LI Lightning impulse PVDF Polyvinylidenfluoride
LIC Chopped lightning impulse PXE Phenyl-xylyl-ethane
LN2 Liquefied nitrogen
LSI Liquid Silicone RBP Resin-bonded paper
LSF6 Liquefied Sulfur hexafluoride RIP Resin-impregnated paper
LTS, LTSC RIS Resin-impregnated synthetics
Low-temperature superconductivity RIV Radio interference voltage
LV Low voltage RMF Radial magnetic field contact
LV Arc-performance index r.m.s.
Root-mean-square
RTV Room-temperature vulcanization
MBT Monobenzyl toluene silicone
MCM Monte Carlo method RVA Recovery voltage analysis
MIPB Mono-isopropyl-biphenyl RVM Recovery voltage method
MOM Method of moments RW Regulating winding
MP Metallized paper
SCSM Surface charge simulation method
NEMP Nuclear electromagnetic pulse SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
SI Switching impulse voltage
Symbols and Abbreviations XXIII

SiC Silicon carbide UHV Ultra high voltage

SIR Silicone rubber UV Ultraviolet light
SMES Superconductive magnetic energy
storage VDE Verband der Elektrotechnik
SSB Superconductive Current Limiter Elektronik Informationstechnik
(Association for Electrical, Electronic
T Thermal defect and Information Technology)
TCD Thermal conductivity detector VLF Very low frequency
TEM Transverse electromagnetic (wave) VPI Vacuum-pressure impregnation
TF Transfer function VSC Voltage source converter
TP Triple point
TP Thermal fault with paper XLPE Cross-linked polyethylene
decomposition
ZnO Zinc oxide
UHF Ultra high frequency
 strength of the insulating material) the term
1 INTRODUCTION “electric field intensity” (which clearly refers
to the intensity or strength of the field) would
be the best choice. Nevertheless, the terms
“electric field strength” or “electrical field
1.1 The Function of High stress” are used in high voltage engineering.
Voltage Technology
Therefore the reader is faced with the chal-
lenge always to distinguish clearly between
The main task of high voltage technology and
the strength (intensity, stress) of a field and
engineering is to keep high electric field
the breakdown strength, electrical strength
strengths under control. They do not only oc-
cur in apparatus operated or tested at high or dielectiric strength of a material.
voltages, they can also be found in apparatus The following Chapters 4 (Dielectric System
at comparatively low voltages and with small Properties), 5 (Insulating Materials), 6 (Test-
insulation, e.g. in thin capacitor insulations ing, Measuring, Diagnosis) and 7 (Applica-
made of polymer films. tions) describe the indispensable technological
The electric field strength, and not the voltage, tools and important applications.
is the relevant quantity for the electric strength
(“breakdown strength”) of insulating materi-
als. Nevertheless, our discipline is usually
called “high voltage technology” and “high 1.2 Applications of High Voltage
voltage engineering”, which is not strictly cor- Technology
rect.
Basically, high voltage engineering has to The most important applications of high volt-
guarantee that the electric stress, given by the age technology are in the field of equipment
electric field strength E, is significantly and systems for the transmission and
smaller than the electric strength (breakdown distribution of electrical energy.
strength) Ed always, i.e. under all possible cir-
Common rated voltages for three-phase AC
cumstances:
systems in Germany are 12 kV, 24 kV, 123
kV, 245 kV and 420 kV. Higher transmission
“Stress” E << Ed “Strength” (1.1-1) voltages are used in countries with very long
(Field strength) (Electric strength) transmission distances between power plants
and metropolitan areas (e.g. in North America,
Asia, South America, Southern Africa, Eastern
This principle, which is easy to formulate, but
Europe, Russia). Meanwhile, voltages in the
difficult to achieve, is discussed in Chapter 2
range of 1 MV are used for extreme transmis-
(Electric Fields) and Chapter 3 (Electric
sion applications (e.g. in China and India).
Strength).
More and more often, three-phase, high-volt-
Note: Theoretically, an even simpler condition E < Ed
age AC (HVAC) transmission reaches tech-
should be sufficient, but in reality Ed cannot be deter-
nological and economical limits which can be
mined exactly. Therefore it is always necessary to con-
sider a sufficient safety margin E << Ed.
overcome by means of high-voltage DC
(HVDC) transmission. Voltages of more than
Note: The terms “electric field intensity”, 1000 kV are used today.
“electric field strength” and “electric field Note: If DC transmission is used, problems with trans-
stress” often are used synonymously. In order mission line inductances (for very long distances) or
to avoid confusion with the “electric with cable capacitances (e.g. for submarine cables) can
strength” (which refers to the breakdown be avoided. It is possible to connect non-synchronous

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_1
2 1 INTRODUCTION

electric systems and systems with different power fre- x in medical engineering (e.g. lithotripters for
quencies. Furthermore, there is an effective control-
fragmentation of kidney stones by electro-
lability of power flow, reactive power is not transmitted.
Therefore HVDC transmission can be used for limita- acoustic shock waves),
tion of short-circuit currents and for stabilization of x in research applications (generators for
large electric systems. acceleration of particle beams),
x in production technology (electrostatic lac-
High-voltage engineering has to provide safe, quering and coating, material treatment and
reliable and economic insulation systems for high-speed formation by shock waves),
power apparatus and systems, e.g. for genera- x in testing of electromagnetic compatibility
tors, transformers, switchgear, cables, trans- (by high voltages),
mission lines etc. (Chapter 7).
x in protection against lightning and over-
High voltages are necessary for power trans- voltages,
mission because of the quadratic dependence x in environmental protection (electrostatic
of transmission-line losses PL from current I. filters),
These losses are given for a line-to-ground x in recycling technology (fragmentation and
voltage (phase voltage) VPh by separation of materials by electro-acoustic
shock waves),
2 x in the electroporation of biological cells
PL = 3 R I and S = 3 VPh I (1.2-1)
(sugar beets, fruits, wine),
If a high apparent power S has to be transmit- x in electronic components (e.g. capacitors),
ted, losses can most effectively be reduced by x in electronic tubes and copiers
reduction of the current I, i.e. by increasing the x or in ignition devices (e.g. spark plugs in
voltage VPh. motor vehicles).

An economic and environment-friendly power

transmission with low losses can only be 1.3 Perspectives of High Voltage
achieved using higher voltages.
Engineering
There are upper voltage limits, because insu-
lation costs increase with voltage. If the stan- Obviously high voltage technology is a key
dard voltage levels are considered, often it is technology for reliable, economic, efficient
economical to choose a rated voltage in kV and environment-friendly power supply sys-
close to the transmission distance in km. In tems. Additionally it is an indispensable re-
metropolitan areas with high transmission quirement for many technological innovations,
power, voltages are significantly higher in or- and it is faced with new challenges continu-
der to reduce currents and line losses to a tol- ously.
erable degree.
High voltage technologies are also required for
Other applications of high voltage engineer- the further development of power engineering.
ing can be found in many fields of technology Especially for the use of combined heat and
(Chapter 7.4), e.g. electricity production and for the use of re-
newable energy sources it is necessary to have
x in telecommunications (high power trans- strong transmission and distribution grids at
mitters), one’s disposal. The demands for heat and
x in X-ray technology (acceleration of elec- electricity are not synchronous and wind and
trons by high voltages), solar energy are supplied with particularly
x in laser technology (electric gas discharges high fluctuations. Because of the lack of stor-
for stimulation of atoms), age possibilities, it is necessary to compensate
1.4 Overview 3

for these fluctuations by means of peak power core is assembled in a housing that consists of
plants via high-voltage transmission grids. an outdoor porcelain component, a flange, an
New challenges for high voltage engineering
arise from the wish to reduce CO2 emissions
guarding toroid
by the use of the global potential of hydro
power. Transmission distances of more than
1000 km and high power ratings can only be 100 % conductor
realized by means of high voltage direct cur-
rent (HVDC) technology [1].
gap insulation
Note: Alternatively to electricity transmission it is often 75 % subsidiary insulation
proposed to use solar energy from desert regions for the
production of hydrogen gas by electrolysis, to transport
the gas via pipelines and to generate electricity again, main insulation
e.g. in fuel cells. Unfortunately, the efficiency of such a 50 % core with
system is significantly lower than for a comparable fully grading foils
electrical system.
25 %
Generally high temperature superconductivity porcellain
can be used for the reduction of current losses insulator
and for the reduction of transmission voltages,
but it will not be possible to transmit electrical
energy without high voltages. New high-volt-
age apparatus for existing transmission sys-
outdoor side
tems and for new functions will be developed 0%
[203], Chapters 7.5 and 5.4.6.
flange
wall

1.4 Overview
The contents of this book relate to the prob-
0%
lems encountered by high voltage engineers.
They shall be explained exemplarily by means
of a typical insulation system in power engi- porcellain
insulator
neering. Thereby a first insight is given into 25 %
the ideas, concepts and methods of high-volt-
age engineering:
50 % indoor side
For this purpose, a wall bushing is chosen as
an example for a typical insulation system,
Figure 1-1. The function of a wall bushing is 75 %
to feed a conductor on high voltage potential
through a grounded wall, with an insulation-
100 %
core diameter as small as possible and without
electric discharges on the surfaces and at the
electrodes. For this purpose, the conductor is
fed through the main insulation body contain-
ing conductive grading layers (e.g. through an
oil-impregnated paper core containing metallic Figure 1-1: Wall bushing, example for a typical insu-
foils with different lengths). The insulation lation system in high voltage engineering (schematic).
4 1 INTRODUCTION

indoor porcelain and screening toroids. The ment of the high voltage design is necessary.
gaps are filled with an additional insulating Very often this is an iterative process of opti-
material (e.g. with mineral oil) and form a sub- mization. The most important tools are the
sidiary insulation. methods of potential grading (field grading),
e.g. by grading layers, insulation system ge-
For a given design, it is necessary at first to ometries (e.g. lengths, diameters) and elec-
determine the electrical stress, i.e. the electric trode contours. Additionally, an appropriate
field strength, in order to evaluate the stresses selection of dielectric materials has to be per-
on the insulating materials. First order estima- formed, considering technological, economic
tions can often be performed by analytical cal- and ecological aspects. Furthermore the ques-
culations and estimates, but complex insula- tions of manufacturing, quality control and
tion systems normally require numerical cal- testing have to be considered.
culations in order to get accurate results in
different dielectrics. Field calculation methods After manufacturing, the quality of a product
are described in Chapter 2. Figure 1-1 shows has to be proved by high voltage tests, nor-
equipotential lines schematically in steps of 25 mally with AC, impulse and DC voltages. Test
%. and measuring techniques are described in
Chapter 6. They have to fulfill strict require-
Calculated field strengths have to be compared ments according to ISO 9000 ff and other in-
with the very different electric strengths of ternational standards.
the insulating materials. The lowest strength is
provided by the ambient air (external Furthermore, operating times of high voltage
strength). The highest strength is required for apparatus exceed the nominal lifetimes in
the highly stressed main insulation (internal many cases. Therefore diagnostic methods
strength). Special attention has to be paid to are very important for the condition assess-
the electric strengths of interfaces and con- ment of aged and defective equipment. Conse-
taminated surfaces which can be improved by quently, onsite measurements and continuous
shed profiles. The electric strength of dielec- monitoring (“online monitoring”) of power
trics, interfaces, surfaces and insulation sys- apparatus are of high interest, additionally to
tems is discussed in Chapter 3. laboratory measurements. Many decisions
have to be made about re-investments these
Properties, technology and treatment of dif- days, i.e. the estimation of residual lifetime is
ferent insulating materials are described in very important for economic and safe energy
Chapter 5. Every insulating material has a systems.
particular characteristic profile and specific
processing characteristics. Therefore the pos- Typical insulation systems for AC, DC and
sible applications are very different. For ex- impulse voltages in the field of power engi-
ample, porcelain is insensitive against ambient neering and for many other applications are
influences; therefore, it is a very good housing discussed in Chapter 7.
material. Oil has very good properties for the Note: In terms of high voltage engineering, an “insula-
impregnation of cellulose and other fibers and tion” or “insulation system” is the entirety of dielectric
for the filling of gaps and holes. These materi- materials and devices which are combined to a technical
als and applications are examples only; there system in order to provide a galvanic separation of
electrically conducting parts. The term “isolation” is
are alternatives, of course. sometimes used synonymously, but it means separating
properties or separation functions in a more general
If the field strengths are too high or electric sense. “Insulation” refers to the dielectric materials,
strengths too low, a redesign and an improve- parts and systems.
2 ELECTRIC STRESSES
+q

Electric stresses must always be considered if

Figure 2.1-1:
electric field strengths are in the range of the
electric strengths of the insulating materials, Electric E
i.e. calculation of electric field intensities is of source field
fundamental importance. (irrotational
electrostatic
The most important equations for the descrip- field with -q
tion of electric fields in high voltage engi- charges as
neering are summarized in Section 2.1 [2], [3]. sources and
sinks of the
Section 2.2 describes how different stresses
field).
(e.g. by AC, DC and impulse voltages) result
in the development of different fields. Basic
arrangements can be treated by analytical cal-
culations (Section 2.3 and 2.4), but complex
insulation systems normally require numerical Figure 2.1-2: H(t)
calculation [4] (Section 2.5). Traveling waves Electric
need special consideration because of their curl field
character as fast changing electromagnetic (induced
processes [5] (Section 2.6). electric field,
electromag-
E(t)
netic field).
2.1 Basic Field Theory
Charges can be distributed differently,
Electric fields cannot be sensed by human be-
x as a single charge or point charge (e.g.
ings directly. Fields can only be noticed indi-
electrons with the charge q = -e or protons
rectly by their physical effects. The electric
with q = +e),
field describes a physical condition of space.
x as a line charge (e.g. on a wire with a negli-
The electric field strength is defined by its me-
gibly small diameter),
chanical force on electric charges (or charged
test bodies). x as a surface charge (e.g. on the surface of a
conductive electrode, Figure 2.1-1) and
There are two sources of electric fields: x as a space charge (e.g. as a “space charge
cloud” in a gas discharge).
x Positive and negative electric charges are
sources and sinks (i.e. starting and ending Point charges and line charges are idealiza-
points) of the field (“electrostatic field”), tions which are useful for field calculations.
Figure 2.1-1.
x Furthermore, there are electric fields which The quantities potential, voltage, current and
are induced by time-varying magnetic capacitance are integral quantities, which have
fields. Magnetic field lines can be regarded to be derived from the actual field quantities
as curl lines of closed field line loops (“curl (Section 2.1.2). Although these integral quan-
field”), Figure 2.1-2. tities are used very often, it must not be for-
gotten that they only reflect partial aspects of
Electric charges cannot be divided infinitely. the field properties. Therefore, exact knowl-
The smallest quantity of charge is the elemen- edge and calculation of the electric field is
-19
tary charge e = 1.6022·10 As. very important for high voltage engineering.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_2
6 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2.1.1 Field Quantities The magnitude of D corresponds to the surface

charge density Von an ideal conductive elec-
The electric field strength E is defined by trode, see also Figure 2.1-1:
means of the mechanical force F on a positive
+ D = V = dq/dA (2.1-3)
test charge q , Figure 2.1-3:
+ Therefore the dimension of D is the dimension
E = F/q of a charge divided by the area, i.e. [D] =
or 2
As/m = C/m .
2
+
F = q ·E (2.1-1)
According to Eq. (2.1-2) the relation between
Electric field strength E and force F are vector D and E is given by a fundamental physical
quantities, which are printed here in bold and constant, the electric constant, i.e. the (abso-
italic letters. The direction of the field vector lute) permittivity of vacuum,
E is identical with the direction of force F on a
positive test charge. These directions are visu- H0 = 8.8542 pF/m.
alized by field lines in a field plot. In the case
of a negative test charge, the directions of field Additionally, Eq. (2.1-2) contains the relative
and force vectors are anti-parallel. permittivity Hr, which has no dimension and
which depends on the properties of the dielec-
According to Eq. (2.1-1) the magnitude E =
+ tric material.
F/q of the field strength E is calculated from
the magnitude F of force F. The density of The relative permittivity Hr is always greater than 1 be-
field lines corresponds to the field strength. cause the electric field polarizes available charges with-
in the dielectric material and thereby generates a reverse
Analogy to the gravitation field: The force on charges field. This means that the field strength E for a given
in the electric field is analogous to the force on masses charge density (or for a given electric flux density D) is
in the gravity field g. In the field of the Earth’s accel- lower than in vacuum with Hr = 1. This effect of polari-
eration g, the force on a test body of mass m is F = m·g, zation is described by a factor Hr > 1, Section 4.2.
parallel to the direction of the gravity field.
Technical insulating materials always have a
In an electrostatic field positive and negative
small (residual) conductivity N. The forces of
charges are the origin (source) of the electric
the electric field can therefore accelerate mo-
field. Therefore a field quantity D is defined
bile charge carriers, and a drift current propor-
which is directly related to the field-generating
tional to the field strength arises. The current
charges: The dielectric displacement density
density is
(electric flux density) D is proportional to the
J = N· E . (2.1-4)
electric field strength:
The field of the current density J is called an
D = H0Hr E (2.1-2)
electrical conduction field; in high voltage
engineering it is especially important for DC
stresses. The field of the electric flux density
F D, the so called dielectric displacement field
is usually dominant in case of AC stresses and
q+ m
always dominant in case of impulse voltages.
q-
For relatively slowly changing (quasi-static)
F E F g processes, induced field components can often
be neglected. Rapidly changing fields, e.g. in
the case of the skin effect, eddy currents and
electromagnetic wave propagation, must be
Figure 2.1-3: Forces on test bodies in the electric described as curl fields or electromagnetic
field (left) and in the gravity field (right). fields.
2.1 Basic Field Theory 7

2.1.2 Equipotential Lines, Potential, Therefore potential is not an absolute quantity;

Voltage and Capacitance only potential differences 'M and differences
of potential energy 'Wpot can be defined. A
A charge q, which is moved against the force potential difference is very often referred to as
F of the electric field E, has a potential energy a voltage V or voltage difference 'V:
Wpot, analogous to the potential energy of a
mass m in the gravitation field g, Figure 2.1-4. 'M21 = V21 = 'V21 (2.1-6)
We refer to potential M based on the value of
the charge: For a given electric field E the voltage or the
potential difference between point 2 and 1 can
M = Wpot/ q (2.1-5) be calculated by integration. Thereby the dif-
ference of the potential energies is described
A surface of equal potential or equal potential as a line integral of the field force along the
energy is described as an equipotential sur- integration path. According to Eq. (2.1-1) F is
face (or an equipotential line in a two-dimen- replaced by q·E:
sional sectional view. Both are orthogonal to
the field lines, i.e. a movement of charges on 1
V 21 = 'M 21 = M 2 - M 1 = 'W21
the equipotential plane (orthogonal to the field q
direction) is possible without any force or en- 1
1
ergy. =
q 2
³ F dx
Note: The equipotential surface is not the surface of a 1
1
body or the interface between different materials. Here =
q 2
³ qE dx
the term surface is used in a general mathematical sense
in order to describe an area.
1
Electric field plots in high voltage engineering V 21 = 'M 21 = M 2 - M 1 = ³ E d x (2.1-7)
are very often visualized by means of equipo- 2
tential lines. Their course can be approximated
analytically in some simple cases. Numerical Thus, the voltage or the potential difference
solutions also normally consist of potential between two points 2 and 1 is given by the line
values which are used for the interpolation of integral of the electric field strength E along
equipotential lines. the path x.

Potential and potential energy must always be In an electrostatic field the result of the integration is
independent of the integration path. If different paths
related to a surface area with Wpot= 0 and M = are chosen, the result is always the same; it depends
0. This reference surface can be chosen freely. only on the potential difference between the starting and

q+ equipotential line "contour line" m

(surface)
F W3 M3 W3 M3 F

W2 M2 W2 M2
'M21 V 21
W1 M1 W1 M1
Figure 2.1-4: Potential energy, g
E W0 M0 W0 M0
potential and voltage in the
electric field (left) and in the
gravitation field (right).
8 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

end points, Figure 2.1-4. Therefore it is also referred to acceleration of a charged particle in the elec-
as a so-called potential field. According to Eq. (2.1-7) tric field can be directly calculated. This is
and (2.1-8) the field strength is the negative gradient of
the potential E = - grad M, it is therefore referred to as a
important for the description of ionization and
gradient field. Sometimes the field is called irrotational, discharge processes. The kinetic energy results
because there are no time-varying magnetic field lines from the difference of potential energies ac-
which can be regarded as curl lines of an induced elec- cording to Eq. (2.1-5):
tric field.

For a curl field or an electromagnetic field, which is not

Wkin = Wpot2 - Wpot1
irrotational, the result of the integration according to Eq.
(2.1-7) would depend on the definition of the integration = q (M2 - M1) = q 'M21
path. For example, the integration along a field line in
Figure 2.1-2 would give a finite value, different from = q V21. (2.1-9)
zero, even if starting and end point were identical. The
definition of a scalar potential M, a potential difference The electrostatic field is caused by charges on
'M and a voltage is no longer possible for the curl field the electrode surfaces in accordance with
or the electromagnetic field. The definition of a vector Figure 2.1-1, i.e. the electrode configuration
potential shall not be considered further here [2], [3]. stores a distinct amount of charge at a given
If the spatial distribution of a static electric potential difference (voltage). The charge
field E(x) = E(x,y,z) is known, the potential storage capacity is defined by the quotient of
distribution M(x,y,z) can be determined from the charge and the voltage, which is called
Eq. (2.1-7). Conversely, if the potential distri- “capacitance” C:
bution is given (scalar field), the electric field C = q / V = q / 'M (2.1-10)
strength can be determined by forming the In many cases a wide-ranging field configu-
gradient, i.e. by differentiation ration can be replaced by a lumped circuit
element (i.e. by a capacitance C), Figure 2.1-5.
E = - grad M. (2.1-8)
The use of lumped capacitances as equivalent
For Cartesian coordinates x, y, z we find
circuits of distributed fields enables their in-
clusion in network calculations. This is espe-
E(x,y,z) = {Ex, Ey, Ez} (2.1-8a) cially important for the estimation of (para-
= - grad M sitic) stray capacitances (air capacitances) in
high voltage measuring circuits or in complex
= - {wM/wx, wM/wy, wM/wz}.
insulation systems.
For cylindrical coordinates r, D, z, the field Furthermore, the whole capacitively stored
strength vector E can be described as energy W in the field volume can be calculated
E(r,D,z) = {Er, ED, Ez} (2.1-8b) as a function of the voltage by means of the
capacitance C:
= - grad M 2
-1 W = ½CV (2.1-11)
= - {wM/wr, r ·wM/wD, wM/wz}.

For spherical coordinates r, D, - we find This relation can be understood from the ex-
ample of a parallel-plate capacitor (see Figure
E(r,D,-) = {Er, ED, E-} (2.1-8c) 2.1-5 right). For a surface area A, an electrode
distance x and a homogeneous electric field
= - grad M strength E = V/x, the capacitance is
-1
= - {wM/wr, (r·sin -) ·wM/wD,
-1 C = q/V
r ·wM/w-}.
= (D·A) / (E·x)
By specifying a voltage (or a potential differ-
ence) the energy that is accumulated during = (H0HrE·A) / (E·x)
2.1 Basic Field Theory 9

C = H0Hr·A / x. 2.1.3 Maxwell’s Equations

I.e.
Classic problems of high voltage engineering
C = H·A / x (2.1-12) are mostly limited to static, stationary and
The stored energy W is calculated, if the build- quasi-stationary electric fields, e.g. for DC,
up of field strength E is described by the trans- power frequency AC and impulse stresses.
port of infinitesimal amounts of charge dq Nevertheless, high electrical stresses can occur
against the field force dF = E dq. The energy for all kinds of fields, as described in Chapter
dW = x dF = x E dq = V dq, which is necessary 1, and high voltage engineering has to deal not
for that purpose, is stored in the electric field only with conventional DC, AC and impulse
(as potential energy of the charge dq). The fields, but also with very rapidly changing
integration of all charges gives the total fields.
amount of energy:
Therefore, the Maxwell’s Equations for sta-
W = ³ dW = ³ V(q) dq tionary (not moving) bodies are the starting
point of this description, from which the re-
q spective valid simplifications are deduced. For
= ³ (q/C) dq clarity, this description is limited to the inte-
0
2
gral form of the field equations, Figures 2.1-6
= ½ q /C ff.
2
= ½CV q.e.d. Maxwell’s Equations are subdivided into three
categories,
The volume density of the energy w in the ho-
x the main Field Equations (the first and sec-
mogeneous (uniform) field of the parallel-plate
ond circular law, i.e. Ampere’s and Fara-
capacitor is derived by the division of energy
day’s law resp.), which describe the relation
W by the volume v = A·x. For the homogene-
between time-varying electric and magnetic
ous field w is independent of the position:
field quantities (Figure 2.1-6),
w = W/v x the Continuity Equations, which describe
the sources or the lack of sources of the
2 field quantities (i.e. the continuity of mag-
= [½ (E x) H A/x] / (A x)
netic flux and current, Figure 2.1-7) and
2
= ½ H 0H r E
Within an infinitesimal small volume element
'V the field can be regarded as homogeneous
for any field configuration. Therefore the vol- +q
ume density of energy is always given by
w = wW/wV q
E V
2
= ½ H0 Hr E
C
= ½ E D. (2.1-13)
-q
This means that the energy density increases quadrati-
cally with the field strength. Therefore, E has to be as
high as possible in energy storage capacitors, and the
maximum volume density of energy is essentially deter-
mined by the electrical breakdown strength of the di- Figure 2.1-5: Allocation of an ideal capacitance to
electric material. the electrostatic field between two electrodes.
10 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

x the Material Equations (constitutive rela- Magnetic fields are solenoidal, i.e. free of
tions), which describe the relation between sources. If a closed surface area A is consid-
field quantities under the influence of dif- ered, there are no sources or sinks of magnetic
ferent material properties (Figure 2.1-8). field lines within the enclosed volume, i.e. the
These equations can be evaluated analytically magnetic flux ³³ B dA, which enters the vol-
for defined special cases. For this purpose, it is ume on one side, must leave it on the other
necessary to find simplifications, which result side, Figure 2.1-7 (left). A mathematical
from spatial symmetries (e.g. fields with plane, description of the solenoidal character of the
cylindrical or spherical symmetry) and par- magnetic field is given, if the closed surface
ticular time dependencies (e.g. static DC fields integral ³³ B dA is set equal to zero, because
or harmonic fields with sinusoidal time de- of the compensation of incoming and outgoing
pendence). magnetic fluxes, Eq. (2.1-16).

The continuity equation for the field of the

2.1.3.1 Maxwell’s Main Field Equations displacement density Eq. (2.1-17a) states that
the displacement density field D is free of
The physical meaning of the main field equa- sources, if there are no charges within an
tions consists in the insight that a time-varying closed surface A (Q = 0). These charges would
magnetic flux ³³ B dA induces an electric curl act as sources and drains of the field and the
field E (law of induction, Faraday’s law, closed-surface integral would give a magni-
second circular law), Eq. (2.1-14). The in- tude different from zero. Calculating the di-
duced voltage (electromotive force) is the in- electric displacement flux ³³ D dA over a
tegral of E around a closed loop. It is equiva- closed surface A, the encolosed charge Q must
lent to the derivate of the magnetic flux be introduced a term which is different from
(through the loop) with respect to time. Fur- zero.
thermore, a magnetic curl field H is caused by
an electric current, i.e. by a “flux of a current Additionally, the electric current density is
density” (law of the magnetomotive force, free of sources, if the sum of conduction cur-
Ampere’s law, first circular law), Eq. (2.1- rent density J and displacement current density
15). The current or the magnetomotive force is
wD/wt is considered, Eq. (2.1-17b). This equa-
calculated both from the conduction current
tion can directly derived from Eq. (2.1-15).
density J (moving charge carriers) and/or from
the displacement current density wD/wt (time- Note: A relation between Eq. (2.1-17b) and (2.1-17a)
varying electric field). can be established in the following way: A time-varying
conduction current i(t) = ³³ J dA, which is flowing via a
Finally, Maxwell’s Main Field Equations de- conductor towards an electrode, will be continued as a
scribe the generation of an electric (or mag- displacement current ³³ wD/wt dA within the non-con-
netic) curl field from a time-varying magnetic ductive dielectric material adjacent to the electrode,
(or electric). field This mutual interdependence Figure 2.1-7 (right). The conduction current is associ-
is the reason for the propagation of electro- ated with a displacement and an accumulation of charge
magnetic waves, which occur, for example, as carriers close to the surface of the electrode, i.e. at the
interface between conductive and insulating materials.
line-bound waves on transmission lines or
measuring cables in high voltage engineering. The integration of Eq. (2.1-17b) over time provides a
relation between the displacement density D and the
charge, which is enclosed by the closed surface A if it is
2.1.3.2 Maxwell’s Continuity Equations assumed that there is no charge on the electrode at the
beginning of the integration process:
The physical content of the Continuity Equati-
ons consists of a statement about the continu- wD
ity and the sources of magnetic and electric ³³A (J +
wt
) dA = 0
fields, Figure 2.1-7.
2.1 Basic Field Theory 11

w wD
o³ E dx = -
wt ³³ B dA o³ H dx = ³³ ( J + wt ) dA
x A x A

Faraday's law (2.1-14) Ampere's law (2.1-15)

Second circular law First circular law
Law of induction Law of magnetomotive force
- wB wD
J + wt
wt

dA dA

dx dx
E H
Time-varying magnetic flux Conduction current + displacement current
Figure 2.1-6: Integral form of Maxwell's main field equations for stationary (not moving) bodies.
Coupling of electric and magnetic field quantities by means of Faraday's law of induction (left)
and by Ampere's law of magnetomotive force (right).

³³ B dA = 0 ³³ D dA = Q (a)
A A

Continuity equation (2.1-16) wD

for the magnetic flux density ³³ ( J + wt ) dA = 0 (b)
A

Continuity equations (2.1-17a) and (2.17b)

for displacement density (a) and for
conduction and displacement current density (b)
closed
conduction current surface A
density
B dA
dA magnetic flux density J
closed surface A
displacement
current density
wD
wt

Figure 2.1-7: Integral form of Maxwell's continuity equations for the magnetic flux density (left, spatial view of
a closed surface area A) and for conduction and displacement current density (right, sectional view).

B = μ0μr H D = H0 Hr E J = N E

(2.1-18) (2.1-19) Ohm's law (2.1-20)

Figure 2.1-8: Material equations (constitutive relations) for the magnetic and electric field quantities.
12 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

wD d A
³³ wt
= - ³³ J dA = i (t)
A A

The integration over the time gives Eq. (2.1-17a):

Closed surface
³³ D dA = ³ i (t) dt = Q. A Q= dA
A
³³³ K dV
Nevertheless, it must be noted that this derivation re- V
quired additional assumptions. Therefore the two equa-
tions are not equivalent.

Eq. (2.1-17a) plays an important role for field

calculation purposes: Electric flux density
or displacement D
Figure 2.1-9: Charges as sources of the electric flux
³³ D dA = Q (2.1-21) desity (displacement D), i.e. as reason of the static
A electric field ("Gauss's law").

The charge can also be seen as the integral of An electric field E can cause a displacement of
the space charge density K over the volume V, charges or an orientation of electric dipoles
which is enclosed by the closed surface area A: within a material. This effect of this electric
polarization causes an additional field, see
³³ D dA = ³³³ K dV (2.1-22) Section 4.2. If the amount of charge on the
A V
electrodes is constant, the resulting electric
Eq. (2.1-21) or (2.1-22) is called “Gauss’s field strength is reduced. If the field strength is
law”. It states that the integral of the flux den- imposed by an impressed voltage or field
sity D over any closed surface equals the strength, additional charges are accumulated
charge enclosed [481]. It allows the analytical on the electrodes by the polarization effect.
calculation of electrostatic fields in some im- Eq. (2.1-19) accounts for the increase in elec-
portant cases, Figure 2.1-9. tric displacement density (proportional to the
charge) via the dielectric polarization by the
factor Hr (relative permittivity). Hr is always
2.1.3.3 Material Equations greater than 1, because each type of matter can
be polarized to a greater or lesser extent, e.g.
The material equations describe the interaction by displacement of lattice atoms, by orienta-
of electric and magnetic fields with materials, tion of polar molecules or molecule groups, or
Figure 2.1-8. They constitute the relations be- by displacement of atomic nuclei relative to
tween E and D, B and H, and E and J, there- their electron shells.
fore they are also called constitutive rela-
tions. Electric polarization is of high importance for
high voltage engineering, since it determines
A magnetic field B can cause an orientation of
relative permittivities and capacitances. Addi-
magnetic dipoles (“elementary magnets”)
tionally there are polarization losses (dissipa-
within a material. This effect of magnetic po-
tion losses) depending on temperature and fre-
larization causes an additional field, which
quency.
enhances or reduces the resulting field
strength. Eq. (2.1-18) accounts for the mag- Eq. (2.1-19) is the basis of all high voltage
netic polarization by the factor μr (relative field calculations for insulating systems which
permeability). consist of more than one insulating material
2.1 Basic Field Theory 13

and which are stressed with time-varying elec- which is related to energy transport, the power
tric fields. as derivate of the energy with respect to time is
therefore not equal to zero [395]. The field of
Moreover, an electric field E can accelerate the conduction current density J is caused by the
free and mobile charge carriers within a mate- motion of charges, and it is no longer static in
rial. Because of collision processes there is a terms of being immobile. Furthermore, there is
mean drift velocity of the charge carriers in the coupling of J with the magnetic field H as de-
direction of the electric field, described by a scribed in Ampere’s law of electromotive force
current density J proportional to the electric (2.1-15).
field strength E. Eq. (2.1-20) correlates the
electric current density with the electric field Nevertheless, concerning the field quantities, all
strength by the factor N (electric conductivity); three kinds of fields (E, H and J) are both time-
it is equivalent to Ohm’s law. invariant (static) and fixed to a location (sta-
tionary) [394]. Usually the terms “static fields”
Eq. (2.1-20) is the basis of all high voltage and “steady-state conditions” are used.
field calculations for insulating systems, which
are stressed with direct voltage (DC voltage). 2. Quasi-static (quasi-stationary) fields (Sec-
tion 2.1.4.2 and 2.1.4.3): For quasi-static
(quasi-stationary) fields there are (slowly) time-
varying field quantities, but their coupling is so
2.1.4 Classification of Fields weak that the electric curl field induced by the
magnetic field of the displacement current and
Depending on the gradient of field changes the wave character of the fields can be ne-
w/wt (i.e. the time rate of change), Maxwell’s glected.
Equations can be simplified. Three categories
have proved to be useful [394]: Note: If this is interpreted in the time domain, it means
that the wave propagation time W within a field volume
1. Static and stationary (steady-state) fields with the dimension x has to be small in comparison with
(Section 2.1.4.1): For static fields there are no the rise time Tr of the time-varying field, see Eq. (2.1-
changes of the field quantities E, H and J, i.e. 36ff): W Tr. In a limited volume with dimension x the
the derivatives with respect to time are zero, change of field strength with time has almost no influ-
ence on field distribution; the field can therefore be
w/wt = 0. regarded as “quasi-static” (similar to the static field
distribution).
Concerning the time rate of change, field quan-
In the frequency domain the dimension x of the field
tities are time-invariant, constant or “static”, i.e.
volume must be small in comparison with a quarter-
they do not change in time. There is absolutely wavelength O/4, see Eq. (2.1-36) and (-37): x << O/4. In
no coupling of magnetic and electric field quan- a limited volume with dimension x the change of field
tities by Faraday’s law of induction (2.1-14) or strength with time does not result in remarkable wave
by Ampere’s law (2.1-15) regarding the dis- propagation effects, field changes can be regarded as
quasi-simultaneous and the field can therefore be re-
placement current density wD/wt. Consequently
garded as “quasi-stationary” (approx. fixed to the lo-
there is no propagation of electromagnetic cation).
waves. Concerning the propagation of waves,
static fields are “stationary”, i.e. they are fixed Typically, quasi-static (quasi-stationary) fields
to a location and do not propagate. are slowly changing fields (or low frequency
fields) (Section 2.1.4.2 and 3)
Note: Traditionally the time-invariant E- and H- x either in conductors, where the displace-
fields are referred to as electrostatic and mag- ment current is negligible in comparison
netostatic fields. The time-invariant electrical with a conduction current (inductive field),
conduction field J is mostly referred to as a x or in insulating materials, where the in-
steady-state (stationary) conduction field. duced curl field is negligible in comparison
This is motivated by the conduction current, with an electrostatic field (capacitive field).
14 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Additionally, there are fast changing quasi- placement current, nor a conduction current.
stationary fields in conductors, if x << O/4. Thus, there is no coupling between electric and
As long as the displacement current is negligi- magnetic field quantities.
ble, the electromagnetic wave propagation
Strictly speaking, static fields only exist as
orthogonal to the conductor surface is negligi-
magnetic fields of permanent magnets. Static
ble because of extreme damping. Nevertheless,
electric fields are a theoretical fiction, assum-
these fields are characterized by the superpo-
ing that immobile charges are sources of a
sition of the impressed electric conduction
static electric field without causing conduction
field and an induced electric curl field. This
current, charge transport or energy transport.
results in eddy currents that are superimposed
This would only be possible for a perfect di-
to the impressed conduction current. Thereby
they cause current displacement (skin effect, electric (N = 0) that does not exist in reality.
Heaviside effect). Nevertheless, a static electric field is often assumed in
order to approximate the field and to simplify field cal-
3. Non-stationary fields (Electromagnetic culations: A static field is only dependent on the per-
Waves, Section 2.1.4.4): Generally, for rapidly mittivities of dielectric materials. It should be noted that
varying fields the mutual coupling of electric the calculation results are not valid for static electric
and magnetic fields must not be neglected, fields and stationary conduction fields, for which the
conductivities would be significant, but only for quasi-
because of a high rate of change and/or the static (quasi-stationary) cases, Section 2.1.4.3.
dimensions of the field volume. Then the char-
acteristics of electromagnetic wave propaga- b) Stationary (steady-state) conduction fields
tion, the spatial dimensions and propagation
Conduction currents are accompanied by en-
time effects must be considered.
ergy transport and by a stationary (steady-
state) power flow different from zero, Eq. 2.1-
2.1.4.1 Static and Stationary Fields 24. In comparison with electrostatic and mag-
netostatic fields, steady-state conduction
a) Electrostatic and magnetostatic fields fields are characterized by a time-invariant
For static fields the right side of Eq. (2.1-14) conduction current density J and a propor-
and (2.1-15) is equal to zero, since there is tional time-invariant electric field strength E,
neither a time-varying magnetic flux nor a dis- Figure 2.1-10.

o³ E dx = 0 o³ H dx = ³³ J dA = I
x x A

Faraday's law of induction (2.1-23) Ampere's law (2.1-24)

6 Vi = 0 6 Ii = 0
i i
Kirchhoff's voltage law of network theory Kirchhoff's current law of network theory
(2.1-23a) (2.1-26a)

³³ B dA = 0 ³³ J dA = 0
A A

Continuity equation (2.1-25) continuity equation (2.1-26)

for the magnetic flux density for the electric conduction current density
Figure 2.1-10: Simplification of Maxwell's equations for stationary fields
(all derivates of field quantities with respect to time are equal to zero).
2.1 Basic Field Theory 15

Plastic film Plastic films

E1 V1 R1
Paper d1 N 1
Plastic film
Paper Papers J V
Figure 2.1-11: Plastic film d2 N 2 E2 V2 R2
Paper
Stationary (steady-state)
conduction field in a ca- Capacitor Network
Calculation model
pacitor insulation stressed insulation model
with constant DC voltage.

According to Eq. (2.1-23) the ring integral of J = N1 E1 = N2 E2

E dx around a closed loop and the sum of the Field strengths are calculated as
voltages Vi in a closed loop are zero, therefore
it is an irrotational field. This means that the E1 = V/(d1 + d2·N1/N2) = 99 kV/mm
calculation of voltages and potential differ- and
E2 = E1·N1/N2 = 1 kV/mm.
ences between two points with Eq. (2.1-7) is
independent of the integration path, Figure Result: E1 = 99 kV/mm (polymeric films)
2.1-4. Therefore, it is a so called “potential
field” with unequivocally defined voltages and E2 = 1 kV/mm (papers)
potential differences.
In spite of the same thickness, the papers are stressed
with V2 = E2·d2 = 0.03 kV only, i.e. with approx. 1 %
The electric field under electrical stress with
of the total voltage. Because of their low conductivity
constant direct voltage (DC voltage) is always
(their high specific resistance U = 1/N) the polymeric
a stationary (steady-state) conduction field. films are stressed with 99 % of the total voltage.
The field distribution does not change with
Note: Paper layers in capacitor dielectrics are used in
time, but owing to the (residual) conductivity N order to impregnate the gaps between the films with
according to Eq. (2.1-20) there is a conduction insulating oil, i.e. the paper acts as wick for the impreg-
current J = N·E, which determines the field nation. The insulation strength must be guaranteed by
distribution. The permittivities and Eq. (2.1- the polymeric films, which normally have a significant-
19) do not have any significance for the for- ly higher breakdown strength than oil-impregnated pa-
per.
mation of a steady conduction field.

Example: Capacitor dielectric

2.1.4.2 Quasi-stationary (Inductive) Fields
A constant DC voltage (U = 3 kV) is applied to the di- in Conductors
electric of a capacitor for a very long time. The insula-
tion is arranged in layers of polymeric films (d1 = 30 In materials with high conductivities (con-
-16
μm, N1 = 10 S/m) and oil-impregnated paper (d2 = 30 ductors), it is possible to neglect displacement
μm, N2 = 10
-14
S/m). The field stress, i.e. the field current density wDwt in comparison to con-
strength, shall be calculated for the materials, Figure duction current density J up to the GHz range.
2.1-11. Therefore, the field can be regarded as quasi-
stationary and the electromagnetic wave char-
In a calculation model, two equivalent layers replace all
films and papers. The total voltage is calculated with
acter is negligible, Eq. (2.1-29) and (-31), Fig-
Eq. (2.1-7) from the sum of the two partial voltages on ure 2.1-12. The condition is
the polymeric films and the impregnated papers:
wDwt = H0Hr wEwt << J = N·E . (2.1-27)
V = d1E1 + d2E2.
The spatial and temporal limits for the quasi-
Furthermore, the current density is equal in both materi- stationary regime, which are defined in Eq.
als according to the Continuity Equation (2.1-26): (2.1-36) and (-37), are also valid here.
16 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

o³ E dx = - w ³³ B dA o³ H dx # ³³ J dA = I
wt
x A x A

Faraday's law of induction (2.1-28) Ampere's law (2.1-29)

³³ B dA = 0 ³³ J dA # 0
A A

Continuity equation (2.1-30) Continuity equation (2.1-31)

for the magnetic flux density for the conduction current density

Figure 2.1-12: Maxwell's equations for quasi-stationary inductive fields in conductors

(Displacement current density in conductors is neglected).

Owing to the high electric conductivity N, even nal to the conductor’s surface. The displacement current
can be neglected in comparison with the conduction
low electric field strengths E cause high cur-
current and there is almost no or an extremely strongly
rent densities J. Therefore, even low induced damped and spatially limited electromagnetic wave
field strengths according to Eq. (2.1-28) must propagation orthogonal to the conductor’s surface.
be considered. This means that there is a cou-
pling between the electric conduction current The quasi-stationary inductive field is impor-
field and the magnetic field by Faraday’s law tant for high voltage engineering only in mate-
of induction. rials with high conductivities, e.g. in conduct-
ing electrodes, conducting connection lines
The electric field is no longer irrotational, i.e. and transformer windings. In dielectric mate-
an unequivocal definition of scalar potentials rials with low conductivities, the displacement
or voltage differences according to Eq. (2.1-7) current density must normally not be neglected
is not possible, the line integral ³E·dx would in comparison with the very small conduction
depend on the integration path. current density, even at slowly changing fields,
Section 2.1.4.3.
Example: Eddy currents and current displacement

The effect of “current displacement” and “eddy cur-

rents” in conductors can be explained by the electric
curl field E(t), which is induced by the time-varying wB
magnetic field, causing time-varying current density wt
J(t). The induced field E(t) causes an eddy current den- E induced
sity Je(t) = N·E(t), which enhances the current density at
open loop conductor
the conductor’s surface and reduces it within the con-
ductor (current displacement, skin effect).

Even for AC at power frequency 50 or 60 Hz, current E quasi-static

displacement causes an increase in resistance in the J
range of a few percent for common conductor materials.
In the magnetic cores of electrical machines and trans-
formers, there are so-called eddy current losses, which
are reduced by thin, mutually insulated core lamina- wD
tions. Since these subjects are not directly related to wt
high voltage engineering, we refer you to more infor-
mation given in the literature [2].
Figure 2.1-13: Quasi-stationary fields within and
Even for very fast changing currents in conductors, outside the conductor material (inductive and
the fields are quasi-stationary in the direction orthogo- capacitive fields).
2.1 Basic Field Theory 17

wD
o³ E dx # 0 o³ H d x = ³³ (J +
wt
) dA
x x A

Faraday's law of induction (2.1-32) Ampere's law (2.1-33)

wD
³³ B dA = 0 ³³ (J +
wt
) dA = 0
A A

Continuity equation (2.1-34) Continuity equation (2.1-35) for the

for the magnetic flux density conduction and displacement current density
Figure 2.1-14: Maxwell's equations for quasi-stationary/ quasi-static (capacitive) displacement fields in insulating
materials (Induction of electric curl fields by magnetic fields is neglected).

Example: Transformer winding differences can approximately be defined ac-

The fields in a transformer winding are determined by cording to Eq. (2.1-7) because the induced curl
the time-varying magnetic field, which induces an elec- field is neglected relative to the source field,
tric curl field within the conductor. Thereby charges are see Eq. (2.1-32). This means that the electro-
displaced to the conductor’s surface, Figure 2.1-13. The magnetic wave character is neglected and the
conduction current is much greater than the displace-
ment current, therefore it is a quasi-stationary induc-
field is both a quasi-stationary and a quasi-
tive field. static field. Sometimes it is referred to (impre-
cisely) as a “static electric field” or an “elec-
On the outside of the conductor, the conduction current trostatic field” only.
is continued in the dielectric (mainly) as a displacement
current. The surface charges cause a quasi-static electric Power frequency (AC) voltage, switching
field. Within the dielectric, the source field is much
stronger than the (induced) curl field, which is normally
impulse (SI) voltage and lightning impulse
negligible. Then it is a quasi-static (quasi-stationary) (LI) voltage are the most important voltage
capacitive field. stresses of high voltage insulating materials. In
most cases, they can be described as quasi-
static (quasi-stationary) capacitive fields.
2.1.4.3 Quasi-stationary/ Quasi-static
(Capacitive) Displacement Fields in Within a field volume under consideration, a
Dielectrics quasi-static (quasi-stationary) description is
allowed, if all changes of the fields are nearly
High voltage engineering predominantly con- synchronous, i.e. without any significant de-
siders electric fields in dielectrics, i.e. in in- lay. This means that traveling wave processes,
sulating materials (so-called “non-conduc- which have to be considered for fast changing
tors”) with a comparatively low (residual) fields, can be neglected. Thereby limits for
conductivity N. Eq. (2.1-27) is not fulfilled and the validity of the quasi-static description
displacement currents normally exceed small are defined in space and time as follows:
conduction currents, even at low frequencies.
In Ampere’s law (2.1-33) and in the Continu- The propagation time W = x/u of an electro-
ity Equation (2.1-35) both current components magnetic wave through the volume under con-
must be considered, Figure 2.1-14. sideration (length x, traveling wave velocity u)
must be negligibly small in comparison with
The electric field is a source field and exceeds the time over which the field changes.
the induced electric field strength if the rate of
change of the magnetic field remains low, e.g. This means for sinusoidally changing fields
see Figure 2.1-13. Then potential and voltage with the period T and the frequency f:
18 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

-1
W = x/u << T/4 = (4 f) (2.1-36a) This is the case of the quasi-static (quasi-sta-
tionary) “dielectric displacement field”,
and with the wavelength O = T·u which is often called “electrostatic field”.
Field distributions are determined by the rela-
x << O/4. (2.1-36b) tive permittivities Hr of the different materials,
For a transient process with a rise time Tr we Figure 2.1-15 (top). Simple geometries can be
find accordingly described by a network model with capacitan-
ces.
W = x/u << Tr (2.1-37)
In case of predominant conduction current, the
With a limit of 0.5 % for the voltage error, the field is a (quasi-stationary) electrical conduc-
length x of long lines should be tion field. Field distributions are determined
by the conductivities N, Figure 2.1-15 (bot-
x < O/60 . (2.1-38) tom). Simple geometries can be described by a
For overhead lines with air insulation, which network model with resistances.
shall be regarded as quasi-static (quasi-station- Example: Capacitor dielectric (continued)
ary), at f = 50 Hz (60 Hz) x must remain < 100
A power frequency AC voltage (f = 50 Hz, root-mean-
km (< 80 km). For cables with a reduced trav- square/ r.m.s. voltage V = 3 kV) is applied to a capacitor
eling wave velocity, this limit is further re- insulation according to Figure 2.1-11 (d1 = d2 = 30 μm,
duced. For a lightning impulse voltage with Tr Hr1 = 2.2, Hr2 = 4.4). The electric field strength in the
# 1 μs, the length in air is only x < 22 m, if the different materials shall be determined, Figure 2.1-15.
rise with Tr is approximated by a quarter-pe- The total voltage is calculated from the sum of the two
riod of an AC voltage with T = 4 μs. partial voltages on the polymeric films and the impreg-
nated papers according to Eq. (2.1-7):
In the common insulating materials displace-
ment currents normally exceed conduction v(t) = d1E1(t) + d2E2(t)
currents for impulse and AC voltages: From this, the r.m.s. values for V and D follow:

wD/wt = H0Hr wE/wt >> J = N·E (2.1-39) V = d1E1 + d2E2.

Figure 2.1-15:
Plastic film Plastic films
Quasi-static (quasi- E1 v 1 (t) C1
stationary) fields in a
Paper d1 H 1
Plastic film wD
capacitor insulation Paper Paper wt v (t)
stressed with a time- E2 v 2 (t) C2
varying voltage v(t).
Plastic film d2 H 2
Paper

Top: Displacement cur- Capacitor Network

Calculation model
rent dominates (dielectric insulation model
displacement field, often
denominated as "electro- Plastic film Plastic film
static field" or "capacitive E1 v 1 (t) R1
field").
Paper d1 N 1
Plastic film
J v (t)
w D /w t >> J Paper Paper
E2 v 2 (t) R2
Plastic film d2 N 2
Bottom: Conduction cur- Paper
rent dominates (Electrical
conduction field). Capacitor Network
Calculation model
insulation model
J >> w D /w t
2.1 Basic Field Theory 19

Moreover, the displacement current density according to the initial displacement field and the stationary
Eq. (2.1-35) is equal in both materials: conduction field, Figure 2.1-16 gives an ex-
wD/wt = H1·wE1/wt = H2·wE2/wt ample. If the time, which is relevant for field
variations, is significantly shorter than a time
The conduction current density J is neglected. The time
integral gives the r.m.s. values constant W describing the transient behavior of
the insulation system, an electrostatic field
D = H1·E1 = H2·E2. (dielectric displacement field) can be as-
sumed:
From this, field strengths are calculated from the equa-
tion for the r.m.s voltage V,
AC quarter-period T/4 << W
E1 = V/(d1 + d2·H1/H2) = 67 kV/mm (2.1-40)
and or rise time Tr << W
E2 = E1·H1/H2 = 33 kV/mm.
Fields, which vary very slowly in comparison
Note: Obviously the plastic dielectric with the lower with the transition time constant W of the di-
permittivity Hr1 = 2.2 is stressed with E1 = 67 kV/mm, electric system, can be regarded as electrical
i.e. twice as strongly as the oil-impregnated papers, the conduction fields, which are determined by
field is displaced into the material with the lower per-
conductivities:
mittivity. This effect of “field displacement” is of high
importance for high voltage engineering: In the given
case, the material with the lower breakdown strength
AC quarter-period T/4 >> W
(the paper) is fortunately stressed with the lower field (2.1-41)
strength. However, very often there are cases where the or rise time Tr >> W
electric field is “displaced” into the dielectric with the
lower strength (e.g. in air bubbles with Hr = 1). Example: Capacitor dielectric (continued)
Following the application of a DC voltage, the system
The question, whether a slowly changing field needs several hours to approach a steady-state condi-
must be regarded as an electrostatic field or as tion, i.e. to charge the capacitance C1 of the highly re-
an electrical conduction field, can be answered sistive polymeric films via the insulating resistance R2
by considering the transition process between of the comparatively conductive oil-impregnated papers.

Plastic films
d1 H 1
E1 v 1 (t) C1 R1
N 1 wD
+J v (t)
Paper wt
d2 2 H E2 v 2 (t) C2 R2
N2
Calculation model Network model

"DC voltage"v (t ) applied to the capacitor's insulation

V

Figure 2.1-16: v (t) "Capacitive

v 1 (t) voltage
Transition from the displace- distribution"
ment field (electrostatic field,
quasi-static field) with a "ca- "Resistive
pacitive voltage distribution" voltage
to a stationary (steady-state) distribution"
conduction field with a "re- v 2 (t)
sistive voltage distribution"
during the application of a 0 R 2 C1 t
so-called "DC voltage" v(t).
20 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

The relevant time-constant is approximately R2C1 # tem is stressed for a short time completely
0.5 h, Figure 2.1-16. This time-constant is significantly differently from as one would assume from a
longer than T/4 = 5 ms for an AC voltage at f = 50 Hz. pure AC or DC voltage distribution at the be-
Therefore, the assumption of an electrostatic field (di-
electric displacement field) in the above-mentioned
ginning and at the end of the transition [7].
example was justified. Immediately after the application
of the DC voltage, a “capacitive voltage distribution” is
caused, according to the electrostatic field (displace- 2.1.4.4 Non-stationary, Time-varying Fields
ment field). It marks the beginning of a transition pro- (Electromagnetic Waves)
cess, approaching a “resistive voltage distribution”,
according to the electrical conduction field. Fast changing fields, which no longer fulfill
Example: Self-discharging of a Dielectric the conditions for a quasi-static (quasi-station-
ary) description (eq. (2.1-36 to (-38)), have to
The self-discharging of a capacitor or a homogeneous be described by Maxwell’s Equations (2.1-14)
dielectric is also an exponential transition process. The
time-constant Wd = R·C = H/Nresults from a calculation
to (-17) in their universal form. Therefore, the
in a network model, which describes the exponential mutual coupling between electric and mag-
discharging of a capacitance C via the parallel insulating netic field quantities must especially be con-
resistance R. The geometric quantities cancel each other sidered. This results in electromagnetic waves
out, so that the time constant is Wd = H/N with finite phase velocity u.
If field theory is considered, the result is the same: In a
self-discharging dielectric material the conduction cur- Maxwell’s Main Field Equations (2.1-14) and
rent J·dA is fed from the change of the electric field, i.e. (-15), i.e. Faraday’s and Ampere’s law, trans-
the “electric circuit” is closed by the anti-parallel dis- ferred into their differential form, can be dif-
placement current wD/wt·dA, which is equal in mag- ferentiated with respect to time and can be
nitude. By means of the constitutive (material) Equa- mutually inserted into each other. The results
tions (2.1-19) and (-20) a differential equation for the
decrease of the electric field strength E(t) is derived:
are two independent partial differential equa-
tions for the electric and magnetic field quan-
N·E(t) =  H·wE/wt tities E(x,t) and H(x,t). It can be shown that
The solution is an exponentially decreasing field the solution approaches
strength with the time constant Wd = H/N, see Eq. (2.4-3).
f(z - ut) and g(z + ut)
In the previously discussed example of a capacitor di-
electric, the time constants for the self-discharging of both satisfy the differential equations. They
the polymeric films are Wd1 = H1/N1 = H0Hr1/N1 # 50 h can be interpreted as wave processes that are
and for the oil-impregnated papers Wd2 = H2/N2 = propagating in the +z- and -z-directions.
H0Hr2/N2 # 1 h. Boundary conditions and material properties
determine the particular distribution of the
Transition processes in complex insulation electromagnetic wave-fields E(x,t) and H(x,t).
systems have to be determined by network
analysis. Especially for DC and polarity re- Example: Uniform plane wave
versal (PR) stresses it is necessary to base the For example, a uniform plane wave in +z-direction
analysis on the actually given field distribution within a non-conductive insulating material (N = 0) shall
(e.g. on a given steady-state conduction field). be considered: From Maxwell’s Main Field Equations,
According to the field changes (application or i.e. from Faraday’s and Ampere’s law it is concluded
polarity reversal of a “direct voltage”) a dis- that the field vectors E and H are orthogonal to the
direction of propagation and orthogonal to each other,
placement field (electrostatic, quasi-static or Figure 2.1-6. Such a field is called transverse electric
AC field resp.) must be superimposed. During and magnetic field, transverse electromagnetic wave or
a more or less complex transition process, a TEM wave, Figure 2.1-17.
new steady-state condition in the form of a
The so-called phase front is spanned by the vectors E
(stationary) conduction field is approached. and H orthogonally relative to the direction of propaga-
Thereby it is possible that the insulating sys- tion. It is a surface or plane of constant phase (e.g. the
2.2 Electrical Stresses in High Voltage Engineering 21

wavefront), and it propagates with the phase velocity u excite significant traveling waves even in sys-
in +z-direction, Figure 2.1-17 with Eq. (2.1-42). The tems with lengths of a few meters only. It is
magnitudes of the related vectors E and H have a con-
stant ratio E/H = Z, the so called wave impedance, Fig-
concluded that high voltage engineering
ure 2.1-17 with Eq. (2.1-43). mostly has to deal with guided traveling waves
on transmission lines, see Section 2.6. Impor-
The phase velocity in vacuum and in gases is tant practical examples are
equal to the speed of light
x lightning strikes into an overhead transmis-
6
u = u0 = 300·10 m/s, (2.1-44) sion line,
x „fast transients“ (FT) in pressurized gas-
the wave impedance is equal to the intrinsic insulated switchgear (GIS),
impedance of the free space x impulse generators for the so-called “pulsed
power technology” and
Z = Z0 = 377 :. (2.1-45)
x measurement signals on long measuring ca-
In insulating materials with μr # 1 the quanti- bles.
ties u0 and Z0 are to be divided by the square
root of Hr:
u = u0 / H r 2.2 Electrical Stresses in High
Z = Z0 / H r
(2.1-46) Voltage Engineering
High voltage engineering must always con- Insulating systems in high voltage engineering
sider the traveling wave character of the fields, are based on insulating materials, which have
if the quasi-static description causes signifi- to satisfy very different requirements. Of
cant errors. According to Eq. (2.1-36) to (-38), course, the electric strength plays a dominant
this limit is reached for materials with Hr = 1 role, but it is only a single property among
(e.g. for air)
x for a length of approx. 100 km (80 km) in 'z
the case of AC voltage f = 50 Hz (60 Hz), u u
x for a length of approx. 5 km in the case of
switching impulse (SI) voltage (time to crest
Tcr = 250 μs), E ( z, t0 ) E ( z, t0 +'t )
z
x for a length of approx. 25 m in the case of x
lightning impulse (LI) voltage (front time T1
= 1.2 μs) and E
x for lengths of less than 0.2 m in the case of
“fast transients” (rise time Tr < 10 ns) in
gas insulated switchgear (GIS) or gas insu- u
lated lines (GIL). z
For AC and SI voltages we can assume quasi- H
static (quasi-stationary) conditions in many y
'z 1
cases, for LI voltages these conditions can be u = = (2.1-42)
't —PH
assumed if the circuit dimensions are limited
to a few tens of meters. Overvoltages with rise
E P
times in the μs range are always to be regarded
as traveling waves in the distributed systems
Z = H = —H (2.1-43)

of energy or data transmission. The same ap- Figure 2.1-17: Uniform plane wave with
plies to the very steep fast transients, which transverse E- and H-field vectors.
22 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

many others. Each insulating material has a The design of an insulating system has must
specific profile of properties that determines ensure that the property profiles of the dielec-
whether the material is suitable for a special tric materials satisfy all test and service
application or not. In the following some im- stresses. These stresses can be of an electrical,
portant elements of such profiles are summa- thermal, mechanical and chemical/physical
rized: nature.
1. Electric strength (dielectric strength), In the following, only the various electrical
e.g. short term strengths and life-time charac- stresses will be discussed, such as DC volt-
teristics for AC, DC and impulse voltage ages (Section 2.2.1), AC voltages (Section
stresses, also under the influence of pollution. 2.2.2), switching and lightning impulse volt-
ages (Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4), fast rising im-
2. Dielectric properties, pulses (e.g. fast transients, Section 2.2.5) and
e.g. permittivity, dissipation factor, conductiv- mixed stresses (Section 2.2.6). During the cal-
ity and surface resistance. culation of electric field strengths, it is neces-
3. Thermal properties, sary to consider the different characters of the
e.g. permissible holding and maximum tem- electric fields. Figure 2.2-4 gives an overview
peratures, thermal conductivity, coefficient of at the end of this chapter.
thermal expansion, thermal capacitance, The wide range of non-electric stresses in high
flammability, tracking resistance, temperature voltage engineering will be addressed together
dependences of material parameters. with the description of special insulating mate-
4. Mechanical properties, rial properties (Chapter 5) and the different
e.g. tensile and flexural strength, modulus of technical applications (Chapter 7).
elasticity, degree of hardness.
5. Resistance to environmental influences, 2.2.1 DC Voltage Stress
e.g. weather-resistance, resistance to ultravio-
let rays and resistance against chemical im- Many technical applications are associated
pacts. with high DC voltage stresses:
6. Processing possibilities, 1.) In devices for the DC supply of X-ray
e.g. casting, extruding, welding, bonding and tubes, in monitors, charging devices, copiers,
mechanical machining. impulse circuits, lacquering and coating de-
vices and in test equipment there are high
7. Availability and costs, electric DC fields, especially in the barrier
for procurement and processing. junction of the rectifier components and in the
8. Possibilities for recycling and disposal. dielectrics of smoothing and energy storage
capacitors, Figure 2.2-1.

Rectifier
These stresses are frequently not a matter of
pure steady-state DC voltage, often there are
mixed voltage stresses: Grading capacitors and
High rectifier components are additionally stressed
Grading
capacitors voltage by a superimposed AC voltage. The voltage of
Smoothing and device smoothing capacitors contains a certain “rip-
energy storage ple” and energy storage capacitors (“surge
capacitors
capacitors”) are discharged abruptly. Further-
more, in many cases the DC voltage is not
Figure 2.2-1: Half-wave high-voltage rectifier circuit applied long enough for the formation of a
with grading and smoothing capacitors. steady-state (stationary) conduction field, Fig-
2.2 Electrical Stresses in High Voltage Engineering 23

ure 2.1-16. The individual voltage stress of During steady-state DC voltage application,
single components is derived only from the there are problems with very high line-to-
analysis of voltages in a given circuit. Differ- ground voltages (approx. above 500 kV). Pol-
ent circuits for the generation of high DC volt- lution and wetting of insulator surfaces cause
ages are described in Section 6.2. unpredictable distortions of the electric fields
because of comparatively high and non-uni-
2.) In high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) form conductivities of the wetted deposits on
transmission systems AC-transformers feed the surfaces [7] ... [10].
converter circuits, which are arranged in series
on the DC side, Figure 2.2-2. Thereby, there
are mixed AC and DC stresses on the insula-
2.2.2 AC Voltage Stress
tion.
The insulation also has to withstand transient Energy transmission with three phase AC sys-
processes occurring after switching on and off tems requires the application of high voltages
or polarity reversal of the DC voltage. There- in order to limit the losses. Therefore insula-
fore, special DC test procedures with polarity tion systems are stressed by high AC voltages
reversals and voltage profiles determine the with frequencies of f = 50 Hz or f = 60 Hz Ac-
DC insulation design, see Figure 2.2-4. cording to the considerations of Sections
2.1.4.3 and 2.1.4.4 quasi-static (quasi-station-
For the calculation of electric field strengths ary) displacement fields can normally be as-
after voltage changes or reversals it is neces- sumed in the insulation of power apparatus.
sary to superimpose a dielectric displacement This means that the permittivities determine
field (quasi-static field), which describes the the distribution of the electric fields for the
amplitude of the voltage change, and the ini- common insulating materials with low con-
tially given stationary conduction field (initial ductivities.
steady-state condition), Section 2.1.4.4.
The transmission voltage of a three-phase AC
system is defined by the “highest voltage for
Positive DC line equipment” Vm, which must not be exceeded
in any part of the electrical grid [11]. This
voltage is the highest r.m.s. value of the phase-
to-phase voltage for which the equipment and
its insulation is designed. Standardized values
Converter
Converters
are
transformers
in the “medium voltage (MV) range”
(1 kV < Vm < 52 kV)
Ground electrode
Vm = 3.6 kV,
7.2 kV,
12 kV (common in Germany),
17.5 kV,
24 kV (common in Germany),
36 kV,

in the “high voltage (HV) range”

Three phase (52 kV < Vm < 300 kV)
AC system Negative DC line
Vm = 52 kV,
Figure 2.2-2: Converter station of a high-voltage
direct-current (HVDC) transmission system. 72.5 kV,
24 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

123 kV (common in Germany), ground fault, the neutral-point potential is

145 kV, therefore shifted and the insulations between
170 kV, the unaffected phases and ground are stressed
245 kV (common in Germany), with the phase-to-phase voltage according to
Eq. (2.2-1). Resonant overvoltages at power
and in the “extra high voltage (EHV) range” frequency should be excluded by the grid to-
(Vm > 300 kV) pology, but they can occur together with har-
monics.
Vm = 300 kV,
362 kV, The strength of insulation against power-fre-
420 kV (common in Germany), quency overvoltages has to be proven by
525 kV, means of a specified AC voltage withstand test
765 kV. with a duration of 1 minute (“rated short-du-
ration power-frequency withstand voltage
Note: In a very general sense, “high voltage” is any test”). The r.m.s. value of the test voltage is
voltage level above low voltage (1 kV). The boundaries always specified in relation to the highest volt-
between medium and high voltage depend on local cir- age for equipment Vm [11]. This reference of
cumstances, history or common usage. Nevertheless, the
band 30 kV to 100 kV frequently contains the accepted
test voltages to the maximum voltage stresses
boundary. The above-mentioned classification is used in in service is called “insulation coordination”,
German transmission and distribution systems for in- Section 6.1.4.
stance.
The test voltage value is nearly 3·Vm for the
Note: Sometimes in Germany the standardized voltage
levels Vm = 12, 24, 123, 245 and 420 kV are still de-
lower voltage levels and approx. between 2·Vm
nominated with the old “nominal voltages” 10, 20, 110, to 1.5·Vm for the higher levels. This short-
220 and 380 kV (400 kV). duration test voltage is an important design pa-
rameter for insulation systems.
Insulation breakdown is normally determined
by the highest occurring value of the AC volt- For the higher voltage levels a successful AC
age, i.e. by the peak value. For sinusoidal voltage withstand test is not sufficient. De-
voltages and under normal service conditions, pending on the kind of equipment, insulation
the insulation between phases (line-to-line, quality must be guaranteed by the proof of
index “LL”) is stressed with the peak value partial discharge (PD) intensity limits at dif-
ferent AC test voltage levels (see Section 3.6,
Û
V LL = 2 · Vm (2.2-1) 6.4.2 and Chapter 7).

AC voltage tests on cables with high capaci-

and between phase and ground (line-to-
tances are performed with very low frequency
ground, index “LG”) with the peak value
(VLF) f = 0.1 Hz in order to reduce the capac-
itive reactive power. Alternatively, tests with
V LG =
Û 2 · Vm / 3 . (2.2-2)
higher frequencies can be performed with res-
onance test circuits instead of the less mean-
Electrical equipment is designed and rated to ingful DC tests, Figure 2.2-4, Section 6.2.1.
withstand this continuous voltage stress for
many decades. Transformers must be tested with increased
frequencies (e.g. with f = 100 Hz for 50 Hz
For a short time, power-frequency overvolt- transformers and f = 120 Hz for 60 Hz trans-
ages can occur, e.g. during a sudden load re- formers) in order to avoid saturation of the
duction. In grids up to Vm = 123 kV the neutral magnetic core after exceeding the design volt-
point (star point) does not always have a solid age and at the start of the test voltage. If the
grounding. In the case of a single phase-to-
2.2 Electrical Stresses in High Voltage Engineering 25

frequency is doubled, the induced voltage Vi ~ 2.2.4 Lightning Impulse Voltage

wB/wt ~ Z·B is also increased by a factor of Stress (“External Overvoltages”)
two without any increase in magnetic flux
density B, Figure 2.2-4. Direct lightning strikes into power apparatus
cause travelling waves in the widely distrib-
Significantly higher frequencies occur if the
uted overhead lines and cables. These waves
line voltage contains harmonics. This can re-
lead to very high short-duration overvoltages.
sult in a distortion of the voltage curve, so that
Also lightning strikes into line towers, over-
peak values differ significantly from the peak
head ground wires or into other structures
values of a sinusoidal voltage with the same
nearby can lead to rapidly changing fields and
r.m.s. value. Furthermore, harmonics can
traveling wave processes being coupled in. As
cause enhanced capacitive currents and en-
the surges are generated atmospherically, i.e.
hanced dielectric losses. Lossy and thick in-
they are caused by external lightning impulses
sulation systems (e.g. in old power factor cor-
(LI), we refer to “external overvoltages”.
rection capacitors with oil-impregnated paper
insulation) are subject to higher thermal Amplitudes and time responses of external
stresses. overvoltages are subject to strong variations.
Nevertheless, characteristic properties are a
fast rising voltage in the μs range and a sig-
2.2.3 Switching Impulse Voltage nificantly slower decline of the overvoltage
Stress (“Internal Overvoltages”) impulse (Section 6.2.4). For of electrical
power equipment a standardized lightning im-
Pulse-shaped overvoltages can be caused by pulse voltage with a so-called front time T1 =
switching operations in the electrical grid, e.g. 1.2 μs and a time to half-value (tail time) T2 =
by interruption of a currents during the open- 50 μs is defined. As part of the insulation co-
ing of inductive circuits. As the origin is in the ordination, the different service voltage levels
grid itself, the switching impulses (SI) are Vm are each associated with a peak value of
called “internal overvoltages”. the “rated lightning impulse withstand volt-
age” VrL [11]. They are more than twice the
For equipment with Vm > 300 kV the electric so-called short-duration AC withstand voltage.
strength against SI overvoltages is normally
proven during a type test. The peak value of For the calculation of electric fields, quasi-
the standardized “rated switching impulse static (quasi-stationary) conditions and dielec-
withstand voltage” VrS is defined in relation to tric displacement fields can be assumed in
Vm as part of the insulation coordination [11], relatively small systems only, i.e. for dimen-
Section 6.2.3.1. Normally the peak time Tp sions limited to approx. 25 m, Figure 2.2-4. In
(time to crest) is 250 μs and the time to half- systems with distributed parameters (distrib-
value (tail time) is 2500 μs. uted systems), e.g. in cables and overhead
lines, the wave-character of the fields must be
During the calculation of electric fields in considered. This is especially the case if the
common insulating systems, quasi-static trailing part of the impulse voltage is chopped.
(quasi-stationary) conditions in the form of Depending on the inductance of the circuit,
dielectric displacement fields can be assumed, chopping times far below 100 ns can occur. In
which are determined by permittivities, cf. circuits with low losses (e.g. if a non-damped
Section 2.1.4.4. The errors of a quasi-station- capacitive voltage-divider is used), the chop-
ary analysis are negligible up to lengths of ping can be an excitation of significant tran-
approx. 5 km, if Tp = 250 μs, Eq. (2.1-37), sient traveling wave oscillations.
Figure 2.2-4.
26 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Another example for pulsed electric stresses is and grinding of inhomogeneous or compos-
the discharging of energy storage capacitors, ite materials, e.g. for recycling applications
which are often referred to as impulse capaci- [12].
tors, Figure 2.2-4. Typically the discharge
periods or the time-constants of the discharge x Electroporation can be applied for the
opening and disruption of biological cells at
processes are in the μs range. Therefore in
smaller systems quasi-static fields can be as- room temperatures with low energy con-
sumed. sumption.
x High energy impulses can be used to gener-
(Impulse) discharge circuits of high power
ate very fast temperature rises for the pro-
pulse technology (pulsed power) are used in
duction of nanometric particles by melting
many technical applications, Section 7.4.2:
and condensing.
x In medical engineering acoustic shock- x Pulse discharge circuits are necessary for
waves are generated by igniting a spark gap the power supply of impulse lasers and for
in water or by an electroacoustic transducer. other impulse (flash) light sources.
The energy is supplied by the discharging
of a high voltage capacitor. For example, in
a lithotripter the resulting shock wave is fo-
2.2.5 Fast-rising Impulse Stresses
cused on a kidney stone (nephrolith) or a
gallstone in order to pound it to tiny pieces. (“Fast Transients”)
x In production technology focused acoustic There are many examples of fast rising im-
shock waves can be used for high-speed pulses in different technical applications:
forming of metallic materials.
1.) In gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) dis-
x Shock waves are used for electrodynamic charge processes are caused for example by
fragmentation, i.e. for the fragmentation flashovers or by switching of disconnectors.

H
u
E

H, E, u

Figure 2.2-3: Propagation of traveling waves within and on the outside of a gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) after
a breakdown in gas (schematic illustration without respect to reflections).
2.2 Electrical Stresses in High Voltage Engineering 27

DC voltage AC voltage Impulse voltage Fast

Steady-state Switching VLF AC AC Switching- Lightning- Pulsed
rising
operations 100/ 120 Hz impulses
DC voltages 0.1 Hz 50/ 60 Hz impulse voltages impulse voltages discharges
Polarity reversals 10 .. 500 Hz

Days ... months Hours, T = 10 s T = 20 ms T = 10 ms 250/ 2500 μs 1.2/ 50 μs Rise times in the
v(t)
Changes ns-range
in minutes v(t) t
v(t)
v(t) t E(t), H(t)
v(t)
t T 2T
v(t)
t
t
t
t

Electrical conduction fields

stationary quasi-stationary
v E = Z = —P
H H
Equivalent circuits with resistances E H
J= NE L
"Electrostatic" fields/ Quasi-static (quasi-stationary) displacement fields
D= H E Equivalent circuits with capacitances Z, t C

R Electromagnetic waves
C
System with distributed parameters

High-voltage direct-current Three-phase alternating current "Internal" "External" Chopped Fast transients
(HVDC) transmission (switching-) (lightning-) lightning impulses

X-ray tubes 50(60) Hz overvoltages Discharging Pulsed power

of impulse-
Monitors capacitors: Nuclear
Lasers Medical eng. Electromagnetic
harmonics Trans- Pulse (NEMP)
Charging devices former Biotengineering
n·50/ 60 Hz testing Switching- Lightning-
Electrostatic percipitator Cable impulse impulse Production
testing withstand tests withstand tests
Coating Resonance Impulse lasers Partial Discharge
testing
Electrostatic flock finishing Recycling (PD) impulses
(on-site)

Figure 2.2-4: Overview of important technical voltage stresses in high voltage engineering:
Typical time curves (top), kinds of fields and equivalent circuits (middle) and typical applications (bottom).

Because of the high gas pressures and the low able situations, the excitation of self-reso-
insulation distances, discharges have rise times nances (e.g. in the transformer windings) can
in the ns range, therefore they can excite trav- result in further voltage overshoots. Wave
eling waves. Owing to the length (frequently propagation on the outside of the shielding can
many meters) of the coaxial tubular conductors cause unwanted electromagnetic interferences
and shielding, traveling waves can often prop- in the secondary systems of the plant. Specific
agate without significant damping. At discon- measures have to be taken in order to guaran-
tinuities of the line impedance reflections oc- tee “electromagnetic compatibility” (EMC).
cur, and different waves are superimposed.
Normally they propagate within the tubular 2.) Testing of power equipment with respect
shielding, but via the bushings they can also to very fast voltage transients is normally per-
propagate outside, Figure 2.2-3 and -4 [13]. formed together with a lightning impulse test
by a fast “chopping” of the voltage by means
Therefore, highly stressed insulations (e.g. in of a chopping spark gap. The time to chopping
transformers and bushings) are endangered by is 4 to 6 μs (chopped lightning impulse,
significant transient overvoltages. In unfavor- chopped-wave lightning impulse).
28 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

For the calculation of fast transients, the fast- Nevertheless, the discharge impulses are a
changing character of the processes must be dangerous phenomenon of AC voltage stress,
considered. Mostly the transients can be de- owing to their erosive effects in sensitive,
scribed as guided TEM-waves on coaxial lines mainly organic insulating materials. The fast
(traveling waves, Section 2.6). On a surface changing electromagnetic field of partial dis-
with constant phase (wavefront) the closed- charges is important for partial discharge
loop integral about E·dx is zero (the vectors H measurements.
and B do not penetrate the wavefronts!), there-
fore voltages between the inner and the outer 6.) The transmission characteristics of high-
conductor can be defined according to Eq. voltage measuring systems are determined by
(2.1-7). Attention: The definition of voltages means of step-generators providing rectangular
with components parallel to the direction of pulses with rise times in the ns range. Because
wave propagation is no longer possible! of the large spatial dimensions, traveling wave
oscillations on measuring cables and direct
3.) Other examples for very fast rising high- coupling of free electromagnetic waves must
voltage impulses can be found in pulsed- be considered [18], [19].
power technology for the generation of ex-
tremely short impulses with extremely high
power ratings. These pulses are generated by 2.2.6 Mixed-field Stresses
means of traveling-wave lines and they are
used to feed particle-beam accelerators in sci- In many cases electric stresses are a combina-
ence for the investigation of materials in ex- tion of the cases described above. Then it is
treme conditions and for the ignition of con- often difficult to determine the electric field
troled nuclear fusion processes. The rise times strengths and the relevant electric strengths.
and the half-value widths of these impulses are Important examples:
in the range of some ns and some 10 ns resp.,
peak power and peak voltage reach the TW 1. Superposition of DC and AC voltages in
and the MV range [14], [15]. the converter transformers of HVDC systems.

4.) In the case of a nuclear explosion in the 2. DC voltage and polarity reversal tests: A
space outside of the Earth’s atmosphere, it is stationary conduction field and a quasi-sta-
expected that the action of the resulting radia- tionary displacement field are superimposed, if
tion in the atmosphere will separate positive the amplitude or the polarity of the voltage is
and negative charge carriers in the vertical changed. Depending on conductivity N and
direction. Separation and recombination of self-discharge time-constant H/N, it takes a
charges will cause a pulsed electromagnetic very long time to approach a new steady-state
field, the so-called nuclear electromagnetic condition. During such a transient process,
pulse (NEMP). It is expected that high over- significant stresses can occur on materials in a
voltages will be induced in the widely distrib- layered insulation, which are much less highly
uted systems of telecommunications, informa- stressed initially and in the steady state.
tion technology and energy transmission and
distribution. 3. Rectifier and converter circuits: Many
electronic devices are stressed with a superpo-
5.) If a high AC field strength is applied to an sition of DC, AC and impulse voltages.
insulation defect, partial-discharge (PD) im-
pulses occur, normally without causing an 4. Energy-storage and impulse capacitors:
immediate breakdown. These impulses also During the charging process, the dielectrics are
have very short rise times in the ns range. For stressed with an increasing voltage. Depending
a single partial discharge the dissipation of en- on the time of storage, the field after voltage
ergy and the charge magnitude are very small. application approaches a steady-state conduc-
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 29

tion field. During the discharging process there If the whole field volume that is to be consid-
is a pulsed stress, often in the form of a ered consists of a single homogeneous (uni-
damped oscillation. form) insulating material (dielectric), the
field distribution is not determined by material
5. Fast transients: Rapidly changing traveling properties (permittivity H, conductivity N) and
waves are superimposed on the actual field the electric field calculations are based on the
condition given by the quasi-static power fre- same relationships. Therefore, the field calcu-
quency state. Thereby high overvoltages can lation methods, which are described in the
occur, for which the equipment is not insulated following, can be applied for most of the.
sufficiently.
First of all, the direct analytic evaluation of
In field calculations for the determination of the field equations is performed (Section 2.3.1
electrical stresses, the different kinds of fields and 2.3.2). It allows the calculation of basic
are normally calculated separately and super- field configurations with homogeneous,
imposed linearly into mixed stresses. In con- spherically symmetric and cylindrically sym-
trast to magnetic materials with non-linear metric fields. Some important high voltage
magnetization curves, solid insulating materi- field configurations can be approximated from
als behave more or less linearly, as long as this.
discharges do not occur. Liquid dielectrics can
have non-linear conductivities, however, Sec- A graphical method (Section 2.3.3) allows a
tion 4.2.2.2. qualitative or semi-quantitative field sketch to
be determined using some simple drafting
In situations with mixed stresses, it is often rules. Often this is very valuable for a first
difficult to evaluate calculated field strengths. qualitative estimation of field conditions.
For the example of impulse capacitors, the
steady-state DC voltage is absolutely noncriti- The method of conformal mapping (Section
cal in comparison with the fast changing stress 2.3.4) allows the calculation of some special
during the discharging process, although the cases, e.g. the field stress enhancement at the
amplitudes are identical in both cases. edges of a parallel-plate capacitor (edge field).

For practical design purposes, breakdown and By means of the fields of equivalent charges
lifetime tests are necessary, with conditions (Section 2.3.5) it is also possible to calculate
close to the real service conditions. important field configurations, e.g. sphere
against sphere or cylinder against plane.
In many cases, only the maximum field
strength is of interest. For many field configu-
2.3 Conduction and rations, it can be derived from already calcu-
Displacement Fields in lated cases by similarity relationships and ge-
ometry factors (Schwaiger’s field efficiency
Homogeneous Dielectrics factor, Section 2.3.6).

For static, stationary and slowly changing Before numerical field calculation methods
(quasi-static, quasi-stationary) fields in insu- were available, the only possibility for the de-
lating materials, the electric field can be re- termination of field strengths in systems with
garded as irrotational, i.e. as an electrostatic arbitrarily shaped electrodes was the meas-
field. An induced electric curl field does not urement of electrical conduction fields in a
occur or can be neglected. Therefore, the defi- semi-conductive liquid (electrolytic tank) or
nition of potential differences and voltages is on a semi-conductive paper (field plotter),
acceptable. Section 2.3.7).
30 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2.3.1 Analytic Evaluation of the Example: Spherical electrode in free space

Continuity Equation The magnitude of the electric field strength E shall be
calculated as function of voltage V and radius r for the
(Gauss’s Law) spherically symmetric arrangement according to Figure
2.3-1. The counter-electrode with the negative counter-
2.3.1.1 General Calculation Method charges is assumed to be infinitely far away.

If Eq. (2.1-17), i.e. the Continuity Equation for Step 1:

The surface of a sphere with the radius r is chosen as the
conduction and displacement current closed surface for integration. Thereby the symmetry of
the configuration is utilized, because the displacement
wD
³³ ( J + wt ) d A = 0, density has a constant magnitude D(r) over the entire
chosen surface. Furthermore, the vectors D and dA are
A parallel to each other, over the entire closed surface.
The scalar product D·dA equals the product of the mag-
is integrated over the time, it results in nitudes D·dA. The displacement density is constant all
“Gauss’s law”, Eq. (2.1-21) and (2.3-1). It over the surface of integration, and it can be brought out
states that the integral of the flux density D from under the integral sign in Eq. (2.3-1):
over any closed surface, i.e. the total dis-
placement flux ³³ D·dA, equals the charge Q ³³A D dA = D (r) ³³A dA = Q
enclosed.
The remaining integral over the closed surface gives the
2
³³ D dA = Q (2.3-1) surface area A(r) = 4Sr itself:
A 2
D(r) · A(r) = D(r) · 4Sr = Q

With Eq. (2.3-1), field calculations can be per- This gives

2
formed for some basic configurations in four D(r) = Q/(4S r ) and
steps: 2
E(r) = Q/(4SH r ) . (2.3-2)
Step 1: The magnitude of the electric field strength decreases
For configurations with symmetrical fields, 2
proportionally to 1/r , i.e. quadratically with the radius.
Eq. (2.3-1) is solved for the magnitude D of
displacement vector D, in order to get a rela- Step 2:
tionship between field-generating charge Q In high voltage engineering the electric field
and the electric field strength E = D/H. strength E normally has to be given as a func-
tion of the applied voltage V. This is possible,
if the field strength, which is derived from
dA Gauss’s law according to Eq. (2.3-1), is inte-
grated according to Eq. (2.1-7):
Closed surface 1
A
V 21 = 'M 21 = M 2 - M 1 = ³ E d x (2.3-3)
Q r 2
R
Thereby a relationship between Q and V is
Dielectric determined, i.e. Q = f(V).
displacement
density Step 3:
D According to Eq. (2.1-10) the ratio of Q and V
Electrostatic field E defines the capacitance C of the field configu-
ration:
Figure 2.3-1: Spherically symmetrical electrode C = Q/V (2.3-4)
in free space (Gauss's law).
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 31

Step 4: to (2.3-8). Maximum field strength occurs at

The desired relationship between field the electrode surface.
strength E and voltage V
Note: The field of the conducting sphere in free space
E = f(V) with a vanishingly small radius R o 0 approaches the
field of a point charge. This theoretical case is impor-
is derived from the first step with E = f(Q) and tant for field calculations with the equivalent-charge
from the second step with Q = f(V). simulation method, Section 2.3.5.

Step 5: The smaller the radius of curvature R of an

In an additional step, maximum values of field electrode, the higher the electric edge-field
strength can be determined and optimization strength will be, Eq. (2.3-8).
problems can be solved, e.g. the minimization
of maximum field strength. Generally, sharp edges (with small radii R)
Example: Spherical electrode (continued) must therefore be avoided in high voltage
engineering, in order to avoid electrical
Step 2: overstressing of the adjacent insulating
Continuing with the former example, the voltage be-
tween the electrode surface with radius r = R and the
material.
counter-electrode (carrying the negative counter-
charges) with the radius r o f is given by Example: Sharp-edged point electrode

䌲 The field in the vicinity of a metallic point electrode

Q 䌲1 shall be calculated approximately as a spherically sym-
VR䌲 = 䌿E (r ) dr = 䌿 dr
R 4 ʌH R r2 metric field with R = 1 mm. What is the expected peak
voltage Û
V for the inception of discharges in air (Êi = 5
f
Q ª  1º kV/mm)?
4 ʌ H «¬ r »¼ R
From Eq. (2.3-8) we conclude that Û
V = Êmax·R = 5 kV.
= Q/ (4SH R) ,
Note: High field strengths at sharp-edged point elec-
if the integration is performed radially, i.e. in parallel trodes do only occur in a small volume close to the
with the electric field E. Therefore it gives point. The inception field strength is therefore signifi-
cantly higher than the commonly used peak value Êi = 3
Q = 4 SH R V . (2.3-5)
kV/mm = 30 kV/mm which is valid for air gaps in the
Step 3: centimeter range, Figure 3.2-15. Discharge inception
From that, the capacitance is derived: cannot be described exactly by specifying a constant
inception field strength, see Chapter 3.
C = Q / V = 4S H R . (2.3-6)

Step 4: In high voltage engineering, field stress en-

According to Eq. (2.3-2) and (2.3-5) from steps 1 and 2, the electric field
strength is
hancements at sharp edges are reduced by suf-
2
ficient radii of curvature. In many cases,
E(r) = V R/r . (2.3-7) sharp-edged parts have to be protected by
Step 5: shielding electrodes (e.g. spheres or toroids).
Maximum field-strength is found on the electrode sur- The field strengths on the surface can be esti-
face for the smallest possible radius r o R, i.e. mated by approximation from Eq. (2.3-8) if
Emax = E(R) = V / R . (2.3-8) approximately spherically symmetric condi-
tions are assumed with a counter-electrode
very far away:
2.3.1.2 Spherically Symmetric Fields Emax = V / R (2.3-8)
The electric field of a “conducting sphere in The capacitance in air can be approximately
free space” was calculated in the former ex- described according to Eq. (2.3-6) using the
ample, see Figure 2.3-1 and Equations (2.3-6) rule of thumb
32 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

C/pF | R/cm . (2.3-9)

Note: If the counter-electrode (e.g. the grounded wall,
ceiling or floor) is located at a finite distance, higher dA
capacitances and field strengths occur. Numerical field
calculation methods achieve a significantly better accu-
Closed surface
racy than the analytic estimation, Section 2.3.5.
A
Example: Shielding electrodes
Q R1 R2 r
The diameters of shielding electrodes for use in air (Êbd
= 30 kV/cm, Hr = 1) and insulating oil (Êbd =
150 kV/cm, Hr = 2.2) shall be sized for the voltage am-
plitudes Û
V = 10 kV, 100 kV and 1 MV so that the field
strengths do not exceed 2/3 of the breakdown field
strength.
E, D

The diameters are derived from Eq. (2.3-8):

V / (2/3 · ÊD) .
D = 2 R = 2Û
Figure 2.3-2a: Spherical capacitor
(or cylindrical capacitor resp.).
Peak voltage Û
V 10 kV 100 kV 1 MV
Air: D 1 cm 10 cm 1m
C 0.5 pF 5 pF 50 pF
Insulating D 2 mm 2 cm 20 cm
Oil: C 0.2 pF 2 pF 22 pF

Note: The results show that high voltage laboratories

need shielding electrodes with diameters in the meter
range.

Much more compact high voltage equipment can be

designed by means of electrically stronger insulating
materials (e.g. insulating oil or sulfur hexafluoride SF6). E(r)
It has to be considered that Ebd of insulating oil is not a E max With outer
constant value, but inter alia is dependent on the width electrode
of the oil ducts (“volume effect”, “distance effect” or
“size effect”, see Chapters 3 and 5). Without
~ 1/ r 2 E max
outer
A so-called spherical capacitor consists of an ~ 1/ r 2 electrode
inner sphere with the radius R1 and a counter 0 R1 R2 r
electrode consisting of a concentric outer
sphere with the finite radius R2, Figure 2.3-2a. Figure 2.3-2b: Field strength curves E(r) for the
spherical capacitor.
The calculation of field strength is performed
in five steps, analogous with the calculation
steps for the spherical electrode in free space: The integration of the field strength according
to Eq. (2.3-2) (Step 2) must not be performed
The use of Gauss’s law (eq. (2.3-1), Step 1) on from radius R to infinity, because the field is
the spherically symmetrical configuration ac- limited to the space between the inner and
cording to Figure 2.3-2a gives the same equa- outer electrodes, i.e. integration has to be per-
tion (2.3-2) again because of the similar field formed between the radii R1 and R2. Inserting
conditions. E decreases with the radius r pro- the new integration limits and V12 = V, we
2
portional to 1/r (step 1). obtain
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 33

Q 1 1 strengths E1. The optimum inner radius R1 for

V = ( - ) (2.3-10) a minimum surface field strength E1 is be-
4 SH R1 R2
and tween 0 and R2 therefore, and it is determined,
4 SH if the derivate of E1 with respect to the vari-
Q = V. (2.3-11) able R1 is set to zero, see Eq. (2.3-14):
1 1
R1 R2 wE1 R2 2R1 !
= R V = 0
The capacitance of a spherical capacitor is wR 1 ( R 1R 2 R 12 )2 2
given by C = Q/V (Step 3):
We obtain for R1 and E1min:
4 SH
C = (2.3-12)
1 1 R1 = R2 / 2 and E1min = 4 V / R2
R1 R2
(2.3-15)
The field strength curve between inner and Another example for optimization problems is the
outer electrodes is derived from Eq. (2.3-2) maximization of the capacitively stored energy
2
and (2.3-11) (Step 4): W = ½ C V by variation of the inner radius R1 for a
given outer radius R2 and an permissible field strength
1 Ebd. This is particularly important for capacitors in
E(r) = (2.3-13)
1 1 2 V which the greatest quantity of energy is to be stored for
( )r given dimensions.
R1 R2
The capacitively stored energy is calculated according
For the extreme value R2 >> R1 Eq. (2.3-12) to Eq. (2.3-12) and (2.3-14)
and (2.3-13) approach Eq. (2.3-6) and (2.3-7). 2
W = ½ C V
The maximum field strength at the inner -1 2
W = ½ [4SH R1R2(R2 - R1) ] [Ebd (R2 - R1) R1/R2]
sphere with r = R1 (Step 5) is higher in com-
2 3
parison with the sphere in free space, Figure W = Ebd 2SH (R2 - R1) R1 /R2
2.3-2b. The areas under the field strength 2 3 4
curves correspond to the integral of the func- W = Ebd 2SH (R2R1 - R1 ) /R2
tion E(r), i.e. to the applied voltage V. In the extreme cases R1 o 0 and R1 o R2 the field
energy is minimal, i.e. W o 0. The radius R1 for maxi-
We obtain the maximum field strength from
mum field energy is determined, if the derivate of W
Eq. (2.3-13) for the radius r = R1 on the sur- with respect to the variable R1 is set to zero:
face of the inner sphere (surface or edge field
2 2 3
strength): wW/wR1 = Ebd 2SH (R2 3R1 - 4R1 ) /R2 = 0

R2 The result for R1 is

E max = E1 = V (2.3-14)
R 1R 2 R 12 R1 = R2 3/4. (2.3-16)

From the calculated field strengths optimiza- For many applications in high voltage engi-
tion problems can be solved by means of ex- neering the electric field can be regarded as
treme value determination: spherically symmetric, either by approxima-
tion or in limited field regions, Figure 2.3-3.
For a given outer radius R2 the inner radius R1
shall be chosen so that the maximum field
strength (surface/edge field strength) E1 will 2.3.1.3 Cylindrically Symmetric Fields
be minimal.
The so called “cylindrical capacitor” consists
In the extreme cases R1 o 0 and R1 o R2, of concentric (coaxial) cylinders with the radii
there are infinitely high surface/edge field R1 and R2, Figure 2.3-4. To begin with, field
34 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

R R2 R
R2 R1
R1 Connecting element
R with high voltage
conductors

Right-angle busbar
Shielding electrode in arrangement in a
the corner of a room GIS (gas-insulated
switchgear)
Shielding electrode
in free space
R1
Compressed gas capacitor R2
(standard gas capacitor)

Figure 2.3-3: Examples for spherically and cylindrically symmetric fields in HV engineering (approximations).

distortions at the edges of the cylinders are ne- enclosing the inner cylinder. It consists of a
glected, i.e. it is assumed that there is a two- cylindrical lateral surface with the radius r and
dimensional field, which does not change the cylinder length z, and two plane end areas,
along the axis of the cylinders. Figure 2.3-4.

Calculation of field strengths is performed in The lines of dielectric displacement density D

five steps, as in the case of the spherically are nearly orthogonal to the vectors of the area
symmetric field: elements dA of the end areas. For the integra-
tion over the total closed surface, the contribu-
For the application of Gauss’s law, Eq. (2.3-1), tion of the end areas can therefore be ne-
Step 1, a closed surface is defined, completely glected. On the lateral surface D and dA are in

r
R2

R1 D, E
D, E Cylindrical inner conductor

End area
Cylindrical lateral surface (length z )

E(r) Cylindrical outer conductor

Closed surface
E max
With outer
cylinder z

~ 1/ r
Without outer
cylinder
0 R1 R2 r
Figure 2.3-4: Cylindrically symmetric electrode configuration (top) with field strength profile (bottom).
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 35

parallel, so the vector product can be replaced Also for cylindrically symmetric fields we
by the scalar product of the magnitudes. D(r) find: the smaller the radius of curvature R1 of
is nearly constant on the lateral surface and the inner cylinder the higher the electric field
can be brought out from under the integral strength at the inner cylinder will be, Eq. (2.3-
sign. The remaining integration of dA over the 22). However, the increase of field strength is
lateral surface gives the surface area value A = smaller than in the spherically symmetric field.
2Sr z Small radii are also to be avoided in cylin-
drically symmetric fields in order to stay be-
Q = D(r) ³³ dA = D(r) A = H E(r) 2Sr z
low the breakdown strength of the adjacent
The magnitude of the electric field strength dielectric materials.
decreases with the radius r proportional to 1/r:
Eq. (2.3-22) gives the maximum field strength
E(r) = Q / (2SH z r) (2.3-17) for the ideal cylindrically symmetric field and
not the field strength at the edges of the cylin-
The integration of field strength E(r) from the
ders. Significant field stress enhancements and
inner to the outer cylinder according to Step 2
high local fields can occur there depending on
and Eq. (2.3-3) with V12 = V gives
the electrode profiles at the electrode edges.
Q R2
V = ln , (2.3-18) Note: It is natural to look at a “cylindrical conductor in
2 SH z R1 free space”, as was done for the “sphere in free space”,
i.e. i.e. the extreme case with the counter-electrode with the
negative counter-charges is assumed to be infinitely far
2 SH z away, i.e. R2 o f. If the field strength is integrated
Q = V . (2.3-19)
R according to Eq. (2.3-17), the result is an infinite volt-
ln 2 age (potential difference), which can directly be seen
R1
from Eq. (2.3-18). For a finite potential difference and
The capacitance of the cylindrical capacitor is R2 o f the field strength will be zero, see Eq. (2.3-21).
C = Q/U (Step 3):
Therefore it is always necessary to consider an outer
2 SH z cylinder with a finite radius R2 < f in a cylindrically
C = (2.3-20) symmetrical field.
R
ln 2
R1 The field between two cylinders approaches the field of
an ideal “line charge” for the extreme case R1 o 0 and
In Step 4 the field strength profile between R2 o f. This theoretical extreme case is important for
inner and outer cylinders is evaluated from Eq. field calculations with the equivalent charge method
(2.3-17) and (2.3-19): together as with “point charges” and other equivalent
charges (Section 2.3.5). Nevertheless, the counter-
V charges are not located infinitely far away, but are also
E(r) = (2.3-21) line charges at finite distances.
R2
r ln
R1 From the calculated field strengths optimiza-
The area under the field strength curve equals tion problems can be solved by means of ex-
the voltage (potential difference) between the treme value determination:
cylinders, which is the integral of E(r) in radial For a given outer radius R2 the inner radius R1
direction, Figure 2.3-4. shall be chosen so that the maximum field
In step 5 the maximum field strength is derived strength (surface/edge field strength) E1 will
from Eq. (2.3-21) for the radius r = R1: be minimal.

E max = E1 =
V In the extreme cases R1 o 0 and R1 o R2,
R (2.3-22)
there are infinitely high surface/edge field
R 1 ln 2
R1 strengths E1. The optimum inner radius R1 for
36 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2
minimum surface field strength E1 is between wW/wR1 = Ebd SH z
2 2
0 and R2 therefore, and it is determined from ·[2R1 ln (R2/R1) + R1 (R1/R2)(-R2/R1 )]
Eq. (2.3-22), if the derivate of E1 with respect 2
to the variable R1 is set to zero. = Ebd SH z R1[2 ln (R2/R1) - 1]
= 0
During the differentiation, the rules for deri-
vate of a fraction have to be applied to the The result for R1 is
whole fraction at first. Additionally, the rules 1/2
for the derivate of a product have to be applied R1 = R2 / e . (2.3-24)
for the differentiation of the denominator [6].
For many applications in high voltage engi-
R R -R 2 neering the electric field can be regarded as
0 - [ ln 2 + R 1 1 ] cylindrically symmetric, either by approxima-
w E max R1 R 2 R 12
= V tion or in limited field regions. Some examples
wR 1 R 2
( R 1 ln 2 ) are already shown in Figure 2.3-3. Cylindri-
R1 cally symmetric fields also occur in high-volt-
R2 age cables, in gas insulated switchgears, in
- [ ln - 1]
w E max R1 ! bushings and close to cylindrical conductors.
wR 1 = V 2 = 0
R
( R 1 ln 2 ) Example: Thin wire
R1
The field in the vicinity of a thin wire shall be approxi-
mated by a cylindrically symmetric field with R1 = 1
R1 and E1min are derived from Eq. (2.3-22): mm and R2 = 1 m. What is the expected peak voltage Û V
for the inception of electrical discharges in air (Êi = 4
R1 = R2/ e and E1min = e V/ R2 kV/mm)?

From Eq. (2.3-22) it is concluded that

(2.3-23)
V = Êmax R1 ln (R2/R1)
Û = 27.6 kV
Note: The irrational number e = 2.71828... is the base of
the natural logarithm and it is occasionally called “Eu- Note: High field strengths at thin conductors with very
ler number” or “Napier’s constant”. small radii only occur in a small volume close to the
conductor. Inception field strength is therefore signifi-
Another example for optimization problems is the cantly higher than the commonly used value Êi = 3
maximization of the capacitively stored energy kV/mm = 30 kV/cm which is valid for air in the centi-
2 meter range, Figure 3.2-15. Discharge inception cannot
W = ½ C V by variation of the inner radius R1 for a
given outer radius R2 and a permissible field strength be described exactly by a constant inception field
strength, Chapter 3.
Ebd. This is particularly important for capacitors in
which the greatest possible quantity of energy is to be Example: Tubular conductor and cable
stored for given dimensions.
The diameters of high-voltage conductors with coaxial
The maximum stored energy is calculated according to outer conductors shall be sized for use in air-insulated
Eq. (2.3-20) and (2.3-22) tubular conductors (Êbd = 30 kV/cm, Hr = 1), in oil-
2
insulated tubular conductors (Êbd = 150 kV/cm, Hr =
W = ½ C V 2.2) and in thermoplastic-insulated cables (polyethyl-
2 ene, Êbd = 450 kV/cm, Hr = 2.2). Peak voltages shall be
W = ½ [2SH z / ln (R2/R1)] [Ebd R1 ln (R2/R1)]
V = 10 kV/ 100 kV/ 1 MV; 2/3 of the breakdown
Û
2 2 strength must not be exceeded and the outer diameter
W = Ebd SH z R1 ln (R2/R1).
shall be as small as possible.
In the extreme cases R1 o 0 and R1 o R2 the field
The smallest outer diameters are achieved, if the ratio of
energy is minimal, i.e. W o 0. The radius R1 for maxi- the radii R2/R1 = e is chosen such that the maximum
mum field energy is determined, if the derivate of W field strength E1 is minimal. With Ê1min = 0.67 Êbd we
with respect to the variable R1 is set to zero:
get
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 37

D2 = 2 R2 = 2 e Û/ (0.67 Êbd) and son with air. The assumption of a constant value for Êbd
neglects that the electric strength of insulating oil and
D1 = 2 R1 = 2 Û/ (0.67 Êbd). polyethylene decreases with increasing insulation thick-
ness (“volume effect”, “size effect”). The mentioned
Note: The same result is obtained by extreme value voltages and field strengths are short-term strengths, as
determination, i.e. if Eq. (2.3-22) is solved for R2, and if may be used for designs with respect to short-term volt-
the derivate of R2 with respect to R1 is set to zero in age tests. Permissible service voltages and field
order to determine the minimum. strengths are significantly lower, especially for oil and
polyethylene (Section 2.2.2 to 2.2.4). The capacitance
Voltage V
Û 10 kV 100 kV 1 MV per unit length C’ only depends on the permittivity Hr,
Air: D2 2.7 cm 27 cm 2.7 m because the ratio of radii is the same in all cases.
D1 1 cm 10 cm 1 m
C´ 56 pF/m 56 pF/m 56 pF/m
2.3.1.4 Uniform (Homogeneous) Fields
Insulating D2 5.4 mm 5.4 cm 54cm
Oil: D1 2 mm 2 cm 20 cm Between two parallel plane electrodes at a
C´ 122 pF/m 122 pF/m 122 pF/m distance d there is a uniform electric field with
Poly- D2 1.8 mm 1.8 cm 18 cm the constant field strength E = V/d (“parallel-
ethylene: D1 0.7 mm 0.7 cm 7 cm plate capacitor”). In the first instance, field
C´ 122 pF/m 122 pF/m 122 pF/m distortions at the electrode edges shall be ne-
glected. Even in this simple case, the calcula-
Note: The result shows that the application of electri- tion of field strength is performed in the five
cally strong insulating materials (insulating oil, SF6, steps mentioned above, just in order to illus-
polyethylene) allows very compact designs in compari- trate the method:
For the application of Gauss’s law (eq. (2.3-1),
Step 1) a closed surface is defined, enclosing
one of the electrodes completely. It consists of
a surface A between the plane parts of the
electrodes and of additional faces in the outer
parts of the field volume, which extend surface
A to form a closed surface, Figure 2.3-5.
The outer faces are only penetrated by a small
D, E
displacement flux ³³ D dA; its contribution to
the total flux over the closed surface is there-
fore neglected.
A
Between the electrodes, D and dA are in paral-
lel, so the product of the vectors can be re-
Closed surface placed by the scalar product of the magnitudes.
E(x) D is nearly constant on the surface A and can
E0 be brought out from under the integral sign.
The remaining integration of dA over the sur-
face A gives the area of the surface A itself:
Q = D ³³ dA = D A = H E A
Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field
0 d x strength E is constant for all values of x be-
tween the electrodes:
Figure 2.3-5: Uniform electric field in a parallel-
plate capacitor (approximation without consider- E(x) = Q/(H A) = E0 = const. (2.3-25)
ation of field distortions at the electrode edges.
38 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

trodes is calculated from Eq. (2.3-25) and (2.3-

The integration of field strength E(x) accord- 26), Step 4:
ing to Eq. (2.3-3) (Step 2) from one electrode
to the other gives E(x) = E0 = V/d = const. (2.3-28)
V = E0 d = Q d/(H A) . The area under the field strength curve equals
the voltage (potential difference) between the
This means
electrodes which is the integral of E(x) in the
Q = H A V/d . (2.3-26) x-direction, Figure 2.3-5.

The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor The indication of maximum field strength (Step
follows from C = Q/V (Step 3): 5) is unnecessary for the uniform field. Nev-
ertheless, field stress enhancements can occur
C = H A /d (2.3-27) at strongly curved edges of the electrodes (see
The field strength curve between the elec- also Figure 2.3-8 and 2.3-9).

D, E 2.3.1.5 Field Distortions by Space Charges

Electric discharges in gaseous dielectrics can

generate “space charge clouds” which
+Q -Qtot strongly modify („distort“) the local electric
field. Space charges can also be generated in
liquid and solid insulating materials under the
influence of electrical stresses.
Example: Space charge in a parallel-plate capacitor
The influence of space charges and the basic calculation
method are explained for the example of a uniform field
A with constant and positive space charge density K. (vol-
ume density of charge). The counter-charges are as-
sumed to be on the negative electrode, Figure 2.3-6:
Closed surface With space charge During the application of Gauss’s law (eq. (2.3-1), Step
E(x) 1) it has to be considered that the total enclosed charge
Without within the closed surface is dependent on the actual
E0 space charge position of the surface between the electrodes. The total
charge consists of the sum of the charges on the en-
closed electrode and the (space) charges within the
enclosed insulating volume:
Q(x) = Q + ³³³ K dV
0 d x = Q+KAx
M (x) !
= D ³³ dA = D A = H E A.
U
This means that the magnitude of the electric field
with space charge strength E between the electrodes is no longer con-
without space charge stant; it increases linearly with x and it becomes maxi-
mal at the counter-electrode at x = d, Figure 2.3-6:

E(x) = Q(x)/(H A) = Q/(H A) + x K/H (2.3-29)

0 d x The further calculation can be performed in analogy to
Figure 2.3-6: Space charges in the dielectric of a the steps described above, but it is to be considered that
parallel plate capacitor (see fig. 2.3-5). the total stored charge Qtot consists of the positive
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 39

charge Q on the electrode and the positive charge ³³³ K are expressed differently depending on the
dV = d A K stored in the dielectric. coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical and
Qtot = Q + d·A·K spherical coordinates) [2], [3], [6]. Poisson’s
Equation is written
Thereby the capacitance C = Qtot/V is increased. The
potential no longer decreases linearly with x, but is de- in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z)
scribed by a second order polynomial, which can be
derived by the integration of Eq. (2.3-29), Figure 2.3-6. w2M w2M w2M
M
' + +  KH (2.3-32)
w x2 w y2 w z 2
In non-uniform fields, e.g. in spherically or
cylindrically symmetric fields, space charges in cylindrical coordinates (r, D, z)
can increase or decrease the (geometric) in- 1 w
r wM ) + 12 wM2 + wM2
2 2
homogeneity (non-uniformity) of the field, M
' (
r wr w r r wD wz
depending on polarity. Thereby the discharge
behavior in non-uniform fields is strongly in- KH (2.3-33)
fluenced (“polarity effect”, Section 3.2.5.2).
and in spherical coordinates (r, D, -)
Note: Especially in the insulation of a capacitor con-
sisting of layers with different materials (Section 2.4), M
' (r w r ) + 2 1 ww- ( sin- ww-M )
1 w 2 wM
the space charges stored in the material and the surface r2 w r r sin-
charges at the interfaces can cause a dangerous “re- 1 w2M
charging” of the electrodes and a “recovery voltage”, + 2 2
even after a temporary short circuit of the electrodes
r sin - wD 2
(Section 2.4.4.3). Therefore, capacitors must be short- KH (2.3-34)
circuited permanently.
Note: The derivation of Eq. (2.3-32) to (-34) is omitted
and referred to the literature [2], [3], [6].

2.3.2 Analytic Solution of Poisson’s The application of Poisson’s Equation shall be

Equation exemplified for the uniform field of a parallel-
plate capacitor without space charges, Figure
The continuity of the displacement density is 2.3-5. Nevertheless, all the other cases in Sec-
described by Eq. (2.3-1) in integral form. The tion 2.3.1 can be calculated.
equivalent in differential form is Example: Uniform field without space charges
div D = K. (2.3-30) Step 1: At first, Poisson’s Equation is simplified to
Laplace’s Equation (K = 0) which is only dependent on
According to Eq. (2.1-8) the field strength is the variable x. Naturally, Cartesian coordinates are used
here, with M(x,y,z) = M(x). Now Eq. (2.3-32) is
E = - grad M
2 2
'M = w Mwx = - KH = 0 .
and Poisson’s Equation can be derived. It can
be used for electrostatic (irrotational) fields: Step 2: The simplified differential equation is solved in
general form, by two integrations in this case:
2 wMwx = k1 und M(x) = k1 x + k2 .
div grad M = ’ M = ' M = - KH
Step 3: The integration constants k1 and k2 are deter-
(2.3-31) mined from the boundary conditions. From
Note: Poisson’s Equation is called Laplace’s Equation M(x=0) = V we obtain V = 0 + k2 and from
for K = 0.
M(x=d) = 0 we obtain 0 = k1d + k2 .
The differential operators div (divergence),
With the solutions k2 = V and k1 = -V/d the potential is
grad (gradient), ’ (nabla, Hamilton’s operator,
del operator) and ' (delta, Laplace’s operator) M(x) = V (1 - x/d)
40 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Step 4: For a given potential distribution, the electric The value of the graphical mapping lies in
field is defined unequivocally. The vector of the electric the rapid creation of a qualitative overview
field strength E can be obtained by the calculation of
the gradient according to Eq. (2.1-8). In a uniform field
map, which cannot replace a numerical calcu-
with Cartesian (x, y, z)-coordinates the result lation, but which can prepare for and supple-
ment it. Furthermore, graphical mapping re-
E = -grad M = {-wMwx, 0, 0} = {U/d, 0, 0} . quires a thorough analysis of the field geome-
gives a constant magnitude of the field strength try. Thereby a valuable and deep understand-
ing of the physical character of the electrical
E = V/d = E0 = const. q.e.d. stress is created.
Note: If Poisson’s Equation is evaluated in cylindrical The drawing rules are deduced from the
or spherical coordinates, the calculation of the gradient properties of field lines and equipotential lines.
(the field vector resp.) must also be performed in cylin-
drical or spherical coordinates, Eq. (2.1-8), [2], [3], [6].
(Frequently just referred to as “potential
According to the steps described above, the symmetries lines”). At first, a plane, two-dimensional field
of the configuration should be used for the simplifica- is discussed, which does not change in the
tion of Poisson’s Equation. The general solution of the third dimension and can be drawn in the
differential equation gives a general expression for the drawing plane, Figure 2.3-7:
potential distribution and the constants of integration
have to be determined by means of the boundary condi- 1.) Field lines and equipotential lines are or-
tions. The electrostatic field strength is derived from the
potential distribution by calculation of the gradient.
thogonal (rectangular to each other).
2.) Electrode surfaces are equipotential sur-
faces (normally reference and high
voltage potentials are 0 % and 100 %).
2.3.3 Graphical Field Mapping
(for Plane Fields) 3.) Field lines and electrode surfaces are or-
thogonal (deduced from 1. and 2.).
Normally, technical field configurations in 4.) The distance a between two equipotential
high voltage engineering differ more or less lines is always related to the same poten-
from the basic configurations discussed in the
tial difference 'V. The distance b between
former chapters. Therefore it is helpful to draw
two field lines (or displacement lines) is
qualitative distributions of field lines and
always related to the same charge 'Q on
equipotential lines graphically, i.e. free-hand,
the electrodes, i.e. to the same displace-
just by approximation and without any com-
plicated calculations. ment flux. From this it follows that the el-
ement capacitance 'C = 'Q/'V, which is
If some drawing rules are regarded, a field related to every “box” or element with a
map or field pattern for a plane (two-dimen- length z, is equal for all “boxes” (ele-
sional) configuration can be created. It gives a ments) on the field map:
qualitative impression of the electrical stress,
but with appropriate care it is often also possi-  'C = 'Q/'V = H z b/a = const. (2.3-35)
ble to roughly determine field strengths and
This means that the aspect ratio b/a is
capacitances.
equal for all elements:
Graphical field mapping gives a good impres-
sion of the distribution of field lines and equi- b/a = const.
potential lines. Therefore, it can be used to
(2.3-36)
support basic physical understanding and to
perform plausibility checks of numerically The best way for field mapping is to draw
calculated field distributions, i.e. to exclude square elements, i.e. if b/a = 1 is chosen.
coarse calculation mistakes. The aspect ratio is correct, if the four sides
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 41

of the square element touch an inscribed

circle, Figure 2.3-7. 100 %
75 %
Traditional tools of graphic field mapping are
blank paper, pencil and eraser (rubber); also
good choices are simple graphics programs 'V 50 %
which make it easier to improve the map itera- a
tively.
'C
It is advisable to begin with the drawing in an b 25 %
area where the potential distribution is known. 'Q
The electrode contours give an orientation for 0%
the distribution of the equipotential lines.
z: Length of the configuration
As a first approximation, field lines are drawn
orthogonally to the equipotential lines and the Figure 2.3-7: Graphic mapping of field lines and
electrode contours. The aspect ratios of the equipotential lines for two-dimensional fields.
resulting boxes have to be constant according
to Eq. (2.3-36). Irregularities with respect to line is shifted closer to the upper electrode (inner side
the drawing rules (1. to 4.) indicate how the and edge), the distance to the outer side is increased
considerably (5). It must be taken in to account that the
actual map has to be improved by reposition- field strength in the electrode edge region must decrease
ing of field lines and equipotential lines. from the upper electrode towards the lower electrode,
i.e. the distance of the equipotential lines increases.
In practice there will often need to be a greater
number of iteration steps in order to achieve a A check of the aspect ratios and the angles shows that
the field map still needs to be improved.
satisfactory result.
Step 4 (Figure 2.3-8c): The final field pattern is ob-
The graphical method of field mapping shall tained by iterative approximations with respect to the
be explained for the practically important ex- drawing rules.
ample of the fields at the edges of a parallel- In the given example it is advisable to start with the
plate capacitor, Figure 2.3-8 and 2.3-9: inscribing of circles in the region with the uniform field
and to proceed towards the regions with non-uniform
Example: Edge field of a parallel-plate capacitor fields (6). Position and direction of the equipotential
lines and the field lines and the diameters of the in-
Step 1 (Figure 2.3-8a): At first, the known potential
scribed circles have to be adjusted iteratively and step-
distribution in the uniform or known part of the field is
by-step.
drawn (1). The further course of the equipotential lines
is approximately orientated with the given electrode The evaluation of a completed field pattern
contours (2).
provides approximate information about the
Note: It is advisable, to start with a small number of location and magnitude of maximum field
equipotential lines only (e.g. lines for 0 %, 25 %, 50 % strength, the field strength profiles along con-
75 % and 100 %). The completed map can be further
refined by interpolation if necessary. tours and the capacitance to be assigned to the
electric field.
Step 2 (Figure 2.3-8a): The map is supplemented by
field lines rectangular to the equipotential lines, with the The field strength for any element of the field
aspect ratio b/a = 1. It is advisable to proceed along an pattern is
electrode contour (e.g. on the high voltage side).
E | 'V/a . (2.3-37)
The inscription of circles shows whether the aspect
ratios of the boxes differ significantly from the desired 'V is the potential difference and a is the dis-
value 1 in cases (3). tance between two equipotential lines for the
Step 3 (Figure 2.3-8b): Now the initial map is im-
considered element (“box”). E is the medium
proved. In this example the distance between the 25 %- field strength in the element (“box”), its accu-
line and the lower electrode is increased (4). The 75 %- racy depends on the accuracy of the drawing.
42 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

a) Rough approximation
of field lines and equipotential lines

50 %
(2) 75 %

(3)
(1) 25 %
(2)

b) Improved field lines and equipotential lines

(5)
75 % 50 %

(4)

25 %

Figure 2.3-8:
Graphical mapping of field
lines and equipotential lines c) Further improved field lines and equipotential lines
for the two-dimensional
(plane) edge field of a par- 50 %
75 %
allel-plate capacitor in dif- 25 %
ferent stages of iteration:
a) A first rough approxima-
tion which does not match
the drawing rules in many
items.
b) Improved map according
to the mismatch in a former
step.
c) Further improved map
generally matching the
drawing rules.
(6) ..... ooooooo
For qualitative conclusions,
iteration c) is often sufficient.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 43

Field strengths, which are taken from graphic symmetric fields, which are two-dimensional
field patterns, have to be handled with care. In as well. For the example in Figure 2.3-7, it is
general, accurate quantitative values require a now assumed that there is a horizontal axis of
numerical or an analytical analysis if possible. rotation at the lower line in the Figure.
Thereby the rod-shaped elements 'C with the
The whole field volume can be regarded as a length z are transformed into circular, ring-
series and parallel connection of equal element shaped elements with the circumference 2Sr:
capacitances 'C, Figure 2.3-7. The number of
parallel branches np and the number of series 'C = H 2Sr b/a
connections ns can be counted from the field
Because of 'C = 'Q/'V = const., the aspect
map. According to Eq. (2.3-35) and with b/a = ratio of the elements is
1 the total capacitance is
b/a = const./r . (2.3-39)
Ctot = 'C np/ns = H z np/ns (2.3-38)
Therefore, the aspect ratio b/a has to be ad-
Often the determination of capacitance is pos- justed depending on r, proportional to 1/r.
sible with less inaccuracy. Capacitance is an Thus, the accurate drawing of a field image is
integral quantity and Graphical inaccuracies much more difficult.
compensate each other as a result of the inte-
Graphical field mapping can also be applied to
gral view of the entire field space.
configurations with several dielectrics (Sec-
Example: Edge field of a parallel-plate capacitor
tion 2.4). Additionally to the drawing rules
(continued) described above, it is necessary to consider the
“refraction laws” for field lines and equipo-
Step 5 (Figure 2.3-8c and 2.3-9): The point of maxi-
mum field strength is at the inner side of the electrode
tential lines at the interfaces between insulat-
curvature. The magnitude of maximum field strength is ing materials, Figure 2.4-10 and 2.4-25.

Emax | 'V/amin = 0.25 V /amin.

s
The minimum distance amin between the 100 % and the Outer side
75 % equipotential line is nearly half that in the uniform
Curvature
region of the field. Therefore, the field stress enhance-
ment factor is approximately 2. Indeed, the real maxi- Inner side
mum field strength will be somewhat higher because the
field strength is not constant within the smallest square
element, and the measurement according to Eq. (2.3-37)
gives a medium value for the element only. A field
strength profile along the 100 % electrode contour can
be determined from the field pattern with Eq. (2.3-37),
Figure 2.3-9.
The capacitance of the ideal parallel-plate capacitor C0
E max E(s)
= H A/d has to be increased by an additional edge-field
capacitance Cedge: Ctot = C0 + Cedge. Cedge is calcu-
lated with Eq. (2.3-38) for z = 1 m in air and for the E0
region which is displayed in Figure 2.3-8c (i.e. just the
region with the “circles”, but only at the curvature and s
at the outer side):
Inner side Curvature Outer side
Cedge | 'C np/nr = H z np/nr = H z 5/4 | 11 pF.

The described graphical method can be used Figure 2.3-9: Qualitative profile of field strength
for plane two-dimensional fields. Neverthe- magnitude along the 100 % electrode contour
less, it can also be applied to rotationally (coordinate s).
44 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

For three-dimensional fields only rough The basic idea of conformal mapping is to
qualitative drawings are possible without any transform the x,y-plane (together with a given
quantitative information. In general three-di- complicated electrode configuration) into a
mensional field lines do not lie in a drawing u,v-plane, where the electrode configuration
plane, they penetrate it normally. Therefore it can be calculated easily. Afterwards the solu-
is not possible to draw the field lines in a tion is transformed inversely, back into the x,y-
plane. A two-dimensional field map has to be plane, Figure 2.3-10.
restricted to the equipotential lines, which are
the intersecting lines between the equipotential For this purpose, the geometric x,y-plane is
surface and the drawing plane. Meaningful regarded as a complex z-plane (z = x + jy) and
field patterns can only be calculated with nu- the geometric u,v-plane as a complex w-plane
merical field calculations (Section 2.5). (w = u + jv). Thereby, the two geometric axes
are replaced by a real and an imaginary axis.
Nevertheless, rough sketches are valuable to The so called conformal mapping is per-
support the engineer’s imagination and physi- formed by a complex function
cal understanding, but they must not be over-
estimated. w = f(z)
or
u + jv = f(x + jy).
2.3.4 Conformal Mapping It maps the points from the z-plane onto the w-
(for Plane Fields) plane. The complex function has two impor-
tant properties [2], [3], [6], Figure 2.3-10:
Conformal mapping is a method for the ana-
lytic calculation of some important two-dimen- x Figures of finite size may be subject to de-
sional high-voltage fields. formations by conformal mapping, but the
angles between curves, and hence the or-
Note: Conformal mapping was of high importance be- thogonality of field lines and equipotential
fore numerical field calculation methods were available.
Today it is of historical interest mainly: There are only lines is preserved, i.e. confomal mapping is
a few important field configurations still based on con- isogonal.
formal mapping.
x Figures of sufficiently small size preserve
their shape, and infinitesimal elements de-
scribed by field lines and equipotential
w= f ( z ) lines preserve their aspect ratio during the
Inverse transformation.
Transform
transform
z = g (w)
Note: These statements are not valid for the origin,
which is a singularity (pole).
jy jv
z -plane w -plane
This means that potential fields, which are
calculated in the z-plane, preserve their poten-
tial field character during the transformation
onto the w-plane and vice versa, Figure 2.3-10.
Nevertheless, the macroscopic field pattern
may be deformed.
x u
Note: Mathematically, every regular function of a com-
Figure 2.3-10: Conformal mapping of field lines and plex quantity f(z) = f(x+jy) fulfills Laplace’s Equation
equipotential lines from the complex z-plane into (2.3-22) for the two-dimensional case, i.e. if the space
the w-plane. charge K is zero:
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 45

2 2 2 2
 w fwx + w fwy = x,y-plane (D = 90°) into a plane electrode in the u,v-
plane (2D = 180°), Figure 2.3-11.
2 2
f ´´(z) (wzwx) + f ´´(z) (wzwy) = In the u,v-plane, the field above a plane electrode is a
uniform field and the potential increases linearly with
2 2
f ´´(z) 1 + f ´´(z) j = voltage V and with the distance v (k is a constant):

f ´´(z) - f ´´(z) = 0 M = v Vk
q.e.d.
This is the equation for equipotential lines in the w-
From
plane. The relation between w- and z-plane is given by
f(x+jy) = w = u(x,y) + j v(x,y) 2 2
w = z = (x + j y)

it is further concluded that and

2 2
u+jv = (x - y ) + j x y .
2 2 2 2
w fwx + w fwy =
Therefore, the equipotential lines (v = const.) are hyper-
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 bolas in the x,y-plane, symmetric with respect to the
w uwx + j w vwx ) + w uwy + j w vwy ) = bisecting line between x- and y-axis.:
!
2 2 2
w uwx + w uwy )
2 2 2
+ j w vwx + w vwy ) = 0.
2 2 M ~ v = x y = const.

This equation can only be fulfilled, if real and imaginary For the field lines (u = const.) there are hyperbolas
parts are both zero. This means that the functions u(x,y) symmetric with respect to x- and y-axis.:
and v(x,y) are both solutions of Laplace’s Equation. 2 2
u = x - y = const.
If the curves in the w-plane, which are defined by v =
const. ~ M, are regarded as equipotential lines (Figure The potential distribution in the x,y-plane is
2.3-10 right), the function M(x,y) ~ v(x,y) = const. de-
fines the potential distribution in the x,y-plane. The M = vVk = xy Vk.
orthogonal curves with u = const. can then be regarded
as field lines, Figure 2.3-10. In the x,y-plane, the potential of the rectangular elec-
trodes is set to zero (reference electrode). The equipo-
2 tential line with the diagonal distance a from the origin
Example: The function w = z
is selected as a counter-electrode with the potential M =
jD 2 j2D
2
2
The function w = z = (z·e ) = z ·e doubles the an-
2 V. The constant k = 2/a is determined with the bound-
1/2
gles D of all complex vectors z emanating from the null ary condition M = V for x = y = a2 :
point. The function can therefore be used to transform 2
an electrode consisting of two orthogonal walls in the M = x y V 2/a

Inverse
z = w -1/2 w = z2 Transform
transform
jy jv
z -plane w -plane
V

a— 0,75 V
0,5 V
Figure 2.3-11: 1,0 V
a 0,75 V
Conformal mapping 0,25 V
0,5 V
of field lines and
equipotential lines 90° a— 0,25 V 180° 0
for a rectangular x u
electrode: w = z 2
46 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

The electric field strength E is the gradient of M:

Conductor bundle jy
E = - grad M =  {wMwx, wMwy, wMwz}
with 2, 4, 6, ...
2 sub-conductors [2]
E = - V 2/a {y, x, 0}
w = c ln z x
The magnitude is R

2
E = 2 V ( x 2  y 2 ) /a .
r0
In the inner corner of the reference electrode (x o 0,
y o 0) there is no longer any field strength, i.e. E o 0.

At the surface of the hyperbolic high voltage electrode

1/2
in the axis of symmetry (x = y = a/2 ) the field Elliptical cylinders [2] jy
strength is E = 2 V/a, i.e. twice as high as in a uniform w = c 1 arcosh ( z /c 2 )
field with the same electrode distance a. However, field
strengths increase further outside the axis of symmetry.
x
The situation close to the axis of symmetry is
comparable with a curved conductor (e.g. a
tubular conductor) in the corner of a building.

Generally it is difficult to find a function

which transforms a given configuration into a
calculable basic configuration. Therefore a
different technique is used: starting from given Screen grid [2] jy
functions w = f(z), one investigates field con-
figurations that arise in the x, y plane.

In this way a large number of technically rele-

vant configurations could be calculated
analytically. Meanwhile, any field configura- x
tion can be directly calculated numerically
(Section 2.5). Therefore, it is not necessary to w = c 1 ln (2 sin c2 z )
discuss all of the many special cases that are
more or less suitable for conformal mapping;
they can be found in the literature [2], [3], [4], Edge field of a jy v =S
[16], [17]. parallel-plate
capacitor
(Rogowski's
Figure 2.3-12 shows some calculable configu- profile) [16] v=S
rations and the related transforms. Some are
discussed in the following. a
v =0 x
Example: Conductor bundle
a
z = (w + 1 + e w )
In order to reduce the field strengths at the S
surfaces of conductors of high voltage over-
head lines (for the voltage levels Vm = 245 kV
Figure 2.3-12: Examples for two-dimensional fields,
and above), single conductors are normally which can be calculated by conformal mapping.
replaced by conductor bundles. (see the literature).
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 47

A conductor bundle consists of n parallel sub- electrode. Close to the edge the field strength
conductors with the radius r0. They are uni- is strongly enhanced; it approaches an infinite
formly distributed on a circle with the radius magnitude at the edge itself. At the lower
R, and they have the same potential, Figure electrode the field strength decreases in the
2.3-12 top. An equivalent radius R´ for a sin- outward direction.
gle cylindrical conductor with the same capac-
itance against a distant counter-electrode is The volume between the electrodes is divided
calculated by means of the function w = ln z into two parts by the equipotential surface that
for small sub-conductor radii r0 << R [2]: is represented by the line v = S/2, the so called
Rogowski profile: In the upper volume the
1/n
R´ = R (n r0/R) (2.3-40) equipotential lines curve around the upper
electrode and field strengths along these lines
If two identical conductor bundles are led in reach local maxima E > E0 = V/a. In the lower
parallel with the distance a, the charge can be volume the field strength never exceeds the
determined from the capacitance calculations value of the uniform field E < E0 = V/a. Elec-
according to Section 2.3.5.3. The maximum trodes which are shaped according to the
field strength at the conductor surface is de- Rogowski’s profile (Rogowski electrodes) are
duced from this [2]: of high importance in high voltage engineer-
ing, because field stress enhancements at the
E = V / {2 r0 n ln(a/R´)} (2.3-41)
electrode edges can be avoided with them. An
The reduction ratio of field strength E to field important application is the testing of the
strength E0 at the surface of a single conductor breakdown strength of materials.
with the radius r0 is
Along Rogowski’s profile, the field strength
continuously decreases in the outward direc-
E/E0 = ln (a/r0) / {n ln(a/R´)}. (2.3-42)
tion. Therefore the curvature of the electrode
These equations are also valid for conductor could be increased further in order to achieve a
bundles which are led at a distance h above a more compact construction. This is required
conducting plane (ground), if a and V are re- for higher voltages with very large electrodes.
placed by a = 2h and V = 2 'VL/G. This plane The smallest dimensions are achieved if the
field strength is kept constant along the curved
is then regarded as a plane of symmetry in a
electrode: E = E0. The corresponding contour
configuration with two parallel conductor
bundles, see also Section 2.3.5.3. is referred to as “Borda’s profile”, which can
also be determined by conformal mapping or
Example: by iterative numerical optimization. The
Edge field of a parallel-plate capacitor Borda’s profile is a spiral contour with a con-
tinuously decreasing radius of curvature. An
The field at the edge of a parallel-plate ca- important application is field grading in cable
pacitor is especially important for high voltage entrance fittings and cable joints, Figure 2.4-
engineering, Figure 2.3-12 bottom. During the 36, 7.1.1-4 and -5.
transformation into the w-plane a uniform field
is achieved by a clockwise rotation of the up- Note: Electrodes with a contour shaped
per electrode surface by 180° about an axis according to Borda’s profile are frequently but
laying in the edge of the electrode. The equi- imprecisely referred to as Rogowski electrodes.
potential lines in the uniform field of the w-
plane are defined by the equation v = const. . In many practical cases it is often sufficient to
use a cylindrical electrode edge with a con-
In the z-plane there are equipotential lines, stant radius of curvature R greater than the
which are bent around the edge of the upper electrode distance d:
48 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

R > d (2.3-43) real charges. In English the term „charge

simulation method “(CSM) is common, but
The distance d is the distance between two the method is also called “equivalent charge
identical rounded plate electrodes, see Figure method”.
2.3-5. Therefore, the distance in the Figures
2.3-8 and 2.3-9 is d/2. In the following chapters important high volt-
Note: The field stress enhancement is estimated for
age engineering fields are discussed, i.e. fields
this case, if a cylindrically symmetric field with R1 = R, in the vicinity of two point charges (Section
R2 = R + d/2 and R = d is assumed according to Eq. 2.3.5.1), between two conducting spheres
(2.3-22) and (2.3-28). The result E1/E0 = 2.47 strongly (Section 2.3.5.2), in the vicinity of two line
overestimates the field stress enhancement, which is charges in parallel (Section 2.3.5.3) and be-
significantly lower. A better result is achieved, if an tween conducting cylinders (Section 2.3.5.4).
increased “effective outer radius” R2 = 2R + d/2 is as- Because of their symmetries, these cases also
sumed at the edge of the electrode, Figure 2.3-8c). The include the fields between spheres or cylinders
result E1/E0 = 1.1 is consistent with the real field stress and conducting planes [2].
enhancement which can also be estimated by
Schwaiger’s field efficiency factor , Section 2.3-6 [22]. This allows some important field configura-
These estimations show that results are strongly de- tions to be calculated analytically, e.g. spheri-
pendent on the simplifying assumptions. Estimations cal screening electrodes beside flat walls,
cannot generally replace exact analytical or accurate spherical spark gaps (measuring spark gaps),
numerical calculations. Similar to the graphical field cylindrical conductors beside flat walls and
mapping (Section 2.3.3), however, field strength esti-
mations are a good tool to get a feeling for the orders of
overhead lines.
magnitude.

2.3.5.1 Conducting Spheres (Point Charges)

2.3.5 Charge Simulation Method
The fields in the vicinity of conducting spheres
result from the superposition of the fields or
The Charge Simulation Method (CSM) is an-
potentials of point charges.
other traditional tool for the analytical calcu-
lation of specific high voltage engineering The potential in the vicinity of a single point
field configurations. It can also be used for the charge Q is derived from the electric field
numerical calculation of any electrostatic field strength according to Eq. (2.3-2) by integration
(Section 2.5). from r to f:
The Charge Simulation Method is directly
Q 1
based on the physics of electrostatic fields, M r  ˜ (2.3-44)
whereby source fields are generated by su- 4ʌH r
perposition of the fields of many single The reference potential is M(f) = 0. The
charges. However, these equivalent charges
counter charge -Q is assumed for r = f. The
are not positioned on the electrode surfaces
field of two point charges Q1 and Q2 results
where they should be in reality. Instead, one
proceeds from simplified charge distributions from the superposition of the potentials; r1 and
(point charges, line charges, ring charges etc.) r2 are the distances from the point charges Q1
and selects the electrode contours from the and Q2 to a reference point P at which the po-
resulting equipotential surfaces afterwards. tential M is formed by superimposing the po-
Therefore, the method is sometimes called the tentials M1 + M2 = M, Figure 2.3-13:
“indirect method” [67]. The charges repre-
sent only a limited number of equivalent 1 § Q1 Q2 ·
charges, giving the same electrostatic field be- M r  ¨ 
¨r
¸
¸ (2.3-45)
4SH © 1 r2 ¹
tween the electrodes as an infinite number of
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 49

Example: “Image charges” with equal magnitude theoretically approach infinite positive and negative
and opposite polarity values (r1 = 0 or r2 = 0). This is the extreme case of the
so called point charge.
If the charges Q1 = Q and Q2 = -Q1 = -Q have the same
magnitude but opposite polarity, the condition for equi- For the calculation of practical electrode configurations
potential surfaces is two equipotential surfaces (e.g. with M = +V/2 and M =
-V/2) have to be selected, which serve as electrode sur-
§1 1 · faces. In the given example, however, these surfaces are
Q
M r  ¨  ¸ const. (2.3-46) not spherical.
4SH ¨ r1 r 2 ¸
© ¹
For two charges Q1 and Q2 with opposite po-
The counter-charges -Q1 = -Q and -Q2 = +Q are infi-
larity and different charge amounts the equi-
nitely far away and compensate each other in this case.
Because of the mirror-symmetrical position of the potential surface M = 0 shall be determined.
charges Q1 = +Q and Q2 = -Q with respect to the plane Obviously, this will not be the geometric plane
equipotential surface M = 0, the terms “image charges” of symmetry (as in the former example). Nev-
and “surface of reflection” can be used. ertheless, in a more general sense Q1 and Q2
are referred to as “image charges” and the
According to Eq. (2.3-46) the potential M = 0 results for
infinite radii r1 and r2 and for finite radii if r1 = r2, i.e.
surface M = 0 as “surface of reflection”.
for the plane of symmetry orthogonal to the connecting
line between the two charges, Figure 2.3-14. With Eq. (2.3-45) the condition for the surface
of reflection M = 0 is
For the actual positions of the charges the potentials
Q1/r1 + Q2/r2 = 0
and
r1 M r1/r2 = Q1/(-Q2) = k . (2.3-47)
P
In the case of opposite polarities the ratio of
r2 the charges k = Q1/(-Q2) is a positive quantity
Q1 Q2
and Eq. (2.3-47) describes a circle equation.
This will be shown in the following, Figure
2.3-15. The center point (midpoint) M of the
circle is chosen as the origin of a Cartesian x,y-
coordinate system.
Figure 2.3-13: Superposition of electrostatic fields,
which are generated by two point charges.
From Eq. (2.3-47) and Figure 2.3-15 we find

M r12 (a  b  x) 2  y 2
k2
+V /2
r 22 (b  x) 2  y 2

-Q r
This equation is rearranged in order to consti-
tute the circle equation in the x,y-coordinate
+Q
system:
-V /2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
k (b+x) + k y = a + 2a(b+x) + (b+x) + y
2 2 2 2
(k -1) [(b+x) + y ] = a + 2ab + 2ax
Figure 2.3-14: Potential profile on the connecting line
between two point charges +Q and -Q (see also 2 2 2 2
fig. 2.3-13). +V/2 and -V/2 are the potentials of (k -1) [x + y ] = a + 2ab + 2ax
2 2
two equipotential surfaces, which were selected as - (k -1) [b + 2bx]
electrode contours (potential difference V).
50 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

a 2  2ab 2a·x a 2k 2
x2  y 2  b2  2  2b·x
2
k 1 k 1 k 2  1 2
This expression describes a circle around the With k > 1 we find for the radius r0 of the
coordinate origin M, if the term containing x
equipotential line M = 0 the relation
(on the right side of the equation) is zero. The
first term, which is independent of x and y, is ak
then equal to the square of the radius r0: r0 . (2.3-49)
k2 1

x2  y 2 r 02  0 Note: It was shown that the condition M = 0 in

the x,y-plane corresponds to a circle equation
Two equations for the position b of the equi- according to Figure 2.3-15. This is valid for all
valent charge Q2 and for the radius r0 of the planes containing the connecting line between
equipotential line are defined from this. Then the charges Q1 and Q2. Such planes result from
b is derived from the second term containing x, a rotation of the drawing plane under consid-
and this term is set to zero: eration about the connecting line (i.e. the x-
axis). The circular equipotential line M = 0 is
a thereby transformed into a spherical equipo-
b = 2
(2.3-48)
k 1 tential surface; the configuration under con-
sideration is spherically symmetric.
The first term provides r0 by inserting b from
Eq. (2.3-48): The surface of the sphere remains an equipo-
tential surface, if another charge Q3 is inserted
a 2  2ab at the origin M, Figure 2.3-16. The potential at
r 02 2
 b2 any point P is given by the superposition of the
k 1 potentials, which are attributed to the three
equivalent charges Q1, Q2 and Q3:
According to Eq. (2.3-48) b is inserted:
MP = M1 + M2 + M3 (2.3-50)
r 02
 
a 2 k 2  1  2a a

a2
With Eq. (2.3-44) and M1 + M2 = 0 we get for
k 2  1 2 k 2  1 2 all points S on the surface of the sphere

M  P

r1 r2 y
r0
Q1 Q2
A B
M
x
Figure 2.3-15: a b x
Geometric description of
the equipotential surface d
M  as circular equation
or as spherical surface.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 51

Q3 Q2 can be determined with Eqs. (2.3-47) to

MS M3 . (2.3-51)
4 ʌH r0 (-49) from the given quantities Q1, r0 and d:

d = a + b
Example: Metallic sphere without charge
(48)
2
An uncharged metallic sphere (radius r0) is = a + a / (k - 1)
exposed to the field of a point charge Q1. The 2 2
= a k / (k - 1)
distance d between Q1 and the center point M
(49)
of the sphere is given. The following quantities
= r0 k
shall be determined:
(47)
(1) Magnitude and position of the equivalent = r0 (-Q1/Q2)
charge,
(2) Potential of the sphere’s surface, The magnitude of the equivalent charge Q2 is
(3) Potential distribution in the field volume
and Q2 = - Q1 r0/d. (2.3-53)
(4) Maximum field strength. The division of Eq. (2.3-48) by Eq. (2.3-49)
Note: The metallic sphere without charge in an electric
gives
field can be regarded as a model of a conducting particle b/r0 = 1/k = -Q2/Q1 . (2.3-54)
or as an electrode at free potential.
The position b of the equivalent charge Q2 is
(1) Equivalent charges calculated with Eq. (2.4-53):
A configuration with a spherical equipotential b
2
= r0 /d (2.3-55)
surface can be described by three equivalent
charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 according to Figure Therefore, the magnitude Q2 and the position b
2.3-16. The specification of an uncharged of the equivalent charge are expressed by the
sphere means that the charges Q2 and Q3 must given quantities Q1, r0 and d. Q2 is the so
be equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity: called “image charge” with respect to Q1, the
“surface of reflection” is the surface of the
Q3 = - Q2 (2.3-52) sphere in this case. According to Eq. (2.3-52),

MP = M1 + M2 + M3 y
P
M S = 0 + M3

r1 r2 r3

Q1 Q2 Q3
A B

r0 x
a b
Figure 2.3-16:
Conducting sphere with the d
potential M S , described by
three equivalent charges.
52 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

the equivalent charges Q3 and Q2, have the potential is

same magnitude, but opposite polarity.  MS = 0 + M3
Note: The considered charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 = Q3 / (4SH r0)
cause the correct field distribution on the out- (52)

side of the conducting sphere, but they do not = - Q2 / (4SH r0)

represent the real charge distribution on the (53)

electrode, therefore they are called equivalent = (Q1 r0/d) / (4SH r0)
charges. On a conducting electrode, real
MS = Q1 / (4SH d) . (2.3-56)
charges are distributed continuously over the
surface because of the electrostatic forces. The Therefore, the potential of the sphere’s surface
area charge density equals the local dielectric is identical with the potential of the center
displacement density, Eq. (2.1-3) and Figure point M in the field of the point charge Q1
2.3-17. Only the total charge magnitudes are
prior to the insertion of the sphere. This is also
identical with the equivalent charges.
valid for any field configuration, which always
can be generated from the superposition of
(2) Potential of the sphere’s surface
single equivalent charges, Figure 2.3-17.
Prior to the insertion of the charge Q3 the sur-
face of the sphere has the potential M = 0 be- (3) Potential distribution in the field volume
cause of the image charges Q1 and Q2, Figure In the field volume on the outside of the con-
2.3-15. With Q3 and Eqs. (2.3-51) to (-53) the ducting sphere, the potential is given by the

MS

x
M

E MS

MS

x =0
Figure 2.3-17: "Distortion" of a uniform electrostatic field by a conducting sphere without any net charge.
The potential of the sphere is equal to the potential of the center point M prior to the insertion of the sphere.
The charge distribution in this picture refers to real charge carriers which are distributed continuously over the
surface of the sphere. In contrast to this, calculations are performed with a few "equivalent charges", which are
located on the x-axis, see fig. 2.3-16.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 53

superposition of the potentials, assigned to the The x-component of the electric field strength
three charges: Ex is calculated from the gradient of the po-
tential M:
MP = M1 + M2 + M3
Ex = - wMwx
With Eq. (2.3-44) and Figure 2.3-16 we find
 Q1 §  1 r0 r0 ·
¨   ¸
1 § Q1 Q2 Q3 · ¨
4 ʌH © (d  x) 2
d (b  x) 2
d x 2 ¸¹
MP ¨   ¸.
4 ʌH ¨© r1 r 2 r 3 ¸¹
(2.3-58)
Q2 and Q3 can be replaced by Q1 according to for -d < x < -r0

Eq. (2.3-53) and (-52): The maximum field strength E is found at x = -

r0 at point A. It is equal to the x-component of
Q1 § 1 r r ·
MP ¨  0  0 ¸ (2.3-57) the field strength Ex at this point:
4 ʌH © r1 d r 2 d r 3 ¸¹
¨
E = Ex = .....
In this equation, the distances r1, r2 and r3
 Q1 §  1 r0 r0 ·
between P and the equivalent charges Q1, Q2 ¨   ¸
and Q3 have to be replaced by the coordinates 4ʌH ¨© (d  r0 ) 2 d ( r02 / d  r0 ) 2 d r0 2 ¸¹
of point P, Figure 2.3-16. Field strengths are
calculated from the gradient of the potential  Q1 §¨  1 d 1 ·¸
 
according to Eq. (2.1-8). ¨
4ʌH (d  r0 ) 2
r0 (r0  d ) 2 d r0 ¸
© ¹
(4) Maximum field strengths
 Q1 
 d r0  d 2  d 2  2 d r0  r02 
The maximum field strength occurs on the x- 4 ʌH 2
d r0 (d  r0 )
axis for x = -r0 at point A on the surface of the
sphere. The electric field on the x-axis has an Q1 3 d r0  r02
x-component only; according to Eq. (2.1-8a) it
can be determined by the derivate of the po- 4ʌH d r0 (d  r0 ) 2
tential M with respect to x.
After canceling of r0, the maximum field
In the interval -d < x < -r0 the potential M(x) is strength at point A at x = - r0 is
calculated along the x-axis from Eq. (2.3-57)
with r1 = d + x, r2 = -(b + x) and r3 = -x. Q1 3 d  r0
E Ex . (2.3-59)
The distances r1, r2 and r3 between P and the 4ʌH d (d  r0 ) 2
equivalent charges are positive quantities
(magnitudes) and therefore have to be inserted This equation allows one to calculate the field
stress enhancement caused by the sphere. Prior
in the considered interval -d < x < -r0 on the
to the insertion of the sphere, the charge Q1
negative x-axis according to the preceding causes the electric field strength
definition; x defines the position of the consid-
ered point P on the x-axis, Figure 2.3-16: Q1 1
E1 E1x . (2.3-60)
4 ʌH (d  r0 ) 2
Q1 § 1 r0 1 r0 1 ·
M ( x) ¨  ˜  ˜ ¸
¨
4 ʌH © d  x d b x d x ¸¹ at point A according to Eq. (2.3-2). With the
Eqs. (2.3-59) and (-60), the ratio of the en-
for -d < x < -r0 hanced and the original field strength is
54 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

E r0 ducting impurities is a basic requirement of

3  (2.3-61) high voltage technology manufacturing!
E1 d
In the special case of a uniform field (d >> r0)
For a nearly uniform field E0 the distance d is d
the configuration is symmetric with respect to
>> r0 and the field strength is enhanced by a the equipotential plane MS, Figure 2.3-17. This
factor of 3, Figure 2.3-18: plane can then be seen as a plane electrode
E = 3 E0 (2.3-62) with a hemispherical electrode elevation, Fig-
ure 2.3-18. The maximum field strength is
Note: This result shows that conductive parti- three times as high as in the undisturbed uni-
cles can cause dangerous field stress enhance- form field.
ments in insulations. Very often real particles
The field stress enhancement caused by a con-
differ more or less from the ideal spherical
ducting hemisphere on a plane electrode can
shape and therefore cause significantly higher
also be regarded as a model for the field stress
field stress enhancements. Clean processing of
enhancement on an uneven electrode surface.
insulating materials for the prevention of con-
The unevenness of electrode surfaces is re-
sponsible for early discharge inception on
MS electrodes at voltages with macroscopic field
E0 E0 strengths significantly below anticipated in-
ception field strengths (in air ÊD is approx. 30
kV/cm).

MS 2.3.5.2 Field between Two Conducting

3E0 3E0 Spheres (Sphere-to-sphere Gap)

Conductive The charge simulation method also allows one

sphere electrode to calculate the field between two spherical
E0 without charge E0 electrodes (sphere-to-sphere arrangement)
MS and between a spherical electrode and a plane
of symmetry (sphere-to-plane arrangement).
Important practical applications are sphere
Plane electrode gaps or spherical high voltage shielding elec-
E0 with hemispherical trodes close to a flat wall. Therefore, the com-
electrode elevation paratively laborious iterative calculation is
explained here, Figure 2.3-19:
Two conducting spheres are specified with the
radius r0, the center point’s distance d and the
3E0 potential difference 'M = V. The calculation is
MS performed in two steps:
(1) By positioning equivalent charges, the
E0 specified spherical surfaces are ap-
proximated by the calculated equipoten-
tial surfaces.
Figure 2.3-18: Field enhancement by a conductive
sphere without charge (top) and by a hemispheri- (2) Field strengths are determined from the
cal electrode elevation on a plane electrode (bot- superposition of equivalent charge fields
tom) in the originally uniform field. after the positioning of the charges.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 55

Equi-
Sphere 1 potential- Sphere 2
surface
M1 = +V/2
Q
A

Figure 2.3-19a:
Positioning of charge
Q transforms surface 1
into an equipotential surface.
d

Equi-
Sphere 1 Sphere 2 potential-
surface
M2 = 0
Q Q´
A b´

Figure 2.3-19b:
Positioning of charge
Q´ transforms surface 2 d
into an equipotential surface.

Equi-
Sphere 1 potential- Sphere 2
surface
M1 = +V/2
Q Q´´ Q´
A b´
b´´
Figure 2.3-19c:
Positioning of charge
Q´´ transforms surface 1
into an equipotential surface.
d

Equi-
Sphere 1 Sphere 2 potential-
surface
M2 = 0
Q Q´´ Q´´´ Q´
A b´
b´´ b´´´
Figure 2.3-19d:
Positioning of charge
Q´´´ transforms surface 2
into an equipotential surface.
d
56 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

(1) Equivalent charges If a second analogous row of charges of op-

posite polarity (starting with the equivalent
(a) At first, an equivalent charge Q is posi- charge -Q at the center point of sphere 2) is
tioned at the center point of a virtual sphere 1. formed, the potentials of the two spheres 1 and
Because of the spherically symmetric field the 2 are approximated by the potentials M1 = 0
spherical surface 1 is an equipotential surface.
and M2 = - V/2. After the superposition of the
The potential M1 = V/2 is determined by
two rows of charges the intended potential
choosing the magnitude of Q. Now the spheri-
cal surface 2 is not an equipotential surface, difference between the two spheres 'M = V/2 -
because of the radially symmetric field of the (-V/2) = V is obtained.
charge Q in the center point of sphere 1, Fig-
ure 2.3-19a. In the following, the equations, which are
necessary for the calculation of magnitude and
(b) The spherical surface 2 can be transformed position of the equivalent charges, are com-
into an equipotential surface with the potential piled. The listing refers to the steps (a) to (e)
M2 = 0 by positioning an image charge Q´ at a that were described above:
distance b´ from its center point, Figure 2.3-
19b. The charges Q and Q´ are comparable to (a) Q causes the equipotential surface 1 (M1 =
the charges Q1 and Q2 in Figure 2.3-15. After V/2) according to Eq. (2.3-44):
the positioning of Q´, the sphere 1 is no longer b = 0
an equipotential surface. (2.3-63a)
Q = 0.5 V 4SH r0
(c) Sphere 1 becomes an equipotential surface
again by positioning an equivalent charge Q´´ (b) Q´ and Q cause the equipotential surface 2
as an image charge with respect to Q´, Figure (M2 = 0) according to Eq. (2.3-55) and (-53):
2.3-19c. The charge Q in the center point 1
2
causes a spherically symmetric field with con- b´ = r0 /d
centric equipotential surfaces. The potential is (2.3-63b)
the sum of the potentials related to the charge Q´ = -Q r0/d
Q and the charge couple (Q´, Q´´):
(c) Q´´ and Q´, together with Q, cause the
M1 = M1(Q) + M1(Q´, Q´´) = V/2 + 0 = V/2 equipotential surface 1 (M1 = 0 + V/2 = V/2).
The distance d to the counter charge must be
Now sphere 2 is no longer an equipotential reduced by the distance b´:
surface.
2
b´´ = r0 /(d - b´) (2.3-63c)
(d) Sphere 2 becomes an equipotential surface
again if Q´´´ is positioned as an image charge Q´´ = -Q´ r0/(d - b´)
with respect to Q´´, Figure 2.3-19d. The po-
tential of sphere 2 is zero again: (d) Q´´´ and Q´´, together with Q´ and Q,
cause the equipotential surface 2 (M2 = 0 + 0 =
M2 = M2(Q, Q´) + M2(Q´´, Q´´´) = 0 + 0 = 0 0). The distance d to the counter charge must
Now sphere 1 is no longer an equipotential be reduced by the distance b´´:
surface. 2
b´´´ = r0 /(d - b´´)
(e) If further image charges are placed alter- (2.3-63d)
nately, the state of two spherical equipotential Q´´´ = -Q´´ r0/(d - b´´)
surfaces with the potentials M1 = V/2 and M2 =
0 can be further iteratively approximated. (e) and so on .......
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 57

Note: Because of the recursive character, are reduced drastically.

these equations are well-suited to producing a The capacitance of the sphere gap can be calculated
simple numerical iteration program. This ex- with Eq. (2.1-10) and (2.3-63a) from the charge sums in
ample illustrates the basic idea of numerical the spheres:
field calculation with the charge simulation C = Qsum/V = 1.25 Q/V = 2.5 SH r0 (2.3-64)
method, which iteratively approximates the
given electrode contours by placing equivalent Surprisingly, this capacitance is smaller than the ca-
charges. pacitance
C = 4 SH r0
Example: Sphere gap with r0 = 0.2 d
between a sphere with the same size and a concentric
A sphere gap shall be calculated for the special case counter electrode infinitely far away, Eq. (2.3-6).
with r0 = 0.2 d. For this purpose the Equations (2.3-63..)
are evaluated numerically, Figure 2.3-20. The first The plane of symmetry between the spheres is an equi-
charge row (white background) causes the potential M1 potential plane with the potential M = 0. The calculated
= V/2 on sphere 1, the second charge row (grey back- arrangement also covers the case of a spherical elec-
ground) causes the potential M2 = -V/2 on sphere 2. Row trode against a plane electrode (sphere-to-plane ar-
rangement). In comparison with Eq. (2.3-74) the ca-
no. 1 starts with the equivalent charge +Q at the center
pacitance is doubled:
point of sphere 1, alignment no. 2 with the equivalent
charge -Q in the center point of sphere 2. It should be C = 5 SH r0 (2.3-65)
noted that each row contains charges on both spheres
alternately. All of the positive charges are aligned
within sphere 1, all negative charges within sphere 2. (2) Maximum field strengths
With increasing number of iteration steps the magnitude
of the charges and the distances to the adjacent charges The potentials assigned to the equivalent
charges can be superimposed, as in the above
Section 2.3.5.1. The field distribution is de-
rived from the potential distribution using gra-
Sphere 1 Sphere 2 dient generation.

+Q, ........... 'M V ..........., -Q For the determination of maximum field

strength on the connecting line of the spheres’
center points at the spheres’ surfaces (point A,
Potential + V /2 Potential - V /2
M  Figure 2.3-19) it is possible to sum the magni-
tudes of the field vectors directly because all
... ... ... ... field vectors related to the equivalent charges
Q´´ b´´ ´´´´ b´´ Q´´
are in parallel at this point.
+Q 0 0 0 -Q
+Q·0.2
+Q r0·0.2 1 r0·0.2 -Q·0.2
-Q According to Eq. (2.3-2) the field component
of a single charge is
+Q·0.0417
+Q r0·0.2083 2 r0·0.2083 -Q
-Q·0.0417
2
+Q·0.0087
+Q r0·0.2087 3 r0·0.2087 -Q
-Q·0.0087 Ei = Qi / (4SH ri ) .
The index “i” is the number of a single equiv-
+Q· .....
+Q r0· ..... n r0· ..... -Q· .....
-Q alent charge, ri it the distance between equiv-
alent charge Qi and field point A, Figure 2.3-
Charge sum Charge sum
sphere 1: + 1.25 Q sphere 2: - 1.25 Q 19.
Background: white Charge row no. 1 At point A both the positive charges in sphere
grey Charge row no. 2 1 and the negative charges in sphere 2 cause
field vectors in the same direction. Therefore,
Figure 2.3-20: Position and magnitude of the equi-
the summation of all field components Ei has
valent charges for the calculation of a sphere gap
with r0 = 0.2 d. to be performed with the same positive sign.
58 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

According to the alternating polarity of the The radius of the spheres is r0 = 0.2 d, the distance
charges, the signs in Eq. (2.3-66) alternate as between the center points of the spheres is d and the
well: “sparking distance” between the spheres is s = 0.6 d.

The results can be compared with the field strength in a

1 ª Q  Q´  Q´´ parallel-plate capacitor
Emax « 2   ...
4ʌH ¬« r0 (r0  b´)2
(r0  b´´)2 E = 1·V/s,

Q  Q´  Q´´ º with the field strength at the surface of a single sphere

    ...»
2 2
(d  r0 ) (d r0  b´) (d  r0  b´´)2 ¼» E = 1·V/r0

(2.3-66) and the maximum field strength in a sphere gap with a

very large gap (d >> r0)
Note: The correct field magnitude at point A is also
achieved, if all charges are inserted as magnitudes and E = 0.5·V/r0 .
all summands are superimposed with positive sign.

The charges belong alternately to the first

2.3.5.3 Parallel Line Charges
charge row (started in sphere 1 with +Q) and
to the second row (started in sphere 2 with -Q). Some important configurations in high voltage
The first line of the equation contains the engineering can be calculated by means of line
summation of all contributions from the posi- charges with a uniformly distributed charge Q
tive charges in sphere 1. The distance between along the line length L. In the following, the
+Q and point A is equal to the sphere’s radius electric field in the vicinity of two parallel line
r0, the following distances are each reduced by charges with equal magnitude but opposite
polarity is discussed, Figure 2.3-21.
b´, b´´, b´´´, …
The potential distribution in the field volume
The second line of the equation contains the is determined by the superposition of the two
summation of all contributions from the nega- potentials assigned to the two line charges. It
tive charges in sphere 2. Now the distance is a two-dimensional field so that considera-
between -Q and point A is equal to (d - r0), the tion of a plane orthogonal to the line charges is
following distances are also each reduced by sufficient, Figure 2.3-22. The counter-charges
b´, b´´, b´´´, .... and the reference potential MB = 0 cannot be
considered to be at an infinite distance as for
It no longer makes sense to insert Eq. (2.3-63)
the spherically symmetric field. Here, infinite
into Eq. (2.3-66). In fact, the numerical values
potential difference would occur, see Section
for the equivalent charges and their positions
2.3.1.3. For calculation purposes finite radii
are used.
rB1 and rB2 are introduced in order to specify
Example: Sphere gap (continued) the distances between the charges and the co-
axial counter-charges. They can be eliminated
In the former example a sphere gap with r0 = 0.2 d was later on, if counter charges at large distances
concerned and the equivalent charges Q, Q´, Q´´, Q´´´ are assumed, Figure 2.3-22. The calculation is
and their positions b, b´, b´´, b´´´ were determined. By
inserting the numerical values in Eq. (2.3-66) we find
performed with the assumption and superposi-
with tion of two cylindrically symmetric fields
around the two line charges.
Q = 0.5 V 4SH r0
The superposition of the potentials M1 and M2,
according to Eq. (2.3-63a): which are assigned to the charges +Q and –Q,
is performed at point P. With Eq. (2.3-18) we
Emax = 0.736 V/r0 = 3.68 V/d = 2.21 V/s
find
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 59

Reference potential, very far away

+Q a rB2 rB1
y
L
-Q P
z r1 r2
x
+Q/L -Q/L
a x

Figure 2.3-21: Infinitely long line charges in parallel Figure 2.3-22: Infinitely long line charges in parallel
(three-dimensional view). (sectional view).

M M1 + M2 It can be shown that the field lines are circles

too. They all pass through the intersections of
Q L r B1 Q L r B2 the line charge axes +Q and -Q with the plot-
ln  ln
2ʌH r1 2ʌH r2 ting plane [2]. This results in a graphical plot-
ting method for a field and equipotential line
Q L §¨ r B1 r 2 ·¸ plot, Figure 2.3-23:
ln ˜ .
2ʌH ¨ r1 r B2 ¸
© ¹ x At first, a circle with the radius r = a/2 is
plotted through the charge-axis points +Q
If the reference potential is assumed to be far and -Q. The two semicircles describe two
away, i.e. if field lines.
r1, r2, a << rB1 | rB2 x At any point P1, P2, ... the “field-line cir-
and cle” and the “equipotential-line circle” in-
rB1/rB2 | 1 , tersect orthogonally.
the distances to the reference potential rB1 and x Owing to symmetry, all center points M1,
rB2 can be reduced: M2, ... of the equipotential-line circles are
r2 located on the x-axis. Furthermore, the ra-
Q L
M ln (2.3-67) dii M1P1, M2P2, ... touch the field-line cir-
2ʌH r1
cle tangentially, and the center points are
According to Eq. (2.3-67) equipotential sur- determined from the intersections of the
tangents at P1, P2, ... with the x-axis.
faces M = const. are described by the condition
r2/r1 = k = const.. (2.3-68) x Additional field lines are plotted as circles
with center points on the y-axis.
During the discussion of point charges in Sec-
tion 2.3.5.1, it was already shown that such a The potential of the points P1, P2, ... and of the
condition is a circle equation for the drawing associated equipotential surfaces is given by
plane under consideration, see Eq. (2.3-47) ff. Eq. (2.3-67). The plane of symmetry between
Therefore, all of the equipotential surfaces are the charges +Q and -Q is an equipotential sur-
cylindrical surfaces in the two-dimensional face with the reference potential M = 0. Field
field under consideration of the parallel line lines and equipotential lines on both sides are
charges. given by reflection in the plane of symmetry.
60 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

M MP2
P2
P2
M P1 M
P1 P1

- a /2 a /2
0 M1 M2
Q x
+L -Q
L

M 

Figure 2.3-23: Graphical design of a pattern with field lines and equipotential lines for parallel line charges.

Potential values have opposite polarities on charges. In both cases, the relation r2/r1 = k =
both sides, Figure 2.3-23. const. describes a circle with a radius r0 and a
distance b between the circle’s center point
Any equipotential surfaces caused by the
and the position of the equivalent charge, Eq.
equivalent line charges can be interpreted as
(2.3-47) and (-68).
electrode contours for field calculations with
the charge simulation method. The field of the Note: In the case of point charges, the factor k both has
parallel line charges contains some important a geometric meaning and describes a ratio of charges.
high-voltage electrode arrangements that are This means that k is given for given charges, and that
discussed as examples in Section 2.3.5.4. They there is only one circular equipotential line (spherical
equipotential surface resp.). In the case of parallel line
include parallel cylinders, cylindrical conduc- charges, there is no relation between k and the charge
tors beside plane electrodes, eccentric tubular magnitudes. Therefore, there can be any number of
conductors and overhead line conductors, Fig- circular equipotential lines (or cylindrical equipotential
ure 2.3-23. surfaces).

The geometric relations Eq. (2.3-48) and (-49)

2.3.5.4 Fields in the Vicinity of Cylindrical can therefore be taken from Section 2.3.5.1:
Conductors

Example 1: Parallel Cylinder Conductors y

(Cylinder-to-Cylinder, “Two-conductor Line”)
M M r0
If two cylindrical conductors with the radius r0 +Q/L -Q/L
and the distance d of the center points is given,
b a b x
the distance a of the equivalent line charges is d
unknown, i.e. the position b of the equivalent
charges has to be determined, Figure 2.3-24. "Cylinder-to-cylinder"
The geometric relations were already consid- Figure 2.3-24: Parallel cylindrical conductors,
ered in the case of the field between two point calculation with equivalent line charges.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 61

2
b = a / (k - 1) Q L a 2 x
M(x) ln . (2.3-71)
(2.3-69) 2ʌH a 2 x
2
r0 = a k /(k - 1)
The field strength profile E(x) = Ex(x) along
The unknown position b (or a) of the equiva- the x-axis is derived from Eq. (2.3-71):
lent charges shall now be expressed by the
given quantities r0 and d. the factor k is to be E(x) = -wM/wx
eliminated in the process. With
Q L w
 ˜ >ln(a 2  x)  ln(a 2  x)@
d = a + 2b 2ʌH wx
2
= a + 2a / (k -1) Q L ª 1 1 º
 « 
2
= a (k +1) / (k - 1)
2 2 ʌH ¬ ( a 2  x) (a 2  x) »¼

we form Q L ª 1 1 º
2 2 « 
(d/2) - r0 2 ʌH ¬ (a 2  x) (a 2  x) »¼

a2 k 4  2 k 2  1 a2 4k2 (2.3-72)
˜  ˜
4 (k 2  1) 2 4 (k 2  1) 2
The same result is obtained by direct superpo-
2
a k  2 k 14 2
a2 sition of the field strengths, Eq. (2.3-17).
˜ .
4 k4  2 k2 1 4 Figure 2.3-25 shows the profiles of potential
and field strength along the x-axis between the
The distance between the equivalent charges is conductors according to Eqs. (2.3-71), (-72).

a 2 (d 2) 2  r02 . Within the conductors themselves, the equa-

tions of the charge simulation method give
If the conductor’s radius r0 is replaced by the false results. The potential within an ideal
diameter d0 = 2r0, we get conductor is constant, the electric field
strength tends towards zero.
a d 2  d 02 . (2.3-70)
Outside of the conductors, for x > d/2 + r0 and
for x < -d/2 - r0, potential and field strength
According to Figure 2.3-24 the distance b =
(d - a)/2 between the conductor’s axis and the magnitudes decrease in the outward direction.
line charge is determined from this. The field strengths at the outside of the con-
ductors are significantly lower than the field
The potential distribution along the x-axis, strengths at the inner sides where the conduc-
where the highest electric field strengths oc- tors are facing each other.
cur, is derived from Eq. (2.3-67):
For the calculation of capacitance C, the po-
Q L r 2 ( x) tential difference V is determined as a function
M(x) ln of the equivalent charge Q from Eq. (2.3-71):
2ʌH r1( x)
V = M(x = -d/2 + r0) - M(x = d/2 - r0)
The distances r1(x) and r2(x) have to be de-
fined in intervals, so that the distances are po-
Q L ª a / 2  d / 2  r0 a / 2  d / 2  r0 º
sitive. In the interval of interest -a/2 < x < +a/2 ln « »
(between the line charges) the potential is 2 ʌH ¬ a 2  d / 2  r0 a 2  d / 2  r0 ¼
62 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Q L a / 2  d / 2  r0 d/r0 2.5 5 10 20
ln
ʌH a 2  d / 2  r0
Capprox/C 0.757 0.973 0.996 0.9992
The capacitance is equal to the ratio C = Q/U:
Error in % 24.3 2.7 0.4 0.08
ʌH L
C (2.3-73)
a / 2  (d / 2  r0 ) I.e. for many electrode arrangements in high
ln
a / 2  (d / 2  r0 ) voltage engineering, the simplified Eq. (2.3-
75) can be used, if the distance d of the con-
With the distance a between the charges ac- ductors is much greater than the radius r0.
cording to Eq. (2.3-70), the capacitance can be
written as function of the geometric quantities Maximum field strength results from Eq. (2.3-
d and r0: 72) at the conductor surface at x = d/2 - r0.
ʌH L
C (2.3-74) In order to get an exact solution, Q is replaced
ª 2 º
d § d · by Q = C·V with C according to Eq. (2.3-74):
ln «  ¨¨ ¸¸  1»
« 2r0 © 2r0 ¹ »
¬« ¼» § d ·
2
V ˜ ¨¨ ¸¸  1
Note: The deviation of Eq. (2.3-74) from Eq. (2-3-73) © 2r0 ¹
requires some intermediate steps. Thereby it is reason- Emax
-1/2 ª 2 º
able to cancel the expression (d/2 - r0) out in the § d ·
argument of the logarithm, and to make the denominator d  2 r0  ˜ ln «« d  ¨¨ ¸¸  1»
»
rational by expanding the fraction. 2r0 © 2r0 ¹
¬« ¼»
For large distances d and accordingly for small (2.3-76)
radii r0, i.e. for d >> r0, Eq. (2.3-74) is sim-
plified: For d >> r0, i.e. for large distances d or small
conductor radii r0, Eq. (2.3-76) is simplified:
ʌH L
C | (2.3-75) V
d E max | (2.3-77)
ln d
r0 2 r0 ˜ ln
r0
Note: This approximation can also be derived directly
from Eq. (2.3-73), if the distance a between the charges For thin wires, the inception voltage for co-
is assumed to be equal to the distance d between the rona discharges can be derived, if the incep-
conductors for large distances d, Eq. (2.3-70). There- tion field strength Ei for discharges is known:
fore, we find for the numerator in the argument of the
logarithm
Vi | Ei · 2 r0 · ln(d/r0) (2.3-78)
a/2 + d/2 - r0 | d - r0 | d.

The denominator is The validity limits of Eq. (2.3-77) and (2.3-78)

result from an error estimation for different
a/2 - d/2 + r0 = -b + r0 | r0, ratios d/r0:
as the distance b between line charge and conductor axis d/r0 5 10 20 40
is small in comparison with the conductor’s radius r0.

The validity limits of the approximation Eq. Eapprox/E 0.637 0.813 0.904 0.951
(2.3-75) result from an error estimation for
different ratios d/r0: Error in % 36.3 18.7 9.6 4.9
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 63

Thus, the approximate Eqs. (2.3-77) and (2.3- height h above or beside a conducting plane.
78) for the maximum field strength and for the This case can be reduced to the former exam-
corona inception voltage are only accurate ple of parallel cylinders, if the conducting
enough for large ratios d/r0. Therefore, in gen- plane is regarded as a plane of symmetry or an
eral the exact solution from Eq. (2.3-76) must equipotential surface with the potential M = 0
be used. and if the arrangement is complemented sym-
metrically with a second cylinder (image con-
Example 2: Cylinder-to-Plane ductor), Figure 2.3-26. The capacitance C of
A common high voltage electrode arrangement the arrangement is twice the capacitance C´ of
is a cylindrical conductor, which is led at a the associated parallel cylinders. With Eq.

y
M = +V/2 M = -V/2

M +Q/L 'M = V -Q/L M r0

x
0
- d /2 - a /2 a /2 d /2
M 
- d /2 + r0 d /2 - r0

V /2 M (x)

-V /2
E x (x)
E max

E min

Figure 2.3-25: Parallel cylindric conductors: Potential and field strength profiles along the connecting line of the
conductor centre points (x-axis) in the x,y-plane. The profiles within the conductors can not be determined from
the equivalent charges.
64 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

exceeding 2/3 of the breakdown voltages. Furthermore,

the capacitance per unit length of the configuration shall
be calculated. In all cases the ratio h/r0 = 10 shall be
+Q/L assumed to be equal.

Solution: Because of the ratio d/r0 = 20, approximate

V Eq. (2.3-80) for the maximum field strength will provide
h an error of approx. 10 % (see above estimate). There-
fore, the exact Eq. (2.3-76) is evaluated: If 2r0 is fac-
C = 2 C´ d´ tored out in the denominator, the equation can be solved
E for r0. For d and V the terms 2h and V´ = 2V have to be
inserted:
2 Vˆ
C = 2 C´ 10 2  1
0.67 Ê D
V´ r0
2 (10  1) ln ª10  10 2  1º
«¬ ¼»
= 0.5540·Û
V /ÊD
-Q/L
The capacitance can be estimated from Eq. (2.3-79)
with a small error.

Figure 2.3-26: Cylindric conductor above a con- Voltage Û

V: 10 kV 100 kV 1 MV
ducting plane. Field calculation by means of
Air: r0 2 mm 1.9 cm 18.5 cm
a symmetric image charge.
h 2 cm 19 cm 1.85 m
C/L 18.5 pF/m 18.5 pF/m 18.5 pF/m
(2.3-75) and d´= 2h >> r0 the capacitance is
Oil: r0 0.4 mm 3.7 mm 3.7 cm
2ʌH L h 3.7 mm 3.7 cm 37 cm
C | . (2.3-79) C/L 40.8 pF/m 40.8 pF/m 40.8 pF/m
2h
ln
r0 Note: As shown in all the examples with the spherical
electrode (Section 2.3.1.2), with the cylindrically sym-
The maximum field strength is obtained from metrical tubular conductor (Section 2.3.1.3) and with
Eq. (2.3-76) or (-77), if the voltage V and dis- the cylinder-to-plane arrangement (in the current exam-
tance d are replaced by V´ = 2 V and d´ = 2 h ple) it is also shown here that air-insulated equipment
for the MV-range needs insulation distances and radii of
>> r0: curvature of the order of meters.
V
Emax | . (2.3-80) Much more compact dimensions are possible with elec-
2h trically strong materials (e.g. insulating oil or sulfur
r0 ˜ ln
r0 hexafluoride gas SF6).

Attention: The electric strengths assumed to be constant

For the corona inception voltage of a thin wire in these examples for simplicity, are not constant in
above a conducting plane we find reality. They depend, for example, on the type and du-
ration of the electric field stress, on the insulating mate-
Vi | Ei · r0 · ln (2h/r0) . (2.3-81) rial thickness, on the insulating volume, on the electrode
surface, on the inhomogeneity of the field or on envi-
Example 2a: Cylinder-to-Plane (numerical example) ronmental influences (pressure, temperature, water
content, .... ) for instance.
The diameters and distances of cylindrical conductors
above conducting planes shall be dimensioned for ap- The capacitance per unit length does not change with
plication in air (Ê = 30 kV/cm, Hr = 1) and in insulating the dimensions h and r0 because of the assumption of a
oil (Ê = 150 kV/cm, Hr = 2.2) for the peak voltages ÛV = constant ratio h/r0, which determines the capacitance, in
10 kV, 100 kV and 1 MV without the field intensities this example.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 65

Example 3: Overhead ground wire

(Shielding effect and field stress enhancement)
ES
Grounded wires above overhead lines are used
to protect the phases against direct lightning
strikes. Here, it shall be investigated, to what r1
extent the vertical electrostatic field in the at-
P h
mosphere (i.e. in the air) is influenced by a
x
grounded wire (radius r0, height h above
ground), Figure 2.3-27. E0

The original field in the air E0 is assumed to 0

be uniform; it is directed in the negative x-di- r2
rection. The potential is
M1 = E0·x .
In the ground wire a charge Q is influenced
whose field ES is superimposed on the original Image charge
field E0. The additional field of the charges in
the wire against the grounded plane can be Figure 2.3-27: Distortion of the electric field in air
calculated from the superposition of the fields by a conducting overhead ground wire.
associated with Q and with an image charge -
Q on the x-axis at x = -h. According to Eq.
(2.3-67), the potential is The field strength on the x-axis is the derivate
of the potential with respect to x according to
Q r2 Eq. (2.3-72) or it is the superposition of the
M2 ln . field strengths according to Eq. (2.3-17). Q is
2ʌH L r1
inserted from (2.3-82):
At the surface of the grounded wire (and in the
plane of symmetry, i.e. on the ground surface), E x (x) = E0 + E +Q + E -Q
the sum of the potentials must be zero. This
(17)
Q
condition can be used to calculate the magni- = E0 + ( 1
S H L h - x
+
1
h+x
)
tude of the influenced charge Q:
M M1  M2 = 0 (82) E 0 ·h
 = E0 -
2h
( h 1- x +
1
h+x
)
Q r2 ln
M E0 ˜ x  ln = 0 r0
2 ʌH L r1 (2.3-83)
For all points on the wire surface, the distances Note: The discussion of the signs shows that the original
to the equivalent charges +Q and -Q are r1 | r0 field E0 and the additional field of the charges have
and r2 | 2h approximately. Because of the opposite directions underneath the ground wire (0 < x <
large height h >> r0, the equivalent charges are h). Above the ground wire (x > h), the field E0 in the air
and the field contribution of the upper equivalent charge
close to the axes of the wire and its image. +Q are superimposed with the same sign; the field con-
With x | h the charge is tribution of the image charge –Q is in the opposite di-
rection, Figure 2.3-27.
E0 ˜ h
Q  2ʌH L . (2.3-82)
2h The field strength at the ground surface (x = 0)
ln
r0 is
66 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

'M ii
r0a
'M ia(l) 'M aa 'M ai(r)
Ma Ma
y r0i

Mi M  Mi
+Q -Q
x
0
a

di
c c

da

Figure 2.3-28: Calculation of eccentric conductors with equivalent line charges in parallel.

2 towards the ground and causes a very high

E x (0) = E 0 (1 - ). (2.3-84)
ln 2h increase of the local electric field strength in a
r0 limited field region. This can be regarded as an
increase of the primary field E0 which initiate
Note: For a ratio h/r0 = 1000 the field strength upward discharges starting from overhead line
is Ex(0) = 0.74 E0, i.e. there is only a weak wires, lightning conductors or other grounded
shielding of the original field at the ground structures. The discharges propagate upwards,
surface. Improved shielding efficiency is meet the downward discharge within a limited
achieved by a screen grid, e.g. by an arrange- range and cause a conducting path to the
ment of parallel grounded wires at small inter- ground.
vals.
Example 4: Eccentric tubular conductor
At the upper side of the wire, the contribution
associated with upper equivalent charge Q The electric field between eccentric tubular
predominates according to Eq. (2.3-82). The conductors (cylinders) can be calculated with
contribution caused by the distant image parallel line charges, if the outer and the inner
charge -Q and the original field E0 can be ne- conductor are interpreted as equipotential sur-
faces in the field of two mirror-symmetric line
glected. With the conditions x = h + r0 and
charges, Figure 2.3-23 and 2.3-28.
2h/r0 >> 1 Eq. (2.3-83) provides
The cylinder radii r0i and r0a and the lateral
h / r0
E x (h  r0 ) | E0 . (2.3-85) offset of the cylinder axes c (eccentricity) are
2h given. The distance a of the equivalent charges
ln
r0 and distances di and da of the center points are
Note: For a ratio h/r0 = 1000 there is a field unknown. Therefore, the Equations (2.3-70) ff
cannot be applied directly.
stress enhancement of E/E0 = 132. In cases of
very high field strengths E0, discharges are The solution can be based on the fact that the
possible at sharp edges of grounded conduc- charge distance a is equal for both the ar-
tors. Especially during a lightning discharge, a rangement with the large cylinders (r0a, da)
discharge channel propagates from the cloud and for the arrangement with the small cylin-
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 67

ders (r0i, di). With Eq. (2.3-70) and Figure 2.3- Ma = 2.464·Q/(2SHL)
28 we get the following solution
From this, the potential differences are given:
2 2 2 2 2
a = di - 4r0i = da - 4r0a 'Mii = (3.458 + 3.458)·Q/(2SHL)
I.e.:
2
da - di
2 2
= 4r0a - 4r0i
2 = 6.916·Q/(2SHL)
2 2 2 2  'Mai(r) = (- 2.464 + 3.458)·Q/(2SHL)
(di + 2c) - di = 4r0a - 4r0i
2 2 2 = 0.994·Q/(2SHL)
di = (r0a - r0i - c )/c (2.3-86)
The ratio of the potential differences is
From this all unknown geometric quantities in
Figure 2.3-28 are determined. The charge dis- 'Mii/'Mai = 6.958 .
tance a is determined from Eq. (2.3-70), the The maximum field strength is calculated from
distance da is da = di + 2c. Eq. (*):
Instead of a difficult general calculation, a Emax = 'Mai 6.958 / 32.45 cm
numerical evaluation with specific numerical
values is recommended here. = 'Mai / 4.664 cm .

Numerical example: In the cylindrically symmetric case, maximum

field strength according to Eq. (2.3-22) is
It shall be investigated how much capacitance
and maximum field strength are changed for E(cyl)max = 'Mai / 5 cm .
an arrangement with eccentric tubular con- The field stress enhancement caused by the ec-
ductors (r0i = 5 cm, r0a = e·r0i = 13.59 cm, c = centricity c = 1 cm is 7.2 %:
1 cm) in comparison with coaxial configura-
tions. Emax/E(cyl)max = 1.072

Note: The capacitance Cai between the inner and the

From Eq. (2.3-86) we get di = 158.73 cm.
outer cylinder can be calculated, if the capacitances Cii
From this da = 160.73 cm and a = 158.41 cm and Caa between the cylinders of the same size are cal-
are derived. The maximum field strength at the culated with Eq. (2.3-74). Cii can then be regarded as a
surface of the inner cylinder can be determined series circuit consisting of Cia, Caa and Cai, Figure 2.3-
from Eq. (2.3-76) with d = di and r0 = r0i, if 28.
the voltage V is interpreted as potential differ- From this the magnitude of the equivalent charge Q =
ence 'Mii between the two inner cylinders. Cai·'Mai is also determined. Eq. (2.3-71) and (-72) then
allow one to calculate potential and field strength pro-
Emax = 'Mii / 32.45 cm (*) files along the x-axis.

The potential difference 'Mii has to be related Example 5: Three-phase overhead line
to the potential difference 'Mai(r) between the (“Working capacitance”)
outer and inner cylinders on the right side: The A three-phase overhead line is a so called
x-axis intersects the inner cylinders at xi = multi-phase system, consisting of a number of
±(di/2 - r0i) = ±74.37 cm and the outer cylin- parallel cylindrical conductors with different
ders at xa = ±(da/2 - r0a) = ±66.78 cm. For potentials and insulated against each other.
points xi and xa on the negative x-axis the po- The calculation of multi-phase systems is pos-
tentials can be calculated with Eq. (2.3-71): sible by means of equivalent line charges and
their image charges. For a detailed analysis the
Mi = 3.458·Q/(2SHL) basic literature can be consulted [2], [4].
68 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

As an example, a three-phase overhead line From the physical viewpoint, the single-phase equiva-
connected to a three-phase AC voltage system lent circuit (the so-called positive-sequence network) is
not identical with the phase L1 alone. Capacitive and
shall be considered (complex r.m.s. values of magnetic couplings to the neighboring phases are taken
the phase voltages: V10, V20, V30). Perfect into account by the magnitudes of the working capaci-
symmetry of the voltages, the conductor prop- tances and working inductances.
erties (line parameters per unit length) and the In the case of asymmetric three-phase systems, the three
currents (I1, I2, I3) is assumed. coupled circuits L1, L2 and L3 are transformed into
three decoupled circuits (positive-sequence network,
During the calculation of three-phase systems, negative-sequence network and zero-sequence network)
lines and cables are described by line imped- in order to allow a simpler and clearer calculation
(method of symmetrical components [20]). A working
ances determined by series resistances, series capacitance can no longer be specified because the con-
inductances, parallel capacitances and parallel dition of symmetrical voltages and fields is no longer
conductances. fulfilled.
In the special case of perfect symmetry, the single-phase
The charge simulation method allows the cal- equivalent circuit is identical with the positive-sequence
culation of a so-called “working capaci- network. According to Eq. (2.3-87) 1/(jZ Cb) = V10/IC1
tance” of a three-phase system. This is not the is the “positive-sequence impedance” of the unloaded
capacitance between oppositely charged con- line (resistive and inductive components are neglected).
ductors, such an arrangement does not exist in
a three-phase system. The working capacitance Cb shall be calcu-
lated from the ratio of the charge q1 on line L1
The working capacitance Cb is defined by the to the phase voltage v10. The quantities q1 and
single-phase capacitive charging current IC1 in v10 are the instantaneous values of the time
a symmetric three-phase overhead line without variant quantities. The charging current iC1(t)
load. In the positive-sequence network (i.e. in or IC1 has to carry the charge q1 to and from
a transformed single-phase equivalent circuit)
the conductor. The influence of the ground is
the following relationship is established:
taken into account by image charges, Figure
IC1 = jZ Cb · V10 (2.3-87) 2.3-29.
The voltage v10 is equal to the potential M1,
Physically, the charging current IC1 is not only
which is established by the superposition of
fed from the displacement field that is associ-
the contributions from all equivalent charge
ated with the phase-to-ground voltage V10. The pairs:
fields between the considered phase L1 and
the other phases L2 and L3 cause additional M1 = M1(q1,-q1) + M1(q2,-q2) + M1(q3,-q3)
displacement currents to be coupled in, i.e.
For overhead lines, the charge distances a12,
there are additional influences of the phase-to-
phase voltages V12 and V31, Figure 2.3-29. In a13, D12, D13 and D11 | 2h are very large in
order to calculate with the simple Eq. (2.3-87) comparison to the conductor radius r01. The
despite this, it is necessary to define a working potential at the surface of conductor L1 is de-
capacitance Cb whose magnitude takes into termined with Eq. (2.3-67):
account the influence of all interferences. q1 2h q D q D
M1 ln 1  2 ln 12  3 ln 13
2 ʌHL r01 2ʌHL a12 2ʌHL a13
Note: The simple assumption of a single-phase equiva-
lent circuit, consisting solely of the so-called positive- The distance from any charge (with the excep-
sequence network, and considering capacitive couplings tion of q1) to the surface of conductor L1 is
by the magnitude of the working capacitance, is only
valid in the case of perfect symmetry. This means that approximately equal to the charge distance to
the three-phase system has to be built symmetrically the charge q1. The distance from q1 to the con-
and that it has to be operated symmetrically too. ductor’s surface is approximately equal to r01.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 69

L2 q 2 M2
V 12
V 23 a12
L1 L3 M1 q 1 q 3 M3
a13
I C1 V 31

V10
h1
M 

Three-phase AC system above ground with the D13

reference arrows for the complex r.m.s. values D12
of the voltages and currents (top).

- q1 - q3
Arrangement of equivalent line charges and
image charges for the determination of the
so-called "working capacitance" (right). - q2

Figure 2.3-29: Calculation of the "working capacitance" for a symmetric three-phase system with the charge
simulation method. The influence of the ground is taken into account by image charges.

In a geometrically perfectly symmetric system,

the equivalent distances are equal to each q1 ª D Dº
M1 «ln  ln »
other. In practice, cyclic exchanging of the 2 ʌHL ¬ r0 a¼
phase positions compensates for the asymme-
tries: q1 a
M1 ln .
h1 = h2 = h3 = h 2 ʌHL r0

r01 = r02 = r03 = r0 From this the working capacitance is derived:

D12 = D23 = D31 = D = 2h q1 2 ʌHL
Cb (2.3-88)
a12 = a23 = a31 = a M1 ln
a
r0
With this the expression for the potential of
conductor L1 is simplified: It is worth noting that the working capacitance,
which could possibly (but misleadingly) be
1 ª D Dº
«q1 ln  q2  q3  ln »
M1 understood as capacitance between conductor
2ʌHL ¬ r0 a¼ L1 and ground, does not depend on the dis-
tance h between conductor and ground. The
In a symmetric three-phase system the sum of working capacitance is exclusively dependent
the charges is zero: on the distance a between conductors and on
q1 + q2 + q3 = 0 the conductor radius r0.

This gives the condition For overhead lines with conductor bundles, the
radius r0 is to be replaced by the much larger
q2 + q3 = - q1 .
equivalent radius R´ according to Eq. (2.3-40),
For the potential M1 it follows that i.e. it gives a greater working capacitance than
70 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Note: Because of the high capacitive reactive power,

L2 L3 economic AC power transmission with cables is nor-
mally limited to lengths of a few 10s of km.
K 23
L1 The measurement of the working capaci-
K 12 K 31 tance Cb is performed via partial capacitances,
Figure 2.3-30. The charging current IC1 is con-
stituted from the superposition of all displace-
K 20 K 10 K 30 ment currents that are coupled into L1 and
which are calculated from the capacitance co-
efficients K1j and the associated potential dif-
ferences V1j:
Figure 2.3-30: Coupling and ground capacitances
(capacitance coefficients) of a three-phase system. IC1 = jZ[K10V10 + K12V12 + K31(-V31)]

for single conductors. It can be calculated from Because of the symmetry, K12 = K31:
Eq. (2.3-88).
IC1 = jZ[K10V10 + K12(V12 - V31)]
If several three-phase AC systems are operated
in close proximity to each other, e.g. on the By means of a vector diagram it can be shown
same tower, the working capacitance is influ- that V12 - V31 = 3 V10 in a symmetric three-
enced. The former calculation for M1 has to be phase system. Thereby we get
complemented with further terms associated
with the additional AC conductors. Owing to IC1 = jZ [K10 + 3·K12] V10 .
the relatively large distances, they are gener-
ally of minor importance. The comparison with Eq. (2.3-87) gives the
working capacitance:
Generally, the charge simulation method also
allows one to calculate the working capaci- Cb = K10 + 3·K12 (2.3-89)
tance of a three-phase cable or a three-phase
gas-insulated line, for which the distances The capacitance to ground K10 and the cou-
between the conductors are comparable with pling capacitance K12 are determined from two
the conductor’s radii [2]. In practice, values measurements:
measured and specified by manufacturers are
used, but they are only valid for a specific During the first measurement, L2 and L3 are
product. High and very high voltage cables are grounded, i.e. K20 and K30 are short-circuited.
*
designed as single-phase cables with cylindri- The measured capacitance C between L1 and
cally symmetric fields, so that the working ground is
capacitance corresponds to the line-to-ground *
capacitance according to Eq. (2.3-20). C = K10 + K12 + K31 = K10 + 2·K12 .

The typical magnitude of the working capaci- During the second measurement the conduc-
tance per unit length is approximately Cb/L | tors L1, L2 and L3 are connected to each
**
10 nF/km for overhead lines and Cb/L | 120 other. The measured capacitance C between
nF/km for single-phase polymer cables (with L1-L2-L3 and the ground is now
Hr = 2.2 and Ra/Ri = e , Eq. (2.3-20)). For oil- **
C = K10 + K20 + K30 = 3·K10 .
impregnated paper cables and for cables with a
smaller radius ratio Ra/Ri (e.g. medium voltage For the partial capacitances we find
cables with a large conductor cross-section), ** * **
significantly higher values can occur. K10 = C /3 and K12 = C /2 - C /6 .
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 71

From this the working capacitance can be ex- influences are neglected, the maximum field strength is
pressed as a function of the measured values located at the conductor surfaces of L1 and L2 close to
* ** the connecting line between these two phases, Figure
C and C : 2.3-31. Because of
o
* ** q3(60 ) = 0
Cb = 3·C /2 - C /6 (2.3-90)
and
q1(60 ) = -q2(60 ) = Cb·'M/2
o o

For the calculation of field strengths, the mag-

nitude of the equivalent charges can be deter- L1 and L2 can be approximated as parallel cylindrical
mined with Eq. (2.3-88). The calculation is conductors, Figure 2.3-25.
performed at a specific point in time that is
characterized by specific instantaneous values
of the potentials (or phase-to-ground volt- 2.3.6 Similarity Relations, Field
ages)M1, M2, M3 and by the instantaneous val- Efficiency Factor (Schwaiger’s
ues of the associated equivalent charges q1, q2, Utilization Factor)
q3, Figure 2.3-31. Nevertheless, the analytic
calculation of field strengths from the gradient In the above sections, the common analytical
of the resulting potential (or from the vectorial methods for the calculation of electrostatic
superposition of the different field compo- (and quasi-static) fields were described. Of
nents) is very complex. Furthermore, the result course, the high voltage problems and exam-
is only valid for the considered instant. For ples discussed are not complete, they are more
other points in time, other field distributions, exemplary in character, in order to introduce
i.e. other locations, directions and magnitudes the methods and the ways of thinking.
of the maximum field strength, are produced.
It is clear that there is no standard procedure
Note: The maximum voltage difference between the that always gives the desired result. It is often
phases L1 and L2 is given for a sinusoidal voltage v10(t) necessary to have a good deal of intuition,
= sin Zt at the time point Zt = 60 with magnitude
o

training and experience in order to find the

3 · 2 ·Vph. The potential of phase L3 is zero at this
best calculation methods and appropriate sim-
time. If the conductors are arranged in a triangular con-
figuration (i.e. in an equilateral triangle) and if ground-
plifications.

It is a substantial improvement for a quick and

practical solution if one can avoid doing one’s
L3 own complex calculation, i.e. if already avail-
M 
able results can be used.
q3 = 0
"Snap-shot" at Such calculation results are given in the basic
Z t = 60° literature on electrical engineering theory, e.g.
for capacitances of different electrode configu-
rations [2].
q2= - q1 q1 In high voltage engineering, the central ques-
E tion has also to be answered:
L2 L1
“What is the maximum field strength
M M  M in the given insulation arrangement?”
- —— Vph + —— Vph The result can be specified independently of
2 2
the applied voltage, if the maximum field
Figure 2.3-31: "Snap-shot" for the instant of maxi- strength Emax is given as a multiple of the
mum field strength at the surfaces of L1 and L2
(influence of the ground is neglected). mean field strength E0 between the electrodes.
72 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

E0 is equal to the uniform field strength in a p = f (geometry) = f (s, r) (2.3-92)

parallel-plate capacitor with the same elec-
trode distance s: If additional radii R, heights h, or distances
1 d are necessary for the description of the
E max = (2.3-91)
K E0 electrode arrangement, additional parame-
ters have to be determined. Mostly they are
E0 can also be regarded as the mean field related to r, e.g. R/r, h/r or d/r.
strength between the electrodes:
3. For every electrode type a curve is given,
1
P2
V which shows the field efficiency factor K
Emean = ³ E dx
s P1
=
s
= E0 as a function of the geometry factor p:

   K = f (p) (2.3-93)
The maximum field strength for a given volt-
age V is determined from Eq. (2.3-91) by in- If the definition of a further parameter is
serting E0 = V/s. required, a single curve is not sufficient. A
set of curves for different values of the ad-
The factor K = E0/Emax is the field efficiency ditional parameter has to be used.
factor or utilization factor according to
Schwaiger [21], it describes the “degree of Example:
uniformity” of the field. The inverse quantity Cylindrical and spherical capacitors
1/K is referred to as the degree of non-uni-
formity. In a uniform field Emax = E0 and the In the geometry catalogue, cylindrical and
spherical capacitors are described with the
field efficiency factor is K = 1. In a very same geometry factor p = (r + s)/r, because of
strongly non-uniform field Emax >> E0 and the their identical sectional view, Figure 2.3-32.
field efficiency factor or utilization factor is K Nevertheless, there are different curves for the
<< 1. fields with two-dimensional geometry (coaxial
cylinders) and for the fields with rotational
Example: Hemispherical electrode
symmetry (concentric spheres).
The maximum field strength at the surface of a hemi-
spherical electrode on a conducting plane was calcu- Analytical expressions for the field efficiency
lated in Section 2.3.5.1, Figure 2.3-18. The result is factors, which are graphically represented in
Emax = 3 E0, i.e. Schwaiger’s field efficiency factor or
Figure 2.3-33, can be derived from the equa-
the utilization factor is K = 0.333 = 33.3 %.
tions (2.3-22) and (2.3-14) for the maximum
Field efficiency factors are available in cata- field strengths, if the radii R1 and R2 are re-
logue-like tables from literature for a very placed by r and (r + s), the voltages V are re-
large number of electrode arrangements [4], placed by E0·s and the geometry factor is
[22], [23]. The determination of K is per- introduced with p = (r + s)/r :
formed in three steps:
1 1
Kcyl. ln p and Kspher. (2.3-94)
1. At first, the type of electrode arrangement p 1 p
is selected from the tables, e.g. cylinder-to-
plane, sphere-to-sphere, toroid-to-plane, For practical applications, these equations are
disk-to-disk, ... . given as tables of values or as graphs. The
geometry factor p is calculated from the given
2. For each of the electrode types a specific geometry and K is taken from the associated
geometry factor p is given as a function of diagram, Figure 2.3-33.
geometric parameters. It is mainly to be
determined from the electrode distance s Numerical example: For a coaxial, air-insulated tubular
and the relevant radius of curvature r: conductor with Da = 30 cm and Di = 10 cm the maxi-
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 73

mum possible voltage ÛV shall be determined, if Êmax =

15 kV/cm is accepted. 1.0
From the diameters r = 5 cm, s = 10 cm and p = 3 is 0.9
calculated. The field efficiency factor K | 0.55 can be
taken from Figure 2.3-33. With Eq. (2.3-91) we find 0.8
Ê0 = K·Êmax = 8.25 kV/cm and
0.7
Û = Ê0·s = 82.5 kV.
0.6
Note: If a considered electrode arrangement
can be related to an already filed and evaluated K 0.5
arrangement, the determination of field effi- (1) Coaxial cylinders
ciency factors is very advantageous for a quick 0.4
approximation of numerical values, especially
for electrode arrangements, which cannot be
0.3
treated analytically or are difficult to treat ana- 0.2
lytically.
0.1
The limited accuracy of the method is partic- (2) Concentric spheres
ularly a disadvantage. In very non-uniform 0.0
fields the numerical values of the field effi- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ciency factor K are very small and can be read p
from a diagram (as Figure 2.3-33 for instance)
only with very low accuracy. An analytical Figure 2.3-33: Field efficiency factor as a function
solution is therefore preferable, and further- of the geometry factor for arrangements with co-
more it is suitable for optimization processes axial cylinders (1) and concentric spheres (2).
(see Section 2.3.1.2 and 2.3.1.3).
Figure 2.3-33 illustrates an interesting relation
between plane and rotationally symmetric ar-
rangements with identical sectional views:
because of the additional curvature, the field
efficient factor of the spherical arrangement
Type of decreases drastically in comparison with the
electrode r s
cylindrical configuration. In the analytical ex-
(sectional view) pressions for K, the factor p can be eliminated
and the relation

Kspher.
Kcyl.  lnKspher. (2.3-95)
1  Kspher.
r + s
Geometry factor p =
r between spherical and cylindrical arrange-
Plane field Coaxial cylinders ments is derived, Figure 2.3-34.
arrangement Fig. 2.3-33, curve (1)
rotationally According to [22] this is also a useful ap-
concentric spheres proximation for the general relation between
symmetric field
Fig. 2.3-33, curve (2)
arrangement the field efficiency factors of plane field con-
figurations and the equivalent rotationally
Figure 2.3-32: Electrode configuration and geometry symmetric configurations for Kplane > 0.6 (or
factors with reference to the curves for the deter-
mination of the field efficiency factors (example). Kcyl. > 0.6). For stronger non-uniform fields
74 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

with smaller field efficiency factors, Figure Thus

2.3-34 can only be used for rough approxima-
Kplane = 1/1.462 = 0.684 .
tions.

Example: Sphere gap From Figure 2.3-34 the field efficiency factor for the
equivalent arrangement with rotational symmetry
The maximum field strength in a sphere gap with r0 =
0.2 d shall be estimated (see Section 2.3.5.2, example Krot | 0.48
“sphere gap”).
is taken. As expected, the arrangement is significantly
At first, the field efficiency factor of an equivalent plane less uniform. The maximum field strength
configuration with the same sectional view shall be
determined. It is an arrangement of two parallel cylin- Emax(rot) | V/(s·0.48) = 2.1·V/s ,
drical conductors with r = r0 and with the electrode
distance (flashover distance) s = 0.6 d = 3 r.
is in good agreement with Emax = 2.21·V/s, calculated
From the charge simulation method we obtain with Eq. with the charge simulation method in Section 2.3.5.2
(2.3-76) (sphere gap example).

Emax(plane) = 1.462 V/(d - 2r0) It can be seen from the above numerical ex-
ample that Figure 2.3-34 and Eq. (2.3-95) can
= 1.462 E0 s/(3 r0) be useful tools for the calculation of rotation-
= 1.462 E0 .
ally symmetric arrangements, if the field effi-
ciency factor of the equivalent plane arrange-
ment can be determined easily. Nevertheless,
the method is only an approximation.
Field efficiency factor (concentric spheres)
1.0

0.9 2.3.7 Measurement of

Stationary Conduction Fields
0.8
Normally, the electric fields to be determined
0.7
cannot be measured directly, or there are no
S 0.6 suitable measuring methods (see Chapter 6).
p Therefore, we are dependent on the indirect
h 0.5 determination of stresses by calculation.
e
r 0.4 In addition to the described analytic methods,
e
procedures were established for the point-by-
0.3
Region of a point measurement of static conduction fields,
generally in order to determine complex potential distri-
0.2
accepted butions. In practical applications, these meth-
approxi-
0.1
mation [22]
ods are nowadays largely replaced by more
flexible and more accurate numerical field
0.0 calculation methods.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Field efficiency factor (concentric cylinders)
Nevertheless, the analogy between steady-state
conduction fields (at DC voltage) and quasi-
Figure 2.3-34: Comparison of the field efficiency
static (slowly vaying) displacement fields (at
factors of plane and rotationally symmetric
electrode arrangements for the example of
AC voltage) is of basic importance and of
f cylindrical and spherical capacitors. great educational value.
2.3 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Homogeneous Dielectrics 75

2.3.7.1 Analogy between because of its (residual) conductivity. A stationary con-

Dielectric Displacement Field duction field will inevitably develop.
and Static Conduction Field
Nevertheless, the electrostatic field caused by charges is
a good approximation for slowly changing displacement
The determination of potential fields by the fields in insulating materials with very low (residual)
measurement of static conduction fields is conductivity, if the conduction current density J can be
based on the analogy with the slowly changing neglected in comparison with the displacement current
dielectric displacement fields, see also Section density wD/wt,see also Section 2.1.4.4.
2.1.4. This means that permittivity H and dis-
placement density D have to be replaced by Basically, there are two methods of interest for
the conductivity N and the conduction current the measurement of conduction fields, two-
density J, Eq. (2.1-19) and (-20): dimensional measurement on semi-conductive
paper and three-dimensional measurement in
D = H·E is equivalent to J = N·E semi-conductive liquids.

(2.3-96)
2.3.7.2 Measurements on
For both kinds of fields, the electric field Semi-conductive Paper
strength E is determined from formally identi- (“Resistive Paper”)
cal equations. Instead of the charge Q as the
source of the field, the current I is injected into Two-dimensional conduction fields can be
the arrangement: generated with the aid of semi-conductive pa-
per by means of conductive electrodes, which
Q = ³³ D dA is equivalent to I = ³³ J dA are pressed onto the paper or which are painted
with conductive varnish. The edge of the paper
(2.3-97) must be far away from the field region of in-
terest in order to avoid field distortions by the
The electric field strength E and the derived artificial boundaries.
quantities, potential M and voltage V, are
equivalent for the two different kinds of fields. After the application of a DC voltage to the
In particular, Laplace’s Equation (2.3-31) ff electrodes, the measurement of potential mag-
without space charges and current sources in nitudes is performed for all points of interest
the insulating volume by means of a metal probe, which is put on the
paper, point after point.
 'M = 0 (2.3-98)
Normally, the measurement is performed in a
is equally valid in both cases. bridge circuit with a null indicator in order to
achieve a measurement without any reaction.
This means that the described field calcula-
tions for the electrostatic fields caused by During the measurement it is useful to adjust the bridge
charges are also valid for static conduction to a distinct potential value so as to enable following the
associated equipotential line on the surface of the paper
fields. Conversely, potential distributions that by means of the probe. By suitably marking the points,
were measured in static conduction fields are an equipotential plot is generated.
valid for quasi-static displacement fields gen-
erated by charges. Measurements on semi-conductive paper allow
us to consider different conductivities N (and
Note: The fields, which are calculated with fixed (static)
charges, are often referred to as “static electric fields”.
different permittivities H) by stacking papers in
However, this is an auxiliary picture only, since the different numbers. However, good contact
static case cannot exist in a real insulating material between the sheets is required.
76 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2.3.7.3 Measurements in x The movement of charge carriers in the

Semi-conductive Liquids electric field causes a so-called conduction
(“Electrolytic Tank”) field. This is described by the so-called
(residual) conductivity N of the insulating
Any three-dimensional field arrangement can material.
be measured (field plotter) point-by-point by
lowering the electrode arrangement into a In Section 2.3, the fields in homogeneous di-
semi-conductive liquid (e.g. in a water-based electrics were calculated with constant per-
electrolyte). In principle the original electrode mittivities H and constant conductivities N, i.e.
itself can be investigated, if an electrolytic it was assumed either that there was a perfectly
tank of sufficient size is available. homogeneous dielectric in the field volume, or
that there was absolutely no matter (perfect
The field limitations at the basin walls must vacuum). Dependences on environmental pa-
not have any influence on the field in the re- rameters (e.g. temperature), field dependences
gion of interest. Therefore, basin dimensions (non-linearities) and dependences on direction
have to be large in many cases. (isotropy) are not considered.
The simulation of different permittivities with Under these conditions, there is absolutely no
liquids of different conductivities, which must influence of the material parameters H and N on
be in contact at their interfaces without any the potential distribution and on the magnitude
mixing, is not readily achievable. and direction of the electric field E.
A three-dimensional field pattern requires a Nevertheless, in reality the field quantities D
large quantity of data to be measured. There- and J depend on material properties. Thereby
fore an automatic measurement process with the capacitance C of the electrode arrangement
positioning of the measurement probe (“field
plotter”) is recommended. ³³ D d A = H ³³ U
Q E dA
C = =
U U
Of course, the probe that is immersed inserted
in the liquid must be insulated against the liq- (2.4-1)
uid, with the exception of actual measurement
tip. is also dependent on the permittivity H. In ad-
dition, the volume resistance R and the con-
ductance G of the electrode arrangement is a
function of the conductivity N:
2.4 Conduction and
Displacement Fields in ³³ J d A = N ³³ U
1 I E dA
G= = =
Inhomogeneous Dielectrics R U U
(2.4-2)
Matter in the electric field has a significant
influence on the formation of the field and Note: From these equations the “self-discharging time
potential distribution: constant” of the insulating material is derived as

x Additional fields are caused by polariza- Wd = RC = H N (2.4-3)

tion, i.e. by displacement of charge carriers (see also Section 2.1.4.3, example of the self-discharg-
(ions, charged atoms, molecules and mole- ing of a dielectric). I.e. for a given capacitance C the
cule groups) or by orientation of existing resistance R can be calculated directly, if Wd is known.
dipoles in the electric field. This is de-
scribed by the permittivity H of the insu- Homogeneous insulating materials can only be
lating material. found in some areas in a high voltage engi-
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 77

neering insulation system, e.g. as air insulation the stationary conduction field (for a DC volt-
in overhead lines, as pressurized gas insulation age) and to materials with different conduc-
in enclosed switchgear (GIS) or as cable insu- tivities N (Section 2.4.4).
lation in coaxial cables. Insulation systems in
service always need further insulation compo-
nents, e.g. string insulators (overhead lines),
post insulators (enclosed switchgear) or cable
2.4.1 Conductivity and Polarization
terminations (cables).
In most cases, the atomic structure of matter,
Generally, it is not sufficient to regard the ho- i.e. the presence of charged protons and elec-
mogeneous insulation parts only, also the parts trons, cannot be detected directly because of a
with different insulating materials must be statistically uniform distribution of the
considered. Complex insulation systems (e.g. charges. They are either mobile (free) or im-
in transformers, bushings, cable fittings) al- mobile (fixed).
ways consist of a number of components with
different insulating materials (e.g. oil, impreg-
nated paper, impregnated pressboard, poly- 2.4.1.1 Conductivity
meric films, porcelain, epoxy resin, silicone or
air). The forces of the electric field accelerate mo-
bile charges and impacts slow them down.
Field and potential distributions in arrange- Statistically averaged, there is constant drift
ments with a number of insulating materials velocity v and a constant current density J,
can differ significantly from field and potential which are proportional to the electric field
distributions in homogeneous arrangements. strength E [24], [25]. The Material Equation
Especially at the interfaces, there are refrac- (2.1-20) describes this relation with the pro-
tions of field vectors, refractions of equipoten- portionality coefficient N (conductivity):
tial lines and discontinuities of field quantities.
J = N·E (2.4-4)
In the following the physical reason and the
mathematical description of polarization and Note: In gases, the linear relation is no longer valid for
high field strengths. At first, there are saturation effects
conductivity in insulating materials is dis-
and then, the current increases again because of the
cussed (Section 2.4.1). This allows one to cal- production of further charge carriers by impacts. (see
culate the basic insulation structures with in- Chapter 3).
terfaces orthogonal, parallel and inclined to the
field direction (Section 2.4.2). In liquid and solid insulating materials, Eq.
(2.4-4) can often be used as a good approxi-
The use of analytical field calculation methods mation. Depending on the type of the mobile
for insulating systems (Section 2.4.3) allows charge carriers, ion conductivity and electron
the calculation of some important special conductivity are distinguished.
cases, e.g. for layered capacitor insulations,
coated electrode surfaces, barrier systems, Conductivities of insulating materials strongly
ruptures and slots, bubbles and voids, and for depend on the materials used, impurities, man-
triple-points and interstices at the electrode ufacturing processes and service conditions
surfaces. (e.g. on temperature, sometimes also on stress
duration and field strength). For example, con-
At first, the discussion refers to the quasi-static ductivities often increase exponentially with
dielectric displacement field (for an AC volt- the temperature. The differences between dif-
age) and to materials with different permittivi- ferent insulating materials can be many orders
ties H. Because of the analogies described in of magnitude. A more accurate assessment
Section 2.3.7.1 the results can be transferred to follows in Chapter 4.
78 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

The reliability of a field calculation for a sta-

tionary conduction field (i.e. for a steady-state
DC voltage) depends very strongly on the reli- E
ability of the conductivity values used. For
practical applications, special attention must
be given to the determination of relevant con- Atom Polarization by defor-
ductivity values. mation:
1. electron polarization
2. atom polarization
2.4.1.2 Polarization

The forces of the electric field can displace

immobile positive and negative charge carriers E
against each other, and polarization of the in-
sulating material is caused, Figure 2.4-1. There
are a number of different polarization mecha-
nisms [24], [25]:

x The displacement of the negative electron Crystal lattice Lattice polarization

shell relative to the positive nucleus de-
forms the atom. It is called electron polari-
         
zation or polarization by deformation. 
   
x The displacement of atoms carrying differ-       E

ent charges deforms molecules. It is called    
       
atom polarization or polarization by de-  
formation as well.
Polar molecules Molecular polarization
x The displacement of differently charged (dipoles) Orientation polarization
lattice elements in a crystal lattice causes
Figure 2.4-1: Polarization of insulating materials
the lattice polarization. by the forces of an electric field (right).
x The orientation of polar molecule groups,
molecules or particles (so-called electric
dipoles) is called molecular polarization or E = E0 + EDip (2.4-5)
orientation polarization.
x Furthermore, the accumulation of charge The dipole field, generated by the displaced
carriers at macroscopic or microscopic in- charges, is oppositely directed to the original
terfaces between materials with different vacuum field. Therefore the magnitude of the
conductivities causes polarization of the resulting field is
dielectric, i.e, the so-called interfacial po- E = E0 - EDip . (2.4-6)
larization.
The physical relations shall be explained by
The influence of different polarization proc- means of a thought experiment:
esses is always the same: From the superposi-
tion of many dipole fields, an additional elec- An insulating material is inserted into a ca-
tric field EDip is generated, which is superim- pacitor with the charge Q, Figure 2.4-2a and -
posed on the original field E0 of the same ar- 2b. Thereby the charge Q on the electrodes is
rangement without insulating material (“vac- not changed, if the capacitor is not connected
uum field”), Figure 2.4-2b: to an external voltage source, i.e. constant
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 79

Q E0 Q0 E0
Figure 2.4-2a: Figure 2.4-3a:
Electrostatic Electrostatic
field in vac- field in vac-
uum. uum.
Q = const. V = const.

Figure 2.4-2b: Figure 2.4-3b:

Additional Binding of
electric field EDip additional
caused by the
Q charges on the
Q E = E0
E0
polarization electrodes by
of a dielectric polarization
for a given of a dielectric
constant at constant
charge Q. voltage.

charge Q = D·A and constant dielectric dis- Usually, the influence of the polarization, i.e.
placement density the influence of the insulating material, is de-
scribed by a factor Hr , the so-called relative
D = H0·E0 = const. permittivity (relative dielectric constant).
Thus, the general Material Equation or the
are assumed. With Eq. (2.4-6) D is
Constitutive Relation (2.1-2) and (-19) is de-
D = H0·(E + EDip) fined:
D = H0·Hr·E (2.4-8)
= H0·E + P.
The absolute permittivity of vacuum H0 (elec-
The term P = H0·EDip is referred to as (di)elec- tric constant) and the relative permittivity Hr
tric polarization. It has the same dimension as are often combined as permittivity H (dielectric
the electric displacement density D. The vector coefficient/ constant):
P = - H0·EDip can be seen as the fraction of the
displacement density D, for which the electric H = H0·Hr (2.4-9)
field is compensated by the polarized charges. From the equality of the Equations (2.4-7) and
Generally the displacement density is (-8) the polarization P is derived:

D = H0·E + P . (2.4-7) P = H0·(Hr - 1)·E (2.4-10)

In vacuum there is no polarization, i.e. P = 0
The fraction H0·E is associated with those
and Hr = 1. In the presence of matter we always
charges on the electrode, which are not com-
find Hr > 1.
pensated by the polarized charges in the insu-
lating material. Accordingly, they generate an According to Eq. (2.4-1), the insertion of a
electric field E which is reduced in compari- dielectric material causes an increase of ca-
son with E0, see also Eq. (2.4-5) and (-6). pacitance:
80 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

C = Hr·C0 (2.4-11) tivities. Some values are Hr = 3.5 for poly-

Note: Up to now it was assumed that a capacitor both vinyl chloride (PVC), Hr = 3.5 ... 4 for ep-
without and with a dielectric material carries a defined oxy resin (EP), Hr = 5 for castor oil and up
constant charge Q. In this case, the insertion of the
dielectric is associated with a polarization that reduces
to Hr = 7 for cellulose fibers.
the field strength E = E0/Hr and the capacitor voltage V,
x Liquids with polar molecules of high
Figure 2.4-2.
mobility have very high permittivities be-
Similar reasoning can also be performed for a capacitor cause of molecular polarization (orienta-
with a constant voltage V and a constant field strength tion polarization). We find Hr = 40 ap-
E, both sustained by an external voltage source. In this
case, the insertion of a dielectric is associated with a
proximately for glycerin and Hr = 81 for
polarization that binds additional charges on the elec- water.
trodes in addition to the existing electrode charge Q0,
Note: Both water and glycerin, have a compara-
Figure 2.4-3. The additional charges must be supplied tively high ionic conductivity. Therefore, they can
by a current from the connected source. The increase of be used as dielectrics for very short impulse stresses
the charge Q on the electrodes corresponds to the in- only.
crease of the displacement density
x Extreme relative permittivities Hr > 1000
D = H0·Hr·E = Hr·D0 . (2.4-12)
can be observed in so-called ferroelectrics.
Then the polarization P in Eq. (2.4-7) can be interpreted Close to the transformation temperature of
as the displacement density, which is associated with a crystal structure the binding conditions
the additional charges that are bound on the electrodes. can change so as to cause a so-called “po-
larization catastrophe”, i.e. an extreme in-
The values of the relative permittivities depend crease of the permittivity, under the influ-
strongly on the relevant polarization mecha- ence of the electric field [25]. This effect is
nisms, Fig 2.4-4. In the following some typical strongly dependent on temperature and
values (for room temperature and power fre- field strength; it occurs only in the direc-
quency f = 50/ 60 Hz) are discussed: tion of certain crystal axes. For barium ti-
tanate Hr = 3000 ... 7000 approximately.
x In a perfect vacuum, there is no polarizable
matter. Therefore the permittivity is Hr = 1.

x In gases, there is little matter in compari- Symmetric nitrogen molecule

son with liquids and solids, and the atoms N N (electron polarization only).
or molecules do not have a polar character.
Because of electron polarization there is a Strongly polar and very mo-
O bile water molecule
small, often negligible increase of the rela- H H (orientation polarization).
tive permittivity. For ambient air we find
Hr = 1.0006. H H
Symmetric polyethylene
x Materials with symmetric, non-polar mole- C C chain-molecule without
cules have comparatively small permittivi- dipole moment (no orien-
H H tation polarization).
ties, caused by electron, atom or lattice
polarization. For mineral oil and for poly-
ethylene (PE) the relative permittivity is H Cl Asymmetric polyvinylcloride
approximately Hr = 2.2 to 2.3. chain-molecule with strong
C C dipole moment
x Asymmetric and more complex molecules (orientation polarization).
often have high dipole moments. Because
H H
of molecular polarization (orientation po- Figure 2.4-4: Examples for polarization mechanisms
larization) there are higher relative permit- in insulating materials.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 81

Permittivities are not constant quantities; they 2.4.2 Multi-dielectric Arrangements

vary mainly with temperature T and frequency
f of the electric field, see Figure 2.4-5 and For multi-dielectric arrangements, special
Section 4.2. boundary conditions for field quantities of
slowly changing fields at dielectric interfaces
With increasing temperature the mobility of can be derived from Maxwell’s Equations
given dipoles increases on the one hand, and (Section 2.4.2.1). Multi-dielectric arrange-
on the other hand the Brownian motion and ments with interfaces orthogonal, parallel and
thermal agitation cause an increasing destruc- inclined to the field direction are discussed for
tion of dipole orientation by collisions. There- the dielectric displacement field, which is
fore, an increasing temperature can be associ- normally assumed for alternating fields in in-
ated with an increasing relative permittivity Hr sulating materials (Section 2.4.2.2 to 2.4.2.4).
at first, because of the increasing mobility of The stationary conduction field at DC voltages
the dipoles formerly “frozen” at lower tem- is discussed analogously in Section 2.4.4.
peratures. This is often accompanied by a
structural change of the insulating material.
Further increasing temperatures then result in 2.4.2.1 Boundary Conditions at Interfaces
decreasing relative permittivities, Figure 2.4-5
(top) and Figure 4.2-13. The interface between two different insulating
materials is considered, Figure 2.4-6.
With increasing frequency, the polarization is
influenced by the mass inertia and interaction From the integration of the electric field
of the dipoles, which is maximal for the ori- strength E along a very small closed path P1-
entation of larger dipoles and minimal for the
P2-P3-P4-P1 on both sides of the interface, Far-
electron polarization. With increasing fre-
quency, the dipoles cannot follow the field aday’s law gives according to Eq. (2.1-32)
changes without delay, because of their mass
inertia. Therefore, the relative permittivity is
strongly dependent on frequency (dispersion): Hr Transition region
with polarization Thermal agitation
Generally Hr decreases with increasing fre- losses (dissipation) destoys orientation
quency in steps, which are associated with the of dipoles
stepwise drop-out of different polarization Dipoles be-
processes, Figure 2.4-5 (bottom), 4.2-3 and come mobile
Dipoles are
4.2-13. immobile
1 ("frozen")
(f = const.)
Note: Similar to the resistive losses in a conduction field
(current losses), polarization losses (dissipation, di- T
electric losses) occur during the polarization process. Transition region
These losses are caused by collisions and energy dissi- Hr with polarization
losses (dissipation)
pation during the repetitive re-orientation of the dipoles
with the frequency of the applied field. At low frequen- Dipoles cannot follow
cies, the polarization losses are small, because of the the fast changing field
Dipoles follow
low repetition rate. At high frequencies, there is no any more
the field with-
polarization any more and no dissipation consequently.
Maximum losses are produced in the range of the tran- out any delay
sition frequency, Figure 2.4-5 bottom, see Chapter 4. 1
(T = const.)
For sinusoidal AC fields the dielectric displacement f
current and a fictitious loss current (describing the
losses both by conduction current and by polarization) Figure 2.4-5: General dependence of the relative
can be described in frequency domain by a complex permittivity on the parameters temperature T and
relative permittivity. The real part equals Hr and the frequency f for a dielectric with orientation/ mole-
imaginary part describes the losses, see Section 4.2.4. cular polarization (schematic), cf. Figure 4.2-13.
82 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

³ E ds = E 1t ·s + (-E 2t )·s = 0. Dielectric 1

Therefore, the tangential components of the
electric field strength are equal on both sides
of the interface:
D1
E1t = E2t (2.4-13)
P2 E1 E1t E1n P1
If the line P1-P2-P3-P4-P1 is regarded as con-
P3 E2t P4
tour of a closed surface, it can be concluded D2
from Gauss’s law/ continuity Eq. (2.1-35) that
all the current entering the enclosed volume on E2 E2n
one side of the interface has to leave it on the
other side. This condition is expressed by the Dielectric 2
continuity of the normal components of cur-
rent densities (both conduction and displace- Figure 2.4-6: Vectors of the electric field strength
ment current density): at an interface between two dielectrics.

J1n + wD1n/wt = J2n + wD2n/wt (2.4-14) the stationary conduction field for DC fields
(Section 2.4.4). For this purpose, in particular
In many cases, it is possible to confine oneself the ratio of the permittivities H1/H2 must be
to the special cases of the stationary conduc-
replaced by the ratio of the conductivities
tion field (without displacement current) and
the dielectric displacement field (without con- N 1/ N 2.
duction current).

Therefore, in the case of the stationary con- 2.4.2.2 Interface Orthogonal (Normal) to
duction field (at DC voltage), the normal the Field („Field Displacement“)
component of the conduction current density J
For “sandwiched” dielectrics, if the interface
continuously passes through the interface:
between two dielectric layers (with permittivi-
ties H1 = H0·Hr1 and H2 = H0·Hr2) is orthogonal to
J 1n = J 2n (2.4-15) the electric field, the displacement density
continuously passes through the interface, Fig-
ure 2.4-7. The magnitudes of the field quanti-
For the dielectric displacement field (at AC
ties D and E are identical with the magnitudes
voltage, if the conduction current can be ne-
of the normal components. According to Eq.
glected) the normal component of the dis-
(2.4-16) the displacement densities D1 = D2
placement density D continuously passes
through the interface: are equal, i.e.
E1 H2
= . (2.4-17)
D1n = D2n (2.4-16) E2 H1

The magnitudes of the field strengths and the

In the following, the dielectric displacement permittivities are inversely rated to each other.
field alone is discussed. It can normally be
assumed in insulating materials for alternating The dielectric with the lower permittivity is
fields at power frequency and above. stressed with a higher field strength than
the material with the higher permittivity.
Because of the analogy of the Equations (2.4- This effect is called “field displacement”
15) and (-16), the results can be transferred to into the dielectric with lower permittivity.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 83

Note: The field displacement is of fundamental 5.71 kV/mm = 1.43·Ê0 and Ê2 = 2.86 kV/mm
importance in high voltage engineering. For = 0.71 Ê0, calculated with Eq. (2.4-18) and
instance air or gas-filled insulating layers, (-19) and with d1 = 8 mm. The field strength in
which have a comparatively low electric
the oil is increased by 43 % through the inser-
strength, are stressed with strongly enhanced
tion of the plate.
field strengths because of the field displace-
ment effect. Gas-filled gaps, cracks, cavities,
Note: The highest field displacement occurs
shrink holes and voids are some of the most
for a very thin oil gap. With d1 << d2 # d the
frequent/common reasons for defective insula-
tions and partial discharges, Figure 2.4-8. field strength is Ê1 # Û V /(0 + d Hr1/Hr2) =
Partial discharges (PD) mostly cause a slowly Ê0·Hr2/Hr1 = 2·Ê0.
progressing erosion of the insulating material,
finally leading to breakdown.

In non-uniform fields, the field displacement

effect can be used to reduce the stress on re- d1 H 1 E1 V 1
gions with high field stresses and to displace
some of the stress into regions with lower field d V
strengths.
d2 H 2 E2 V 2
For the partially uniform field of the parallel-
plate capacitor according to Figure 2.4-7, the
voltage is
Figure 2.4-7: Two dielectrics in a parallel-plate
V = V1 + V2 = E1·d1 + E2·d2 . capacitor with an interface orthogonal to the
the electical field ("field displacement").
With Eq. (2.4-17) the field strengths are

V
E1 = Hr1
(2.4-18)
d1 + d2 H
r2
and Holes, voids, Cracks, gaps,
V bubbles imperfect layers
E2 = . (2.4-19)
Hr2
d1 H + d2
r1

Example: Epoxy resin plate

in an oil-insulated parallel-plate capacitor
Low oil level in Capacitor insulation
An epoxy resin plate (d2 = 12 mm, Hr2 = 4.4) is an oil-insulated arranged in layers
inserted into an oil-insulated parallel-plate ca- apparatus (Papers/films)
pacitor (d = 20 mm, Hr1 = 2.2). The field
changes shall be calculated for Û
V = 80 kV AC.
Post-insulators with
Prior to the insertion of the plate, the field triple points
strength is Ê0 = Û
V /d = 4 kV/mm. After the in-
sertion of the plate, the field strengths for the Figure 2.4-8: Examples of field displacement effects
oil gap and for the epoxy resin plate are Ê1 = in high voltage engineering.
84 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Example: Insulating barrier in an air-insu- ent polarizations. Consequently, there is more

lated parallel-plate capacitor charge on the electrode surface areas adjacent
to the material with the higher permittivity
An insulating barrier (d2 = 4 cm, Hr2 = 5) shall than on the electrode surface areas adjacent to
be introduced into an air-insulated parallel- the material with the lower permittivity.
plate capacitor (d = 5 cm). The (macroscopic)
partial discharge inception field strength Epd is Because of the equal field strengths in both
15 kV/mm. The partial discharge inception materials, it could be supposed that an inter-
voltages Vpd shall be calculated, in order to face in parallel to the electric field should be a
investigate whether the electric strength can be good insulation arrangement. Nevertheless, it
increased by the insertion of the barrier. can often be observed that the electric
strength of a tangential interface is lower than
Without a barrier, Vpd is 75 kV. In a uniform the strength of the two adjacent materials.
field, the inception of discharges is directly This seemingly paradoxical interfacial prob-
accompanied by a breakdown. With a barrier, lem can have different causes depending on
Vpd is 27 kV according to Eq. (2.4-18). At this the type of interface:
voltage the air gap breaks down (partial break-
down), but the barrier prevents a total break- x Material properties close to the surface
down at first. After some time, the permanent often are different from the properties of
discharge activity in the air gap will erode the bulk material. Often, electrons are only
most of the insulating barriers (made of or- weakly bound in impurity traps. Therefore,
ganic materials). Thus, the insulating barrier additional charge carriers are available for
deteriorates the quality of the insulation! the generation of surface avalanches and
discharges.
Note: In high voltage insulations, the effect of
electric strength deterioration because of field x Additionally, deposits of foreign conduc-
displacement effects is countered by a com- tive and semi-conductive layers can cause
plete impregnation of all voids and gaps with potential shifts and field stress enhance-
an electrically strong insulating oil. ments at the surface. A flashover triggered
as a result of this is referred to as “pollu-
tion flashover”.
2.4.2.3 Interface Parallel to the Field Note: DC stresses are especially critical because the
(Tangential Interface) semi-conductive pollution layers can have a very high
conductivity in comparison with the insulating material.
If the interface between two dielectrics and the
electric field are in parallel (tangential), the
field strength is equal on both sides. E is tan-
gential to the interface and it is continuous
according to Eq. (2.3-13), Figure 2.4-9: H1 H2

E1 = E2 = E0 = V/d (2.4-20a) d V
E1 E2
According to the material Eq. (2.4-8), the dis-
placement densities on both sides of the inter-
face are determined by
A1 A2
D1/H1 = D2/H2 . (2.4-20b)
Fig. 2.4-9: Two dielectrics in a parallel-plate
Therefore, the displacement densities in the capacitor with an interface parallel to the field
two dielectrics are different because of differ- ("tangential interface").
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 85

Dielectric 1

E1
H1
Dielectric 1 D1 E1n D1
E1
E1t D1
E2t D2
E2n D2 H2 D2
E2 E2
Dielectric 2

Dielectric 2 (higher "dielectric density")

Figure 2.4-10: Vectors of the electric field strength, Figure 2.4-11: "Refraction" of field and equipotential
inclined to the interface between two dielectrics. lines at the interface between two dielectrics.

Also in the case of AC stresses, heavy pollution of in- of the displacement density D are continuous
sulator surfaces together with humidity can cause field at the interface, this gives
distortions and flashovers. Insulators are therefore
equipped with shed profiles , which guarantee relatively D1n = D2n
clean and dry zones, see also Figure 1-1 for example. In
extreme cases hydrophobic (water-repellent) materials and  Hr1·E1n = Hr2·E2n .
are used, e.g. silicone elastomers.
Furthermore, the tangential component of the
x Insulator surfaces are never totally smooth electric field strength is continuous, i.e.
and parallel to the field. Because of the mi-
croscopic surface roughness, there are mi- E1t = E2t .
croscopically tiny areas with interfaces
orthogonal to the field, so that local field The division of the two continuity conditions
stress enhancements can occur through gives
field displacements.
E1t/(E1n·Hr1) = E2t/(E2n·Hr2) .

The quotient of tangential and normal compo-

2.4.2.4 Interface Inclined (at an Angle) to nents is equal to the tangent of the angle D1 or
the Field (“Refraction Law”) D2, Figure 2.4-10:
If the vector of the electric field strength E and tan D1 H r1
the area vector A (orthogonal to the interface) = (2.4-21)
tan D2 H r2
enclose an angle D between 0° and 90°, the
electric field is “inclined to the interface”,
Eq. (2.4-21) is called “refraction law” for the
Figure 2.4-10. There are different angles D1
electric field lines and for the orthogonal equi-
and D2 on both sides of the interface, i.e. field potential lines.
lines and equipotential lines are subject to re-
fraction at the interface. It states that the angle D between field vector
E and the surface normal vector dA decreases
The so-called “refraction law” for the dielec- or increases with the permittivity H. In the ma-
tric displacement field is derived from Eq. terial with the higher permittivity (higher “di-
(2.4-13) and (-16). As the normal components electric density”), the field lines are refracted
86 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

away from the surface normal. In the material partial capacitance can be marked off in a
with the lower permittivity (lower “dielectric field/equipotential-line plot, Figure 2.4-12
density”) the field lines are refracted towards (bold field and potential lines).
the surface normal. If the permittivities are
very different, the field lines emerge from the
material with the much higher permittivity
2.4.3 Analytical Calculation of
nearly normal to the surface.
Multilayer Dielectric
Equipotential lines are perpendicular to field Arrangements
lines. In the material with the higher permit-
tivity they are refracted towards the surface Generally, multilayer dielectric arrangements
normal, and in the material with the lower are calculated with the methods described in
permittivity they are refracted away from the Section 2.3. Additionally, the boundary condi-
surface normal resp., Figure 2.4-11. Therefore, tions according to Eq. (2.4-13) and (-16) must
the angles D1 and D2 can also be regarded as also be fulfilled.
angles between the equipotential lines and the Some important multilayer dielectric arrange-
surface contour itself. The angles in Figure ments are discussed below:
2.4-11 represent a ratio of approximately
Hr1/Hr2 = 1/3. Section 2.4.3.1 describes plane, cylindrically
symmetric and spherically symmetric multi-
In the case of two-dimensional plane fields, layer insulations. The field vectors shall be
the methods of graphical field mapping can orthogonal to the interfaces (transverse multi-
be applied. According to Eq. (2.3-35), the con- layer dielectrics).
cept of equal partial capacitances, for the rec-
tangular cross sections defined by field and Weak links or defects in insulations often oc-
equipotential lines, would result in the condi- cur as multi-layer arrangements, e.g. as gaps
tion and cracks (Section 2.4.3.2), as interstices and
triple-points (Section 2.4.3.3) or as holes,
 Hr·b/a = const. (2.4-22a) voids and inclusions (Section 2.4.3.4). The
interfaces are subject to electric field forces
Therefore, the aspect ratio of the rectangles (Section 2.4.3.5).
would be changed in proportion to the permit-
tivities.
Dielectric 1
For the practical mapping, however, it is more
convenient to assume equal rectangles (e.g.
quadratic boxes) in the whole field volume:

 b/a = const. (2.4-22b) E1

Thereby, the distance of field lines is propor-

tional to the distance of the equipotential lines
and gives a graphic impression of the electric E2
field strength magnitude, Figure 2.4-11.

For capacitance estimation, the different par- Dielectric 2 (higher "dielectric density")
tial capacitances must be calculated in the dif-
ferent regions according to Eq. (2.3-35), and Figure 2.4-12: Outline of elements with equal partial
then they are combined in an equivalent net- capacitances (bold lines), for capacitance estima-
work. Alternatively, elements with the same tion in a two-dimensional arrangement.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 87

2.4.3.1 Plane, Cylindrically Symmetric and Ek+1/Ek = Hk/Hk+1 (2.4-24)

Spherically Symmetric Multi-layer
Arrangements In Figure 2.4-13 a gradation of the permittivity
ratios was chosen according to 6 : 4 : 2 : 1,
Very often, insulations are designed as multi- both in x- and in r-direction respectively. For
layer arrangements, which are stressed as all three arrangements, the electric field
nearly normally to the interfaces as possible in strength increases by 50 % at the first interface
order to avoid tangential stresses along weak (at x1 and at r1) and by 100 % at the two fol-
interfaces. lowing interfaces, Figure 2.4-13 (middle).
Examples: In a plane arrangement there is a uniform field
1. Capacitor dielectrics consist of a number of layers
within a single dielectric layer, i.e. E is con-
of thin papers or polymer films. Voids and gaps are stant section by section. Because of the field
completely filled with an impregnating fluid. The di- displacement, the field strength EN in the di-
electric can mostly be regarded as a plane multi-layer electric N is 600 % of the field strength E1 in
arrangement.
the dielectric 1.
2. High voltage conductors between the windings of a
transformer and the bushings are led through the insu- In a cylindrically symmetric arrangement of
lating oil and they are wrapped with a paper layer to length z
improve the insulation. At very high voltages a subdivi-
sion of the oil gap by cylindrical pressboard barriers Q/ z 1
may be necessary in order to guarantee sufficient elec- Ek ( r ) ˜ (2.4-25)
2ʌH 0H rk r
tric strength.

3. High voltage bushings are cylindrically symmetric generally applies for any dielectric layer k,
multi-layer arrangements, consisting of a main insula- according to Eq. (2.3-17).
tion body (core), subsidiary insulation gaps, housing
insulators and ambient media, see Figure 1-1. Neverthe- The field strength profile in Figure 2.4-13 is a
less, the direction of the electric field can approximately result of decreasing field strengths Ek(r) a 1/r
be assumed to be radial in certain regions (between the in the considered dielectrics and abrupt field
grading layers).
strength changes at the interfaces. In compari-
In the following, the analytical calculation of son with the plane arrangement there is a ho-
basic multi-layer insulations in plane, cylin- mogenization of the stress, i.e. on the outer
drically symmetric and spherically symmetric side there is a decrease and on the inner side
arrangements is discussed, Figure 2.4-13. The there is an increase of the electric field stress.
dielectrics are always layered transversely to According to Eq. (2.3-2),
the electric field, i.e. E and the displacement
density D are always normal (orthogonal) to Q 1
the interfaces (parallel to the area vector A). Ek ( r ) ˜ 2 (2.4-26)
4 ʌH 0H rk r
Consequently, the interfaces are regarded as
equipotential surfaces. generally applies for spherically symmetric
arrangements. The field strength profile in
Because of the continuity of the displacement Figure 2.1-13 is a result of decreasing field
density, 2
strengths Ek(r) a 1/r in the considered dielec-
Dk(xk) = Dk+1(xk) (2.4-23) trics and abrupt field strength changes at the
interfaces. In comparison with the plane and
applies for any interface at x = xk (or r = rk), cylindrical arrangements, there is a strong de-
and the electric field strength changes abruptly crease at the outer side. Dielectric no. 1, which
at the interface, with the reverse ratio of the is weakly stressed in the other arrangements, is
permittivities: exposed to the highest stress here.
88 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

V kN EN V kN EN
V 01 V 12 V 2k V kN
V 2k Ek V 2k Ek
E1 E2 E k EN
V 12 E2 H rN V 12 E2 H rN
H r1 H r2 H rk H rN H rk H rk
V 01 E1 V 01 E1
H r2 H r2
H r1 H r1
x r r
d1 d2 dk dN d1 d2 dk dN d1 d2 dk dN
0 x1 x2 xk xN r0 r1 r2 rk rN r0 r1 r2 rk rN

Plane arrangement Cylindrical arrangement Spherical arrangement

E(x) E(r) E(r)

EN

EN

E1
Ek
Ek EN
E1
Ek
E2 E2
E2
E1

x r r
d1 d2 dk dN r0 r1 r2 rk rN r0 r1 r2 rk rN
0 x1 x2 xk xN

M (x) M (r) M (r)

V 01
V 01
V 12 V 01
V 12
V 2k
V 2k V 12

V 2k
V kN
V kN
V kN
x r r
0 x1 x2 xk xN r0 r1 r2 rk rN r0 r1 r2 rk rN

Figure 2.4-13: Plane, cylindrical and spherical multi-layer insulation arrangement (top) with the related field
strength profiles (middle) and the potential profiles (bottom). The profiles in the figure are in accordance with
a permittivity ratio of approximately 6 : 4 : 2 : 1 in x- or in r-direction resp..
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 89

Note: Theoretically, constant field strengths can also be V V

achieved in cylindrically and spherically symmetric Ek
N d § d1 d 2 d ·
arrangements, if the relative permittivities according to Hk ¦ i
H k ¨¨   ...  N ¸¸
Eq. (2.4-25) and (-26) are assumed to decrease continu- i 1 Hi H
© 1 H 2 H N ¹
ously with
2 (2.4-27)
Hr(r) a 1/r and Hr(r) a 1/r
is calculated. The potential distribution results
(refractive potential grading). Unfortunately, there is no from the sectional integration of the electric
technically practical solution for this. The approxima-
tion of the perfect permittivity profiles by discrete layers field strengths, Figure 2.4-13 (bottom left).
with appropriate permittivities will normally not be
possible: In practice, the choice of insulating materials The capacitance of the plane arrangement is
is very much limited because of many constraints (e.g. determined from the series connection of the
mechanical, thermal or chemical stresses, costs etc.). partial capacitances
Optimizations problems often have to be solved by
application of certain materials with given properties. Ck = Hk A / dk
Example: Coated spherical electrode or from the above-mentioned relation between
For the spherically symmetric multi-layer arrangement Q and V with Hk = H0Hrk:
according to Figure 2.4-13 (right) there is a high stress
on the inner dielectric 1 (e.g. epoxy resin coating with H0 ˜ A H0 ˜ A
C
Hr1 = 6) and a significantly lower stress on the outer N di d1 d2 d
dielectric N (e.g. air gap with HrN = 1). Because of the ¦   ...  N
i 1 H ri
H r1 H r2 H rN
much higher electric strength of the epoxy resin, it
would not make sense to seek to homogenize the field (2.4-28)
strength profile. Multi-layer insulations should be de-
signed in such a way that the materials with the higher For the calculation of the cylindrically sym-
electric strength are carrying a higher dielectric stress metric arrangement, the dependence of the
than the electrically weaker materials.
displacement density on the radius r must be
considered, Figure 2.4-13 (middle). Eq. (2.4-
For the calculation of the plane arrangement
25) for the field strength Ek(r) in any layer k
a constant displacement density can be as-
sumed, Figure 2.4-13 (left): results from
D = Q / A(r) = Q / (2Sr·z).
D = Q/A = const.
The length of the arrangement is z. The inte-
The field strengths in the different layers are gration of Ek(r) in the radial direction provides
Ek = Q/(A Hk) . the partial voltage
V(k-1)k = [Q / (2SHk·z)] · ln (rk/rk-1) .
With the total voltage
The summation of the partial voltages gives
N Q N di
˜¦ the total voltage V. After that, Q can be ex-
V ¦ Ei di ,
i 1 A i 1Hi pressed as a function of V and can be elimi-
nated in Eq. (2.4-25):
the charge density V
E k (r ) (2.4-29)
N 1 r
Q
V ¦
N d
i r ˜ H k ¦ { ˜ ln i }
i 1 Hi ri 1
A i 1Hi
This expression is valid in any layer k, i.e. for
and the field strength Ek in any layer k rk-1 < r < rk.
90 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

The potential distribution results from the sec- Ck = SHk / (1/rk-1 - 1/rk)
tional integration of the electric field strengths,
Figure 2.4-13 (bottom middle). or from the relation C = Q/V with Hk = H0Hrk:

The capacitance of the cylindrical arrange- 4ʌ H 0

C (2.4-32)
ment is determined from the series connection N 1 1
1
of the partial capacitances according to Eq. ¦{ (  )}
(2.3-20) i 1 H r i ri 1 ri

Ck = SHk z / ln(rk/rk-1) Example: Coated cylindrical conductor

or from the relation C = Q/V with Hk = H0Hrk: For a cylindrical high voltage conductor (r0 =
2 cm) the thickness or the radius r1 of a cast-
2 ʌH 0 z resin coating (Hr1 = 5) shall be determined in
C (2.4-30)
N 1 r such a way that the maximum field strength in
¦ { ˜ ln i } the surrounding gas becomes minimal. The
i 1 H ri ri 1
conductor is led in a coaxial air-filled ground
Also for the calculation of the spherical ar- conductor (r2 = 10 cm), Figure 2.4-14 (top).
rangement, it has to be regarded that the dis- The peak value of the applied AC voltage shall
placement density depends on the radius r, be Û
V = 100 kV.
Figure 2.4-13 (right). Eq. (2.4-26) for the field
strength Ek(r) in any layer k results from The maximum field strength in the gas occurs

2
D = Q / A(r) = Q / (4Sr )
E 2(r1)
The integration of Ek(r) in radial direction
H r2
provides the partial voltage
H r1
V(k-1)k = (1/rk-1 - 1/rk) · Q / (4SHk) . r
r0 r1 r2
The summation of the partial voltages gives
the total voltage V. After that, Q can be ex-
pressed as a function of V and can be elimi-
nated in Eq. (2.4-26):
V
E k (r ) 32
N 1 1 1 E 2(r1)
r2 ˜H k ¦ { (  )} 30
i 1 H i ri 1 ri kV/cm
28
(2.4-31)
26
This expression is valid in any layer k, i.e.
24
between rk-1 < r < rk.
22
The potential distribution results from the sec- 20
tional integration of the electric field strengths, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 2.4-13 (bottom right). r1 /cm
The capacitance of the spherical arrangement Figure 2.4-14: Cast-resin coated conductor in a gas-
can be determined from the series connection filled tubular ground conductor (top) and maximum
of the spherically symmetric partial capacitan- field strength in the gas as a function of the coating-
ces according to Eq. (2.3-12) thickness/ radius (bottom).
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 91

at the surface of the cast-resin coating at r = r1. The admissible voltages, which can be ap-
The calculation of EGas(max) = E2(r1) is per- plied to the two electrodes, shall be determined
formed according to Eq. (2.4-29). The dimen- for a maximum admissible field strength ÊResin
sioning of the cast-resin coating (radius r1) for = 200 kV/cm in the cast-resin coating and ÊAir
minimum field strength at r = r1 can generally = 20 kV/cm in the ambient air.
be performed as extreme value determination 1.) According to Eq. (2.3-8), the voltage at the
by differentiation, see Chapter 2.3.1.2. For metallic spherical electrode must not exceed
clarity, however, a numerical solution is pre-
ferred in this case, Figure 2.4-14 (bottom). V = ÊL · r1 = 60 kV
Û
As a solution we have a coating thickness of 2.) The coated electrode has to be dimen-
3.5 cm, i.e. at r1 = 5.5 cm there is a field- sioned in such a way that the field strength at
strength minimum Ê2(r1) = 23 kV/cm, which the conductor’s surface at r = r0 is precisely
is below the breakdown strength of air at stan- E1(r0) = ÊResin = 200 kV/cm, and that the field
dard atmospheric conditions (ÊD = 30 kV/cm). strength at the coating’s surface at r = r1 is
For r1 o r0 = 2 cm and for r1 o r2 = 10 cm precisely E2(r1) = ÊAir = 20 kV/cm. With Eq.
there are field strengths above ÊD. The dia- (2.4-31) and r2 o f two conditions are de-
gram shows that a coating with a thickness of rived:
1 cm already gives 60 % of the maximum pos-
Vˆ
sible field-strength reduction. Ê1 (r0 ) ÊResin
1 H 1
The application of SF6 would increase the r02 {  ( 1  1) }
r0 H2 r1
electric strength by a factor of approximately and
three and it would be possible to apply volt-
ages approximately three-times higher. Vˆ
Ê2 (r1 ) ÊAir
H 1 H 1
Note: Similar conductor configurations can be r12 2 {  ( 1  1) }
found with conductors that are located under H 1 r0 H2 r1
oil and wrapped with oil-impregnated paper.
If the ratio of the two field strengths is calcu-
Example: Coated high-voltage electrode lated, the voltage and the bracket in the de-
A spherical high voltage electrode with the nominator are eliminated:
radius r1 = 3 cm shall be compared with a 2 2
ÊResin / ÊAir = (r1 ·H2) / (r0 ·H1)
smaller electrode with the radius r0. By means
of a cast-resin coating with Hr1 = 5, the radius The solution for r0 is r0 = 0.42 cm. With this
is increased to r1 = 3 cm. The counter-elec- value, the maximum voltage Û V can then be
trode is assumed to be far away, r2 >> r1, Fig- calculated from one of the two conditions
mentioned above:
ure 2.4-15.
V =
Û 132 kV
H r2 Thus, the admissible voltage at the coated
H r1 electrode is twice as high as the admissible
r r voltage at the metallic electrode. Nevertheless,
r1 r0 r1 on larger electrodes it is difficult to produce
thick coatings, which are free from defects and
which are able to carry the major fraction of
the voltage. For practical applications, large
Figure 2.4-15: Spherical metallic electrode (left) and metallic electrodes and toroids are used, if
coated electrode (right) with the same external radii. there is enough space in the ambient air.
92 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2.4.3.2 Gaps and Cracks Ei = Hr · E (2.4-33)

Gaps and cracks in highly stressed insulations Because of the low electric strength of air-
are defects, which must always be avoided. filled gaps, the inception voltage of partial
Gas-filled gaps remain between insulation lay- discharges is very low. The discharges can
ers for example, if the impregnation of the erode insulating materials and they can even-
residual interstices is incomplete. Cracks often tually cause breakdown (breakdown by ero-
are caused by material ageing after long peri- sion).
ods, and they mostly originate from mechani-
cal and thermal stresses. Cracks can also origi- Example: Detachment of a dielectric
nate from shrinkage stress during the curing of The epoxy casting resin in a cylindrical capacitor (R2 =
cast-resin insulation bodies. 5 cm, R1 = R2/e, Hr = 4) shrinks during curing onto the
inner conductor, and it is partially detached from the
Gaps and cracks parallel to the electric field outer conductor, leaving a circumferential gap with the
are particularly critical because they bridge a width di between 0 and 1 mm, Figure 2.4-16. The r.m.s.
major part of the insulation distance (up to the value of the applied voltage Vpdi, for which inception of
whole insulation distance) with an interface of partial discharges is expected, shall be calculated.
very low electric strength and with tangential The electric strength of air under standard atmospheric
stress. Normally, the macroscopic field dis- conditions is approximately Ê = 30 kV/cm = 3 kV/mm;
tribution is not influenced very much, but it decreases with increasing distances, see Figure 3.2-15.
within the gap and at the interfaces there are Thus, the strength of the air gap is lowest for the highest
gap width di = 1 mm. For this distance, the strength Ê(1
microscopic field stress enhancements and
mm) > 4 kV/mm. If a constant field strength is assumed
significantly reduced electric strengths, see in the circumferential gap, discharge inception is ex-
Section 2.4.2.3 (Parallel/ tangential multilayer pected to be at di = 1 mm.
dielectric).
The inception voltage Vpdi is calculated from Eq. (2.3-
Example: Glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GRP) have 21) for the field strength at the outer radius r = R2 and
an extraordinarily enhanced mechanical strength be- from Eq. (2.4-33) for the field stress enhancement in the
cause of glass fibers, which are embedded in the poly- gap:
mer matrix. Rods and tubes made of reinforced epoxy
resin are used as mechanically and electrically stressed Vpdi = E · R2 · ln (R2/R1) = (Ei/Hr) · R2 · ln (R2/R1)
parts of suspension insulators, post insulators and
housing insulators. These applications require a durable
chemical bonding of the resin and the glass surfaces,
free of any voids and defects. The bonding can be
achieved by the application of a facing (primer) on the di
glass surface (silane glass primer). Incomplete or de-
fective priming results in detachment of the fibers from
the resin. In the very long cracks and cavities that arise
humidity can be accumulated, which results in a signifi-
cant decrease of the dielectric strength.
r
Gaps and cracks orthogonal to the electric R1 R2
field can approximately be regarded as multi-
layer arrangements with interfaces normal to
the electric field, Section 2.4.2.2. The field
strength Ei in a gas-filled crack or gap (Hri = 1)
is enhanced by the factor Hr/Hri = Hr in compari-
son with the original field strength, because of
the field displacement effect according to Eq. Figure 2.4-16: Detachment of a dielectric from the
(2.4-17): outer cylindrical conductor during the shrinking
onto the inner cylindrical conductor.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 93

With the partial-discharge inception field strength Êi > only, a more accurate calculation of the multi-layer
4 kV/mm, the partial-discharge inception voltage is insulation according to Eq. (2.4-27) would not be very
V pdi > 5 kV (peak value) or Vpdi > 3.5 kV (r.m.s.
Û useful.
value).
Note 1: Higher voltages are possible, if the maximum
air-gap width can be reduced. Then it has to be ensured
Note: The discharge inception at V = 3.5 kV represents
that the field strength in the polymeric films does not
practically an extreme loss of electric strength. Without
exceed the respective electric strength.
the formation of a gap, the highest relevant field
strength would occur at r = R1. If the admissible field Note 2: The partial discharge behavior in capacitor
strength in the epoxy resin is Êmax = 40 kV/mm, the dielectrics made of films or papers is essentially deter-
admissible maximum voltage would be Û V max = 74 kV mined from the edges of the metal foils, which are
(peak value) or Vmax = 52 kV (r.m.s. value) according wrapped as electrodes together with the dielectric lay-
to Eq. (2.3-22). ers. At the edges, there are strong field distortions, field
stress enhancements and interstices without films or
papers. Therefore, the impregnation of high-voltage
Note: Resin-bonded paper bushing
capacitors is always necessary.
Formerly used RBP bushing cores are “solid” insulation
bodies (“hard paper”) wrapped with Kraft paper and
bonded or laminated with phenolic resin without being
2.4.3.3 Interstices (Triple-Points)
fully impregnated (RBP, resin-bonded paper). The
bushing cores could not be fully impregnated without
residual air volumes in order to avoid high mechanical Tangentially stressed interfaces are particular
stresses and cracks during the curing process. Therefore, weak points of an insulation arrangement, Fig-
partial discharges could occur already at the service ure 2.4-17 (left). Therefore, this “support-type
voltage both orthogonal and parallel to the paper layers, arrangement” is avoided where possible and
but the phenolic resin has a durability that is sufficient
in many cases. Nevertheless, according to modern crite-
the interface is arranged orthogonal to the
ria, permanent partial discharges and erosion are a sig- electric field forming a “creepage surface”,
nificant quality defect because surface discharges par- Figure 2.4-17 (right). Thus, tangential stresses
allel to the paper layers, partial breakdowns and full are significantly reduced, and they decrease
breakdowns cannot be excluded. outwards to negligible small values. Because
Nowadays, cavity-free and discharge-free RIP insulat- of the proximity of three materials, the consid-
ing bodies are used (RIP, resin-impregnated paper) as ered microscopic region is called “triple point”
bushing cores. They are wrapped with crepe-paper, or interstice between electrode and dielectric
dried, impregnated completely with liquid epoxy resin plate.
under vacuum and cured.
Unfortunately, there is an increased normal
Example: Capacitor dielectric of polymeric films electric field stress in the interstice between
A capacitor dielectric is wound on from polypropylene insulating plate and bent electrode because of
film (thickness 12 μm, Hr = 2.2). Between adjacent lay- the field displacement effect. If the material in
ers, there are non-impregnable air-filled gaps with a the interstice (e.g. air) has only a weak electric
maximum thickness of 7 μm. The admissible voltage for strength, the partial discharge inception volt-
four-layer insulation shall be estimated.

As the electric strength decreases with increasing gap

width, discharge inception is expected for the maximum
width di = 4 μm. According to Paschen’s law for air, the Triple- Triple-
approximate electric strength of the gap is Û
V i > 360 V or point point E1
Êi > 90 V/μm, see Section 3.2.2.4.
E E2
According to Eq. (2.4-33), the field strength in the pol-
ymeric dielectric is approximately Ê = Êi/Hr > 41 V/μm.
Therefore, the whole dielectric with a thickness d = 4 · Figure 2.4-17: Insulating plate between electrodes:
12 μm = 48 μm can be stressed with a voltage in the "Support-type arrangement" with tangential stress
range of Û
V > 48 μm · 41 V/μm = 2 kV. This is a rough of the interface (left) and "creepage surface" with
estimation of the partial discharge inception voltage normal stress of the air-filled interstice (right).
94 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

age can be very low. At (significantly) higher inception voltage Vpdi, it is simply assumed
voltages, the discharges can grow into creep- that there are small sections with regionally
ing/ surface discharges and result in surface uniform field, Figure 2.4-18. The interface is
flashover. Therefore, the insulation arrange- orthogonal to the field, being uniform but dif-
ment is called a “creepage surface”. ferent on both sides of the interface. The gap
width d1 in the interstice increases with the
Note: The creepage surface is a basic problem
of high-voltage engineering, which cannot be distance x from the triple-point. A section 'x
avoided in many technical arrangements. is considered with approximately uniform field
Many technological measures are taken there- regions 1 (interstice) and 2 (insulating plate).
fore, in order to prevent discharge inception in According to Eq. (2.4-18), the field strength in
the interstices close to triple-points and to pre- the interstice is
vent the inception of surface discharges [26]. V
E1 (d1 ) . (2.4-34)
For a rough estimation of the partial discharge H
d1  d 2 r1
H r2

Triple- Example:
point d 1(x) H r1 E 1 V 1 Electrode edge on an insulating plate
An electrode edge on an insulating plate ac-
Hr
H r2 E 2 V 2 cording to Figure 2.4-18, is discussed. Figure
d2
2.4-19 shows the numerical analysis of Eq.
(2.4-34) for a total voltage ÛV = 8 kV (V = 5.7
kV r.m.s.), for the insulation thicknesses d2 = 5
'x x 'x x
and 10 mm and for the permittivity ratio Hr1/Hr2
Figure 2.4-18: "Creepage surface" with highly stressed = 1/5.
interstice (left) and an equivalent model of a small
section for an approximate calculation (right). There is a decreasing field strength in the in-
terstice with increasing gap width d1. If the in-
sulating thickness d2 is doubled from 5 mm to
12
11
10 mm, the field strength at d1 = 0 is reduced
10 to half the magnitude, but a further decrease
Electric strength
9 across d1 is slower.
in the interstice Ê1
8
7 kV/mm Figure 2.4-19 also shows a curve of the elec-
6 tric strength in the interstice. The increase of
5 strength with decreasing air-gap width d1 is
4
3 d = 10 mm
typical for many insulating materials, e.g. for
2 d 2 = 5 mm air, SF6 and insulating oil. The curve in the
2
Field strength in the interstice
1 picture is approximately valid for air at atmos-
0 pheric pressure and room temperature.
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
d 1 /mm For an insulating plate with thickness d2 = 5
mm, the field strength in the gap reaches the
Figure 2.4-19: Field strength in an interstice as func- electric strength of the gap at approximately d1
tion of air-gap width at 8 kV (peak value) for insu-
= 1.2 mm, and partial discharges occur. Obvi-
lating plates with a thickness of 5 mm and 10 mm
(bottom) compared with the electric strength (top). ously, the voltage ÛV = 8 kV (V = 5.7 kV r.m.s.
The permittivity ratio is assumed as 1:5. value) is the partial discharge inception volt-
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 95

age ÛV pdi (Vpdi r.m.s.). Normally, r.m.s. values account the ratio Hr1/Hr2 ~ 1/2, which is already included
are given. in these factors [22].

If the insulation thickness is doubled (i.e. d2 = Example: Edges of metal foil electrodes
10 mm), there are no discharges at Û V = 8 kV in capacitor insulations
(V = 5.7 kV). Nevertheless, Figure 2.4-19 For wound capacitors the metal foil electrodes
shows that the curve of the electric strength is and the insulating films or papers are wound
reached if the voltage (i.e. the field strength) is together; remaining gaps and voids are filled
only increased by about 40 %. completely with an impregnating medium,
Figure 2.4-20. The electrical connection of the
Note: Obviously, there is no linear relation foils, which are displaced to left and right rel-
between the insulation thickness d2 and the ative to each other, is either made at the ends
peak value of the partial discharge inception with metallic tabs or made by large-area end
voltage Û
V pdi: contacts via all protruding foil edges, Figure
2.4-20 (top).
0.5
V pdi ~
Û d2 Very high field strengths occur in the intersti-
ces between the dielectric layers at the edges
According to Eq. (2.4-34), the field strength in of the metallic foils. The critical point is not
the interstice depends on the product d2·Hr1/Hr2. the normal (radial) field stress in the impreg-
In accordance with the described model, the nating medium at the bent electrodes (as in the
peak value of the partial discharge inception former example). In this case, the tangential
voltage for surface discharges is (axial) stress on the dielectric interfaces is
mainly problematic, which arises because of
a
Vˆpdi § d 2 H r1 · extreme field stress enhancements at the
2K ¨ ˜ ¸ . (2.4-35) strongly curved electrode edges, Figure 2.4-20
kV ¨ cm H ¸
© r2 ¹ (bottom).

A theoretical proportionality factor K = 18 (for An approximate calculation is performed for

air) could be determined from Figure 2.4-19. an equivalent cylindrically symmetric ar-
Unfortunately, experiments show that the rangement with R1 = dM/2 and R2 = dM/2 + dI.
factor can be significantly smaller. Probably, The curved electrode edge with a very small
the theoretical model (with regionally uniform radius of curvature R1 = dM/2 is regarded as
fields according to Figure 2.4-18) is too sim- the “inner conductor”; the adjacent metallic
ple. Furthermore, surface effects and different foils are regarded as the “outer conductor” and
electrode shapes are not taken into account. they are replaced by an auxiliary cylinder with
Nevertheless, the general dependences of Eq. the radius R2 = dM/2 + dI. To a first approxi-
(2.4-35) are in good agreement with experi- mation, the multi-layer arrangement of the
ments for the exponent a = 0.44 ... 0.5 [22], dielectrics has no influence on the maximum
[23]. magnitude of the electric field strength in the
At sharp electrode edges the factors are ap- impregnating medium because of the tangen-
tial direction of the field Eedge at the electrode
proximately K = 8 for air and K = 21 for SF6
[23]. For insulating oil a factor K = 20 can be edge, Figure 2.4-20 (bottom). This means that
derived from [23]. the field is parallel (tangential) to the surface
of the films or papers, see Figure 2.4-9.
Note: For different electrode edges under oil, factors
between 21.6 (paper wrapped conductor on paper insu- With Eq. (2.3-22), the field strength at the
lation) and 15.6 (for sharp electrode edges on paper edge of the foil (edge field strength) is given
insulation) are reported without particularly taking into by
96 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

U E0 d I
ERand , 11
R dM 2d I
R1 ln 2 ln (1  ) 10
R1 2 dM E cylinder
9
3 ·E
ERand 8 0
and the field strength enhancement is the re-
E0 7
ciprocal of the field efficiency factor K 6 E cylinder
2d I
5 E0
4
ERand 1 dM
. (2.4-36) 3
E0 K ln (1 
2d I
) 2
dM 1
0
The numerical analysis of Eq. (2.4-36) shows 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
that significant field stress enhancements can d M /d I
occur, even for round edges, Figure 2.4-21
(lower curve). If further enhancements by im- Figure 2.4-21: Field enhancement in a roll-type capa-
citor element at the edges of a metallic foil elec-
trode. Lower curve: Calculation with the assump-
tion of a cylindrically symmetric field. Upper curve:
Taking into consideration additional field enhance-
ment by imperfections of the surface.

perfections of the surface are considered, a

factor of 3 is realistic according to Eq. (2.3-
62), and field stress enhancements are even
more extreme, Figure 2.4-21 (upper curve).
Numerical example:
A capacitor consists of paper insulated windings with an
insulation thickness dI = 50 μm, which are impregnated
with mineral oil. The edges of the 6 μm thick aluminum
foils are folded, in order to guarantee a smooth curva-
ture at the edges. Partial discharge inception was meas-
ured at a r.m.s. AC-voltage of 3 kV. The field stresses
E edge between the foils and at the edges of the foils shall be
H rZ calculated.

The field strength between the foils within the papers is

E0 H rI E0 = 3 kV / 50 μm = 60 kV/mm for the uniform field re-
gion. Because of field displacement, there is a higher
Auxiliary cylinder stress in the impregnating oil-filled gaps, E0-oil = Hr-
R2 dI paper/Hr-oil·E0 ~ 120 kV/mm. At the edges a field stress
enhancement Eedge/E0 = 3.7 is calculated from Eq. (2.4-
dM
R1 36) or Figure 2.4-21 with dM = 2·6 μm = 12 μm (thick-
dI ness is doubled at the folded edges) and dM/dI = 0.24.
This gives the edge field strength as 220 kV/mm. Such
an electric strength can be expected from oil gap widths
in a range of a few μm [27]. However, the estimated
very high field strength only occurs very close to the
Figure 2.4-20: Roll-type capacitor with large-area strongly curved edge. The field strength decreases very
end contacts of the axially shifted metal foils strongly with increasing distance ~1/r, i.e. at a distance
(top) and sectional view for the right-hand edge of 6 μm (r = 12 μm) it is 110 kV/mm and at a distance
of the foils with equipotential lines (bottom). of 18 μm (r = 24 μm) it is just 55 kV/mm.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 97

Note: Normally, the calculation of edge field 2.4.3.4 Dielectric Cavities and Spheres
strengths and partial discharge (PD) inception
voltages is not possible for practical applica- Completely closed cavities in a medium with
tions, because of many unknown parameters. higher permittivity are defects, they can be
Therefore, experiments with different insula- observed e.g. as bubbles in insulating liquids,
tion designs are necessary, in order to deter- as shrink holes in epoxy resin bodies or as
mine the acceptable stress. For sharp-edged voids in porcelain insulators, Figure 2.4-22.
cut aluminum foils, the PD inception voltage
would decrease from 3 kV to 2.5 kV (E0 = Dielectric spheres in a material with lower
50 kV/mm) in the above-mentioned example. permittivity can also be defects, e.g. non-con-
On the other hand, a significant increase of PD ductive particles in oil or in gas.
inception field strength could be achieved by
means of special synthetic insulating liquids. The basic effect of field displacement was al-
ready discussed for gaps and cracks in Section
Theoretically, the volume of a capacitor can 2.4.3.2. For spherical defects bounded on all
be minimized by choosing an optimal thick- sides, the field distortion is less pronounced.
ness dM for the metal foils:
In solving Poisson’s/ Laplace’s Equation (2.3-
34) for the spherically symmetric arrangement,
For dM o 0 the field stress enhancement fac-
Figure 2.4-22, it has to be considered as a
tor becomes infinite, i.e. the admissible field boundary condition that there is a uniform
strength and the energy density approach zero. field E0 at infinite distance. Furthermore, the
For dM >> dI the dead volume of the foil vM is
boundary conditions of Eq. (2.4-13) and (-16)
very much greater than the energy storage vol- have to be fulfilled at the sphere’s surface. The
ume of the dielectric vI and the energy density solution is a uniform field within the sphere
approaches zero. In-between there must be a [2]:
maximum of overall energy density.
E1 = E0 · 3 H2/(H1 + 2 H2) (2.4-38)
2
w = 0.5 H E0 vI/(vI + vM) (2.4-37)
Outside of the sphere, at the sphere’s surface
This equation can be used for the determina- on the x-axis (which is determined by the field
tion of the maximum energy density w, if the vector E0), the solution is
admissible edge field strength is given and if
the equations for the volumes and Eq. (2.4-36)
for E0 are used:
M
const.
The derivate of w with respect to the ratio
dI/dM is set equal to zero. The resulting tran- E 2 H2
scendental equation is solved iteratively with
y
dI/dM = 0.24. This means that the metallic foil
should theoretically be about four times as E 1 H1
thick as the insulation.

In practice, the optimum can be assumed for

much thinner foils: The admissible edge field E0
x
strength is not constant. It increases signifi-
cantly with decreasing radius of curvature. The Figure 2.4-22: "Dielectric sphere" as a model of a
best insulation design has to be determined cavity in an insulating material or as a model
experimentally, as mentioned above. of a dielectric particle.
98 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES


2
E2 = E0 · 3 H1/(H1 + 2 H2) . (2.4-39) V= wFwA = ½·E1 (H2 - H1) H1/H2. (2.4-40)

The comparison of Eq. (2.4-38) and (-39) The force acts from the higher towards the
shows that the magnitude ratio of the field lower permittivity parallel to the field (longi-
vectors normal to the interface is the recipro- tudinal tensile stress).
cal of the permittivity ratio, see Eq. (2.4-17),
transversely layered dielectric. The continuity In a non-uniform field, the forces on opposite
of the tangential components E1 = E2 applies sides of a dielectric body are no longer equal.
on the y-axis at the sphere’s surface. The resulting force pulls the body towards
increasing field strength.
In the case of a dielectric cavity with a lower
permittivity H1 < H2 the field strength E1 in the Example:

cavity is enhanced in comparison with E0. The In insulating oil, fibrous impurities are aligned parallel
with the field lines, especially in the non-uniform re-
maximum value is E1 = 1.5·E0 for H1 << H2, gions of the field. This reduces the electric strength of
according to Eq. (2.4-38), i.e. in a spherical long oil gaps significantly (fiber-bridge breakdown,
cavity there is a limited field stress enhance- suspended solid particle mechanism).
ment only. It is more serious that the gas-filled
Also in gas-insulated switchgear, the electric strength
cavity normally has weak electric strength in is reduced by the presence of dielectric (and conductive)
comparison with a highly stressed surrounding particles [28].
dielectric. Therefore partial discharge incep-
tion voltages are significantly lower than for a Also, the field component Et tangential to an
solid or liquid insulating material without any interface exerts a force orthogonal to the in-
defects. terface and towards the lower permittivity. The
so-called lateral pressure is
In the case of a dielectric particle, with a
permittivity H1 bigger than the permittivity H2 V = wFwA
of the surrounding material, the field strength
2
E2 outside of the sphere is higher than within = ½ · Et (H2 - H1) . (2.4-41)
the sphere. The maximum value is E2 = 3·E0
on the x-axis at the sphere’s surface for H1 >> The tensile stress on metallic electrode sur-
H2, according to Eq. (2.4-39). Therefore, di- faces
electric particles can cause significant field
strength enhancements in liquid and in gaseous V = wFwA
media, and they can reduce the electric 2
strength, especially in liquids. = ½ · En H  (2.4-42)

results from the field that is always acting or-

2.4.3.5 Electric Forces at Interfaces thogonally to the surface and parallel to the
field.
Often it is particularly troublesome that parti-
cles can follow the electric field forces and Note: Eqs. (2.4-40) to (-42) can each be deduced from
accumulate in the region of highest field an energy balance for an imaginary displacement of the
interface by an infinitesimal shift 'x by the desired
strength.
force F. This results in a change of electric field energy,
which is equal to the exerted mechanical work F·'x.
The mechanical tensile stress exerted by an The mechanical pressure Vor the tensile stress V is
electric field orthogonal to an interface is [2] determined if the force F is divided by the area A [2].
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 99

2.4.4 Direct Voltage and Transients cal of the resistance) in the conduction field.
The following equations describe a parallel-
There is a perfect analogy between the station- plate capacitor e.g.:
ary conduction field at a pure DC voltage and
the formerly discussed dielectric displacement C = H·A/d G = 1/R = N·A/d .
field. (2.4-46)
From this analogy, the principles of the con- The comparison shows that all relationships
duction field are deduced (Section 2.4.4.1). for the dielectric displacement field are also
They can be used for calculation of some typi- valid for the stationary conduction field, if the
cal examples of insulation systems stressed permittivity H is replaced by the conductivity
with DC voltage (Section 2.4.4.2). In many N, the displacement density D by the conduc-
cases, there are no stationary conditions: If a tion current density J and the capacitance C by
DC voltage is switched on, reversed in polarity the conductance G. This is also valid for the
or changed in magnitude, a displacement field deduced Eqs. (2.4-17) to (2.4-32), which are
is generated. Then, a transient process takes related to interfaces orthogonal, parallel and
place, approaching a new stationary condition inclined to the electric field direction.
(Section 2.4.4.3).
For the interface orthogonal to the electric
field, the continuity of the conduction current
2.4.4.1 Analogies to the Dielectric density J1 = J2 = J orthogonal to the interface
Displacement Field
is valid. By analogy with Eq. (2.4-17), it is
The basic Material Equations (2.1-19) and concluded that
(2.1-20) contain a perfect analogy between the
E1 N2
fields of the dielectric displacement density D = . (2.4-47)
and the conduction current density J. E2 N1

The corresponding equations and boundary The field strength magnitudes and the conduc-
conditions are compared against each other tivities are in inverse ratio to each other. Ana-
below for the displacement field (left) and the logously with the dielectric field displacement,
conduction field (right): the material with the lower conductivity is
stressed with a higher field strength than the
D = H· E J = N· E (2.4-43) material with the higher conductivity.
The continuity of the normal components for Note: Conductivities often differ by several
the field quantities D and J is given with Eq. orders of magnitude. Thus, the material with
(2.4-15) and (2.4-16): the higher conductivity is almost completely
without stress, but the material with the lower
D1n = D2n J1n = J2n (2.4-44) conductivity is stressed with nearly the whole
voltage. This is an almost complete field dis-
According to Eq. (2.4-13) the tangential com-
placement. Figure 2.4-23 shows field and po-
ponent of the electric field strength E is also
tential distribution for the conductivity ratio
continuous at interfaces, both for the dis-
N1 : N2 = 1 : 10.
placement field and for the conduction field:

E1t = E2t E1t = E2t (2.4-45) The normal components of the conduction
current density Jn are certainly continuous at
Instead of a capacitance C in the displacement the interface, but the normal components of
field, there is a conductance G = 1/R (recipro- the displacement density Dn are not continu-
100 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

E according to Eq. (2.4-45). The current densi-

ties are different on both sides of the interface
100 %
because of the different conductivities: J1 =
80 %
N1 E
1 60 % N1E and J2 = N2E. According to Eq. (2.4-46)
d
1 40 % there are different area-related conductances
20 %
9% and resistances on both sides of the interface.
V

d2 N2 E2 It should be noted that for DC voltage stress,

the interface parallel to a DC field is especially
critical: Conductive deposits and pollution
layers (e.g. caused by contaminations, impuri-
ties or wetting) can cause field distortions and
Figure 2.4-23: Field and potential distribution in extreme field stress enhancements if there are
two dielectrics with an interface orthogonal to only slight non-uniformities in the layer, Fig-
the electric DC field (coductivity ratio 1 : 10). ure 2.4-24.

ous. The difference between the displacement For an interface inclined to the electric field,
densities D1n and D2n is equal to a surface the different conductivities cause a refraction
charge density V at the interface. This effect is of the DC field lines and DC equipotential
called interfacial polarization, Figure 2.4-23: lines in the stationary conduction field (refrac-
tion law) by analogy with Eq. (2.4-21):
V = D2n - D1n
tan D1 N1
= H2 E2 - H1 E1 = (2.4-49)
tan D2 N2
= E1·(H2·N1/N2 - H1) (2.4-48)
D1 and D2 are the angles between the area
In the case of a short circuit at the electrodes, vector A (orthogonal to the interface) and the
the surface charge (interfacial polarization) field vectors E1 and E2, Figure 2.4-25.
does not disappear immediately, it decreases
with the time constant R2C1, which is deter-
mined by the geometries and by the material
properties N2 and H1, see also Figure 2.1-16. If
the short circuit is opened too early, an unex- N1 N2 N1 N2
pected and therefore dangerous re-charging of
the electrodes (a so-called “recovery voltage”),
can occur (see Section 2.4.4.3).
E1 E2
Example: Capacitor with mixed dielectric
In capacitor dielectrics, made of oil-impregnated paper
layers and high-resistive polymeric films, there is an
E1 E2
almost complete field displacement into the polymeric
films. A numerical example was already discussed in
Section 2.1.4.2. The example shows that the polymeric
films almost entirely produce the insulation. The paper
layers are mainly used as impregnation wicks.
Figure 2.4-24: Interface parallel to a DC field.
Left: Ideal potential distribution.
For an interface parallel to the electric field,
Right: Potential distribution with a non-uniform
the tangential field E is theoretically not influ- conductive pollution layer causing extreme local
enced by the adjacent materials, i.e. E1 = E2 = field enhancements.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 101

Highly resistive Dielectric 1 M = const.

N1
N1 E1
D1
Dielectric 1 D1 E1n
E1
M = const. E1t
E2 E2t
Dielectric 2 D2
D2 E2n N2
N2 E2
N2 >> N1 Dielectric 2
Comparatively M = const.
conductive M = const.

Figure 2.4-26: Refraction of field lines and potential Figure 2.4-25: Vectors of the electric field strength
lines in a stationary conduction field at the inter- and potential lines at an interface inclined to the
face between insulating materials with very dif- electric field for two dielectrics with different con-
ferent conductivity. ductivities ("Refraction" of field lines and poten-
tial lines at an inclined interface for a stationary
In many practical applications, conductivities conduction field).
on both sides of the interface are very differ-
o
ent. For N2 >> N1, the angle D2 approaches 90 ,
The calculation of DC voltage fields is not
even for very small angles D1. In the more only complicated by the possibility of large
conductive material 2, the field lines are al- differences of the conductivities. Furthermore,
most parallel and the potential lines are nearly it is often difficult to get reliable numerical
orthogonal to the interface, Figure 2.4-26 (bot- values, since conductivity is dependent on the
tom). In the more resistive material 1, the field exact material composition, on manufacturing
lines are almost orthogonal and the equipoten- process technology and very strongly on the
tial lines are nearly parallel to the interface, temperature. Some examples are described
Figure 2.4-26 (top). below:
Note: This circumstance can clearly be explained by the
x Different porcelain mixtures have different
fact that a current can only flow nearly parallel to the
interface in the comparatively conductive material. conductivities.
Therefore, field lines must orient themselves almost
parallel and equipotential lines almost orthogonal to the x The conductivity of oil-impregnated paper
interface. In the highly resistive material, the field lines increases with the water content.
are almost orthogonal to the interface, which is similar
to the situation close to a conductive electrode. x The conductivity ratio in an oil-pressboard
insulation may be 100 : 1 at 20 °C (test
Example: In oil-insulated equipment for high DC temperature). At 90° C (service tempera-
voltages, the potential distribution in oil can be con- ture) the ratio is just 10 : 1.
trolled by forming a uniform oil duct of higher conduc-
tivity between highly resistive pressboard barriers and
other highly resistive insulating components (e.g. for
It was already mentioned in Section 2.4.1.1
bushings) [7]. that in practice it is very important to deter-
mine reliable and applicable conductivity val-
For inclined layererd dielectrics there is also a ues. Because of the high degree of possible
surface charge at the interface. It can also be variations, a field calculation with wrong con-
calculated from the difference of the normal ductivity values can lead to completely wrong
components of the displacement density D. results.
102 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

2.4.4.2 Typical DC fields the current. As a result, there is a temperature

gradient T(r) from the inside to the outside.
Some examples for typical DC fields shall be Because of the strong temperature dependence
discussed below. Because of high conductivity of the conductivity, a conductivity gradient is
differences, strong temperature dependences also caused. This results in a continuous field
and the sensitivity to pollution layers, there are displacement from inside to outside. Depend-
field distributions which are completely dif- ing on the conductor’s temperature and the
ferent from a comparable AC field. insulating material, the field profile is more or
less equalized, Figure 2.4-27 (curves 2 and 3).
Example 1:
Capacitor with mixed dielectric Nevertheless, the designer of the cable has to
take into account that the cable has to with-
The example of a DC capacitor with a mixed stand the voltage not only in the warmed-up
dielectric, made of polymeric films and oil-im- service operation, but also in the cold starting
pregnated paper with a hundredfold greater condition.
conductivity, has already been discussed sev-
eral times (Sections 2.1.4.2 and 2.4.4.1). It was
shown that nearly all the voltage has to be in-
sulated by the electrically strong polymeric N( T ) = N ( r )
films. The paper layers are relieved of the
electrical stress to a large extent because of
their significantly higher conductivity. E

It is disadvantageous that the paper volume

does not contribute to the capacitive storage r
Conductor
volume. Therefore, it is desirable for weight
reasons to design the insulation without any
paper, which is only used as “impregnating
wick”. Then, good impregnation has to be
guaranteed by adequate surface texture of the
films.

Note: For AC voltage, the papers are stressed with a T T (r)

field strength, which is half as high as in the polymeric
films because of the field displacement, see Eq. (2.4-17)
r
with H2/H1 = 2. Nevertheless, the field strength in the
paper can be the critical quantity that limits the voltage,
because of the very high electric strength of polymeric E
films. Thus, the design does not make full use of the E(r)
excellent electric strength of the polymeric films, and it
is desirable therefore to replace the paper by polymeric 2
films (all-film dielectric). 3

Example 2: HVDC cable 1

In a high voltage DC cable with a homogene- r

ous dielectric there is a cylindrically symmet- R1 R2
ric field. According to Eq. (2.3-21), the field
strength decreases proportional to 1/r between
Figure 2.4-27: DC cable with a conductivity gradient
the inner and outer conductors, Figure 2.4-27 caused by a temperature gradient and modification
(curve 1). During service operation, the inner of the initial field distribution (curve 1) due to the
conductor is heated by the ohmic losses due to space charge accumulation (curves 2 and 3).
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 103

The continuous variation of conductivity is completely different potential distribution

accompanied by the accumulation of charge in within the oil, Figure 2.4-28 (middle). The
the insulating material. In contrast to multi- distribution is mainly determined by the elec-
layer dielectrics, the charge is not accumulated trode geometry, and the highly resistive bush-
at the interfaces, here it is distributed as space ing acts as a highly resistive boundary of the
charge over the entirety of the inhomogeneous comparatively conductive oil volume. In this
insulating material. This leads finally to the way, a very high tangential stress of the
deviation of the field stress profile from the bushing surface can occur.
initial profile ~1/r.
This field concentration can be avoided by a
The space charge is of high importance for the very large electrode diameter in very large oil
operation of the cable because the remaining tanks (cylinder). However, this is not generally
charge can cause very high field stress en- an economic solution.
hancements after a polarity reversal. Further-
more, space charge can cause a dangerous re- In the case of the given narrow installation
charging of the cable, if a short circuit be- conditions, the tangential field strength can
tween inner and outer conductor is opened also be reduced by a system of highly resistive
again. Because of the high
capacitance of long cables,
even relatively low “recovery
voltages” can accumulate 0% Grounded cylinder Potential lines
significant and dangerous at AC voltage
amounts of charge. Flange
25 %
Bushing 50 %
Example 3: 75 %
HVDC Bushing
A high voltage electrode in oil High voltage electrode (HV conductor)
shall be connected via a ca-
pacitively graded bushing, Potential lines
both for AC and DC, Figure at DC voltage
2.4-28. At AC voltage, the Comparatively conductive oil
capacitive grading layers have
approximately the intended Highly resistive bushing core
potentials, because of their
mutual capacitances. In this
way the tangential stress at the
bushing surface is sig-
nificantly reduced, Figure 2.4-
Potential lines
28 (top). Highly resistive pressboard barriers at DC voltage

Also at DC voltage, the in-

tended potential distribution is Comparatively
conductive
approximately achieved oil duct
within the bushing core, be-
cause of the mutual resistanc-
es of the grading layers, i.e.
Figure 2.4-28: Connection of a HV electrode in oil via a capacitvely gra-
the grading is now resistive ded bushing at AC voltage (top) and DC voltage (middle and bottom).
and no longer capacitive. Out- Improved potential distribution at DC voltage by highly resistive
side the bushing, there is a pressboard barriers (bottom) [7].
104 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

cylindrical pressboard barriers with different Note: The barriers have an important function also at
lengths (pressboard barrier system), Figure AC voltage: Although the influence of thin barriers on
the AC field strength in the oil gaps is small, the electric
2.4-28 (bottom). In this way a uniform oil duct strength of these gaps is significantly improved by a
shall be formed, with a current flow between subdivision into smaller gaps.
high voltage and ground and with an almost
uniform potential distribution. Example 4: HVDC wall bushing
The grading capability of the barriers at DC On the outdoor insulators of wall bushings,
voltage is based on the external potential pollution layers develop by deposition of dust
grading in the oil duct, which is adjusted to the and dirt. The exposure to water by rain or by
internal grading of the bushing’s grading lay- moisture condensation causes a comparatively
ers. The internal bushing itself cannot influ- high surface conductivity, Figure 2.4-29.
ence the stationary conduction field outside the
bushing [7], [10]. At AC voltage, the field distortion by conduc-
tion currents on the surface (creepage currents)
At elevated temperature, the conductivity dif- is normally negligible, because of the com-
ferences between the materials and the grading paratively high capacitive displacement cur-
capability of the barriers are reduced. A cal- rents.
culation with sufficient accuracy can only be
achieved by numerical field calculations (see At DC voltage, wet pollution layers, which
Section 2.5) with correct conductivity values. have a significantly higher conductivity than
the bushing insulator, cause very strong field
According to the refraction law Eq. (2.4-49), it distortions, especially if the pollution layer
is concluded that the potential lines in the oil does not cover the surface completely and uni-
duct emanate from the highly resistive mate- formly.
rials (bushing and barriers) almost orthogo-
nally, see Figure 2.4-26. Around the electrode, In HVDC installations for outdoor sites, the
the interfaces are orthogonal to the field (and non-uniform rain on bushing insulators (e.g. in
parallel to the equipotential lines). Here, the the lee side of a building) is especially critical
field is displaced from the comparatively con- at higher voltages, Figure 2.4-29. The high
ductive oil gaps into the highly resistive barri- voltage potential can be shifted along the sur-
ers. Therefore, the thickness and number of the face for long distances down to the transition
barriers must be such that the barriers can zone between the dry and the wet surface. This
withstand the whole DC voltage. is comparable with a sharp electrode on a

Non-uniform rain
Building
Potential lines
at DC voltage

25 % 50 %
0% 75 %
Bushing (outdoor side)

100 %

dry wetted 100 %

Figure 2.4-29: Air-side of an HVDC wall bushing with the formation of a wet and conductive surface layer.
Because of the non-uniform rain only a part of the surface is bridged at DC voltage, see figs. 2.4-1 and -2.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 105

creepage surface (Figures 2.4-17, -18 and -24) variant displacement field is more like Figure
with extreme tangential and radial field stress 2.4-30 (top). Furthermore, space charges ac-
enhancements, which can cause a flashover cumulate at the interfaces of the polymeric
(comparatively best-case) or a radial break- films during the preceding steady-state DC
down of the bushing (worst-case). phase. During an oscillating discharge, there
are multiple polarity reversals, and a time-
Therefore, it is very often necessary, to apply varying displacement field is superimposed to
hydrophobic (water-repellent) silicone paste the steady-state space charge field. Thus, the
on the insulator surface, in order to avoid the electric field stress at the edges of the foils is
formation of conductive liquid films on the much higher than for a pure DC or AC stress
easily wettable porcelain surface. The applica- alone, see Section 7.3.3.
tion and regular renewal of the silicone paste
can be avoided, if the porcelain insulator is The lifetime of an energy storage capacitor or
replaced by a composite insulator made of a an impulse capacitor is therefore given by the
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GRP) tube (i.e. number of possible discharges depending on
reinforced epoxy resin tube) with elastomeric the charging voltage, the frequency of the dis-
silicone rubber (SIR) sheds [7], [8], [9], [10], charge oscillations and the relative magnitude
see Section 5.3.4 with Figure 5.3-18. of the first amplitude with reversed polarity
(back-swing ratio) [29].
Example 5: Energy storage capacitor
Energy storage capacitors are charged with DC 2.4.4.3 Transient Processes
voltage, and they are in general discharged by
electric pulses or damped high-frequency os- The above-mentioned DC voltage stress as-
cillations. sumes a steady-state condition, which requires
very long times between hours and days for
During the charged condition, i.e. during a highly resistive insulating materials. Accord-
steady-state DC stress, the potential distribu- ing to Eq. (2.1-41), times should be much
tion close to the edge of a foil is significantly
different from the AC distribution shown in
Figure 2.4-20, see Figure 2.4-30. The impreg-
nating gap that ends at the interstice at the Potential lines at AC voltage
edge of the foil, is filled with oil and normally E edge
has a higher conductivity NZ than the adjacent H rZ
insulating films with NI. Thereby, a compara-
E0 H rI
tively uniform gap is formed, where a conduc-
tion current can flow through the oil and grade
the potential, Figure 2.4-30 (bottom). Thereby,
the stress at the edges of the foil is signifi- Potential lines at DC voltage
cantly reduced.
E edge
Therefore, the DC strength of a capacitor di- NZ
electric is in practice significantly higher than E0 NI
the AC strength. A factor of about three can
often be assumed.
Figure 2.4-30: Electric field stress at the edges of the
The critical stress in an energy storage capac-
metallic foils in a capacitor dielectric at AC vol-
itor does not arise during the steady state DC tage (top) and reduced field stress at DC voltage
stress, but during the fast discharge impulse or (bottom) due to a comaratively high conductivity
the discharge oscillation. The associated time- in the oil-filled interstice between the plastic films.
106 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

longer than the self-discharging time constants c) After the decay of the transient process, a
of the relevant materials: steady state is reached, which depends on the
conductivities (or resistivities) of the insulating
t >> Wd = H N (2.4-50) materials only (Section 2.4.4.1 and 2.4.4.2).
Geometrically simple arrangements can be
For the application of a DC voltage, the fol- described by an equivalent network consisting
lowing phases must be distinguished (see Fig- of resistances only.
ure 2.1-16):
In DC applications it often happens that a
a) If the DC voltage is applied as a step within given state is changed into another state by a
a very short time (in comparison with the rele- transient process. Examples are the transients
vant time constants of the dielectric system) a after a polarity reversal (e.g. during an HVDC
dielectric displacement field can be assumed at voltage test), after an increase or decrease of
first. It is determined by the permittivities H. the DC voltage magnitude, after a short cir-
Geometrically simple configurations can be cuit, after a discharging process or during the
described by equivalent networks consisting of development of a recovery voltage.
capacitances only.
A calculation of the mentioned transitions can
b) Then, a transient process takes place, which be performed in the following steps:
consists of charging and discharging processes
among the different dielectrics. A mathemati- a) At first, the initial state has to be calculated.
cal description requires the Material (Constitu- In the easiest case, this is the steady state. In
an equivalent network, the initial state is given
tive) Equations D = H E and J = N E together
by the initial charge state of the equivalent
with the Continuity Equation (2.1-35) in their
capacitances. The initial state of a complex
general form. Both conduction current density
arrangement, which cannot be described by an
J and displacement current density wD/wt have equivalent network any more, has normally to
to be considered. be described by a numerically calculated field
pattern or an equipotential line plot.
Geometrically simple arrangements can often
be described by equivalent networks consist- b) The subsequent voltage step can be de-
ing of capacitances C (for the description of scribed by a voltage source in an equivalent
the displacement current) and resistances R network. In more complex arrangements,
(for the description of the conduction current). which are described by field or equipotential
Voltages and currents are then calculated with plots, the dielectric displacement field associ-
the methods of network analysis. The Laplace ated with the voltage step can be superimposed
transform is very useful for this purpose [2], on the initial field distribution in the form of a
[30], [31]. field plot. This gives the dielectric stress di-
rectly after the voltage step [7], [10].
Note: The description of a material by a single
permittivity (capacitance) and a single con- c) The transient process can be determined by
ductivity (resistance) neglects that the polari- a transient network analysis in an equivalent
zation process of the material takes time and circuit. For geometrically complex arrange-
can continue for comparatively long times ments numerical field calculations have to be
until the steady state is reached. Polarization based on transient field theory. For practical
processes are therefore described by a more applications it is often sufficient to calculate
complex equivalent circuit, which contains RC the steady end state.
elements with different time constants for de-
scribing the different polarization mechanisms, Hereafter, some practical examples are dis-
see Section 4.3. cussed:
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 107

Example 1 deals with the application of a DC gether with the parallel resistances R1 and R2:
voltage to a multi-layer capacitor dielectric.
The recovery voltage after the short circuit of a Immediately after the application of the DC
capacitor is considered in example 2. Example voltage the dielectric displacement field causes
3 shows that there can be stress enhancements a “capacitive voltage distribution”, i.e. the
in some dielectric layers during a transient polymeric films are stressed with 2/3 and the
process. Example 4 discusses the complex papers with 1/3 of the voltage.
field conditions in a barrier system during a
polarity reversal of a DC voltage. In an approximately exponential transient pro-
cess, the capacitance C1 of the high resistive
Example 1: Application of a DC voltage polymeric films is charged over the resistance
Steady-state and quasi-static capacitive fields R2 of the comparatively conductive oil-im-
in a two-layer capacitor dielectric were already pregnated papers (time constant W = R2C1) un-
discussed in Section 2.1.4.2 and 2.1.4.4. The til the steady-state (“ohmic”) voltage distri-
two-layer dielectric is made of polymeric films bution is reached. This can take many hours to
and oil-impregnated papers with d1 = d2 = 30 complete.
-16
μm, Hr1 = 2.2, Hr2 = 4.4, N1 = 10 S/m and N2 The polymeric films always have to withstand
-14
= 10 S/m, Figure 2.1-11, -15 and -16. The the whole DC voltage, the papers are stressed
transient process shall be discussed. with only 1 % of the total voltage.

As the interfaces between the materials are Example 2: Recovery voltage

also equipotential surfaces, the transient proc-
ess can be described with an equivalent net- For the capacitor in the above-mentioned ex-
work containing capacitances C1 and C2 to- ample, the steady-state voltage at the equiva-

u (t) Compensation of the Self-discharging of the

V partial voltages during partial capacitances after the
the short-circuit opening of the short circuit
H1
v 1 C1 R 1 V/ 3 C1 R1 v 1' C1 R1 N1
V v '(t)
v 2' C H2
v 2 C2 R 2 V/ 3 C2 R2 R2
2 N2

V/ 3 Slow self-discharging of the

highly resistive dielectric
v 1' (t)
(plastic films)
v '(t)
v 2 = V/ 100 W2 W1
0
0 t
Steady-state Fast self-discharging of the
DC voltage comparatively high conductive dielectric
v 2' (t)
stress (oil-impregnated paper)
- V/ 3

Figure 2.4-31: DC voltage stress and recovery voltage at a dielectric consisting of plastic films and oil-impregnated
paper with a hundred times the conductivity (more explanations see in the text).
108 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

lent capacitance C1 (polymeric films) is nearly perimental work with high voltages. Equip-
the whole voltage (approx. 0.99·V), whereas ment with high capacitances (e.g. capacitors,
C2 (papers) is only charged to 0.01·V, Figure cables) must therefore have a permanent short
2.4-31 (left). circuit. Also in a series-connection of capaci-
tors all the single units must have an individual
During a short circuit of the capacitor at the short circuit: A short circuit at the end termi-
external terminations, the charge Q1 | C1·V is nals only would not prevent the individual
distributed among the two parallel partial ca- capacitors to be (oppositely) charged. For
pacitances C1 and C2, which have the same safety reasons, it should not be assumed that
the individual capacitors are identical (if only
voltage, but with opposite polarity. The volt-
because of temperature gradients could cause
age between the outer terminations is thus
differences) and that they are charged and dis-
zero. Theoretically, the voltages are v1' = -v2' =
charged simultaneously.
(1/3)·(C1·V)/C1 = V/3 for C2 = 2 C1, if Q2 =
C2·0.01·V is neglected, Figure 2.4-31 (mid- Note: There are attempts to use parameters of recovery
voltages for dielectric diagnosis, e.g. for transformers
dle). The difference of the capacitively stored and cables [32], [33], see Section 6.4.7.5.
energies, before and after the short circuit, is
dissipated as ohmic loss in the resistance of the Example 3:
short circuit. If the short circuit is not opened Transient enhancements of field strength in
again, the parallel capacitances C1 and C2 are multi-layer dielectrics
exponentially discharged via R2 << R1 with the
After the application of a DC voltage to a
time constant W = (C1 + C2)·R2.
multi-layer dielectric, the transition from the
If the short circuit is opened again, immedi- initial capacitive to the final ohmic potential
ately after the connection of the terminals, distribution can be accompanied by temporar-
however, the partial capacitances, which are ily enhanced and unexpected stresses which
charged to v1' = V/3 and v2' = -V/3, can only be cannot be recognized from the initial and final
states.
discharged by self-discharging via the associ-
ated equivalent resistances with the self-dis- We discuss a three-layer dielectric consisting
charging constants W1 = R1C1 = H1/N1 and W2 = of a plastic barrier separating two oil-gaps
R2C2 = H2/N2. In the given example, the expo- with different oil qualities (aged and new oil),
nential discharging of C2 would be fifty times Fig 2.4-32. It is assumed that the self-dis-
faster than the exponential discharging of C1, charging time constants of the aged oil, the
plastic barrier and the new oil have the relation
so that the resulting voltage at the open termi-
1 : 100 : 10. The relation of the equivalent ca-
nals is v'(t) = v1'(t) + v2'(t), which is called “re-
pacitances shall be assumed to be 1 : 2 : 2.
covery voltage”, Figure 2.4-31 (right). With W = RC, the relation of the equivalent
Note: This explanation of the recovery voltage resistances is 1 : 50 : 5.
is based on charges that are stored at the inter-
After the application of the DC voltage, a ca-
faces in the dielectric and on charge reversals
pacitive voltage distribution occurs at first,
between different materials. A similar re-
because of the dielectric displacement field,
charging takes place, if there are space
Figure 2.4-33. Dielectric 1 is stressed with half
charges stored in the dielectric (see the exam-
the voltage, dielectrics 2 and 3 each carry a
ple about HVDC cables in Section 2.4.4.2) or
quarter of the voltage V.
if charge is stored by means of polarization
effects, Section 4.3.2.1. Because of the short self-discharging time
Note: Charged capacitors and recovery volt- constant W1 of dielectric 1, C1 is discharged
ages are some of the main dangers for ex- quickly and v1(t) decreases very rapidly. Thus,
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 109

The voltage v3(t) is increasing at first and de-

creasing in the long term. In between there is a
Aged oil distinct maximum.
v 1 C1 R1
H  N W  d1 This maximum is significantly higher than the
initial voltage at this material, and it is many
times higher than the final steady-state volt-
Plastic barrier V
v 2 C2 R2 age. Therefore, we have a possible overstress
H  N W  d2 of dielectric 3 in the course of transient proc-
New oil ess, which is often ignored.
v 3 C3 R3
H  N W  d3
In the steady-state condition the voltage is
distributed according to the equivalent resis-
Figure 2.4-32: Three-layer dielectric with different tances, i.e. dielectric 1 is stressed with 2 %,
self-discharging time constants (e.g. with the dielectric 2 with 89 % and dielectric 3 with
ratios 1 : 100 :10), see fig. 2.4-33 with the cor- 9 % of the total voltage V.
responding voltage curves after the application
of a DC voltage V. Note: Compared to oil, the high stress on the
plastic barrier may still be tolerable because
the other dielectrics 2 and 3 have to carry an solid materials can normally be stressed with
additional fraction of the total voltage V. The much higher field strength than liquids.
equivalent capacitances C2 and C3 are re-
charged via R1 at first. Therefore the voltages The exact level of the overstress in dielectric
v2(t) and v3(t) increase simultaneously at first, 3, which is qualitatively described here, can be
Figure 2.4-33. calculated by means of a network analysis.
The result depends very strongly on the nature
Then, the lower self-discharging time constant of the observed multilayer dielectric. Espe-
of dielectric 3 becomes apparent by a further cially critical arrangements can often be
discharging of C3 together with a further re- found, if the initial and the final distribution
charging of C2 via R3 to even higher voltages. are very different.

v (t)
V
0,9 V

v 2(t)
0,5 V
v 3(t)
0,25 V
v 1(t)
0,1 V
W1 t

Figure 2.4-33: Voltage curves for a three-layer dielectric according to fig. 2.4-32, with a temporary voltage enhance-
ment at dielectric 3 after the application of a DC voltage.
110 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Example 4: part of the stress is taken off from the barriers.

Polarity reversal of a DC voltage Interestingly, there are “islands” with a poten-
tial higher than 100 % and lower than 0 % of
Very complex field distributions, field migra-
the applied DC voltage. These islands are
tions and significant field stress enhancements
caused by positive and negative surface
can occur in connection with the polarity re-
charges that were accumulated on the surfaces
versal (PR) of a DC voltage in an oil-board
of the barriers during the preceding steady
barrier system, as used in HVDC insulation,
state, see also Figure 2.4-23.
e.g. in converter transformers or smoothing
reactors. Normally, these fields can no longer After the polarity reversal, a transition process
be described by equivalent circuits, and it is takes place, during which the capacitances of
necessary to perform numerical field calcu- the barriers are essentially recharged via the
lations, Section 2.5. series resistance of the oil ducts. Finally, a new
A plane arrangement with two high-resistive stationary field distribution is formed for a
barriers between two plane electrodes in com- positive DC voltage that is equal and opposite
paratively conductive oil is discussed, in order to the original, Figure 2.4-34d.
to give a qualitative explanation of the condi-
Note: Experience with DC voltage tests of oil-insulated
tions when reversing the voltage, Figure 2.4- equipment with barrier systems shows that the minutes
34. The insulation arrangement can be re- after the polarity reversal are often critical. During this
garded as a very simplified model of a barrier time partial discharges can occur, which disappear later
system according to Figure 2.4-28. on. This is an indication of high and decreasing field
strengths directly after the polarity reversal, see Figure
If a negative DC voltage is applied to the up- 2.4-34c.
per electrode, a steady-state conduction field
in the oil develops parallel to the interfaces be-
tween oil and barriers, Figure 2.4-34a. It can
2.4.5 Field Grading at Interfaces
be related to a conduction current from the
lower to the upper electrode, conducted be-
Insulation arrangements with interfaces tan-
tween the highly resistive barriers. Within the
gential to strong electric fields are especially
oil duct, the distance between the equipotential
critical in high voltage engineering for any
lines is great and the field strength is low, if
kind of voltages, AC, DC and impulse stresses.
the oil duct is long enough. Thus, the barrier
Most of the problems arise at the interfaces to
system can grade the field in the oil duct. The
the electrically weak air, i.e. at the so-called
barriers are stressed with nearly the whole DC
surfaces.
voltage, in the regions where they do not
overlap. The barriers have to be designed ac- Electrical discharges can be triggered, both by
cordingly, e.g. by multi-layer design with suf- the normal field in the air-filled interstice at a
ficient thickness. triple point (see Section 2.4.3.3) and by the
The polarity reversal can be described by the tangential field at the edge of an electrode (see
superposition of a positive voltage step with Section 3.2.6), Figure 2.4-35 top (right and
twice the amplitude of the DC voltage. It left). Inception voltages are comparable for
causes a strong dielectric displacement field, both cases, Eq. (2.4-35) and (3.2-72). If a dis-
which is superimposed on the initial conduc- charge is triggered by an AC voltage, strong
tion field [7], Figure 2.3-34b. To a first order tangential field components cause powerful
approximation, the field displacement from the surface discharges, because of high stray lat-
barriers into the oil is neglected. eral capacitances and high capacitive AC cur-
rents in the discharge channel. Thus, insulating
The superposition results in a very high stress materials can severely be damaged by erosion
in the oil duct, Figure 2.4-34c. Only a minor at the surface, Section 3.2.6.
2.4 Conduction and Displacement Fields in Inhomogeneous Dielectrics 111

Arrangements with high tangential field ings, Section 7.1.2),

strengths and with high lateral capacitance (i.e.
with small insulation thicknesses) are suscep- x in plane arrangements (e.g. at the edges of a
tible to surface discharges. They can be found parallel-plate capacitor, or for thin insulat-
in many insulation arrangements, and they are ing foils, Figure 2.4-20)
called “creepage surfaces”, Figure 2.4-35 (bot-
tom). Some common cases are given e.g. x and for the insulation surface of insulated
rectangular conductors (e.g. for insulated
x in arrangements with rotational symmetry busbars or stator winding insulations, Fig-
(e.g. for cables, Section 7.1.1 or for bush- ure 7.1.6-4).

-100 % Pressboard barrier

Figure 2.4-34a: Steady-state Oil

-80 % -60 % -40 % -20 %
conduction field with a negative
DC voltage at the upper elec- 0%
trode.

200 % -100 %
Figure 2.4-34b: Superposition 180 %
of a dielectric displacement 160 %
field with opposite polarity 140 %
120 % 120 %
and twice the amplitude at 100 % 100 %
80 % -80 % -60 % -40 % -20 % 80 %
polarity reversal. The field
displacement at the barriers 60 %
40 %
is neglected. 20 %
0%
100 %

80
Figure 2.4-34c: Resulting field 60
directly after the polarity re- 40 100 % 120
versal. Because of the surface 20
-20 80
charges at the interfaces, there 0%
are "islands" with potentials 60
40
higher than 100 % and lower 20
than 0 %.
0%

100 %

Figure 2.4-34d: Steady-state

conduction field after polarity re-
veral and after the decay of the 80 % 60 % 40 % 20 %
transient process, i.e. after the
re-charging of the barrier ca- 0%
pacitances via the resistances
of the oil ducts.
112 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

It is a basic task of high voltage engineering,

to keep tangential electrical stresses at surfaces Triple
low. This can be achieved with different tech- E
point E1
nologies for field grading or potential grad-
ing, which are explained for the example of E2
cable entrance fittings [464], Figure 2.4-36:

(1) For geometric field grading, the ground 80 % 60 % 40 %

potential of the cable shield is guided outwards 20 %
Gas
by the geometric contour of the conductive
deflector, Figure 2.4-36 (1). Its funnel-shaped d
curvature guarantees that the field strength Insulating material
decreases significantly along the contour from
the cable surface outwards, similar to a Figure 2.4-35: Triggering of surface discharges by tan-
Rogowski profile. For cable entrance fittings, gential and normal field components (top left and right).
(Section 7.1.1.4) the deflector is located in a Creepage surface with high tangential stress and thin
conical body made of an elastomeric material insulation material (bottom, the refraction of equi-
(grading cone). The field strengths at the sur- potential lines is neglected).
faces have to be reduced so much that there is
no danger. For the edges of parallel-plate ca- which is shrunken or mounted onto the surface
pacitors, the electrodes are often bent of the cable insulation and connected to the
(Rogowski and Borda profiles, curvature ac- end of the cable shield, Figure 2.4-36 (3). By
cording to Eq. 2.3-43). The geometric field means of field refraction and field displace-
grading requires huge volumes, therefore ment, the field lines are displaced away from
leading to designs with large dimensions and the edge of the cable shield. Thus the field is
diameters. equalized and maximum field strength at the
edge of cable shield is reduced.
(2) A capacitive field grading is achieved by
conductive grading layers between ground and (4) For resistive field grading, a semi-con-
high voltage potential, Figure 2.4-36 (2). The ductive (i.e. semi-resistive) coating is applied
capacitances between these layers guarantee to the surface of the cable insulation, Figure
the desired potential distribution. The shift of 2.4-36 (4). The axial resistances and the radial
the layers in axial direction imposes the po- capacitances relative to the inner conductor
tential of the layers on the surface of the insu- form a RC lattice network, which grades the
lation arrangement. Capacitive grading is most potential along the coated insulation in the
effective, i.e. a completely linear distribution case of an AC stress.
in the axial direction can be achieved, together
with very small diameters and insulation thick- (5) A non-linear field grading makes use of
nesses. Capacitive grading is therefore used materials that have high insulating resistances
for high voltage bushings up to the highest at low field strengths and significantly in-
voltages, Section 7.1.2. creasing conductivities with increasing field
strengths, Figure 2.4-36 (5). Thereby, locally
Note: For HV and MV cable entrance fittings and cable
enhanced conductivities displace the electric
joints geometric grading is mostly applied nowadays,
because of production and assembly reasons. Refractive, field and reduce the field magnitude at points
resistive and non-linear grading are also used for me- with highest field strengths. Non-linear mate-
dium voltage applications. rials like zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon carbide
(SiC) and iron oxide (FeO) are embedded in a
(3) Refractive field grading can be performed polymeric matrix material and act as so-called
by a tube made of a high-permittivity material, microvaristors.
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 113

Stator winding insulation in generators and in Refractive field grading can only be used for
big motors is the traditional application of re- time-varying voltages (AC or impulse). Resis-
sistive and non-linear field grading, Figure tive and non-linear gradings are strongly de-
7.1.6-4. The coatings are very thin and can pendent on the frequency of the applied vol-
therefore be applied to the insulated conduc- tage (frequency sensitivity).
tors, which are in close proximity to each other
in winding heads. All the field and potential grading methods
have in common that they reduce the tangen-
(1) Geometric grading
tial field strengths at interfaces and surfaces.
Nevertheless, these interfaces and surfaces are
25 % still normally highly stressed and have to be
Grading cone 50 % treated with particular care. This means that
with deflector contaminations, pollutions, deposits, access of
Cable 75 %
water, air-inclusions, voids and other defects
have to be precluded with high reliability dur-
Cable insulation
ing the production process and service opera-
tion.
(2) Capacitive grading 25 % 50 %

Capacitive grading layers

75 % 2.5 Numerical Field Calculation
Numerical field calculation is one of the most
important tools for high voltage engineers in
design, development and research. Sufficiently
(3) Refractive grading (not for DC voltage) accurate field strength magnitudes for complex
25 % 50 % insulation arrangements can only be deter-
75 % mined by numerical calculation.
Material with
high permittivity Nevertheless, numerical calculations must not
replace the intellectual analysis of the given
kind of stress. Both a thorough preparation of
the calculation and a thorough analysis/ dis-
(4) Resistive grading (frequency-dependent)
cussion of the results are necessary, in order to
25 % 50 %
avoid mistakes or wrong and too far-reaching
75 % conclusions.
Semi-conductive material
It is recommended therefore, always to make a
qualitative visualization by field mapping
(Section 2.3.3) and to try an analytical es-
(5) Non-linear grading (frequency-dependent) timation for a simplified insulation model.
25 % 50 % Based on these approximations, numerical
results can be checked for plausibility.
75 %

Non-linear material
2.5.1 Overview

For this introduction, the discussion is limited

Figure 2.4-36: Technologies for field and potential
grading on typical creepage surfaces, rotationally to electric potential fields, i.e to static, quasi-
symmetric surfaces of cable insulation (example). static and steady-state (capacitive) displace-
114 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

ment and conduction fields, which can be de- value determination of a specific energy-func-
scribed by means of Poisson’s or Laplace’s tional (FEM). The treatment of non-stationary
Differential Equation (2.3-31), i.e. as so-called fast changing fields is possible with the FEM.
Poissonian or Laplacian fields .
The advantage of these methods is a very sim-
Note: Considering the vector potential, fast ple treatment of many different materials and
changing and non-stationary fields, i.e. fields interfaces. Therefore, insulation systems with
with eddy currents and electromagnetic waves a complex multi-layer arrangement and with
can also be calculated [394]. non-linear materials can also be calculated.
The method of finite elements has therefore
The calculation of potential fields can be per- prevailed in the calculation of magnetic fields
formed with different numeric methods. Three because (non-linear) ferromagnetic materials
basically different solution approaches can be have to be considered there.
distinguished [34]:
It is a disadvantage that the whole field volume
a) Integral Equation Methods (IEM) super- has to be discretized. A huge number of ele-
impose field or potential quantities that are ments is thereby created, especially for three-
related to charges, currents and dipole mo- dimensional arrangements. The method of
ments, by means of summation or integration finite elements allows one to adapt the fine-
of the relevant contributions. If both vector ness of the discretization to the different field
and scalar potentials are defined [2], [3], the regions, whereby the number of elements is
fast changing electromagnetic field can also be further reduced.
calculated.
Note: In other fields of engineering, the Finite Element
The traditional method for the calculation of Method has already been established for a long time, it
slowly changing fields is the Charge Simula- provides mathematically analogous calculations of me-
tion Method (CSM), which was already used chanical, thermal and magnetic fields. Therefore the
method is very popular in many industrial applications
for analytical calculations in Section 2.3.5.
because development and design of technical apparatus
The charge simulation method can be extended normally include thermal and mechanical stresses.
to surface charges (SCSM: Surface Charge Modern field calculation programs take the geometric
Simulation Method, BEM: Boundary Element data directly from CAD programs and they can calculate
Method). Fast changing fields can be treated combined stresses of a mechanical, thermal, magnetic
and electric nature (multi-physics).
with the Method of Moments (MOM).

It is an advantage of integral equation methods c) The Monte Carlo Method (MCM) is based
that spatially unlimited three-dimensional ar- on the mean value theorem of the potential
rangements can be treated with a limited num- theory. It states that the potential M(P) at the
ber of elements (charges, etc.). In high voltage center point P of a sphere equals the average
engineering it is also advantageous that the potential on the surface of the sphere. From a
influence of space charges can easily be con- point under consideration, random walks are
sidered. On the other hand, it is difficult to started, which reach the electrodes of given
calculate fields in arrangements with many potential with a specific frequency. In this
different materials, since the influence of in- way, a mean value is determined from the hit
terfaces has to be taken into account by many electrode potentials. It is a statistical estimate
additional elements (charges, etc.) of the potential M(P), whose quality can be
determined from the statistical dispersion [16].
b) The Finite Difference Method (FDM) and
the Finite Element Method (FEM) discretize The Monte Carlo Method is considered to be
the whole field volume and set up differential an adequate method for the calculation of sin-
equation systems based on the discretized gle potential values in a part of the field vol-
Poisson’s Equation (FDM) or on the extreme ume which is of minor interest [34].
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 115

Hereafter, the Charge Simulation Method

(Section 2.5.2), the Finite Difference Method Electrode contour
(Section 2.5.3) and the Finite Element Method with contour points
(Section 2.5.4) are discussed in more detail.

2.5.2 Charge Simulation Method

For the Charge Simulation Method, the fields
of individual equivalent charges are superim-
posed at a reference point Ak by a summation
Equivalent charges behind the contour
of their individual contributions to the result-
ing potential Mk, Figure 2.5.1:
Figure 2.5-2: Setting of equivalent charges and
contour points following the given contour of an
Mk = Mk1 + Mk2 + Mk3 + ... + Mkn (2.5-1) electrode.

This idea was already used for the analytical

field calculation in Section 2.3.5, Eq. (2.3-45). In the case of point charges, the potential coef-
ficient according to Eq. (2.3-44) is given as pkj
Point charges (Q1), straight line charges (Q2) = 1/(4SH·rkj), i.e. as a function of the distances
and toroidal line (ring) charges (Q3) are suc- rkj.
cessfully used as equivalent charges. The con-
Equivalent relations can also be given for the
tributions Mkj of the individual charges Qj to
straight and toroidal line charges [16].
the potential Mk are described by potential co-
efficients pkj: The electrode surfaces are approximated by
equipotential surfaces. This means that dis-
Mkj = pkj·Qj (2.5-2) crete equivalent charges have to be set behind
the desired electrode contour, in order to get
finite potential values on the contour. The po-
tential at the location of the equivalent charge
Ak Mk itself is infinite.
p kj
In a first step, n equivalent charges of un-
pk3 known magnitude are set, based on the given
pk1 electrode contour, Figure 2.5-2.
Q3 In a second step, an equal number of n contour
pk2 points are chosen on the electrode contour,
with the given electrode potentials ME1 till MEn.
Q1
In a third step, a system of equations can be
Q2 formed using the potential coefficients. It gives
the known potentials MEk of the contour points
as a function of the unknown equivalent
Figure 2.5-1: Point charge, line charge and toroidal
charges Qj. These magnitudes of the equiva-
line (ring) charge as basic equivalent charges of the
Charge Simulation Method; contribution of a number lent charges can be determined by solving the
of charges to the potential in reference point k. system of equations:
116 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

p11 p12 .... p1n Q1 M E1 lems during the solving of the system of
Equations (2.5-3).
p21 p22 .... p2n Q2 M E2
.... .... .... .... · .... = .... (2.5-3) The influence of dielectric interfaces can be
pn 1 pn 2 .... pnn Qn M En taken into account by surface charges or by
equivalent charges on both sides of the inter-
faces [16]. In arrangements with many differ-
Now the equivalent charges are known, and ent materials, a significant additional effort is
the potential of any point in the field volume required; therefore, another calculation method
can be calculated according to Eq. (2.5-1) and might often then be better.
(2.5-2).
An electrode at free potential can be simu-
In a fourth step, the quality of the equivalent lated, if equivalent charges are set behind the
charge positioning is first tested. Additional electrode with the charge-sum zero:6Qi = 0.
test points are chosen on the given contour,
and the given potentials are compared with the
Additional equations are thereby defined,
calculated values. If the differences cannot be
which are necessary for the determination of
tolerated, the positioning of the equivalent
the electrode potential [16].
charges has to be improved.

The contour of the calculated equipotential A further development of the Charge Simu-
surface will never be identical with the given lation Method makes use of surface charges,
electrode surface. Both surfaces touch each which approximate the physical charge dis-
other at the contour points according to the tribution on the electrode surfaces and the in-
initial condition. For the test points in be- terfaces (Surface Charge Simulation Method,
tween, the deviation of the calculated potential Boundary Element Method).
on the electrode surface is determined. Note: The Charge Simulation Method has a close rela-
tion to the physical origin of electrostatic fields. There-
There are some proven rules for the position- fore the CSM can easily be understood and it is one of
ing of equivalent charges, Figure 2.5-2: the first numerical simulation methods used in HV en-
gineering. Nevertheless, the position and distribution of
x An equivalent charge and a contour point the equivalent charges are not identical with the position
and distribution of the physical charges, but the magni-
shall be set as a pair with a close spatial
tudes are equal.
relationship.
x The distance between charge and contour
point shall be comparable to the distance to 2.5.3 Finite Difference Method
the adjacent charges.
x Depending on the curvature of the elec- For field calculation with the Finite Difference
trode contour, the charges shall be set Method, the field volume is discretized with a
closer or further apart. grid of regular meshes, Figure 2.5-3. The po-
tential M0 on a node “0” can then be given as a
x Variations of charge and contour point
function of the potentials M1, M2, M3, .... on the
distances shall be performed gradually,
without major variations of the adjacent adjacent nodes, if the potential M(x,y,z) in the
distances. directions x, y and z is approximated by a
Taylor series.
The simulation quality is increased with the
number and density of the equivalent charges. In Cartesian coordinates, a variation either in
Nevertheless, the number of charges must not x-, y- or z- direction, without any variation in
be too great, in order to avoid numerical prob- the other two directions, is
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 117

2 2 2 y
M(x) = M0 + 'x·wM/wx + 'x /2)·w M/wx + ...,
2 2 2
M(y) = M0 + 'y·wM/wy + 'y /2)·w M/wy + ...,
2 2 2
M(z) = M0 + 'z·wM/wz + 'z /2)·w M/wz + ... . 2'

5'
For a plane two-dimensional arrangement M x
3' 0
according to Figure 2.5-3, the neighbor poten-
tials of M0 are estimated from the Taylor series 6'
h 1'
h
that is cut off after the second order term:
z
2 2 2 4'
M1 | M0 + h·wM/wx + h /2)·w M/wx
2 2 2
M3 | M0 - h·wM/wx + h /2)·w M/wx
2 2 2 Figure 2.5-4: Discretization of the field volume for
M2 | M0 + h·wM/wy + h /2)·w M/wy the three-dimensional field calculation with the
2 2 2 Finite Difference Method.
M4 | M0 - h·wM/wy + h /2)·w M/wy

The cut off of the series after the second-order  M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 = 4·M0 . (2.5-4)
term means that the step width h, i.e. the mesh
width h, must be chosen small enough, so that Therefore, the potential M0 is the average of
the potential variation can be described by a the four neighbor potentials (“square algo-
second order polynomial with sufficient accu- rithm”):
racy. In very non-uniform fields, very small
mesh elements and a very large number of  M0 = M1 + M2 + M3 + M4)/4 (2.5-5)
nodes is required.
In the same way, M0 can be calculated from the
If the sum of the four neighbor potentials is
potentials in the diagonally adjacent nodes
calculated, the first order terms compensate
(“diagonal algorithm”)
each other because of opposite signs. Accord-
ing to Laplace’s Equation (2.3-32) for the case  M0 = M5 + M6 + M7 + M8)/4 (2.5-6)
without space charge, the sum of the second-
order terms is also zero:
Analogously, the equivalent equations for
three-dimensional fields are determined.
Then M0 is calculated from the potentials of six
adjacent nodes (“cube-algorithm”), Figure 2.5-
y 4:
6 2 5 M0 = M1'+ M2'+ M3'+ M4'+ M5'+ M6')/6 (2.5-7)
3
M0 x
h 1 The finite difference method also allows one
h to calculate multi-dielectrics insulation sys-
7 4 8 tems. Within the materials, the above-men-
tioned equations are valid. For points on an
interface, there are adjacent points on both
sides of the interface, Figure 2.5-5. The sum-
Figure 2.5-3: Discretization of a 2D field region by mation of the potentials comparable to Eq.
means of a grid with square meshes for the field
(2.5-4) has to consider that the boundary con-
calculation with the Finite Difference Method.
118 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

ditions Eq. (2.4-13) to (-16) are satisfied.

Therefore, the different potentials have to be
weighted differently. Then the potential M0 on y
the interface is given by a new “square algo-
rithm” comparable to Eq. (2.5-5) [16]: 6 2 5
H
r1 M0 x
1 H M  H r2 M 4 3
M0 {M1  M 3  2 ˜ r1 2 } H h 1
4 H r1  H r2 r2 h
7 4 8
(2.5-8)

If the above-mentioned equations are applied

to all points of the grid, a system of linear Figure 2.5-5: Calculation of multi-layer dielectrics
equations results. In order to solve the equa- with the Finite Difference Method.
tions, knowledge of the boundary potentials is
required.
M V M V
Programming the finite difference algorithms, 0 0
e.g. for iterative solution of the system of
equations, requires little effort. The FDM was 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 0,5
one of the first numerical methods in practi-
cally use [4]. 0 1 1

Example: Foil edge in a capacitor dielectric 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 0,5

The potential distribution in a capacitor dielectric close 0 0

to the edge of a metallic foil shall be calculated by
means of the Finite Difference Method. Figure 2.5-6
shows a cross section through the plane insulation ar- 2 3 4
rangement (compare to Figure 2.4-30). In order to get a
clear and comprehensible calculation, a rather large A C B Detail
mesh width of the grid is chosen.
1 D
For the calculation, knowledge of all boundary poten-
tials is necessary. The electrode potentials are therefore A C B
set to M/V = 1 and M/V = 0. As the arrangement is open
on the left and right hand sides, there are additional 2 3 4
boundary points, whose potentials also have to be de-
fined. Because of the uniformity of the field in the outer
regions, the boundary potentials are set to M/V= 0 (left) Figure 2.5-6: Calculation of a capacitor dielectric
and M/V = 0.5 (right). with the help of the Finite Difference Method.

Because of the symmetry of the arrangement, the cal-

culation is limited to the potentials M1 to M6 in the lower M1/V M2/V M3/V M4/V M5/V M6/V M7/V
(or upper) half of the arrangement. The equation solu- (Direction) (Boundary)
tion based on the “square algorithm” Eq. (2.5-5) is per-
Start: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5
formed by iteration and starts with assumed initial val-
ues Mi = 0. m 0.292 0.084 0.334 0.336 0.344 0.375 0.5
o 0.156 0.373 0.429 0.451 0.488 0.5
The iterative re-calculation of the potentials according m 0.337 0.147 0.405 0.463 0.479 0.488 0.5
to Eq. (2.5-5) progresses from M6 (right) to M1 (left). In o 0.186 0.412 0.473 0.490 0.498 0.5
the next iteration step, the direction of the iteration is re- m 0.344 0.188 0.416 0.476 0.493 0.498 0.5
versed. In this way a fast convergence is achieved. o 0.190 0.417 0.477 0.494 0.499 0.5
m 0.345 0.190 0.417 0.478 0.494 0.499 0.5
In the following, the iteration results are given:
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 119

The iteration is finished, if the potential values only 2. The regular grid cannot be adapted to the
change within a predefined limit from iteration step to non-uniformity of the field. A finer discretiza-
iteration step (here 'M/V < 0.001).
tion in the non-uniform regions of the field
By means of the “diagonal algorithm” Eq. (2.5-6), po- would unequivocally be extended to the whole
tentials at intermediate points can be calculated by in- field volume. Therefore, unreasonable com-
terpolation, e.g. at A, B, C and D, Figure 2.5-6 (detail): puting resources and times would be required.
This is especially serious for three-dimen-
MA = 0.25·(M1 + M2 + M3 + V) = 0.488 V sional fields. Often, the Charge Simulation
Method is the simpler method.
MB = 0.25·(M3 + M4 + V + V) = 0.724 V

MC = 0.25·(M3 + MA + MB + V) = 0.658 V
2.5.4 Finite Element Method
MD = 0.25·(M1 + MA + MA + V) = 0.580 V
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is based on
For the drawing of field or equipotential patterns, equi- the discretization of the field volume by a grid
potential lines have to be determined by interpolation of triangles. For the calculation of Laplacian
between the calculated potentials of the fixed nodes in fields, the potentials of the nodes in the grid
the net. For this purpose, the grid in the given example
is far too coarse. are determined in such a way that the whole
field energy is minimized.
Nevertheless, the result shows clearly that there is a
concentration of field and equipotential lines close to This principle of minimizing an energy func-
the edge of the metallic foil. However, the calculated tion has been known in other fields of engi-
values are not very accurate, because of the coarse grids neering and science for a long time [16], [36],
and the sharp edge of the metallic foil. [37], [38]. It is a great advantage of the Finite
Element Method that common program sys-
The Finite Difference Method has some dis-
tems can calculate mechanical, thermal, mag-
advantages, and other methods are better
netic and electric fields at the same time
suited in many cases:
(multi-physics). Especially for industrial appli-
cations, high voltage apparatus must be de-
1. The fixed regular grid cannot describe
signed with respect to many different stresses.
curved electrodes and interface contours with
sufficient accuracy. The Charge Simulation Note: This approach can also be applied to linearly
Method and Finite Element Method are much superimposed fields (e.g. conduction and displacement
more flexible. fields) and to time-harmonic or transient fields. In
these cases, different contributions to the energy have to
Note: Sometimes the approximation of electrode and be summed, and their variation with time has to be con-
interface contours can be improved to a certain extent sidered by an additional discretization in time and by a
by a local distortion of the grid. In this case, Eqs. (2.5-4) calculation in consecutive time steps [282].
to (-8) have to be modified.
Note: With the idea of minimizing the energy, non-
stationary fields and electromagnetic waves can also be
treated, if all energy contributions are considered in the
Node 0 M0 = V volume under consideration. This includes the stored
electric energy, the stored magnetic energy, the energy
Element 1 W1 fed and dissipated by conduction currents, the energy of
Node 1 M1 a space charge density, the eddy current loss energy and
Element 2 W2 an additional term allowing the so-called Coulomb
gauge of the vector potential [394].
Node 2 M2 = 0
The basic calculation method for the potential
Figure 2.5-7: Calculation of potentials in a parallel- determination by minimizing the field energy
plate capacitor by minimizing the field energy shall be explained for the example of a paral-
(normally triangular elements are chosen). lel-plate capacitor, Figure 2.5-7.
120 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Example:
Minimum field energy in a parallel-plate capacitor
M1 = V/2 (2.5-12)

In the uniform field of a parallel-plate capacitor, the Note: It can easily be shown that the calculated extreme
potential midway between the two electrodes shall be value gives a minimum of energy. For the other extreme
determined numerically. values M1 = V and M1 = 0, there is a maximum of energy
in each case.
The electrodes are treated as “nodes” with the given
potentials M0 = V and M2 = 0. The equipotential surface By means of that example it can also be shown
midway in-between is considered as “node” 1 with the
how easily field regions with different materi-
unknown potential M1. Figure 2.5-7.
als can be treated. The field energies of the
With Eq. (2.1-11), the field energies of the elements 1 considered elements are just calculated with
and 2 between the nodes are different permittivities:
2
W1 = ½·C1·(V - M1) Example:
and (2.5-9) Minimum field energy in a multi-layer dielectric
2
W2 = ½·C2·(M1 - 0) . If in the arrangement according to Figure 2.5-7 different
permittivities Hr1 = 1 and Hr2 = 2 are assumed, the ca-
Now, the total field energy pacitances are C2 = 2·C1 at equal distances. The ex-
pected solution follows directly from Eq. (2.5-11):
W = 6 Wi = W1 + W2 (2.5-10)
M1 = V/3 (2.5-13)
is to be minimized by variation M1. As M1 is the only
variable potential, the minimum field energy is deter-
mined from the condition For a realistic field calculation, the field vol-
ume has to be discretized by a mesh without
wW/wM = wW1/wM1 + wW2/wM1 = 0. regard to the usually unknown shape of the
equipotential surfaces. Therefore, two-dimen-
With Eq. (2.5-9) we get sional (plane or rotationally symmetric) prob-
lems are mostly calculated with triangular and
½·C1·2·(V - M1)·(-1) + ½·C2·2·(M1 - 0) = 0
and
three-dimensional problems with tetrahedral
M1 = V·C1/(C1 + C2) . (2.5-11) elements, Figure 2.5-8. The corners of these
elements are the nodes of the mesh.
For C1 = C2, the expected solution is
It is necessary to determine the field or the
potential distribution throughout an element in
order to calculate its field energy. This distri-
1 16 V 1 16 V bution can be interpolated from the node po-
tentials. In Figure 2.5-8 a linear interpolation
15 V 15 V of the potential between the calculated or
given node potentials is shown. In such a case,
12 V the field strength is assumed to be constant
14 V 14 V
13 V 13 V throughout the considered element.
4
2 13 V 2 13 V The discretization of the whole field volume
with triangular or tetrahedral elements has a
12 V 12 V significant advantage in comparison to the
Finite Difference Method: The elements can
3 11 V 3 11 V be adjusted to the shape of electrodes and in-
terfaces, and field regions of minor importance
Figure 2.5-8: Triangles and tetrahedrons as (finite)
can be represented with a coarse mesh. In this
elements for two- and three-dimensional fields with
linear interpolation of the potential. way, despite high resolution in the regions of
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 121

interest, the number of nodes and elements is

limited, Figure 2.5-9.

Electrodes with given potentials, e.g. grading

layers of bushings, can be included by defining
fixed node potentials. If the potentials are
completely unknown, they can be simulated by
regions of extremely enhanced permittivity.
Then the field is displaced into the adjacent
materials, and the field emanates approxi- p
mately perpendicularly from the interface q
k
(comparable to a metallic electrode).
r
Normally, the mesh is generated by an auto-
matic mesh generator, which follows the given
contours. Afterwards it is often possible to
optimize the mesh manually, i.e. by displacing,
deleting and setting of nodes. It is very impor-
tant to ensure that the dimensions of the ele-
ments are small enough for the assumption of
Figure 2.5-9: Discretization of a two dimensional
uniform field strength within the considered field region with finite elements, which can be
element (for linear interpolation only). adapted to the electrode contours, to the interfaces
and to the degree of field homogeneity (detail).
For minimizing the field energy, the energy
of the individual elements (1, 2, 3, ..., k, ..., n)  wW/wM1 = 0
is to be determined by volume integration of
the field energy density:  wW/wM2 = 0
…….. (2.5-17)
1 2
H E dV  wW/wMj = 0
Wk ³ 2
(2.5-14)
…….
Vk
 wW/wMm = 0
Attention: V is the volume here and not the voltage!
The node potentials M1 to Mm are given by the
The energy of an individual element can be solution of the System of Equations (2.5-17).
expressed as a function of the respective three Instead of a direct solution, an iterative ap-
(or four) node potentials and node coordinates: proach is frequently chosen, which can also
solve non-linear cases (e.g. in magnetic cir-
Wk = f(Mp, Mq, Mr, Ms; cuits or at very high electric field strengths).
xp, xq, xr, xs) (2.5-15)
Generally, the knowledge of boundary poten-
The total energy is the sum of the energies of tials at the borders of the field volume is nec-
all elements: essary (i.e. on the electrodes). Border lines
with unknown potentials (e.g. between elec-
n
trodes) are regarded as field lines rectangular
W ¦ Wk (2.5-16)
to the equipotential surfaces. This must be
k 1
taken into account during the selection of the
The minimum energy is determined if the par- field volume for calculation. If necessary, the
tial derivatives with respect to all node poten- area to be calculated is to extend well beyond
tials M1 to Mm) are set equal to zero, thus re- the region of interest in order to keep the influ-
sulting in a system of equations: ence of field distortions at the borders low.
122 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Another source of inaccuracy is the interpola- E01 = (M0 - M1)/(r1 - r0) = 4.3 kV/cm
tion of the potential within the individual ele-
E12 = (M1 - M2)/(r2 - r1) = 2.5 kV/cm
ments if the elements are so large that the po-
tential distribution is no longer described accu- E23 = (M2 - M3)/(r3 - r2) = 1.8 kV/cm
rately enough by an interpolation or approxi-
mation function. The inaccuracy can be espe- E34 = (M3 - M4)/(r4 - r3) = 1.4 kV/cm
cially high for the linear interpolation, see Fig-
ure 2.5-8. Therefore, polynomials of higher The comparison with an analytical solution according
to Section 2.3.1.3 shows that the node potentials were
order are used, which allow steady transitions calculated correctly. This can be explained by the ca-
of gradients and curvatures of the equipotential pacitance values, which were exact values and not nu-
lines at the boundaries of the elements. Both merical approximations. Nevertheless, field strengths
the accuracy and the computational time to- are determined with substantial errors when using linear
gether with the danger of numerical instabili- interpolation. The analytical calculation gives consider-
able differences, especially in the non-uniform region of
ties increase significantly with the order of the the field:
interpolation polynomials.
E0 = 6.2 kV/cm
Example: Comparison between analytical and nu-
merical solution E1 = 3.1 kV/cm

Similar to the example in Figure 2.5-7, the field of a E2 = 2.1 kV/cm

cylindrical capacitor (Ri = r0 = 2 cm, Ra = r4 = 10 cm)
shall be determined by numerical iteration for V = 20 E3 = 1.5 kV/cm
kV and compared with an exact analytical solution,
Figure 2.5-10. E4 = 1.2 kV/cm

The equipotential surfaces at r0 = 2 cm (M0 = V = 20

kV), r1 = 4 cm (M1), r2 = 6 cm (M2), r3 = 8 cm (M3) and
r4 = 10 cm (M4 = 0) are chosen as “nodes”. By analogy
with Eq. (2.5-9) and (-10) and by means of the capaci-
tances C01, C12, C23 and C34, the field energy can be
expressed as a function of the unknown potentials M1,
M2 and M3. With the condition for extreme values ac-
cording to Eq. (2.5-17) a system of equations is estab- r
lished for the unknown potentials by setting the partial
derivatives to zero: r0 r1 r2 r3 r4
E (r)
M1(C01+C12) +M2(- C12) = C01V
E0
M1(- C12) +M2(C12+C23) +M3(- C23) =0
E01
+M2(- C23) +M3(C23+C34) =0
E1
For a cylinder length of 1 m, the capacitances are C01 = E12
E2
80.2 pF, C12 = 137.1 pF, C23 = 193.3 pF and C34 = E23
E34
249.2 pF according to Eq. (2.3-20). The potentials are E3
determined as
E4
r
M1 = 11.38 kV, M2 = 6.34 kV and M3 = 2.77 kV
r0 r1 r2 r3 r4
by iteratively or directly solving the equation system. A
linear approach is chosen for determination of the field Figure 2.5-10: Comparison between analytical and
strengths: numerical solution for the example of a cylindrical
capacitor.
2.5 Numerical Field Calculation 123

The numerically calculated field strengths can be con-

sidered as mean field strengths within the elements,
Figure 2.5-10. Maximum values are higher, minimum
values are lower. These deviations can be significantly
reduced by selecting smaller elements and interpolation
Pre-Processing
polynomials of higher order.
Graphical/ manuel
data import
Program systems for field calculations with Geometry
the Finite Element Method have user inter- CAD data
faces that guide the user through the calcula- program
tion process and perform many steps automati- Parameters for the
cally, Fig, 2.5-11. For this the user has par- mesh generation Mesh generator
ticularly to learn program-specific features,
which, depending on the complexity and de- Correction of the net
Net data
gree of development of the program system,
can involve quite considerable effort. The Definition of
physical problem, understanding the problem material curves
and the basic calculation processes are often
dangerously neglected by the user. Material
Material
libary
data
Normally, a numerical field calculation con-
Problem
sists of a number of steps: Boundary potentials
definition
1. The user has to enter the geometric data of
the electrode contours and areas to be calcu-
lated, either directly or by means of CAD data
sets. An adequate simplification of the ge- Solving
ometry is the most important preparation that
determines the quality of the calculation: On Calculation parameters
the one hand, the uncritical import of all de- (e.g. iteration limits, Solver
sign details causes extremely high computa- symmetry conditions, ...)
tional effort. On the other hand, simplifications
Node potentials
must not be too coarse, in order to avoid
wrong conclusions.

This is a question of engineering feeling,

which requires high analytical abilities and a Post-processing of the results
sophisticated physical understanding of field
geometries, especially in times of complex and
“user friendly” program systems. Equipotential patterns
Equi-fieldstrength patterns
Therefore, a qualitative feeling for the ex-
pected result should already exist before a cal- Superposition of solutions
culation is started. Field strengths along contours
Free post-processing of
2. The discretization of the geometry is per- result data
formed by an automatic mesh generator. The
user has to give parameters defining the size
and the quality of the generated mesh as a
function of geometry data (e.g. radii of curva- Figure 2.5-11: Structure of a Finite Element Pro-
ture). This can be done, for example, by de- gram system for numerical field calculations.
124 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

fining node positions on the electrodes or equipotential patterns are colored in order to
along contours. Normally, the automatically visualize the magnitude of the field strength.
generated mesh can be checked and manually
refined afterwards, e.g. in order to achieve Complex processes can be calculated by su-
finer discretization for important field regions, perposition of different solutions. For exam-
or to subdivide triangles with unfavorable as- ple, the field after the polarity reversal of a DC
pect ratios. voltage is given by the superposition of the
initial steady-state conduction field and the
Again, these tasks require a qualitative feel for dielectric displacement field associated with
the expected results, as mentioned above. the voltage step during the polarity reversal
[7], [10].
3. Then, material values (or non-linear mate-
rial curves) have to be allocated to the gener- For the evaluation of electrical stresses it is
ated network elements and potential values often necessary to show the magnitudes of
have to be allocated to the electrodes and edge field strengths along given contours. Nor-
contours. For such a definition of a calcula- mally, field strength magnitudes, tangential
tion problem, pre-defined materials can often components and normal components can be
be taken from a material library. distinguished.

4. After this pre-processing, the system of 6. Finally, the user has the important task of
equations is solved with an appropriate math- checking the plausibility of the results. Un-
ematical solver. Again, the user can define fortunately, the complexity of modern field
iteration limits, step widths and the order of calculation systems leads to input data errors
the interpolation polynomials. He has to find a remaining undiscovered and often only able to
good compromise between accuracy of the be detected from a non-plausible field pattern.
calculation, computational time and numerical Such an evaluation requires a very good
stability. The result is given as a list of node physical understanding and imagination as
potentials. Potentials in the field volume are mentioned above. In addition, for example,
derived from interpolation and approximation numerically calculated field strength values
polynomials. can be analytically recalculated in sub-regions
with simple field geometry.
Note: The solution is often performed in a number of
steps, in which the discretization is improved based on a
preceding result for the following iteration.
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and
Note: Additionally, routines can be programmed some-
times, allowing the variation of geometry characteristics
Traveling Waves
as a function of calculation results. In this way, elec-
trode contours can be optimized iteratively in a number For the slowly varying fields that have been
of calculation steps in order to avoid field strength in- discussed previously it was assumed that
creases.
propagation time effects can be neglected
within the observed spatial dimensions. Field
5. Subsequent to the calculation, a post-proc-
changes are so slow that they can approxi-
essing of the solution or the data can be per-
mately be considered as simultaneous in the
formed by any kind of mathematical opera-
relevant field volume. This condition was al-
tions.
ready formulated with Eqs. (2.1-36) to (-38) in
Section 2.1.4.4.
Equipotential patterns or patterns with lines of
equal field strengths are generated for visuali- If the conditions of the quasi-static field ap-
zation of the results. They can also contain proximation are no longer fulfilled, Maxwell’s
field vectors in order to visualize the direction Equations have to be used in their complete
and magnitude of the field strength. Normally, form for the description of the non-stationary
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 125

electromagnetic wave field, see Section

2.1.4.4. Phase
plane
In relation to lightning impulse voltages and
H
fast transients, there are a number of rapidly
changing stresses in high voltage engineering.
Basically, they can be described as guided
traveling waves, see Section 2.2.4 and 2.2.5.

Note: Electromagnetic waves that propagate in free J

space, i.e. that do not propagate in a transmission line,
do not belong to the typical stresses of high voltage
engineering. Only in the hopefully hypothetical case of wD
a nuclear explosion outside the atmosphere, it is feared E wt
that the nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) will
endanger electric power systems.

Nevertheless, free electromagnetic waves can couple

into measuring systems and affect the measuring signals
in impulse and partial discharge measuring circuits [5], E (z,t)
[18], [19]. Moreover, the electromagnetic radiation field u u
can purposefully be used for diagnostics, especially for
partial discharge detection. H (z,t)

In the following, guided traveling waves (Sec-

tion 2.6.1), reflections (Section 2.6.2) and ex- z
amples (Section 2.6.3) are discussed. Wave
Jz (z,t) front wD
wt
2.6.1 Guided TEM Wave
z
A rapidly increasing electric field strength be-
tween the conductors of a line is associated Figure 2.6-1: Propagation of a guided traveling wave
with a displacement current between the con- on a transmission line, TEM wave with linearly
ductors, Figure 2.6-1. It continues as an axial rising electric and magnetic field strengths.
conduction current in the conductor’s surface.
The magnetic field lines associated with the Note: Apart from this basic propagation mode, there are
current, are closed lines around the upper con- further modes which can propagate between the two
ductor. conductors, but they are of minor importance for the
electrical stress.
In the wave front, the electromagnetic wave
has orthogonal vectors E (electric field A significant simplification of the analysis is
strength), H (magnetic field strength) and u achieved, if infinitesimal small line sections 'z
(phase velocity). The time-varying field quan- with quasi-static field conditions are consid-
tities s E and H are mutually dependent ac- ered, Figure 2.6-2. Instead of the field quanti-
cording to Faraday’s and Ampere’s law, see ties E and H, it is possible to perform calcula-
also Figure 2.1-17. As both electric and mag- tions with the integral quantities voltage v
netic field vectors are transverse (orthogonal) and current i.
to the direction of wave propagation, the prop-
agation mode is called TEM mode (or TEM At first, a lossless line with R' = 0 and G' = 0
wave). shall be considered. According to the equiva-
126 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

'z By insertion of Eq. (2.6-4) into Eq. (2.6-3), the

differential equation for the voltage is estab-
Phase lished:
planes
z 2 2 2 2
w v/wz = L’C’·w v/wt  (2.6-5)

The analog differential equation for the current

is derived, if Eq. (2.6-1) is differentiated with
respect to t and Eq. (2.6-2) with respect to z:
2 2 2 2
 w i/wz = L’C’·w i/wt (2.6-6)
i(z) L' 'z R' 'z i ( z + 'z )
The differential Equations (2.6-5) and (-6) are
'i called transmission line wave equations. The
'v general solution for the voltage is
C''z G''z v(z,t) = V·{ f (z-ut) + g (z+ut)} . (2.6-7)
v (z) v ( z + 'z )

'z After differentiating it twice with respect to z

and t, and by insertion, it can be shown that the
2
Figure 2.6-2: Description of a short line segment solution satisfies the differential equation, if u
by an "electrically short" equivalent circuit. = 1/(L'C'). Thus, the phase velocity u is a
function of the transmission line parameters L’
lent circuit, the difference of the voltages at and C':
the positions z and z+'z (Kirchhoff’s voltage
law) is 1
u = . (2.6-8)
— L'·C'
v(z+'z) - v(z) = 'v = - L''z·wi/wt
Eq. (2.6.7) describes a traveling voltage-wave
and the difference of the currents (Kirchhoff’s
consisting of two components. The first term
current law) is
f (z-ut) corresponds to a traveling wave in +z-
i(z+'z) - i(z) = 'i = - C''z·wv/wt . direction, because its argument doesn’t change
if z increases to the same extent as ut. The sec-
By the transition to infinitesimal small sections ond term g (z+ut) correspondingly describes a
'z o 0, two partial differential equations are traveling wave in –z-direction, Figure 2.6-3.
established for the dependence of the quanti-
ties v(z,t) and i(z,t) on time t and position z: Note: The expression “voltage” must only be
used with great care in relation to rapidly
 wv/wz = - L'·wi/wt (2.6-1) changing processes: The definition of a volt-
and age (scalar potential) is only possible if inte-
wi / wz = - C'·wv/wt (2.6-2) gration of the electric field strength along a
path gives a value that is independent of the
In order to insert these equations into each chosen path, the ring integral of Edx must be
other, the first equation is differentiated with zero. This means a closed integration path
respect to the path z and the second equation must not enclose any magnetic flux that varies
with respect to time t: with time. For the given TEM wave, this con-
dition is only fulfilled in the so-called phase
2 2 2 planes orthogonal to the line direction z. These
 w v / wz = - L'·w i/wtwz) (2.6-3)
2 2 2
planes are not penetrated by the magnetic
w i/wzwt) = - C'·w v/wt (2.6-4) field, Figure 2.6-1 and -2. The specification of
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 127

u u
v (z,t) = V · f (z - ut) z v (z,t) = V · f (z - ut) z

u
u i (z,t) = I · f (z - vt )
v (z,t) = V · g (z + ut) z z

Figure 2.6-3: Traveling voltage waves in +z- and -z-

u
direction as solutions of the transmission line wave v (z,t) = V · g (z + ut) z
equations.
z
a voltage thus only describes the electric field
u
in a phase plane. The specification of a voltage i (z,t) = -I · g (z + vt)
between points that do not have the same z-
coordinate is no longer allowed.
Figure 2.6-4: Related voltage and current waves
The traveling voltage-waves are accompanied in +z- and -z-direction (traveling waves).
by related traveling current-waves, which can
be derived from the above-mentioned solution rived from the electric and the magnetic field
for the voltage waves: Eq. (2.6-7) is differenti- of the same traveling wave.
ated with respect to time and inserted into Eq.
(2.6-2), which then can be used to determine According to Eq. (2.6-9), the amplitudes of the
the desired currents by integration. With related voltage and current waves have a con-
stant ratio, the characteristic (line) imped-
 wv/wt = V·{(-u)· f '(z-ut) + v· g '(z+ut)} ance ZL:

Eq. (2.6-2) is ZL = v/i = 1/(uC')

 wi/wz = V·u·C'·{ f '(z-ut) - g '(z+ut)} . For the lossless line it follows from Eq. (2.6-8)
that
The current is determined by integration along
the coordinate z:

i(z,t) = V·u·C'·{ f (z-ut) - g (z+ut)} (2.6-9)

ZL =
v
i
= — C'L' . (2.6-10)

Again, there are traveling current-waves in +z- The line parameters L' and C' (inductance and
and –z-directions. The two traveling current capacitance per unit length) and the character-
waves have opposite polarities. This means istic line impedance ZL depend on the kind of
that the current direction is reversed together the line and on the geometric dimensions, Fig-
with the wave propagation direction, if the ure 2.6-5. Generally, it can be stated that the
voltage between the conductors does not characteristic impedance increases with in-
change, Figure 2.6-4. creasing distance between the conductors and
that it decreases with increasing conductor
Traveling voltage and current waves with the area.
same propagation direction always belong
together. They are two different mathematical Characteristic impedances of overhead trans-
representations of the same physical process: mission lines (C' | 10 nF/km, L' | 1 mH/km)
This means that voltage and current are de- are somewhere in the region above 300 :. For
128 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

a gas-insulated coaxial line with tubular con- metric dimensions. In vacuum and (by ap-
ductors and the radius ratio e:1, the character- proximation also) in gases, u is equal to the
8
istic impedance is ZL = 60 :. A high voltage speed of light u0 = 300,000 km/s = 3·10 m/s =
cable with Hr = 2.2 and ra/ri = e has ZL = 40 :. 0.3 m/ns. In dielectrics with higher permittiv-
Even lower values are given for medium volt- ity, the phase velocity is reduced by the factor
-0.5
age cables with large inner conductor cross Hr , see Eq. (2.6-8).
sections. Coaxial signal cables have a charac-
teristic line impedance ZL = 50 :normally. Example:
For transformer windings characteristic im- Lightning strike into an overhead line
2 4
pedances are in the range of 10 : to 10 :, During a lightning strike an impulse current Î = 10 kA is
because of the high inductances [45]. These fed into the phase conductor of an overhead line. The
magnitude of the overvoltage shall be estimated.
values increase with the rated voltage and de-
crease with the rated power. The lightning stroke current is split up into two current
waves that propagate in both directions from the point
For the basic arrangements in Figure 2.6-5, the of the strike. With ZL = 300 : a peak voltage Û V =
phase velocity u is independent from the geo- 300 : · 5 kA = 1.5 MV is calculated from Eq. (2.6-10).

d d

r
a h a

ri ra
b

Coaxial line Strip line Cylinder above plane Two-wire line

(Parallel plate line)

Capacitances per unit lenth according to eq. 2.3-20, -37, -89 and -85:
S H b S H S H
C' = r C' = H C' = C' =
a 4h 2a
ln ra ln ln
i d d
External inductances per unit length [2] (the internal inductances are neglected here):
P r a P 4h P 2a
L' = ln ra L' = P L' = L' =
S i b S ln d S ln d

Characteristic impedances according to eq. 2.6-10:

1 P ra P a 1 P 4h 1 P ln 2a
ZL = —
S H
ln ri ZL = — H
b
ZL =
S — H ln d
ZL =
S —H d

Phase velocities according to eq. 2.6-8:

1 1 1 1
u = u = u = u =
—HP —HP —HP —HP
Figure 2.6-5: Line parameters, characteristic impedances and phase velocities for basic line arrangements.
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 129

Amplitude, shape and direction of a traveling

wave are not yet determined by the transmis-
E
H
= — HP = Z

sion line wave equations or by their general

solutions Eq. (2.6-7) and (-8). Furthermore, The above considerations also apply to lossless
they depend on the boundary conditions, i.e. lines (or perfect dielectrics), i.e. the line pa-
on the currents and voltages at both ends of the rameters R' and G' in Figure 2.6-2 are ne-
transmission line, see Section 2.6.2. glected. The consideration of losses owing to
constant parameters R' and G' results in trav-
Analogous considerations also apply to the eling wave amplitudes that are decreasing ex-
field quantities E and H in dielectric media. ponentially along the propagation path
Based on Maxwell’s Main Equations (2.1-14) (damped line or non-ideal dielectrics).
and (-15), the relationships shown in Section
If special conditions cannot be assumed (e.g.
2.1.4.4 for the intrinsic impedance (wave
“distortion-free line”), the shape of the trav-
impedance) Z, Eq. (2.1-43), and for the phase
eling wave also changes. This generally means
velocity, Eq. (2.1-42), are derived:
that fast impulse fronts are flattened and trav-
eling wave pulses are rounded. This can be
1
u = (2.6-11) explained by the frequency dependence of line
— HP parameters; especially R' increases strongly
P with frequency because of the skin effect, and
Z =
E
H
= —H . (2.6-12) high-frequency wave components are damped
accordingly.
In vacuum and (by approximation also) in At very high voltages and field strengths, e.g.
gases, the phase velocity is the speed of light which can occur during a lightning strike into
and the intrinsic impedance is the intrinsic an overhead line, corona discharges can also
impedance of free space which is given by occur. They must be accounted for by a volt-
age-dependent leakage (conductance) per unit
P
Z0 =
E
H
= — H00 = 377 : (2.6-13)
length G'. This non-linear effect causes higher
damping and distortion of the traveling wave.

Note: The Equations (2.6-11) to (-13) are not Often, the damping of traveling waves is not
only valid for the field quantities of a con- considered because the undamped wave nor-
ducted traveling wave on a line, but also for mally causes the highest stresses (“worst
the field quantities of a free electromagnetic case”).
TEM wave, see Section 2.1.4.4.

Example: Field quantities in a strip line 2.6.2 Reflection Processes

The characteristic (line) impedance is ZL = v/i. If volt-
2.6.2.1 Basics
age and current are expressed by the field quantities E
and H, then because of the approximately uniform wave
field between the electrodes, the characteristic imped- Voltage and current at the end of a transmis-
ance is sion line are determined by the termination,
which can be a single circuit element, a net-
v ³ E ds E·a work or another line.
ZL = = = .
i ³ H ds H·b
If the ratios of voltage and current on the line
The comparison with the equations in Figure 2.6-5 and at the termination do not coincide, a
shows that the ratio of the field quantities E and H gives reflection occurs, i.e. a wave traveling back,
the intrinsic impedance Z: Figure 2.6-6.
130 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

Because of Kirchhoff’s current and voltage ii ir it

laws, the superpositions of voltages and cur-
rents of the incident and the reflected waves
(indices “i” and “r”) give the voltage and the
vi
current at the termination. If the termination is Z1 Z2
vt
another line, a transmitted or refracted travel- vr
ing wave (index “t”) propagates within it:
vi + vr = vt (2.6-14)
ii + ir= it (2.6-15) vr
vt
vi z
This idea can also be applied to a lumped ter-
mination, which absorbs the “transmitted”
wave.
In the case of an open circuit (Z2 >> Z1), there ir
can be no resulting current at the reflection ii it
point, i.e. the currents of the transmitted and z
reflected waves are it = 0 and ir = - ii. Accord-
ing to the Eqs. (2.6-8) to (-10), the traveling
Figure 2.6-6: Reflection and transmission (refraction)
current waves are accompanied by traveling of an incident traveling wave at a discontinuity of
voltage waves, which satisfy the condition vr = the characteristic line impedance.
+ vi and vt = 2vi. Therefore, the voltage is dou-
bled by the reflection, Figure 2.6-7 (left), and (-15). By inserting vi = iiZ1, vr = -irZ1 and vt =
significant overvoltages can occur in the insu- itZ2, Eq. (2.6-14) gives
lating systems.
iiZ1 - irZ1 = itZ2
In the case of a short circuit (Z2 << Z1), there and
can be no resulting voltage at the reflection ii - ir = itZ2/Z1 .
point, i.e. the voltages of the transmitted and
the reflected waves are vt = 0 and vr = - vi . The With Eq. (2.6-15) we derive
traveling voltage waves are accompanied by
traveling current waves with ir = + ii and it = 2·ii = it(1 + Z2/Z1) .
2ii . Therefore, the current is doubled by the Then, the transmission (refraction) coefficient
reflection, Figure 2.6-7 (middle). for the current is
If the line is terminated by an ohmic resistance it 2 ˜ Z1
Ui . (2.6-16)
Z2, which is equal to the characteristic imped- ii Z1  Z 2
ance ZL of the line, voltages and currents are
not changed when a traveling wave transits With vt = itZ2 and vi = iiZ1 the transmission
from the line to the terminating resistance. The (refraction) coefficient for the voltage is given
energy of the incident traveling wave is ab- by
sorbed by the terminating resistance without
any reflection. This case is called “impedance vt 2 ˜ Z2
Uv . (2.6-17)
matching”, Figure 2.6-7 (right). vi Z1  Z 2

In the general case, the reflection coefficients From these equations, the reflection coeffi-
and the transmission (refraction) coefficients cients for current and voltage are determined
have to be determined from Eq. (2.6-14) and by insertion of Eq. (2.6-14) and (-15):
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 131

ir Z1  Z 2 Z1 Z2 Z1
ri (2.6-18a)
ii Z1  Z 2

vr Z 2  Z1 vt vt
rv (2.6-18b)
vi Z1  Z 2
2 vi 2 vi
The relationship of transmission (refraction)
and reflection coefficient is in general
Figure 2.6-8: Transmission-line circuit with ohmic
Rv,i = Uu,i - 1 . (2.6-19) termination (left) and with a general R,L,C termi-
nation (right). The incident traveling and the line
Figure 2.6-7 presents the coefficients accord- is described by the voltage source and the internal
ing to the Equations (2.6-16) to (-19) for some impedance.
special cases.
the characteristic impedance Z1 and the termi-
nation impedance Z2. The same circuit is de-
2.6.2.2 Equivalent transmission-line circuit rived, if line 1 is considered as a source with
the open-circuit voltage 2·vi and the short-cir-
According to Eq. (2.6-17), the voltage at a
junction between two lines or at a line with cuit current 2·ii. This can be described by an
termination resistance Z2 is given by equivalent source with the source voltage 2·vi
and the internal impedance Zi = (2·vi)/(2·ii) =
vt = 2·vi·Z2/(Z1 + Z2) . Z1.
Obviously, the voltage vt can be described by The significance of the transmission-line cir-
an equivalent circuit, the so-called transmis- cuit is the ability to handle any kind of line ter-
sion-line circuit, Figure 2.6-8. This means minations consisting of R, L, C-circuits [2]: By
that the source voltage 2·vi is divided down- means of the time-dependent voltage vi(t,z1) at
wards to vt by a voltage divider consisting of the line discontinuity z = z1, the time-depend-

Open circuit Short circuit Impedance matching

vr vt
vi vi vi vt
vt = 0
z vr z vr = 0 z
Z 1 Z 2 >> Z 1 Z 1 Z 2 << Z 1 Z1 Z2 = Z1
ii ii ir it ii ir = 0 it
it = 0

ir z z z
Reflection Transmission Reflection Transmission Reflection Transmission

rv = +1 Uv = +2 rv = - 1 Uv = 0 rv = 0 Uv = +1
ri = - 1 Ui = 0 ri = +1 Ui = +2 ri = 0 Ui = +1

Figure 2.6-7: Reflection and transmission (refraction) of an icident traveling wave at a discontinuity of the
characteristic line impedance for the special cases of open circuit, short circuit and matching impedance.
132 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

ence of vt(t,z1) is calculated. Then, the time- With respect to the transmission-line circuit, the voltage
vt increases exponentially from 0 to 2·V with the time
dependence of vr(t,z1) is calculated from Eq.
constant ZC. According to Eq. (2.6-20), the voltage
(2.6-14) as the difference of vt(t,z1) and vi(t,z1):
- t/(ZC)
vr(t) = V·{2·[1 - e ] - 1}
vr(t,z1) = vt(t,z1) - vi(t,z1) (2.6-20)
increases from -V to +V. This means that the capacitive
The transmission-line circuit describes a single termination looks like a short circuit at first, i.e. while
reflection only; it is no longer valid for multi- the capacitance is uncharged, and when the capacitance
has been charged it looks like an open circuit. The re-
ple reflections. flected traveling wave is superimposed on the incident
wave in such a way that the voltage in the wave front is
Example: Reflection at a capacitance compensated to zero at first and subsequently increases
A steep-fronted traveling wave with a step voltage am- exponentially to 2·V, Figure 2.6-9 (left).
plitude V on a line with the characteristic impedance Z
is reflected at a capacitance C, Figure 2.6-9. Example: Reflection at an inductance
A steep-fronted wave with the step voltage amplitude V
on a line with the characteristic impedance Z is reflected
at an inductance L, Figure 2.6-10.
With respect to the transmission-line circuit, the voltage
v t (t) vt decreases exponentially from 2·V to 0 with the time
Z
C constant L/Z. According to Eq. (2.6-20), the voltage
v ( z,t )
- t/(L/Z)
vr(t) = V·{2·e - 1}
2·V
v t (t)
v r (z) v i (t) decreases from +V to -V. This means that the inductive
V termination looks like an open-circuit at first, i.e. as
long as there is no significant current through the in-
v i (z) ductance. If the current is increased the inductance
looks like a short circuit. The reflected traveling wave is
0 0 superimposed on the incident wave in such a way that
z t
v r (t) the voltage in the wave front increases to 2·V at first and
-V subsequently decreases to zero, Figure 2.6-10 (left).

Figure 2.6-9: Reflection of a steep-fronted traveling

wave at a capcitance.
2.6.2.3 Multiple Reflections

In systems with distributed parameters, nor-

mally there are not only single but also multi-
v t (t) ple reflections. This means that a reflected
Z
L traveling wave can be reflected again and
v ( z,t ) again at other discontinuities of the line and
are superimposed on the original wave. Even
2·V
v t (t) with a few reflection points there are very
v r (z)
V v i (t) complicated conditions for the spatiotemporal
development of the resulting wave field.
v i (z) Therefore, it is advisable to systematically
0 0
z t visualize the propagation of the traveling
v r (t) waves by means of a “traveling-wave road
-V map” (Bewley lattice diagram [39]). The
propagation of the individual waves is de-
Figure 2.6-10: Reflection of a steep-fronted traveling picted by so-called z,t propagation lines for
wave at an inductance. every considered transmission line, Fig 2.6-11.
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 133

Wave components, which are fed in and which fraction) coefficient Ujk. In the case of a re-
are reflected at the terminations, are depicted flection on line j at the junction to line k, the
by their individual propagation lines. The instantaneous value is multiplied by the re-
magnitudes of the waves to be superimposed flection coefficient rjk.
are calculated from the reflection and trans-
mission coefficients. Example: Transmission line between two cables

The instantaneous value of the incident wave In Figure 2.6-11 numerical values are given for two
cables 1 and 3 with Z1 = Z3 = 40 : and for an overhead
is regarded as the incoming supply. A clear de-
transmission line 2 between them with Z2 = 360 :. The
scription requires a discretization of the inci-
incident traveling wave with the amplitude V at t = W
dent wave, i.e. only selected wave points are
was discretized in such a way that the propagation of
considered. Their propagation is traced by four wave points with the magnitudes vi(t=0) = 0,
their individual propagation lines. In the case vi(t=W) = V, vi(t=2W) = 0.5·V and vi(t=3W) = 0 is traced
of a transition through a line discontinuity by propagation lines.
between line j and line k, the instantaneous
value is multiplied by the transmission (re- The voltage magnitudes at the two discontinuities z = za

V
v (z)

Incident traveling wave za zb z

Z1 Z 2 W Z3

r 12 = 0.8 U12 = 1.8 r 23 = -0.8 U23 = 0,2

U21 = 0.2 r 21 = -0.8

 
0·V ·1.8 = 0 z
0 v (t)
V
W 1·V ·1.8 W 0
0
1·V ·0.8
0.5· V 1·V ·1.8·0.2
W 0.5· V ·1.8 + 0 W
1· V·1.8·(-0.8)
0.5· V ·0.8
0.5· V ·1.8·0.2
W 1·V ·1.8·(-0.8)·(-0.8) W
0.5· V ·1.8·(-0.8)
1·V ·1.8·(-0.8)·0.2
..........
W 0.5· V ·1.8·(-0.8)·(-0.8) W

0.5· V ·1.8·(-0.8)·0.2 t 1· V ·1.8·(-0.8)·(-0.8)·(-0.8) t

Figure 2.6-11: Description of the propagation, reflection and transmission (refraction) of traveling waves by
means of a traveling-wave road map (Bewley lattice diagram) for an example.
134 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

pedance (cable, GIS), the overvoltage is reduced by

2.0
v reflections.
V
1.5 The Bergeron method is another graphical
method for the description of multiple reflec-
1.0 tions [39]: The voltages at the beginning (a)
v a (t) and at the end (b) of a transmission line are
v i (t) described by resistance lines in a v,i-diagram,
0.5
v b (t) Figure 2.6-13. The gradients are determined by
the termination resistances R1 and R2.
0.0
Furthermore, it can be shown by addition and
-0.5 subtraction of Eqs. (2.6-7) and (-9) that the
 W W W W W W W propagation in the +z and –z-direction is
t equivalent to lines with different gradients. For
Figure 2.6-12: Voltage curves at the beginning (a) and a given wave point with a constant argument,
at the end (b) of an overehead transmission line, de- we find for the propagation
termined with Bewley's lattice diagram, fig. 2.6-11.
in +z-direction 2·f(z-ut) = v + i·Z = const.
and z = zb are given by transmission (refraction), reflec- and
tion and superposition. They are determined by super-
position of all back and forth traveling waves on one
in –z-direction 2·g(z+ut) = v - i·Z = const..
side of the discontinuity for the considered instant, Fig- (2.6-21)
ure 2.6-12:
The propagation of the traveling wave from
T=0 v(za) = 0 Vv(zb) = 0V one end of the line to the other is equivalent to
W 1.800 V 0V
W 0.900 V 0.360 V
3W - 0.288 V 0.180 V
4W - 0.144 V 0.230 V R1
Z, W
5W - 0.184 V 0.185 V
6W - 0.092 V 0.147 V V va vb R2
7W - 0.118 V 0.074 V
v
Resistance line
At the beginning of the line 2 (z = za), the voltage va(t) R2 for the voltage v
follows the voltage vi(t) of the incident traveling wave. b
Only after twice the propagation time for t > 2W, there t= W
are deviations because of reflections coming from the -Z
other end of line 2. V
t = 
W
t =  W
t = 
At the end of line 2 (z = zb), the traveling wave does not R1
arrive before the single propagation time t = W, and the W
t = 
Resistance line
voltage vb(t) follows the incident wave vi(t-W) with a for the voltage v
time-shift W for two further propagation times. a

Note: This example shows that a traveling wave propa-

+Z
gating from a cable to an overhead transmission line can
cause significant overvoltages by reflections. This also
applies to fast transients in gas-insulated switchgear
(GIS) at the bushings, which are connected to the over- t = W i
head lines. For a transition from a high characteristic
impedance (overhead line) to a low characteristic im- Figure 2.6-13: Description of the traveling wave
propagation with Bergeron's method.
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 135

the transition from one resistance line to the 2.6.3 Examples

other along the lines according to Eq. (2.6-21),
i.e. along the “Bergeron lines” (thin lines in Traveling-wave phenomena play a role in
Figure 2.6-13). The gradient of the Bergeron many high voltage applications. In the fol-
line is dv/di = Z or dv/di = -Z. It is advisable to lowing, three examples are discussed, the dis-
choose the scales for v and i in such a way that connector circuits in gas-insulated switchgear
the Bergeron lines lie at an angle of 45° to the (Section 2.6.3.1), the protection zone of a
axes and are thus mutually perpendicular. We lightning arrester (Section 2.6.3.2) and impulse
start at a time instant t = -W at the line end (b) generation by traveling-wave generators (Sec-
with the voltage vb = 0 and we reach the start tion 2.6.3.3).
of the line (a) at the time instant t = 0 with the
starting voltage va, which is caused by the 2.6.3.1 Gas-Insulated Switchgear
voltage step V. The voltages for multiples of (“Fast Transients”)
the propagation time W are found on the re-
spective resistance line. If a disconnector between a de-energized
overhead line and an energized busbar in a
Graphical methods are often unsuitable for gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) is closed,
solving complex traveling-wave problems. In there is a breakdown of the remaining clear-
particular, problems with damped lines, non- ance between the approaching contacts shortly
ohmic terminations, frequency dependences before the contacts touch each other, Figure
and non-linearities can only be solved with 2.6-14. Then, a very fast rising traveling wave
network-analysis programs. Thereby, a num- is propagating on the coaxial line of the
ber of electrically short equivalent line-ele- switchgear bay (1), and it is reflected at the
ments can approximate long lines according to bushing capacitance (4). These waves are the
Figure 2.6-2. Another possibility is so-called fast transients, already mentioned in
approximation with controlled voltage sources Section 2.2.5. They can propagate in the co-
with delayed voltages [40]. axial lines of a GIS with very low damping.

Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) Overhead line

with single-phase housing

Busbar Gas-air
bushing
Disconnector (2)

Z1 Z2

(1) (4)
(3)
Parasitic line Z3

Figure 2.6-14: Generation of a traveling wave 1 by connection of a de-energized overhead line to an energized
busbar. Wave 1 is reflected at the gas-air bushing (wave 4) and transmitted or refracted resp. (waves 2 and 3).
The transmitted (refracted) waves propagate along the overhead line (wave 2) and along the parasitic line
between GIS housing and conducting grounded structures of the building (wave 3).
136 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

The transmitted (refracted) wave is split into transients is not the only process. After the
two waves that propagate along the overhead equalization of the potential on both sides of
line and along a parasitic line between the the disconnector, there is no longer any current
enclosure of the GIS and the conducting parts and the discharge expires. Because of the sinu-
of the GIS building (waves 2 and 3). soidal voltage on the busbar, a voltage differ-
ence is re-established and the insulating gap
The amplitudes of the different traveling between the still moving contacts breaks down
waves are determined by the characteristic again. Furthermore, a higher number of re-
(line) impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3. Furthermore, ignitions occur until the contacts are fully
the capacitance C of the bushing has to be closed. Very steep voltage and current gradi-
considered in the first moment, because it must ents are generated thereby.
first be charged from the incident wave. See
Figure 2.6-9. Similar processes occur if the disconnector is
opened. With increasing distance of the con-
According to the equivalent transmission-line tacts, the breakdown voltage increases and
circuit Figure 2.6-8, the voltage amplitude of results in increasing amplitudes of the travel-
the incident wave can be determined by two ing voltage waves. The voltage enhancements
factors, i.e. by the voltage difference between caused by re-ignitions are superimposed onto
the energized and de-energized lines at the voltage enhancements caused by slow switch-
instant of the clearance breakdown between ing-transients.
the approaching contacts and by the charac-
teristic (line) impedances of the adjacent lines Note: In large-scale gas-insulated switchgear,
on both sides of the disconnector. Because of reflection processes occur which are difficult
the reflection at the relatively high character- to understand and yet still depend on the
istic impedance of the overhead line (Z2), a switching state of the substation. Insulation
significant voltage enhancement can occur, stresses caused by fast transients are often de-
which stresses the insulation of the bushing, termined by measurements and by complex
the switchgear and the overhead line. numerical simulations. For example, the direct
connection of transformers to a gas-insulated
The traveling wave (3) occurring between the switchgear requires a very careful analysis of
GIS enclosure and other conducting structures the transients: Because of the high characteris-
is especially critical. Because of the low char- tic impedances of transformer windings, high
acteristic (line) impedance Z3, the voltage am- voltage enhancements caused by reflections
plitude is low. Nevertheless, this wave can can be expected. Additionally, particularly in
cause significant damage in insufficiently bigger installations, voltage enhancements can
protected secondary equipment (measurement be caused by resonances and slower transients.
systems, control equipment etc.) [41]. For in-
stance, a momentary rise of the enclosure po- Note: Fast transients can cause stresses in in-
tential above ground potential can cause back sulation regions, which are without any stress
flashovers into low-voltage circuits, e.g. into in a static or quasi-static case. An example is
information technology circuits. Generally, given by a bushing core, Figure 2.6-15. At
rapidly changing electric and magnetic fields first, the incident wave is split up in relation to
leaving the GIS can cause strong interference the characteristic impedances of the coaxial
with neighboring circuits and systems. There- lines, which are formed by the concentric
fore, ensuring electromagnetic compatibility grading layers. Therefore, waves can also
(EMC) is of particular value in system design propagate in parasitic lines between the
in order to avoid malfunction and damage. grounded flange and the outermost grading-
Note: During the closing of the disconnector, foil and between the high-voltage conductor
the described breakdown with the subsequent and the innermost grading-foil.
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 137

2.6.3.2 Protection Zone

of a Lightning Arrester v
V res = V pl
Vr
Lightning arresters are non-linear components Rated voltage
(resistors), which limit overvoltages and which Vm
carry a very small leakage current only at op- Lightning
erating voltage. Principles and designs are dis- Leakage current current
cussed in Section 6.1.4.3. (μA ... mA) (kA)
i
For a metal-oxide arrester, the current in-
Figure 2.6-16: Ideal v,i-characteristic of a metal-
creases very strongly if the voltage exceeds the oxide lightning arrester.
rated voltage Vr, Figure 2.6-16. During a light-
ning impulse stress, the voltage-current char- after the arrester, Figure 2.6-17 (bottom). The
acteristic of the arrester and the lightning cur- resulting voltage distribution is depicted for
rent (which can be calculated in an equivalent two different time points by bold lines.
transmission-line circuit according to Figure
2.6-8) determine the value of the so-called The voltage drop 'v at the arrester causes two
residual voltage Vres, which defines the light- traveling waves with amplitudes -'v, which
are propagating in the opposite +z and –z di-
ning impulse protection level Vpl.
rections. In the propagation direction of the
Note: For a lightning arrester consisting of a non-linear incident wave (+z direction), the voltage is
resistor in series with a spark gap, the protection level is limited to the protection level Vpl throughout
defined by the spark-over voltage of the gap.
the line. Furthermore, in front of the arrester
An arrester in the course of an overhead there is a so-called protection zone Lp, where
transmission line is now discussed, its location a given maximum voltage Vmax is not ex-
is point 1, Figure 2.6-17 (top). As long as the ceeded. It can be seen from the two time points
amplitude of the incident traveling wave is depicted in Figure 2.6-17 that the voltage limit
below the protection level Vpl, it is assumed Vmax at point 2 is valid for any time point. This
for simplicity that the arrester remains highly means that the increasing voltage of the inci-
resistive and that there are no reflections, Fig- dent wave is always compensated by the in-
ure 2.6-17 (middle). If the amplitude of the creasing voltage of the reflected wave within
traveling voltage wave exceeds the protection the protection zone Lp.
level, the arrester becomes low-resistive; there
are reflected and transmitted wave components The incident voltage wave (highlighted in
that reduce the voltage amplitudes before and grey) is drawn for a time point at which the

Gas-insulated switchgear Transformer side

Grounded enclosure

v1 **
**

v ( z,t ) v 2
v3 *
High-voltage conductor

Figure 2.6-15: Transient field stresses in a bushing core above and beneath the grading layers at ground and high-
voltage potential, i.e. in regions, which are without any field stress in a static or quasi-static case, (*) and (**).
138 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

permitted voltage Vmax is reached at point 2. ·550 kV = 440 kV). The phase velocity is v =
After that time point, the reflected wave limits 300 m/μs. According to Eq. (2.6-22) the rele-
the voltage magnitude to Vmax. The length of vant protection zone is Lp = 87 m.
the protection zone Lp shall be derived from Note: For the protection zone of a lightning arrester also
Figure 2.6-17. The (spatial) gradient of the
wave front is Lp/ m | Vm/ kV (2.6-23)
-1 is given as a rough guide in [22]. Vm is the maximum
'v/Lp = wv/wz = wv/wt)·wz/wt)
voltage for equipment (Section 6.1.4). More accurate
-1 calculation methods, which consider statistical error
= wv/wt)·u . rates and acceptable error probabilities, normally give
shorter protection zones [124].
With 2·'v = Vmax – Vpl the protection zone is
Note: The calculation of a protection zone according to
Lp = ½·(Vmax – Vpl)·u / wv/wt). (2.6-22) Eq. (2.6-22) is also valid for arrangements with an
open-circuit or a high impedance at the end of the line
Numerical example: A lightning arrester with (e.g. a transformer winding) [39]. The distance between
Vpl = 150 kV shall limit a traveling wave rising arrester and line end or termination must not exceed Lp.
on a three-phase line with a front gradient The lightning arrester can be at the end of the line.
wv/wt = 500 kV/μs, so that, within the protec-
tion zone Lp, only 80 % of the lightning im-
2.6.3.3 Traveling-Wave Generators
pulse voltage for the 123 kV voltage level (Transmission-Line Generators)
shall be reached (this means that Vmax = 0.8
According to the principle of a so-called cable
generator, the capacitively stored energy on a
Tranmission line Arrester charged transmission line is converted by dis-
z charging into a very fast rising impulse in a
1 matching impedance, Figure 2.6-18.
Incident After the breakdown of the switching spark
voltage gap, a traveling wave with a voltage amplitude
wave
V/2 is propagated on the output line and is
Protection level absorbed in a load impedance R = Z, which is
Vpl matched with the characteristic impedance of
the line. On the charged line (charging voltage
2 1 z
V), a traveling wave with the voltage ampli-
Lp Protection zone
tude -V/2 is traveling in the –z direction. After
the reflection at the open-circuit line end, the
reflected wave propagates with –V/2 in +z
direction and discharges the line completely. A
'v square-wave pulse is thereby generated in the
'v load with a voltage V/2 and a half-value width
Vmax Vpl tH = 2·WL, which corresponds to twice the
'v propagation time on the charged line.
Note: In practice, the (parasitic) inductance of the
switching spark gap reduces the output voltage gradient
wv/wt. Furthermore, mismatches and line damping cause
Figure 2.6-17: Protection zone of a lightning arrester impulse distortions.
with interference (i.e. compensation) of oppositely
traveling voltage waves after the ignition of the Another principle is the discharging of two
lightning arrester (bottom). parallel lines in the so-called Blumlein gen-
2.6 Rapidly Changing Fields and Traveling Waves 139

erator, Figure 2.6-19. Both lines with the plitude -3V/2 is divided in the ratio of the
characteristic impedance Z are connected to characteristic impedances onto the output line
their high-voltage conductors. The load R = 2Z to the load (-V) and onto the lower pulse-
is connected to the two grounded conductors forming line (-V/2).. The counting direction for
via an output line with the characteristic the associated voltages is shown by reference
impedance 2Z. arrows in the figure. At the load R = 2Z, which
is matched with the output line, there is a volt-
After the charging of the lines to the voltage V, age step vR(t) = V after the wave-front arrives.
the load is without any voltage, Figure 2.6-19
(top). After the ignition of the switching spark The backwards traveling waves on the lines
gap, the upper line is discharged by a traveling are reflected at the short-circuited spark gap
wave with the amplitude –V, see no. 1 in Fig- (SC) on the upper line and at the open-circuit
ure 2.6-19 (middle). At the output end of the (OC) on the lower line, with and without po-
line, the characteristic impedance changes larity reversal, see no. 3. The reflected waves,
from Z to 2Z+Z = 3Z. The reflection and which are transmitted into the output line, have
transmission coefficients according to Eq. the same polarity and (analogously to refrac-
(2.6-19) and (-17) are rv = 1/2 and Uv = 3/2. tion no. 2) the amplitude V/2 both, see no. 4.
This means that the reflected wave travels Therefore, the field of the first wave, which
backwards with the amplitude –V/2, see no. 2. was transmitted to the load, is completely
The transmitted (refracted) wave with the am- compensated with a delay of 2·WL. The voltage

Charging device Charging device

Pulse-forming lines
Switching Switching spark gap Load
Load
Pulse forming line spark gap Z
+V
2Z
E Z Z
E Z
WL R=Z R = 2Z
WL
-V /2
3 4
V +V /2
V /2 SC -V /2
-V -V
z 1 2
Absorption
of the wave 3
in the load -V /2
OC vR(t)
-V /2
4
z vR(t)
SC: short-circuit
OC: open-circuit V
v R(t)
V /2
Time characteristic Time characteristic
of the voltage at of the voltage at
the load resistance 2W L t the load resistance 2W L t
R=Z R = 2Z
Figure 2.6-18: Generation of square-wave pulses by Figure 2.6-19: Generation of square-wave pulses by
discharging of a pulse-forming line (traveling- discharging of parallel pulse-forming lines (Blum-
wave generator). lein generator).
140 2 ELECTRIC STRESSES

high amounts of energy can be stored for short

Capacitive storage
times. Furthermore, the phase velocity is re-
device
Traveling-wave generator duced to u = u0/9 = 3 cm/ns and the length of a
Particle-beam diode line can be reduced by a factor of 9 in com-
as a load parison with air, see Eq. (2.6-8). Because of
the comparatively high conductivity of water,
the energy can only be stored for a short time
"Target"
in a range of microseconds (μs). Therefore, it
approx. 50 ns is necessary to charge the water-insulated line
approx. 1 μs very rapidly from a conventional capacitor
typical bank with approximately the same capacitance
Minutes storage times
(see impulse generators, Section 6.2.3). The
Figure 2.6-20: Module of a pulsed-power generator capacitor bank can store the energy for longer
with spatial and temporal compression of the times, and rapid charge transfer is performed
stored energy (schematic). by oscillation. At the voltage maximum, the
switching spark gap is ignited before signifi-
at the load decreases from V to zero. Further cant self-discharging of the water-insulated
waves, which travel backwards into the line, capacitance can occur, Figure 2.6-20. The syn-
compensate each other. chronous triggering of the switching spark
An important application of transmission-line gaps for the parallel operation of a number of
generators is the generation of square-wave modules places extreme demands on the trig-
impulses for step-response measurements on gering devices.
measuring systems. Cable generators are
mainly used for this purpose. Example: Water-insulated impulse generator
A water-insulated traveling-wave generator according to
Another application is the pulsed power tech- Figure 2.6-18 shall be designed with coaxial lines for
nology for the spatial and temporal compres- the generation of impulses with energies as high as
sion of electromagnetic energy in an extremely possible. The peak-value of the voltage shall be Û
V = 500
powerful impulse [42]. For the generation of kV and the half-value width tH = 50 ns. The maximum
extreme energy densities, a number of genera- permissible field strength in water is Êmax = 100
tors are circularly arranged around the target kV/cm.
as modules that are triggered simultaneously According to Eq. (2.3-24) the maximum field energy of
[14]. The traveling-wave generator arrange- 0.5
a coaxial line is given for R2/R1 = e = 1.65. With the
ment can be a driver circuit for the accelera- charging voltage V = 2Û V = 1 MV the radii R1 = 20 cm
tion of particles in basic research applications and R2 = 33 cm are calculated from Eq. (2.3-22). The
in physics, Figure 2.6-20. For example, matter length of the line is determined by the propagation time
could be brought into extreme conditions in 0.5
WL = tH/2 = 25 ns with L = WL·v0/Hr = 83 cm.
order to ignite nuclear fusion reactions.
From the Equations in Figure 2.6-5, the capacitance C =
The principles of the cable generator or the 7.5 nF and the characteristic impedance Z = 3.3 : is de-
Blumlein generator are chosen depending on rived. The current amplitude of the output impulse is Î =
voltage and load impedance. The generators V /Z = 150 kA and the power is P = 75 GW.
Û
are designed as coaxial lines or as parallel- 2
The capacitively stored energy W = ½ C·V = 3,75 kJ is
plate lines [15]. Voltage enhancements can be ideally completely transferred into impulse energy W =
achieved by multiple reflections at additional V ·Î·tH = 3,75 kJ. In practice, losses must of course be
Û
switching spark gaps, i.e. by so-called double- considered.
bounce switching [43]. Water is used as an
insulating medium because of its very high Other impulse circuits and many applications
relative permittivity Hr = 81 and because of its of high-voltage impulse-technologies are de-
high dielectric breakdown strength. Thereby scribed in Section 7.3.2 and 7.4.2 [482].
 for discharges, of breakdown voltages and of
3 ELECTRIC discharge times can be observed, Figure 3.1-1.
STRENGTH Therefore, it seems natural to describe these
quantities as random variables and to deter-
mine the characteristics of discharges by sta-
tistical methods. In the following, basic prin-
It is a basic task of high voltage engineering to ciples of statistical methods are described.
keep the electric stresses lower than the elec- Comprehensive discussions can be found in
tric strengths of the materials under all possi- the literature [44].
ble circumstances. Unfortunately, the electric
strength is a quantity that is subject to signifi-
cant statistical variations, Figure 3.1-1. In the 3.1.1 Statistical Descriptions of
following, an introduction to statistics is given Discharge Processes
at first (Section 3.1). If the electric strength is
insufficient, the insulation fails and discharges 3.1.1.1 Random Variables
occur. They depend on the type of insulating
material. Discharges in gases (Section 3.2) For example, the breakdown voltage of a spark
differ significantly from discharges in other gap is determined by an applied AC voltage
dielectrics (Section 3.3). Special attention is that is increased until the breakdown occurs. If
paid to liquids (Section 3.4), solids (Section the test is repeated several times, it can be
3.5) and vacuum (Section 3.7). Discharges that noted that an “exact breakdown voltage” does
do not lead directly to breakdown are known not exist, and the breakdowns occur at differ-
as partial discharges (Section 3.6). They are ent voltages, Figure 3.1-1a.
especially important for diagnostic measure-
ments and for ageing processes. Note: Voltage rise tests can also be performed with DC
voltage. In the case of impulse voltages, the continu-
ously increasing voltage must be replaced by consecu-
tive impulses with stepwise increasing peak values.
3.1 Introduction to Statistics
By means of a very high (infinite) number of
The failure of the electric strength, i.e. electric V bd50 with a breakdown prob-
tests, the voltage Û
discharges, can no longer be described deter- ability of 50 % could be determined, as well as
ministically because of a high number of dif- a certain withstand voltage (breakdown prob-
ferent physical parameters. Furthermore, a ability 0 %) and a certain breakdown voltage
high statistical variance of inception voltages (breakdown probability 100 %).

V
Û V
Û v (t) lg (V/ V0 )
Û
Vbd50

Lifetime characteristic
Impulse voltage-time
t n characteristic t lg( t/ t 0 )

a) b) c) d)
Voltage rise tests Up-and-down method Impulse voltage test, Constant-voltage test,
Breakdown breakdown time time to breakdown
No breakdown (Gas-insulated gap) (Solid insulation)

Figure 3.1-1: Examples for the stochastic character of discharge processes.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_3
142 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

In practice, the number of tests is always lim- described by capital letters X and their definite
ited. The characteristic values of a discharge values obtained by random sampling are given
have to be estimated from a limited number of by small letters x.
measured values. The accuracy of the estimate
is increased with the number of equivalent Note: Often, these strict distinctions are not
tests. considered in practice: For example, it is often
said that a “determination” of a 50 % break-
Example: Up-and-down method down voltage Vbd50 is performed, but in reality
The up-and-down method is a procedure by which to only an estimate vbd50 is calculated. It is not
estimate the 50 % breakdown voltage, Figure 3.1-1b. It possible to determine parameters of the (al-
can be applied for the estimation of the impulse strength
ways unknown) basic population, but we can
of gas-insulated spark gaps.
only determine empirical parameters, which
The test is started with a voltage where no breakdown is are used as estimates of the population para-
expected, and the voltage is increased in steps of 'v. As meters.
soon as a breakdown occurs, the voltage is decreased by
'v. For the consecutive steps, the voltage is increased if Note: Here, capital and lower case letters do not de-
a breakdown does not occur, and it is decreased if the scribe magnitudes and time-varying functions as usual,
breakdown happens. Thereby, the voltages swing step- but they represent random variables and their definite
wise up and down around the 50 % breakdown voltage values obtained by random sampling.
V bd50. It can be estimated as the arithmetic mean value
Û
of a predefined number of voltage-values. The counting
starts with the first breakdown. The exact statistical
analysis is described in the literature [44].
3.1.1.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions

During a statistical analysis it is assumed that a The procedure of a statistical analysis shall be
random sample is taken from an (unknown) explained for the example of a breakdown test
basic population. In the case of breakdown with the voltage rise test according to Figure
tests on a given insulation arrangement, a lim- 3.1-1a, Figure 3.1-2.
ited number of breakdowns is taken at random
Ten breakdown voltages are a random sample
from the theoretically infinite number of all
taken from a fictitious basic population. Ar-
possible breakdown tests on such an arrange-
ranged in the order of the tests, they are a mas-
ment, Figure 3.1-2.
ter database (master list), which must not
A statistical analysis has to estimate the dis- have any trend, i.e. any systematical depend-
tribution of the infinite basic population as ence of the values. They must be stochastically
accurately as possible, based on as low a finite independent, which can be tested graphically
number of tests as possible (i.e. on a sample or by special mathematical test algorithms
size as small as possible). [44], [396].

The infinite basic population is a theoretical The distribution list with sorted values is
fiction and will remain unknown forever; plotted as a cumulative frequency polygon or
every statistical statement is therefore an esti- a cumulative frequency curve (empirical dis-
mate. Nevertheless, it becomes better and bet- tribution function) h(x) with x = vbd, Figure
ter as the number of tests is increased. 3.1-2. For the example of ten test values, every
single value represents a rate of occurrence of
Instead of the breakdown voltage, other quan- 'h = 10 %.
tities can also be considered as random vari-
ables. Examples are breakdown field strength, The empirical distribution function is only an
partial discharge inception voltage, inception imperfect estimate for the cumulative distribu-
field strength or time to breakdown, Figure tion function of the total population. A safe
3.1-1c and d. Generally, a random variable is insulation design requires statements about
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 143

very low breakdown probabilities (e.g. 1 % function gives the best approximation of the
breakdown voltage), which cannot be deter- measured values (statistical distribution test)
mined directly if the number of breakdown [44], [396].
values is small.
After the selection of the distribution type, the
For this purpose, a mathematical or theoretical mathematical distribution curve has to be de-
distribution function F(x) is sought, which scribed numerically by parameters, which are
approximates the empirical distribution func- estimated from the measured values. These
tion h(x) as well as possible, and which can be parameters are different depending on the type
extrapolated down to very low probabilities, of the distribution function, Section 3.1.2.2
Figure 3.1-2. The most important cumulative and 3.1.2.3.
distribution functions are the Gaussian normal
distribution (Section 3.1.2.2) and the Weibull This type of parameter estimation is known
(extreme value) distribution (Section 3.1.2.3). as a point estimate. It gives mean values or
variances, which can be used to describe a
Note: By analogy with the cumulative fre- Gaussian normal distribution for instance. The
quency polygon, the theoretical distribution point estimate is further explained in the fol-
function is often known as the cumulative lowing sections.
distribution function, it is the integral of the
(probability) density function, Figure 3.1-5. A mathematical distribution function is only
an estimate for the (always unknown) cumula-
Note: By means of graphical and arithmetical tive distribution function of the total popula-
tests, it can be investigated, which type of tion of all possible values. By means of an

* Unknown basic population 100 %

Random sample (master list)
h (x)
* e.g. 10 breakdown values, F (x) 90 %
confidence limit
test for statistical independence
80 %
Sorted random sample values as
*
cumulative frequency polygon 90 %
(empirical distribution function) confidence limit
60 %
* Selection of a suitable fitting function/
theoretical distribution function
(e.g. normal or Weibull distribution)
* Estimation of parameters 40 % Cumulative Cumulative
Mathematical distribution distribution function frequency polygon
* (mathematical/ theoretical (empirical
Specification of a
distribution function) distribution function)
* confidence level (e.g. 90 %) 20 %
Calculation of
* confidence intervals
(e.g. with 90 % confidence limits) 1%
0%
* Estimate of a withstand voltage x 01 x50 x
with low breakdown probability,
e.g. as 1 % breakdown voltage
v bd01 vbd50 vbd
with a 90 % confidence interval Confidence interval

Figure 3.1-2: Statistical analysis of breakdown values from a voltage rise test according to fig. 3.1-1a.
144 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

interval estimation, confidence intervals are with these (empirical) parameters, which are
determined containing the distribution function calculated from a limited number of measured
of the total population with a specified prob- values.
ability (e.g. 90 %), Figure 3.1-2. For a small
sample size, confidence intervals are broad a) Measures of mean values
and the estimate is very uncertain. With in-
For the basic population consisting of all pos-
creasing sample size, confidence intervals de-
sible values, the mean value or the (mathe-
crease and the certainty of probability state-
matical) expectation value is defined as the
ments increases. Calculation of confidence
value μ or E(X), which is expected for the ran-
intervals is described in the literature [44],
dom variable X. Formally it is given as the
[396].
(infinite) sum of all single values xi, weighted
The practical importance of the mathematical with their individual probability pi:
distribution function and the associated confi-
f
dence interval is the determination of voltages P
with very low breakdown probabilities (so-
E( X ) ¦ pi ˜ xi (3.1-1)
i 1
called withstand voltages). According to Fig-
ure 3.1-2, the estimate x01 = vbd01 for the 1 % Another measure of mean values is the me-
breakdown voltage (more generally for the dian, the central value or the 50 % quantile
1 % quantile of a probability distribution) can (the 50 % value) q50 = x50, which is the central
be determined from the mathematical distribu- value of all single values xi. Half of the values
tion curve. Furthermore, it can be said that the xi is below and half of the values xi is above
1 % breakdown voltage can be found within the median.
the 90 % confidence interval (limited by the
confidence limits) with a probability of 90 %, In reality, only an empirical distribution of a
Figure 3.1-2. limited number n of discrete measured values
xi can be determined. If all values xi exist only
Note: Unfortunately, these confidence inter-
once, i.e. if the rate of occurrence is hi = 1/n,
vals are very broad at low breakdown prob-
abilities for many dielectrics, especially for the empirical estimate of the expectation value
liquid and solid insulating materials. There- μ is the arithmetic mean value by analogy with
fore, statements about low breakdown prob- Eq. (3.1-1):
abilities are only possible with high uncer- n 1 n
tainties. In engineering design, a withstand xm x ¦ hi xi ¦ xi | P . (3.1-2)
i 1 ni 1
voltage therefore needs an additional safety
margin. The empirical central value or the empirical
median qˆ 50 xˆ 50 is either the value that is
situated in the middle of the sorted values (for
3.1.1.3 Parameter Estimation
an uneven number of measured values) or the
In the following, the point estimate of para- mean value of the two values in the middle
meters is described, which are generally valid, (for an even number of measured values). Half
i.e. which are not related to any special distri- of the measured values are below and half of
bution function (empirical parameters). the values are above the central value. The
Sometimes they can also be used in mathe- median is often used as an estimate for the
matical distribution functions, e.g. in the arithmetic mean value.
Gaussian normal distribution. We distinguish Note: In statistics, empirical quantiles are often charac-
measures of mean values and measures of sta- terized by a “^”. In order to avoid confusion with peak
tistical dispersion. The (fictitious) parameters values, which are very important in high voltage engi-
of the basic population are discussed together neering, this characterization is not used below.
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 145

Note: The 50 % breakdown voltage v̂bd50 is the empiri- pirical variation coefficient v, which are used
cal median (central value) of the random variable as estimates for the standard deviation V and
“breakdown voltage” Vˆbd . In the latter case, the mean- the variation coefficient V.
ing is again peak values!
Note: Unfortunately, v and V have to be introduced as
general statistical quantities here. Nevertheless, the
b) Measures of statistical dispersion
characters v and V are mostly used for voltages in this
The statistical dispersion of the basic popula- book. Please consider the relevant context.
2
tion is described by the variance V , which is 2
Note: The empirical variance s and the empirical stan-
the mean-square deviation of the random vari- dard deviation s (r.m.s.d.) are not calculated with the
able X (i.e. of all individual values xi) from the relative rate of occurrence 1/n (as could be expected
2
2 from Eq. 3.1-3 for the variance V and the standard
expectation value μ. Formally, V is given as
deviation V), but with the factor 1/(n-1). This is neces-
the square of the deviation (xi - μ), weighted sary for reliability purposes, as in Eq. (3.1-4) and (-5a)
with the individual probabilities pi: only the estimate xm = x can be used instead of the
expectation value μ.
f
V2 E( X  P)2 ¦ p i ( xi  P ) 2 (3.1-3a) For a theoretical case with n = 1, the mean-square de-
i 1 viation according to Eq. (3.1-4) would always give the
2
value sn = 0 as the values xi and xm = x are identical.
The quantities Nevertheless, a higher dispersion could exist and could
be calculated with a larger random sample. Therefore,
 V V2  the weighting with 1/n is too optimistic.

and (3.1-3b) The empirical variance according to Eq. (3.1-5a) with

the weighting 1/(n-1) would give an indeterminate ex-
V(X) = V/μ pression “zero/zero” for n = 1. Form this it is clear that
it is not possible to give any statements about statistical
dispersions with a single measured value only.
are the standard deviation V and the variation
coefficient V. For small random sample sizes n, enhanced values of
2
the empirical variance s and for the empirical standard
Empirical measures of statistical dispersion deviation s result from weighting with the factor 1/(n-1).
for a finite number n of discrete measured val- For large sample sizes n, the difference between
2
ues xi are the mean-square deviation weighting with 1/(n-1) and 1/n disappears, and s or s
2
can be considered as good estimates for V or V.
1 n
s n2 ˜ ¦ ( xi  x m ) 2 (3.1-4) Note: Another empirical measure of statistical disper-
n i 1 sion is the range R:

and the empirical variance R = xmax - xmin (3.1-6)

1 n
s2 ¦ ( xi  x m ) 2 | V 2 (3.1-5a)
n 1 i 1 3.1.1.4 Example: Series of Measurements
The quantities Empirical distribution of breakdown voltages: In a
voltage rise test 19 breakdown voltages are determined
(master database, master list):
 s s2 | V
and (3.1-5b) vbdi/kV = 102; 100; 107; 98; 95; 100; 104; 99; 92; 102;
v s / xm | V
103; 99; 97; 95; 101; 104; 98; 94; 100.
are the empirical standard deviation s (root- In a distribution table, the values are sorted and the
mean-square deviation, r.m.s.d.) and the em- rates of occurrence are calculated:
146 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Voltage Rate of occurrence Cumulative frequency

The curve of the relative (breakdown) density
in kV absolute relative absolute relative h related to the class interval d = 3 kV is a
density function h/d that can be used to read
92 1 0.05 1 0.05
93 0 0 1 0.05
off estimates for the probability density, Fig-
94 1 0.05 2 0.1 ure 3.1-3b.
95 2 0.1 4 0.2
96 0 0 4 0.2 Note: The probability density can be approximated by a
97 1 0.05 5 0.25 density function, which is also known as a probability
98 2 0.1 7 0.35 density function. It is the derivative of the (cumulative)
99 2 0.1 9 0.45 distribution function, see Figure 3.1-5.
100 3 0.15 12 0.6
101 1 0.05 13 0.65
102 2 0.1 15 0.75
103 1 0.05 16 0.8 1,0
104 2 0.1 18 0.9 0,9 Relative
105 0 0 18 0.9 cumulative
106 0 0 18 0.9 0,8 frequency h6
107 1 0.05 19 0.95 Cumulative
0,7
108 0 0 19 0.95 frequency
109 0 0 19 0.95 0,6 polygon

0,5
If the distribution list is lightly populated only, it is
Central value
often advisable to sort the values into classes. In the 0,4 (median)
given example a class interval d = 3 kV is chosen (start Staircase
0,3 function
at 91.5 kV), see the horizontal lines in the distribution
list: 0,2 v bd50
0,1 v bd /kV
Class Rate of occurrence Relative
in kV absolute relative related cumulative 0,0
90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110
to d frequency
s
vbdm s
> 91.5 - 94.5 2 0.1 0.033 /kV 0.1
> 94.5 - 97.5 3 0.15 0.050 /kV 0.25 R
> 97.5 - 100.5 7 0.35 0.117 /kV 0.6 Figure 3.1-3a: Relative cumulative frequency (rate of
>100.5 - 103.5 4 0.2 0.067 /kV 0.8 occurrence) of measured values as empirical distribu-
tion function with and without division into classes.
>104.5 - 106.5 2 0.1 0.033 /kV 0.9
>106.5 - 109.5 1 0.05 0.017 /kV 0.95

Frequency Class interval d = 3 kV

The curve of the relative cumulative frequency density
d
h6 describes the empirical distribution func- 0,12
tion, Figure 3.1-3a. The arbitrarily chosen 0,1 frequency/
division into classes determines the curve of interval ratio
the staircase function, which differs somewhat 0,08 h/d /kV -1
from the cumulative frequency polygon with 0,06
the single values. Estimates for the probability 0,04
of a breakdown at different voltages can be
0,02
taken from the empirical distribution function.
At 94 kV, the breakdown probability is ap- 0,0
90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110
proximately 10 % (vbd10, 10 % quantile) for
v bd /kV
example. For voltages above 104 kV, a break-
down can be expected in more than 90 % of Figure 3.1-3b: Relative (breakdown) frequency re-
the test cases (vbd90, 90 % quantile). lated to the different classes as estimates of the
probability density (probability density function).
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 147

Numerical example: The following parameters are cal- non-linear division of the vertical ordinate is
culated from the values of the previous example, Figure made for a linear division of the horizontal
3.1-3a:
abscissa: The percentage values of the distri-
x Arithmetic mean value, Eq. (3.1-2) bution curve F(x) in the upper figure are trans-
xm = vbdm = 99.47 kV ferred to the straight line in the lower figure.
x Central value (median) (from Figure 3.1-3a)
Mathematically, this is a transformation of the
linearly divided ordinate by means of the in-
x50 = vbd50 = 100 kV -1
verse function F (x).
x Range, Eq. (3.1-6)
R = 15 kV After a series of measurements is taken, the
x Empirical standard deviation, Eq. (3.1-5a) master database is sorted and a distribution
s = 3.82 kV table is built. Then, a hypothesis about the type
x Variation coefficient, Gl. (3.1-5b) of the distribution is established and the cu-
v = 3.84 % mulative frequency distribution is drawn in the
corresponding probability paper plot. This
allows us to compare the shape of the empiri-
cal distribution function with the straight line
3.1.2 Description of Discharge of the theoretical distribution (test of the dis-
Processes by Distribution tribution type), fig, 3.1-4. In case of doubt,
Functions
100 %
For the mathematical description of an empiri-
80 %
cal distribution function, the measured values F ( x)
are approximated by a theoretical mathemati- 60 %
cal function, which best fits the measured val-
ues. Then, the mathematical function allows 40 %
statistical parameters, probabilities and confi- 30 %
dence intervals to be calculated. 20 %

Note: The mathematical distribution function 0%

is just a formal and arbitrary approximation of
measured values without direct respect to the 99 %
underlying physics. F ( x)
In the following, the Gaussian normal distri- 90 %
bution and the Weibull distribution are dis- 80 %
cussed. Many other distributions are described
in the literature [44], [396]. 60 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
3.1.2.1 Comparison of Empirical and Theo-
retical Distribution Functions 10 %

At first, the type of cumulative distribution 1% x

function must be selected for the best fit of the
measured values. A practical test procedure is
the use of a so-called “probability paper plot” Figure 3.1-4: Curve of a mathematical distribution
function (top), which is a straight line in a corre-
(probability grid) with axis-divisions that give sponding "probability paper plot" (bottom), com-
straight lines for the tested distribution type, pared with the empirical distributions of two dif-
Figure 3.1-4. The figure indicates how the ferent series of measurements.
148 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

the comparison has to be performed with dif- dence interval is the region where the point estimate
ferent probability grids corresponding to dif- (e.g. the mean value) lies with a given probability (e.g.
of 90 % or 95 %). The larger the sample size that is
ferent distribution types. chosen, the smaller the confidence interval that can be
Note: The comparison between empirical and theoretical assumed. Therefore, the higher the number of measured
distribution function can also be performed mathemati- values that is determined, the higher the accuracy of the
cally. Nevertheless, trends in the range of very low and point estimate [44], [396].
very high probabilities can often be estimated better by
the graphic method [44].
Today, the statistical analysis of measured
values can be performed automatically with
After the approximation of the empirical dis- numerical programs. Thereby, the measured
tribution curve as a straight line in a probabil- values undergo a test for stochastical inde-
ity paper plot, the characteristic values of the pendence, a determination of the distribution
corresponding distribution can be taken from type, point estimations for the parameters to be
the graph. Then, the probability for the occur- determined, and interval estimations for the
rence of an incident (e.g. breakdown at a given confidence intervals.
voltage) is normally calculated from the math-
ematical distribution function. Especially for
very low and very high probabilities (e.g. for 3.1.2.2 Gaussian Normal Distribution
calculating certain withstand and certain
breakdown voltages), significant errors can The Gaussian normal distribution describes
occur if the hypothesis deviates from the real random variables, which can be considered as
distribution. a sum of many independent and arbitrarily
distributed random variables, each of which
Note: The estimation of a distribution parameter (e.g. only contributes to the sum to a minor extent.
mean value or standard deviation) from a limited num-
ber of measured values is the so-called point estima- Therefore, the normal distribution can be ap-
tion. The point estimate lies within a statistical confi- plied to many processes in nature, science and
dence interval, which can be determined by means of an technology, e.g. to stochastic noise or statisti-
interval estimation (confidence estimation). The confi- cal measuring errors.
The normal distribution is symmetric to the
D (x ) expectation value μ, and it is of infinite width,
1
i.e. from x = - f to x = + f.
V
V—S
Note: In contrast to this, discharge processes are char-
acterized by a lower and an upper limit, i.e. by a definite
withstand voltage and a definite breakdown voltage.
PV P PV x Nevertheless, the normal distribution is used for ap-
proximation in many cases, but it will not always be
F (x ) possible to approximate a given empirical distribution
100 % by a normal distribution satisfactorily. In many cases,
84 % the Weibull distribution allows a better fit.

The probability density function

50 % ( x  P )2

1 2V 2
D ( x) e (3.1-7)
V 2ʌ
16 %
is described by the expectation value μ (ap-
PV P PV x proximated by the arithmetic mean value xm
according to Eq. (3.1-2)) and the standard de-
Figure 3.1-5: Gaussian normal distribution with pro-
bability density function D(x) and cumulative dis- viation V, which is estimated by analogy with
tribution function F(x). Eq. (3.1-5a), Figure 3.1-5:
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 149

1 n pressed by an analytical function. Therefore,

V 2 | s2 ¦ ( xi  xm )
2
(3.1-8) the probability density function D(x) is ex-
n 1 i 1
panded into a power series (Taylor’s series),
The cumulative distribution function F(x) is which can be integrated in parts [39]. Then,
given by integration of the probability density the cumulative distribution function F(x) is
function Eq. (3.1-7): given as a series expansion, which cannot be
x represented by an analytical function, but from
F ( x) ³ D( x) d x (3.1-9) which numerical values can be calculated. In
f practice, these values are taken from tables [6].
An extract is given in the following:
With the probability density function accord-
ing to Eq. (3.1-7), this integral cannot be ex-
x D(x) F(x)

1,0 x = μ - 4.0·V 0.0001/V 0.00003

Cumulative μ - 3.5·V 0.0009/V 0.00023
0,9
frequency μ - 3.0·V 0.0044/V 0.00135
0,8 h6 μ - 2.5·V 0.0175/V 0.00621
0,7 μ - 2.0·V 0.0540/V 0.0228
μ - 1.5·V 0.1295/V 0.0668
0,6
Distribution function μ - 1.0·V 0.2420/V 0.1587
0,5 of the Gaussian μ - 0.5·V 0.3521/V 0.3085
normal distribution
0,4 x = μ 0.3989/V 0.5
0,3
x = μ + 0.5·V 0.3521/V 0.6915
0,2 μ + 1.0·V 0.2420/V 0.8413
0,1 v bd /kV μ + 1.5·V 0.1295/V 0.9332
μ + 2.0·V 0.0540/V 0.9772
0,0
90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 μ + 2.5·V 0.0175/V 0.99379
μ + 3.0·V 0.0044/V 0.99865
V v bd V μ + 3.5·V 0.0009/V 0.99977
μ + 4.0·V 0.0001/V 0.99997
Figure 3.1-6: Comparison of an empirical distribution
(cumulative frequency polygon) with a theoretical By means of parameter estimation for μ and
distribution function (Gaussian normal distribution).
V, the theoretical normal distribution is fitted
to the empirical cumulative frequency poly-
Frequency d gon.
density
d = 3 kV Density function
0,12 Example: Series of measurements
of the Gaussian (continued from Section 3.1.1.4)
0,1 Specific normal distribution
frequency For the example treated in Section 3.1.1.4, the estimate
0,08 h/d /kV -1 for the expectation value is μ | xm = 99.47 kV and the
0,06 estimate for the standard deviation is V | s = 3.82 kV.
The corresponding distribution and density functions of
0,04
the Gaussian normal distribution are compared with the
0,02 empirical distribution and density functions, Figure 3.1-
6 and -7.
0,0
90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110
If there is a sufficient correspondence (as in
v bd /kV the case of the example) between hypothesis
Figure 3.1-7: Comparison of the empirical density
and measurement, i.e. between the Gaussian
function (frequency density) with a theoretical normal distribution and the cumulative fre-
density function (Gaussian normal distribution). quency polygon, it is justified to calculate
150 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

probabilities by means of the theoretical distri- With x d x0 we obtain F(x) = 0. The probabil-
bution function. ity density function D(x) is the derivative of the
distribution function F(x), Figure 3.1-8 (top).
In the case of x = μ - 3V = 87.0 kV for exam-
ple, there is only a negligible breakdown prob- Some special values of the cumulative distri-
ability of 0.13 %, i.e. this value can be consid- bution function F(x) are calculated from Eq.
ered as an estimate for the withstand voltage (3.1-10):
vbd0. For x = μ + 3V = 110.9 kV, the break-
down probability is 99.87 %, therefore this Initial value x = x0 F(x) = 0
value can be considered as a definite break- (e.g. withstand voltage)
down voltage vbd100. 63 % quantile x = x63 F(x) = 0.63

In a similar way, the question is answered, at End value x=f F(x) = 1

which voltage a certain and given breakdown (e.g. certain
breakdown voltage)
probability can be expected. An interpolation
between given values (or percentages) of the
The Weibull distribution can be described by
cumulative distribution function in tables may
the three parameters x0 (location parameter,
have to be performed for this purpose.
initial value, lower extreme value), x63 (63 %
Note: Probability density functions are derivatives of quantile) and G (Weibull exponent, shape pa-
cumulative distribution functions. Therefore, they are rameter or slope). Sometimes the difference
more sensitive to variations, and they are less appropri-
ate for a comparison between empirical and theoretical
z63 = x63 - x0 is called the scale parameter. By
functions, Figure 3.1-7. means of the location, shape and scale para-
meters, the three-parameter Weibull dis-
tribution usually gives a good approximation
3.1.2.3 Weibull Distribution of the cumulative frequency polygon for a se-

The Weibull distribution is an extreme value

distribution that is limited at the lower end. It D (x)
is especially suitable for the description of
breakdown processes, as it is normally as-
sumed that there is a minimum breakdown
voltage vbd0 (withstand voltage), i.e. a location
parameter x0 (lower extreme value, initial
value), Figure 3.1-8. x0 x 63 x
F( x )
The idea that a considered event (e.g. the 100 %
breakdown of an arrangement with many par-
allel insulation gaps) occurs as the extreme
value of all possible events (e.g. in the weakest 63 %
insulation gap) gives an analytical expression
for the cumulative distribution function [44]. It
is valid for all values x that are higher than the
initial value x0 (e.g. the withstand voltage):

x  x0 G
{ } x0 x 63 x
F ( x) 1  e x63  x0
(3.1-10)
Figure 3.1-8: Weibull distribution with density
function D(x) and distribution function F(x).
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 151

ries of measurements, see Figure 3.1-2 for G ˜ lg

z
lg { ln 1
} .
example. Normally, the Weibull approxima- z 63 1  F ( x)
tion is better than the approximation by the (3.1-12)
unlimited Gaussian normal distribution with
two parameters. Eq. (3.1-12) is the equation of a straight line,
if the common logarithm on the right hand side
An estimate for the 63 % quantile can be taken is the ordinate value, the logarithm on the left
directly from the cumulative frequency poly- hand side is the abscissa value and the Weibull
gon. For example, from Figure 3.1-2 we obtain exponent G is the gradient.
x63 = vbd63 = 100.6 kV by interpolation be- In order to establish a probability paper plot,
tween the 0.6 and 0.65 values. both logarithms are evaluated numerically, and
this gives a probability grid for the Weibull
It would be an oversimplification to take the distribution with logarithmically-subdivided
lowest value of the cumulative frequency axes, Figure 3.1-9:
polygon as an estimate for the initial value x0
(e.g. x0 = 90 kV from Figure 3.1-2). In prac- Abscissa and ordinate subdivision
tice, there is a very high uncertainty regarding z/z63 lg{z/z63} F(z) lg{-ln[1 - F(z)]}
such an estimation, especially for small sample 0.1 -1 0.01 - 1.998
sizes. In order to avoid incorrect conclusions, 0.2 - 0.699 0.02 - 1.695
e.g. if a withstand voltage is to be determined, 0.3 - 0.523 0.05 - 1.290
a smaller value must be chosen for x0, which 0.4 - 0.398 0.1 - 0.977
0.5 - 0.301 0.2 - 0.651
cannot be estimated accurately in most cases. 0.6 - 0.222 0.3 - 0.448
Therefore, x0 is very often set to zero (x0 = 0). 0.7 - 0.155 0.4 - 0.292
Thereby the cumulative distribution function is 0.8 - 0.097 0.5 - 0.159
0.9 - 0.046 0.6 - 0.038
simplified to the two-parameter Weibull dis- 1 0 0.7 0.081
tribution, which cannot be adapted to empiri- 2 0.301 0.8 0.207
cal distributions as well as before. 3 0.477 0.9 0.362
4 0.602 0.99 0.663
The Weibull exponent G can be estimated as 5 0.699
the slope of a straight line in a log-log dia- 6 0.778
7 0.845
gram. From Eq. (3.1-10) we obtain 8 0.903
9 0.954
x  x0 G 10 1
{ } ln {1  F ( x)} .
x 63  x 0
Example: Series of measurements (continued)
For the graphical representation in a probabil- The cumulative frequency polygon in Figure 3.1-2 and
ity paper plot, the common logarithm is cal- 3.1-6 shall be approximated by a Weibull distribution
culated on both sides: function.
For the 63 % value (quantile), x63 = vbd63 = 100.6 kV is
x  x0
G ˜ lg { } lg { ln [ 1  F ( x) ]} directly taken from Figure 3.1-9. An estimate must be
x 63  x 0 found for the initial value x0. For example, the with-
stand voltage x0 = 87.4 kV, which was estimated by
With the transformations means of a Gaussian normal distribution, is taken for
this purpose. Thereby we obtain
z = x - x0 z = x - x0 = x - 87.4 kV
and (3.1-11) and
z63 = x63 - x0 , z63 = x63 - x0 = 13.2 kV.
Now the abscissa in Figure 3.1-9 can also be subdivided
we obtain into voltage magnitudes:
152 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

x/kV 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 With the values from Figure 3.1-2, a cumulative fre-

z/z63 0.348 0.424 0.500 0.576 0.652 0.727 0.803 quency polygon is established, which can be approxi-
mated by a best fit straight line, Figure 3.1-9.
99 100 101 102 103 104 105
0.879 0.955 1.030 1.106 1.182 1.258 1.333 The Weibull exponent G can be estimated from
the straight-line gradient of an empirically
106 107 108 determined distribution curve. For that pur-
1.409 1.485 1.561 pose, the coordinates z1 and z2 for two points

0.1 0.2 0,3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10

99 %

z x - x0
90 % =
z 63 x 63 - x 0
80 %
70 %
F( z )
60 % 63 %
50 %
40 %

30 %

20 %

10 %

5%

2%
x 63

1%
90 92 94 96 100 104 108 xx/kV = v bd /kV
The abscissa with voltages is related to the example in the text only, it has to be calcu-
lated individually for every analysis. It is determined by the individual values for x and x .
0 63

Figure 3.1-9: Probability paper plot for the Weibull distribution with logarithmic axes in a normalized
representation (ordinate and upper abscissa).
Cumulative frequency polygon for the example in fig. Bild 3.1-2 together with an abscissa subdivided into
voltage units that are related to the example (lower abscissa). Approximation of the empirical distribution
in fig. 3.1-2 by a best fit straight line.
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 153

on the straight line are inserted into Eq. (3.1- ples are given in Section 3.1.1.3 and in the two
12). From the difference of the two equations preceding sections. In these cases, parameters
were determined by graphical approximation
z1 z 1 of straight lines for example. Furthermore,
G ·[ lg - lg 2 ] = lg { ln }
z 63 z 63 1 - F ( z 1) there are a number of statistical estimation
1 techniques that will be at least briefly men-
- lg { ln } tioned here:
1 - F ( z 2)
the exponent is calculated as: (1) Parameters can be estimated by graphical
approximation - see above for examples.
ln [1  F ( z1 ) ]
lg { } (2) Parameters can be estimated by calculation
ln [1  F ( z 2 ) ]
G (3.1-13) of empirical moments as estimates for theo-
z
lg 1 retical moments (method of moments). In this
z2 context, the measures of mean values accord-
For the series of measurements in the described exam- ing to Eq. (3.1-2) are moments of first order
ple according to Figure 3.1-3 and -9, the function value and the measures of statistical dispersion ac-
at z1/z63 = 0.29 is F(z1) = 2 % = 0.02, and the function cording to Eq. (3.1-4) and (-5) are moments of
value at z2/z63 = 1 is F(z2) = 63 % = 0.63. With Eq. second order.
(3.1-13) the exponent is calculated:
(3) Parameters can be estimated with the
G = 3.15 maximum likelihood method in such a way
that the probability of the statistical sample is
With this, all parameters of the Weibull distribution (x0, maximal.
x63 and G) are estimated for the given example.
(4) The least square method provides para-
Note: From Eq. (3.1-11) and (-12) it can be meters with the minimal root-mean-square
seen that the magnitude of the exponent G is deviation.
strongly dependent on the definition of the
initial value x0. If x0 is changed, a new deter- These methods and the methods of interval
estimation require thorough analyses of the
mination of G has to be performed.
mathematical fundamentals of statistics, which
cannot be given here [44], [396].
3.1.2.4 Parameter Estimation

The Weibull distribution and the Gaussian 3.1.3 Statistical Size Effects
normal distribution are extraordinarily impor-
tant in high voltage engineering. Nevertheless, It is a problem of high voltage engineering that
they are only discussed as examples. There are breakdown voltages, breakdown strengths and
a number of other distributions which are used lifetimes are normally determined with small
in high voltage engineering (e.g. lognormal laboratory test samples, with a small number
distribution, double-exponential distribution, of test objects, or during only short test dura-
Wohlmuth’s two-limit distribution, gamma tions. Then, these results have to be transferred
2
distribution, F - /chi-squared distribution, F- to insulations of large size, to a large number
/Fisher distribution, t- /Student distribution, of objects or to very long stress durations.
and mixed distributions). Deeper discussions
can be found in the literature [44], [396]. According to experience, electric strengths
(e.g. the 50 % breakdown voltage) decrease if
The parameters for the description of the dif- the size of the arrangements, the number of
ferent cumulative distribution functions have test objects, or the stress duration is “enlarged”
to be estimated from measured values. Exam- (law of enlargement), for example:
154 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

very short stress durations does the accidental

presence of a free start electron influence the
Critically stressed volume magnitude of the breakdown voltage (or field
m·A 1 m·V 1 strength).
A1 Statistical volume, area, distance and length
effects are based on the fact that a breakdown
V1 needs a highly stressed insulation volume.

In strongly non-uniform fields, a critically

stressed volume can only be found in a thin
Area effect Volume effect
layer close to the curved electrode, Figure 3-1-
10. If the arrangement is enlarged, primarily
the enlargement of the electrode surface area
adjacent to the high-field volume has to be
considered (area effect). Insulation defects
reduce the electric strength only if they are
1 2 3 4 m close to the electrode surface.
Effect of large numbers
In uniform and weakly non-uniform fields, the
Figure 3.1-10: Size effects for the examples of area whole (critically stressed) insulation volume
effect, volume effect and large-number effect, with has to be considered, if the arrangement is
grey-colored critically stressed insulation volumes. enlarged (volume effect), Figure 3.1-10. Insu-
lation defects reduce the electric strength
x with increasing insulation volume, area, throughout the dielectric volume.
distance or length (volume, area, distance Highly stressed areas, volumes and parallel
or length effects), test objects shall each be considered as “par-
x with increasing number of equal test ob- allel connections” of m equal and independent
jects (Large-number effect) and elements (area elements, volume elements or
x with increasing stress duration (time effect, test objects), Figure 3.1-11. It will be assumed
lifetime characteristic).
For a statistical explanation of these strength
reductions, the insulation arrangement must be F ( v bd )
Pf = 0 Ff( v bd )
subdivided into smaller parts, which can be
100 %
subject to breakdowns independently from Pm = P1
m
each other, and which have a known cumula- Fm( v bd )
tive distribution function (e.g. from experi-
63 % F1 ( v bd )
ments).
50 %
The condition of stochastical independence is P1
not always fulfilled, e.g. for the time effect.
Insulations that break down after different
stress durations are not equal in terms of sta-
tistics. They are differently aged by time-de- v bd 0 v bd 50 v bd 63 v bd
pendent chemical and physical processes. For
most of the solid and liquid dielectrics, there is
Figure 3.1-11: Statistical size effect for the parallel
a functional dependence of the electric operation of m equal and independent elements
strength on the stress duration, additional to described by a distribution function with a lower
the statistical dispersion. Only in the range of limit (e.g. Weibull distribution).
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 155

that the cumulative distribution function Example: Capacitor bank

F1(vbd) for the breakdown voltage of a single A capacitor bank is made of 40 capacitors with an indi-
element (index 1) is known (breakdown vidual breakdown probability F1(10 kV) = 0.1 % at the
probability). The cumulative distribution charging voltage V = 10 kV. For a parallel operation of
function Fm(vbd) for the breakdown voltage of the capacitors, a breakdown probability F40(10 kV) |
40·0.1 % = 4 % is to be expected. This is an unaccepta-
m parallel elements (index m) will be calcu- bly high value for equipment which is destroyed during
lated. a breakdown. Therefore, the charging voltage must not
be raised above a safe withstand voltage Vbd0.
The withstand probability P1 for a single
element 1 (probability that a breakdown does Statistical size effects mainly result in a reduc-
not occur) is considered: tion of the 50 % and the 63 % breakdown
voltages, fig, 3.1-11. This reduction can be
P1(vbd) = 1 - F1(vbd) (3.1-14) calculated for the Weibull distribution ac-
cording to Eq. (3.1-10). With Eq. (3.1-15) the
If a number of equal elements are equally
withstand probability is
stressed, the withstand probability Pm de-
creases. It can be calculated by multiplication v  vbd 0 G
{ bd }
of the individual probabilities of the elements:
Pm (vd ) [e vbd 63  vbd 0 m ]
Pm = P1·P1·P1·P1· ...... ·P1 v  vbd 0 G
 m˜{ bd }
vbd 63  vbd 0
e . (3.1  18)
= [1 - F1(vbd)]·[1 - F1(vbd)]· ......
...... ·[1 - F1(vbd)] The further discussion is especially clear if a
two-parameter Weibull distribution with vbd0 =
m 0 is taken as an approximation. If there is an
= [1 - F1(vbd)] (3.1-15)
error for small probabilities, it has no impor-
Note: For m o f, the withstand probability tance in the range of mean probabilities.
Pm approaches zero, i.e. the breakdown be-
comes certain, but only if the voltage is above For the changes of a breakdown voltage (e.g.
the initial value vbd0, Figure 3.1-11. Below this vbd50 or vbd63) from vbd(1) (one element) to
value, a breakdown cannot occur (“single- vbd(m) (m elements) the associated withstand
point distribution”). Therefore, a correct de- probabilities are equal:
termination of the initial value vbd0 is highly
P1(vbd(1)) = Pm(vbd(m))
desirable, especially in the range of low break-
down probabilities. This condition can only be fulfilled if the ex-
ponents according to Eq. (3.1-18) are equal.
In the range of low breakdown probabilities With vbd0 = 0 we find
F1(vbd) << 1, Eq. (3.1-15) can be expanded
into a series, which is cut off after the first- v vbd ( m) G
order summand: { vbd (1) }G m ˜{
vbd 63
}
bd 63
Pm(vbd) | 1 - m·F1(vbd) (3.1-16)
and
With this the breakdown probability of m par- v
1
allel elements is
m
{ vbd (m) }G .
bd (1)
Fm(vbd) = 1 - Pm(vbd)
Now, the statistical size effect for m parallel
| m·F1(vbd) . (3.1-17) elements can be described:
156 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

from the cumulative frequency polygon in Figure 3.1-

v bd (m) v bd (m) 3a. According to Eq. (3.1-11), the abscissa values z to
lg{
v bd(1) } breakdown
Ratio of the
v bd(1) be used are identical with the breakdown voltages vbd
voltages because of the condition x0 = vbd0 = 0. Then, Eq. (3.1-
10 1 13) gives the exponent

G = 33.
1 0
It differs significantly from the exponent determined for
0.1 -1 a three-parameter distribution (see example according to
 G  Eq. (3.1-13)). The gradient of the straight line in a log-
log diagram according to fig, 3.1-12 is given by
0.01 -2
- 1/G = - 0.03.
0 1 2 lg m
For a size ratio m = 100 a strength reduction down to
1 10 100 m 87 % is calculated from Eq. (3.1-19). This means that
Size ratio m vbd63 would be reduced from 100.6 kV to 87.6 kV. For
vbd50, a reduction from 99.3 kV to approximately 86.5
Figure 3.1-12: Statistical size effects in a log-log kV would occur.
diagram. The gradient of the straight line is an
example here. The example clearly shows that significant strength
reductions sometimes have to be taken into account
1 during the transfer of test results from the laboratory-
vbd ( m) test scale to much bigger real insulations.
vbd (1)
{ m1 }G (3.1-19)

p v bd(1) v bd(2) v bd(3)

In a log-log diagram, 1/G can be considered as = 40 kV = 30 kV = 20 kV
the gradient of a falling straight line, Figure 90 %
3.1-12: 63 %
50 %
vbd ( m) 1
lg { }  ˜ lg {m} (3.1-20)
vbd (1) G
10 %
In the case of parallel elements, m is the num- t bd
ber. In the case of the volume effect, m is the
ratio of the considered volumes: vd t bd50(1) t bd50(2) t bd50(3)
m = Vm/V1 (3.1-20a) kV t
bd 10(1) t bd 90(1)
60
In the case of the area effect, m is the ratio of 50
the areas 40 v bd(1)
m = Am/A1 (3.1-20b) 30 v bd(2)
p = 10 % 50 % 90 %
Example: Series of measurements (continued) v bd(3)
20
The statistical size effect shall be determined for the
arrangement described by the cumulative frequency
polygon according to Figure 3.1-3a.
t bd
At first, the Weibull exponent G for a two-parameter 10
distribution with vbd0 = 0 has to be determined from the Figure 3.1-13: Constant-voltage tests with randomly
measured values by means of Eq. (3.1-13). For the two distributed breakdown times (top) for the determi-
function points F(z1) and F(z2), the function values nation of a lifetime stress relationship in a log-log
F(100.6 kV) = 63 % and F(94 kV) = 10 % are selected diagram (bottom).
3.1 Introduction to Statistics 157

Note: More accurate values for the Weibull exponent (e.g. of peak voltage and time to breakdown) is
can be derived from the gradient of the straight line in a a graphical representation. It is often possible
probability graph paper, Figure 3.1-9. The mean
straight line averages between all given points and
to draw a best-fit curve or a mean straight line
avoids the error which results from the deviation of the (regression curve) by eye through the meas-
chosen points from the theoretical distribution function. ured points (xi, yi) or (ui, ti), Figure 3.1-1c) and
d). Thereby, the central value (median) is
Example: Cable run shown, i.e. the 50 % time to breakdown tbd50
The 50 % breakdown voltage of a 1 km long cable run for the examples mentioned above.
shall be estimated. In laboratory tests on short cable
lengths (10 cm and 3 m), vbd50 was determined (92 kV By this method, all kinds of measured values
and 83 kV). can be tested for a functional relationship. Of-
If a two-parameter Weibull distribution with v0 = 0 is ten, the question has to be answered, if a
assumed, the statistical size effects can be described by quantity depends on a parameter, e.g. the time
Eq. (3.1-20). The size ratio m can either be calculated to breakdown on the peak voltage, the break-
from the inner conductor surface or from the insulation down voltage on the gas pressure and so on. It
volume. In both cases, it is equal to the ratio of the can also be investigated, for example, whether
lengths. With m = 3 m/0.1 m = 30 and with the voltage
ratio 83 kV/92 kV = 0.902, the gradient is 1/G = 0.0303
different electric test methods give comparable
or G = 33 respectively. results, i.e. it could be investigated whether
there is a relationship between partial dis-
According to Eq. (3.1-19), the extrapolation for the charge inception voltages and impulse break-
cable length of 1 km (m = 1000 m/3 m = 333) gives the down voltages for a given type of test objects.
voltage ratio 0.839. Therefore, the 50 % breakdown
voltage is
A more objective method consists in the de-
vbd50 = 0.839 · 83 kV = 69.6 kV. termination of the distribution function of the
random variable (e.g. of the time to breakdown
tbd) for different values of a parameter (e.g. for
3.1.4 Correlation and Regression, different voltage stresses vbd). From the deter-
Lifetime-stress Relationship mined points for a given breakdown probabil-
ity (e.g. 10 %, 50 % and 90 % quantiles), the
related best-fit curves can be calculated as ap-
It was already mentioned in Section 3.1.3 that
proximations for the corresponding breakdown
both statistical dispersion and functional de-
probabilities. The method shall be explained
pendences can influence measured values at
for a lifetime stress relationship, Figure 3.1-13:
the same time.

Example: Lifetime-stress relationship Example:

Lifetime stress relationship, ageing
The times to breakdown are determined by constant-
voltage tests, Figure 3.1-1d. In addition to the statistical The properties of solid insulating polymers can
dispersion, there is a distinct change of the time to change with time under the influence of elec-
breakdown as a function of the voltage magnitude in tric stress. Normally, the electric strength de-
solids (lifetime stress relationship/ characteristic).
creases with the stress duration. According to
Example: Impulse voltage-time characteristic experience, the lifetime stress relationship can
be approximated by the proportionality
Another example is the determination of impulse volt-
age-time curves for gas discharge gaps, Figure 3.1-1c). -1/k
vbd/v0 ~ (tbd/t0) , (3.1-21)
Also in this case, there is a functional dependence be-
tween the peak value of the impulse voltage and the
time to breakdown. if the physicochemical process of ageing does
not change during the considered time. The
The simplest method of testing for a functional quantities v0 and t0 are reference constants and
relationship of two random variables X and Y k is the “lifetime exponent”. In a log-log dia-
158 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

gram, Eq. (3.1-21) is a straight line (life char- x In the course of time, the ageing processes
acteristic) with the gradient -1/k: can change which will result in a different
magnitude of the lifetime exponent k. This
lg (vbd/v0) = (-1/k)·lg (tbd/t0) + K (3.1-22) means that the gradient of the lifetime
curve can change.
The experimental determination of a lifetime
stress curve is performed by constant-voltage x Results obtained on small test objects
tests, Figure 3.1-13. For each of the voltage within short times and under well-defined
levels vbd(1), vbd(2), vbd(3), ..., a larger number conditions can only be transferred to large
of test objects is stressed by the constant volt- and permanently stressed insulations with
age until the breakdowns occur. Thereby a a high degree of uncertainty.
distribution of the time to breakdown tbd is For practical applications, very large “safety
related to a voltage level. The distribution is margins” have to be considered with respect to
described either by the (empirical) cumulative the lifetime stress curve. ‘This means that the
frequency polygon or by the deduced (theo- design stresses are chosen far below the
retical) cumulative distribution function, Fig- stresses which seem possible according to the
ure 3.1-3 (top). Very often, the two-parameter lifetime stress curve.
Weibull distribution gives a good fit.
In the case of high statistical dispersion of the
The graphical representation of the 50 % time measured values and in the case of weak func-
to breakdown in a voltage time diagram gives tional relationships, it is often no longer suffi-
the lifetime stress curve for a breakdown prob- cient to recognize relationships “by visual
ability of 50 %. The curves for other break- evidence” only and to draw a best-fit curve.
down probabilities (e.g. for 10 % and 90 %, Therefore, mathematical correlation analysis
see Figure 3.1-13) can be determined in simi- is used in order to determine a functional rela-
lar fashion. tionship between the random variables X and Y
(e.g. breakdown voltage and time to break-
Note: Typical values for the lifetime exponent down) from the given pairs of measured values
k are of the order of k | 9 (for polyethylene) (xi, yi). From the given values xi and yi, em-
and k | 13 (for filled epoxy resin), and k is pirical variances, standard deviations sx and sy
mainly dependent on the material [44]. The
according to Eq. (3.1-5) and an empirical co-
other quantities in the lifetime equation (3.1-
variance
22) are also strongly influenced by the test
arrangement. 1 n
s xy ˜ ¦ ( xi  xm ) ˜ ( yi  ym ) (3.1-23)
Note: Very often, insulations have to be de- n 1 i 1
signed for a lifetime of decades with very low
breakdown probabilities. Generally, lifetime are calculated. The combination of these
stress relationships for very low breakdown quantities gives the empirical correlation co-
probabilities (e.g. 0.1 %) can be calculated by efficient
means of theoretical distribution functions r = sxy/(sxsy) , (3.1-24)
according to Figure 3.1-13. Nevertheless, there
is a significant danger of misleading conclu- which is a measure of the intensity of the cor-
sions: relation. If r = 0 it is concluded that there is no
correlation and r = ±1 indicates complete cor-
x In the case of a small sample size, the type relation.
of the distribution function and the magni-
tude of their parameters are very often not The description of the functional relationship
known with sufficient accuracy. is performed by regression analysis. In the
3.2 Gas Discharges 159

simplest case of a linear coupling (linear re- occur. This means that the relationship be-
gression), the coefficients of a regression line tween current and voltage becomes non-linear
(gas discharge characteristic, Section 3.2.1).
y = ayx + byxx or x = axy + bxyy
In comparison with solid and liquid dielectrics,
(3.1-25) gases have very well defined physical proper-
are determined in such a way that the sum of ties. Therefore, it is possible to develop a
physical model for the mathematical descrip-
vertical y- or horizontal x- tion of the breakdown voltage in the case of a
homogeneous and almost space-charge-free
deviations are minimal. field (Paschen’s law, Section 3.2.2).
y and x or x and y Furthermore, space-charge-dominated dis-
charges (streamer discharges, Section 3.2.3),
are the dependent and the independent vari-
impulse voltage-time curves (Section 3.2.4),
ables. The regression coefficient b is
discharges in non-uniform fields (Section
byx = r·sy/sx or bxy = r·sx/sy 3.2.5), surface discharges (Section 3.2.6) and
high-current discharges (Section 3.2.7) are of
(3.1-26) special interest.
and the location coefficient a is given by

ayx = ym - byxxm or axy = xm - bxyym. 3.2.1 Gas Discharge Characteristics

(3.1-27) 3.2.1.1 Non-self-sustained and Self-
sustaining Discharge
The two cases with x or y as the independent
parameter provide different straight lines. At low electric field strengths, the current
They are orthogonal to each other if the vari- across the gap is proportional to the applied
ables are not correlated (r = 0). In the case of voltage (“ohmic region”), Figure 3.2-1. Free
complete correlation (r = ± 1) the two straight charge carriers in the gas, i.e. negative elec-
lines are identical [6], [44]. trons and positive ions, are generated by ra-
diation (photoionization, e.g. by cosmic radia-
tion or UV light) and by collisions because of
the thermal motion of the gas molecules or
3.2 Gas Discharges atoms (thermal ionization). Negative ions can
be generated by the attachment of electrons to
At low field strengths and in comparison with molecules or atoms. The number of free
other insulating materials, gases are very good charge carriers is determined by the equilib-
dielectrics with low losses, low conductivity rium between generation and recombination
and a nearly frequency-independent relative [25]. The current through the gas is very small
permittivity Hr | 1. Therefore, gases are the and does not generate additional charge carri-
“natural” insulating material, especially if the ers. The discharge is therefore called non-self-
ambient air is considered. Liquid and solid sustained.
materials are necessary if the electric strength
of the gas is not sufficient. With increasing field strength, the current in-
creases and reaches a saturation value, when
Unfortunately, gases generally have a signifi- all generated charge carriers are extracted by
cantly lower electric strength than solids and the electric field before they can recombine.
liquids. Under specific stress conditions, char- The saturation current density is negligibly
acteristic discharge processes (gas discharges) small [25] and it is approximately
160 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

If the ignition voltage is reached in a uniform

V field and in a low-resistance circuit, then the
Igniting voltage
current increases very significantly and the
voltage breaks down. In this case, the break-
down voltage Vbd equals the ignition voltage
Non-self- Vz.
sustained Self-sustaining
discharge discharge In a circuit with current limiting (by a resis-
(Thermo- and (additional tance or by the weak-field region of a strongly
photoionization) ionization by collisions) non-uniform field) there are stable discharges
if the ignition voltage is reached, but the volt-
age does not break down. Owing to the glow-
ing light emission, these pre-discharges or
Ohmic
partial discharges are known as glow dis-
region
I charges or corona discharges. In this case, the
Saturation current
inception voltage Vi for pre-discharges or par-
(depending on the inonizing radiation) tial discharges equals the ignition voltage Vz.
Figure 3.2-1: Gas discharge characteristic in the
The highly non-linear functional relationship
transition region between non-self sustained and
self-sustaining discharge (schematic). of current and voltage in a gas discharge gap is
described by the so-called gas discharge
characteristic for a quasi-uniform field. As
Jsat | 10
-18
A/cm
2
(3.2-1) the currents and voltages vary over many or-
ders of magnitude, a log-log diagram is cho-
sen, Figure 3.2-2.
But it can be increased by many orders of
magnitude by ionizing radiation, see Section If a rising voltage reaches the ignition voltage ,
4.2.2.1. collision ionization causes significantly in-
creasing currents without any further increase
With further increasing voltages and field of the voltage. In the beginning, the generated
strengths, the charge carriers are accelerated space charges are weak and do not yet influ-
by the electric field, and they can gather ence the electric field strength in a uniform
enough kinetic energy within a free path field. This space-charge-free situation is
length to generate a significant number of known as a Townsend discharge.
charge carriers by collisions (ionization by
collisions, collision ionization or impact ioni- A strong increase of the current causes space
zation). Thus, the charge carriers are generated charges that cause strong field distortions
by the discharge itself, and this is known as (space-charge-dominated discharge). Thereby,
self-sustaining, Figure 3.2-1. there is a further increase of the current, even
for a decreasing voltage. In this region, the
emission of light related to collision and re-
3.2.1.2 Gas Discharge Characteristic, combination processes becomes so intense that
Operating Points it is visible for the human eyes as a glowing
light phenomenon (glow discharge, corona
The additional charge carriers, which are gen- discharge).
erated by collision ionization, cause an in-
crease of the current at a nearly constant volt- For very high currents, the generation of
age. This voltage is known as the ignition charge carriers is determined by the ohmic
voltage. losses (Joule heat) in the discharge gap. This
3.2 Gas Discharges 161

V /V
Space-charge-free discharge Space-charge-dominated discharge
I
1000
VR = R·I
Townsend Glow Arc
discharge discharge discharge
100 Non-self-
sustained
V0 V discharge self-sustaining discharge

I 10
-12 -8 -4 4
Discharge gap with 10 10 10 1 10
a quasi-uniform
electric field I /A
Figure 3.2-2: V,I gas discharge characteristic in a log-log diagram for one example (schematic).

means that thermal ionization causes the gen- away from working points 1 and 3 causes a
eration of many charge carriers and a very current change, which leads the system back to
conductive gas plasma is generated. Thus, a the former working point. It is therefore stable.
small voltage is sufficient to drive a high dis- A shift away from working point 2 causes a
charge current. This situation is known as an current change leading away further and fur-
arc discharge, which is characterized by in- ther. Therefore, working point 2 is unstable.
tense light emission and (sometimes) by a
curved and fluttering shape of the “electric Different working points on the gas discharge
arc”. The exact V,I-characteristic is derived characteristic can be set by a variation of the
from the thermal equilibrium between the gen- source voltage V0, Figure 3.2-3b. The related
erated Joule heat Pgen = V·I and the heat trans- shifting of the resistance line determines the
fer Ptrans to the environment by convection, working points.
radiation and heat conduction: The saturation current is flowing during the
increase of the source voltage V0 and below
V·I = Ptrans (3.2-2)
the ignition voltage (WP 1). If the ignition
The type of discharge depends on the source voltage is reached a stable glow discharge de-
voltage and on the resistance of the whole velops (WP 2). The discharge intensity in-
circuit. The working point on the gas discharge creases with increasing source voltage (WP 3).
characteristic can be determined by means of Finally, there is the transition to the arc dis-
resistance lines, Figure 3.2-3a. For three charge with a very high current and a small arc
working points (1, 2 and 3), the voltage drop at voltage (WP 4). Most of the source voltage
drop occurs across the external series resis-
the resistance VR = R·I and the voltage re-
tance R.
quired by the discharge gap V is covered by
the source voltage V0, Figure 3.2-2 (left) and The marked working points are passed in the
3.2-3a. order 4, 5, 6 and 7 while the source voltage V0
is decreasing.
If the sum of the two voltages is smaller or
greater than the source voltage, there is an in- Note: Different working points can also be set
crease or decrease of the current I because of at constant source voltage by varying the se-
the voltage difference. This shows that a shift ries resistance R. This variation can be illus-
162 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

trated in Figure 3.2-3a/b by resistance lines discharge current is limited by a sufficiently

with different gradients. high series resistance (see gas discharge char-
acteristic, Figure 3.2-3a, Section 3.2.1.2).
Note: The drawing of resistance lines in Figure 3.2-3a
and -3b assumes that the current and voltage axes are Note: The manifestations of such a glow discharge
linearly scaled. Then, the initial processes on the gas depend on many parameters (type of gas, pressure, im-
discharge curve are “compressed” at very low current purities, vessel dimensions, electrode material, voltage,
values. This is not shown here in order to preserve the and series resistance). At low pressures and at low cur-
clarity of Figures 2.2-3a and -3b, which are schematic rents, there are different zones with characteristic lumi-
sketches only and without any quantitative scale. nous effects, Figure 3.2-5 (right). The discharge con-
ditions are discussed between cathode and anode: Di-
rectly at the cathode there is the Aston dark space, fol-
3.2.1.3 Manifestations of Gas Discharges lowed by the cathode glow, caused by the recombina-
tion of incident ions and electrons emitted from the
cathode. Then there is the cathode dark space (Hittorf /
Basically, gas discharges are subdivided into Crookes dark space), where the electrons are not yet
pre-discharges that do not directly cause a accelerated enough for collision ionization processes.
breakdown and breakdowns or flashovers These ionization processes occur after a longer distance
that bridge the entire insulation gap with a from the cathode and cause the negative glow. The gen-
conductive channel, resulting in a “break erated electrons are quickly removed by the field, and
inertial ions remain as positive space charges. This
down” of the voltage, Figure 3.2-4. causes a high field strength and a steep potential gradi-
ent near the cathode (cathode fall, Figure 3.2-5 left).
In a uniform or a weakly non-uniform field, The following discharge volume has a low field
the breakdown of the voltage takes place im- strength, and it is close to the positive anode potential
mediately after the ignition voltage is reached, (positive column). Therefore, the ionization probability
see Section 3.2.2. Pre-discharges do not occur, is low (Faraday dark space). The electrons have to
accumulate energy for collision ionizations along long
Figure 3.2-4. paths, which can sometimes be identified by a regular
structure of the luminous effects. Close to the anode,
A stable glow discharge (instead of an arc or electrons can ionize attached gas molecules (anode
spark discharge) can only be achieved if the glow). Attached electrons cause a minor negative space

V V

Source voltage
V0 V0
Voltage drop A variation of the source
voltage is described
3 at the resistance 3
by a shifting of the
2
2 resistance line
V( I ) 1 6
VR = R·I 7

Voltage demand
1 5
of the discharge
V 4

I s = V0 /R I Is I

Figure 3.2-3a: Possible working points in the points Figure 3.2-3b: Shifting of the working points along
of intersection between gas discharge characteristic the gas discharge characterisic during the in-
and resistance line (linear diagram, schematic): creasing of the source voltage (1,2,3 and 4) and
during the decreasing of the source voltage (4, 5,
(1) stable, (2) instable and (3) stable working point. 6 and 7) by the shifting of the resistance line.
3.2 Gas Discharges 163

charge, which is accompanied by a slightly enhanced tionary thermal equilibrium. If the energy
voltage drop (anode fall). content of the source is limited (e.g. in the case
Note: If the distance of the electrodes is reduced to a of a charged capacitor, or in the case of the so-
gap width smaller than the cathode dark space, a gas called “electrostatic discharges”) we refer to
discharge is no longer possible, i.e. the electrons cannot as spark discharge, which is characterized by a
accumulate enough energy for collision ionization. In transient current impulse. Atmospheric dis-
terms of high voltage engineering, this is the region of
charges (lightning) can be considered as a
vacuum insulation, where a gas discharge is no longer
possible according to gas breakdown theory (Paschen’s special case of very long sparks (see Section
law, Figure 3.2-13). Then, so-called vacuum break- 3.2.7).
downs occur in a metal vapour plasma, Section 3.7.
In a strongly non-uniform field, the ignition
Note: The described luminous effects are more impor- condition for gas discharges is reached (during
tant for lighting technology than for high voltage tech-
nology, in which one normally seeks to avoid dis-
the rise of the test voltage) in a very small and
charges completely [25]. highly stressed field volume at first, directly
adjacent to the acutely curved electrode con-
High-current discharges at low operating volt- tour, fig 3.2-4. Therefore, these early dis-
ages are known as arc discharges if the source charges cannot propagate over the whole gap
provides a constant power and if there is a sta- width as in a uniform field. Pre-discharges or

Uniform and
weakly non- Non-uniform fields Interfaces Voids
uniform fields
Outer conductor
Pre-discharges Solid insulation
(partial
discharges) feste Isolation
Inner
Discharges that do conductor
not cause a direct
Corona discharges Surface discharges Cavity discharge
breakdown of the
Creeping discharge
voltage.
do not occur, External partial discharges (PD) Internal PD
discharge inception
Glow discharges
directly results in ("Glow")
Streamer and leader discharges
breakdown

Breakdown,
flashover
Discharges that
cause a very con-
ductive channel
between the elec- Breakdown Flashover Breakdown
trodes resulting in
a direct breakdown Electric arc, arc discharge (in the case of a thermal equilibrium)
of the voltage. Spark (in the case of a limited energy content of the source)

Lightning discharges Erosion breakdown

Creeping spark
(very long sparks during atmospheric disch.) PD breakdown

Figure 3.2-4: Important manifestations of gas discharges: Overview and the use terms.
164 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

corona discharges occur. Tips, edges and con-

Cathode (-)
ductors with small radii are surrounded by V
visible luminous effects (“corona”). Cathode glow
Cathode + + Cathode dark space
Visible corona discharges start with a uniform fall + + + (Hittorf dark space)
+ +
glow discharge (Townsend mechanism). Fur- Negative glow
ther increasing voltages cause the inception
and growth of streamers and leaders.

Finally, the breakdown of the whole insulation Faraday dark space

gap takes place and an arc or a spark discharge
occurs.

Also in arrangements with interfaces between Positive column

gas and solid insulation, there can be pre-dis-
charges, if the electric field strength is not con-
stant along the interface, Figure 3.2-4. Such
arrangements arise for cable terminations with Anode
Anode glow
stripped end insulation, for an insulated con- fall
ductor fed through a grounded wall or for an Anode (+)
electrode placed on the surface of an insulating
plate. In these cases, the electrically strong Figure 3.2-5: Luminous effects in a glow discharge
at DC voltage for a gas at very low pressure (nega-
insulating material prevents a direct break- tive colours, schematic). The glow discharge is sta-
down between the conductors. Instead, the bilized by a high series resistance.
discharge is forced to develop as a guided gas
discharge along the surface of the dielectric.
curs through the failure of the solid or liquid
Therefore, the arrangement is known as a
insulation, e.g. during an increase of the ap-
creepage surface or creepage configuration,
plied voltage. In the case of a long-duration
and the discharges are creeping discharges or
stress, internal partial discharges can erode
surface discharges respectively. Normally,
solid insulation (erosion breakdown or partial-
they start as glow discharges at a highly
discharge breakdown) or they can generate
stressed electrode edge or in a highly stressed
cracked gases (failure gases).
gas-filled interstice (see Figure 2.4-18) and
they develop as guided gas discharges along
the dielectric surface, often in the form of in-
tense streamer and leader discharges. The 3.2.2 Space-charge-free Discharge in
breakdown process is a so-called flashover in
a Uniform Field
this case.
(Townsend and Paschen)
Note: The breakdown is also known as a flashover if it
takes place close to and parallel to the surface of an Because of the constant, reproducible and
insulating material. For example, the “flashover” of a physically describable properties of gases, it is
suspension insulator is actually a gas breakdown be- possible to develop a physical/ mathematical
tween the metallic fittings at the insulator ends.
model and an ignition condition for the incep-
Gas discharges also occur in gas-filled cavi- tion of discharges (Townsend’s ignition condi-
ties in solid and liquid dielectrics. They are tion, Section 3.2.2.1). Furthermore, the de-
known as internal partial discharges, and they pendence of the breakdown voltage upon dis-
contain valuable diagnostic information for the tance, pressure and temperature can be de-
condition assessment of the insulation quality. scribed analytically (Paschen’s law, Section
The breakdown is not a gas breakdown. It oc- 3.2.2.2 and 3.2.2.4). The discussion is re-
3.2 Gas Discharges 165

stricted to a (nearly) uniform field and the in- differs for the electrode materials and is in the
fluence of space charges is neglected (“Town- range of 3 to 5 eV. There are several ways in
send discharge”). which the energy can be supplied and in which
the electrons can be released [480], e.g. by
Note: In the case of vacuum, other physical effects be- photoelectric emission (UV light, cosmic ra-
come dominant, and another approach is necessary, see
Section 3.7.
diation), by ion impacts (in an electric field),
by thermionic emission (at high temperatures)
and by field emission (at very high local field
strengths), Figure 3.2-6.
3.2.2.1 Townsend’s Ignition Condition
(Avalanche generations, Townsend At first, the released primary electron is sub-
Mechanism) ject to arbitrary thermal movements. Collisions
with molecules and gases do not ionize, as
The free primary electron (or a few primary long as the kinetic energy is smaller than the
electrons) for the initiation of an electron av- ionization energy. Between the collisions, the
alanche can be released from the negative electron is accelerated by the electric field and
electrode (cathode) if sufficient energy is sup- it accumulates kinetic energy. This causes an
plied. The required energy Wa (work function) electron drift into the electric field direction.
Because of the conservation of momentum, the
lightweight electron does not lose significant
energy during the collisions with the heavier
<< Ionization gas molecules (elastic collision). Therefore,
energy is accumulated until the required ioni-
Primary zation energy is reached and an ionizing colli-
electron
sion can occur [46], [25], [2].
First avalanche
Collision ionization generates additional elec-
trons, which are also accelerated by the field
and which generate more and more electrons
by collisions. Thus, an electron avalanche
develops with an increasing number of charge
Avalanche growth >> carriers from the cathode to the anode.
<< Feedback process
Secondary During collision ionization processes both
electron electrons and less mobile positive ions are
= generated. The ions drift towards the cathode
Initial where secondary electrons are emitted. To-
electron gether with the collision ionization processes
Second avalanche
there are recombination processes that are ac-
companied by the emission of light quanta
(photons). These photons can also release sec-
ondary electrons from the cathode by pho-
Electric field strength E toionization. This means that there are differ-
ent feedback processes providing secondary
(-) Cathode Anode (+)
electrons at the cathode, which act as new
primary electrons for the next avalanche, Fig-
Figure 3.2-6: Physical model for the description ure 3.2-6 (bottom)
of subsequent avalanche generations (Townsend
mechanism) used for the derivation of the Towns- Based on these concepts, the ignition condi-
end ignition condition and for the derivation of
Paschen's law.
tion can be formulated as follows:
166 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

A single primary electron that was released Note: The number of electrons per unit length that are
from the cathode (e.g. by an external ioni- generated by a positive ion is described by the ioniza-
tion coefficient E. It is much smaller than the ionization
zation source) has to generate at least one
coefficient D. Therefore, it can be neglected for a first
secondary electron at the cathode by ava- order description of the avalanche growth and the
lanche growth and feedback process, in or- Townsend discharge mechanism:
der to provide at least one new primary
electron for the next avalanche. This means E << D (3.2-4b)
that every avalanche causes at least one sub- Owing to their large mass, ions lose so much energy
sequent avalanche. In this way a conductive during elastic collisions that an accumulation of energy
discharge channel is generated and the volt- does not occur. Therefore, the ionization energy has to
age across the electrodes breaks down. be reached during a single acceleration along a single
free length of path. Additionally, the free path for ions is
shorter than the free path for electrons because of the
If the number of secondary (= new primary)
larger collision cross sections of ions.
electrons at the cathode is smaller, the process
dies down, there is no development of a con- The feedback from the ions to the cathode is
ductive channel and the voltage across the described by the surface ionization coefficient
electrodes does not break down. J. It describes the number of secondary (= new
primary electrons) that are generated by a sin-
For the mathematical description of the igni-
gle positive charge unit (positive elementary
tion condition, an ionization coefficient D is
charge). J is also known as the feedback coef-
defined (Townsend’s first ionization coeffi-
ficient or Townsend’s second ionization coeffi-
cient). It describes the number of electrons that
cient.
are generated per unit length by a single elec-
tron (collision ionization). Note: The feedback process, i.e. the generation of sec-
ondary electrons at the cathode, is not only achieved by
In an avalanche, the increase dN of the num- the kinetic energy of the incident ions, but also by ra-
ber of electrons N along the distance dx is diation (photons). Nevertheless, the most important
effect for the release of free electrons is the direct ener-
dN = N·D·dx . (3.2-3a) getic interaction of the ions with the surface atoms of
the cathode. Therefore, the feedback coefficient J has to
take into account a number of different effects [25].
With N1 primary electrons and with D = const.
in a uniform field, we find by integration Starting with a single primary electron N1 = 1,
ln (N/N1) = D·x . the first avalanche grows exponentially be-
tween x = 0 (cathode) and x = d (anode) from a
Dd
Therefore, we get an exponentially growing single electron up to e electrons, Figure 3.2-
electron avalanche: Dd
7. Simultaneously, (e - 1) positive elemen-
D·x tary charges (ion charges) are generated. By
N = N1·e (3.2-3b) means of a multiplication with the surface
Note: The ionization coefficient D has to be reduced to
ionization coefficient J, the number of second-
Dd
an effective ionization coefficient ary electrons N2 = J·(e - 1) is calculated.
These electrons are available at the cathode as
 Deff = D - K (3.2-4a)
new primary electrons for the second ava-
by subtraction of the attachment coefficient K [16]. By lanche. Then, the growth of the electron num-
analogy to Eq. (3.2-3a), K describes the decrease of the ber is determined by multiplication with the
number of free electrons per unit length by attachment Dd
avalanche factor e . The number of new ion
of electrons to the less mobile gas molecules. Especially
for gases with a high electron affinity (e.g. sulfur hexa- charges is calculated by subtracting the num-
fluoride SF6), the attachment of electrons greatly in- ber of initial primary electrons. After multipli-
creases the breakdown strength. cation with the surface ionization coefficient J,
3.2 Gas Discharges 167

No. of Number of Number of Number of the positive charges

avalanche initial electrons electrons additionally generated in the avalanche
n Nn in the avalanche (positive ion elementary charges)
Dd Dd
1 1 e e -1

J ( eD - 1) J ( eD - 1) eD J ( eD - 1) eD - J ( eD - 1)
d d d d d d
2
Dd 2
= J (e - 1)

J 2 ( eD - 1) 2 J 2 ( eD - 1) 2 eD J 2 ( eD - 1) 2 eD - J 2 ( eD - 1) 2
d d d d d d
3
2 Dd 3
= J ( e - 1)

J 3 ( eD - 1) 3 J 3 ( eD - 1) 3 eD J 3 ( eD - 1) 3 eD - J 3 ( eD - 1) 3
d d d d d d
4
3 Dd 4
= J ( e - 1)

n etc. etc. etc.

Figure 3.2-7: Mathematical description of the subsequent electron avalanche generations caused by a single
primary electron (Townsend mechanism, avalanche-generation mechanism).

the initial number of electrons for the third

2 Dd
eDd
2
avalanche is given by N3 = J ·(e - 1) , Fig- (3.2-6)
1  J ˜ (eDd  1)
ure 3.2-7. In general, the initial number of
electrons for avalanche no. n is The convergence condition for the geometric
n-1 Dd n-1
series is
 Nn = J ·(e - 1) . (3.2-5) Dd
 J·(e - 1) < 1 . (3.2-7)
Obviously, the initial numbers of electrons in In the case of convergence, Eq. (3.2-6) de-
consecutive avalanches are described by a ge- scribes a finite sum of charges, i.e. there is no
ometric series. In the case of mathematical breakdown. Nevertheless, the number of
convergence, the sum of all initial electrons at charge carriers is increased by collision ioni-
the cathode is given by an analytical term: zation and avalanche growth. There is a tran-
sient current increase, i.e. a current impulse,
Nc = N1 + N2 + N3 + .... + Nn + ....
which is known as “current amplification”.
f Note: This effect is used, for example, in the Geiger-
¦ [J n 1 ˜ (eDd  1) n 1] Müller counter for detection of radioactive radiation.
n 1
A divergent geometric series is obtained for
1 
Dd
1  J ˜ (eDd  1)  J·(e - 1) > 1 . (3.2-8)

Then, the total number of electrons reaching This means that the number of initial electrons
Dd becomes infinite, a conductive channel is
the anode is large by a factor of e : formed between the electrodes and the voltage
168 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

breaks down. Evidently, Eq. (3.2-8) is the ig-

a) Convergence of the geometric series,
nition condition we are seeking for the Town- the ignition condition is not fulfilled.
send mechanism.
Dd
J (e - 1) < 1
The ignition condition according to Eq. (3.2-8) Avalanche transit time
can directly be explained as follows: A single 100 ns
Dd i (t)
primary electron generates (e – 1) ion ele-
mentary charges by avalanche growth. Multi-
plication with the “feedback coefficient” J
Dd
gives the number J·(e - 1) for the secondary
electrons that are released from the cathode. In t
accordance with Eq. (3.2-8), this number has b) Divergence of the geometric series,
to be bigger than or equal to one in order to the ignition condition is fulfilled.
trigger at least one consecutive avalanche. Dd
J (e - 1) = 1
This means that every initial electron has to
“regenerate” itself by the avalanche growth
i (t)
and feedback process, Figure 3.2-7.

The ignition condition according to Eq. (3.2-8)

can be solved for the term Dd [2]: t

Dd > ln (1 + 1/J) = k . (3.2-9a) c) Divergence of the geometric series,
the ignition condition is fulfilled.
In general, the product Dd must be replaced by Dd
the integration along a field line, see Eq. (3.2- J (e - 1) > 1
2) and (-3):

d i (t)
³ D ˜ dx > ln (1 + 1/J) = k (3.2-9b)
x 0
t
Then, Eq. (3.2-9b) is also valid for the non-
uniform field. Nevertheless, it must be consid-
ered that D is not constant. Because of a strong Figure 3.2-8: Development of electron avalanches for
dependence on field strength, D is also de- the Townsend mechanism (subsequent generations
of avalanches), if the subsequent avalances are
pendent on position:
triggered by photoionization without delay: Theo-
retical and real current curves (schematic) [25].
 D = D(E(x)) (3.2-10)
Note: The quantity k depends on the material properties
of the gas and the cathode. For air at atmospheric pres- The mathematical description of the ignition
sure and for metallic electrodes, the empirical value k = condition as the divergence of a geometric
7 is given as an example [2]. This means that approxi- series (3.2-6) can clearly be explained as the
7
mately e = 1100 electrons and positive elementary increase of consecutive avalanche currents,
charges. have to be generated in order to release a sec- Dd
ondary electron from the cathode. According to Eq. Figure 3.2-8c. In the extreme case J·(e - 1)
(3.2-9), k = 7 is approximately equivalent to a surface = 1, the magnitude of the consecutive ava-
-3
ionization coefficient J = 10 . In the literature, values lanches is constant, Figure 3.2-8b. In the case
-5 -1
are given in the range of 10 [16] to 10 [25]. Ac- of convergence, the magnitude of consecutive
cording to Eq. (3.2-9) this is equivalent to values k = Dd avalanches decreases, but there is a current
between 11 and 3. amplification and a current impulse because of
3.2 Gas Discharges 169

collision ionization. A breakdown does not

occur, Figure 3.2-8a. It is assumed that the i (t)
Avalanche transit time
first avalanche starts with a higher number N1 100 ns
of primary electrons, in order to show that the Electron W- W+
current
number of initial electrons for the consecutive i -(t) 10 μs
avalanches decreases. In Figure 3.2-8, it is as- Ion transit time
sumed that the consecutive avalanches are
triggered by photoionization with practically
no time-delay. For d = 1 cm and air under at- Ion current i +(t) t
mospheric conditions, the avalanches follow at
Starting moment
regular intervals of approximately W- = 100 ns,
of subsequent avalance
which is equal to the avalanche transit time.
Figure 3.2-9: Electron and ion currents for the
In real current curves, the individual ava- Townsend mechanism (subsequent generations
lanches cannot be distinguished very clearly. of avalances), if the subsequent avalances are
The reason is a shifting of the starting points triggered by the backwards drifting ions
of the avalanches, which results in an equaliz- (schematic) [25].
ing of the currents.
by the model of the streamer discharge, see
If the consecutive avalanches are triggered by Section 3.2.3.
the backwards drifting positive ions, the ava-
lanches start after the transit time of the posi-
tive ion cloud, which is concentrated close to 3.2.2.2 Ionization and Attachment
the electrode and which has to travel back to
the cathode, Figure 3.2-9. The starting time for The ignition condition according to Eq. (3.2-8)
consecutive avalanches can differ signifi- allows us to derive an analytical expression for
cantly, resulting in irregular time intervals the breakdown voltage Vbd (Section 3.2.2.4).
between the avalanches. The transit time of the For this purpose, the ionization coefficients D
ions is approximately W+ = 10 μs for d = 1 cm and J have to be expressed as functions of the
in air under atmospheric standard conditions. electric field strength E and gas density.
The total current is the superposition of elec-
tron current i-(t) during the avalanche transit D is the number of the ionizing collisions per
time and ion current i+(t) during the transit unit length, and 1/D is the path length per ion-
time of the ion cloud towards the cathode. izing collision. On the average, an electron has
Both currents have the same (technical) direc- to pass the distance 1/D in the field direction,
tion, but they are very different in magnitude. until an ionizing collision takes place, Figure
3.2-10. During this, a number of elastic (non-
Note: The validity of this model with a dis- ionizing) collisions can occur, which do not
charge development by consecutive generation transfer significant energy from the light-
of avalanches (Townsend mechanism) is lim- weight electron to heavy gas molecules (con-
ited to the space-charge-free case. This means servation of momentum). This means that the
that avalanche growth is limited to cases with- energy which is gathered during the drift in the
out significant distortion of the initial field. field direction is accumulated until the ioniza-
For air, the limit is given approximately at k = tion energy is reached [25], dissipation by non-
Dd = 20, which is equivalent to an avalanche elastic excitations is neglected here. Thus, the
20 8 electron passes z-times the mean free path
of e = 5·10 electrons. The validity is re-
stricted to small electrode distances d or low length Om:
pressures (with a low ionization coefficient D).
Above this limit, the discharges are described 1/D = z·Om (3.2-11)
170 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

The higher the energy [47], but for a qualitative consideration ac-
cording to Townsend, an analytical approxi-
'W = e·'U = e·E·Om mation can be determined [46]. In this case,
the accumulation of kinetic energy is ne-
is, which can be gathered by an electron glected, i.e. it is assumed that the required
(charge q = e) along a free path length Om, the ionization energy Wi is reached within a single
smaller is the number z of subsequent accu- acceleration path O. Then, the required path
mulation steps. Therefore, we have the func- length is
tional relation
Oi = Wi/(e·E) . (3.2-14)
1/D = Om / f (E·Om) . (3.2-12)
The probability that the available free accel-
The mean free path length Om is proportional
eration path O is equal to or longer than Oi can
to the reciprocal of the gas density, i.e. to the
be expressed by means of the mean free path
reciprocal of the pressure p if the temperature
length Om. For this purpose, the probability dF
is kept constant. From Eq. (3.2-12) a general
relation for the ionization coefficient is de- for the collision of an electron within a path
rived: element dx is assumed to be

D = p· f (E/p) (3.2-13) dF = dx/Om , (3.2-15)

Normally, the relation D/p = f (E/p) is given as see Figure 3.2-11 and [16]. The number N(x)
an empirical function [25], [16], [45], [46], of electrons that have not yet had a collision is
diminished by collisions within the path ele-
ment dx by the number
E
dN = - N(x)·dF

= - N(x)·dx/Om . (3.2-16)

If it is assumed that all considered electrons

Drift direction
have started at x = 0, the number of the re-
maining electrons without collisions is calcu-
Om lated by integration of the relationship
 D dN/N = - dx/Om
= z· O m
Figure 3.2-10: Two-dimensional visualization of the
from x = 0 with N(0) to x with N(x):
mean drift path of electrons between two ionizing
collisions with a number of elastic collisions. N(x) = N(0)·exp (-x/Om) (3.2-17)

This equation is known as the Clausius law of

the path length [16]. It allows us to describe
the probability F(x) for x = Oi that an electron
dN
can be accelerated without collision along the
N (x) N ( x+d x)
path length x = Oi, which is necessary for the
x acceleration up to the ionization energy:
dx Ȝ
N ( Ȝi ) - i
Figure 3.2-11: The Clausius law concerning path F ( Ȝi ) =
N (0)
= e Ȝm
(3.2-18)
lengths.
3.2 Gas Discharges 171

This equation gives the ionization probability, relationship, the ratio D/p is drawn as a func-
if there is a collision of an electron with a gas tion of the ratio E/p, Figure 3.2-12.
molecule. The probability of a collision per
unit length is, according to Eq. (3.2-15) By an appropriate choice of the constants A
and B, a good fit of experimental ionization
dFS/dx = 1/Om. (3.2-19) coefficients can be achieved, although the
derivation of Eq. (3.2-21) was based on sub-
The product of the collision probability ac- stantial simplifications [46].
cording to Eq. (3.2-19) with the ionization
Depending on the type of gas, different values
probability according to Eq. (3.2-18) gives the
are valid for the gas constants A and B at stan-
ionization coefficient D, i.e. the number of
dard temperature T = 293 K = 20 °C, see table
ionizing collisions per unit length:
3.2-1.
Ȝ
1 - i Table 3.2-1: Experimental values for the gas con-
Į =
Ȝm
eȜm
(3.2-20) stants A and B in Eq. 3.2-21 [16], [21. For more
values see [438] for example.

According to Eq. (3.2-14) we assume Oi ~ 1/E. Gas A B Range

Furthermore, the mean free path length Om is E/p
1/(mm bar) kV/(mm bar) kV/(mm bar)
proportional to 1/p, if the temperature is con-
stant. From Eq. (3.2-20) and with the constants Air 1130 27.4 11 to 45
A and B we find N2 977 25.5 8 to 45
H2 376 9.8 11 to 30
B He 210 2.6 2 to 11
-
Į = A p e ( E / p)
. (3.2-21) Ar
CO2
1020
1500
13.5
34.9
8 to 45
37 to 75

Eq. (3.2-21) is an approximation for the ioni-

Note: The constants A and B are also part of the equa-
zation coefficient D that fulfills the general tions for the breakdown voltage (Paschen’s law, Section
equation (3.2-13). For the visualization of this 3.2.2.4) and they can be determined from measurements
of the breakdown voltage. Sometimes the values from
different sources are different. Values for many gases
and a discussion of different sources can be found in the
D /p Ionisation coefficient / pressure literature [438].
K /p Attachment coefficient / pressure
DK
 /p Eff. ionization coefficient / pressure For gases with high electron affinity (cf. Sec-
A tion 3.2.2.3), e.g. for sulfur hexafluoride SF6,
the attachment of electrons to gas molecules
D /p has to be taken into account using an attach-
ment coefficient K, Figure 3.2-12. It describes
DK
 /p = D e /p the relative decrease of electrons per unit
length, i.e. the attachment probability of an
a
electron per unit length. It can be shown that
K /p the ratio K/p is also a function of E/p [16].
0
E/p By analogy with Eq. (3.2-20), an approximation can
( E/p)0 also be given for K. The contact (collision) between a
-a sufficiently slow electron and a molecule that has an
electron affinity is a necessary condition for an attach-
Figure 3.2-12: Ionisation coefficient, attachment co- ment. The related probability is given by 1/Om accord-
efficient and effective ionisation coefficient, all ing to Eq. (3.2-19). The kinetic energy or the free accel-
derived from physical models (thin lines) with ex- eration path OB must not exceed a given limit. The
perimentally confirmed intervals (thick lines).
172 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

probability that x < OB is known as an attachment prob- The feedback coefficient (surface ionization
ability. By analogy with Eq. (3.2-18), it is given as coefficient, Townsend’s second ionization
F(OB) = 1 - exp (-OB/Om) . (3.2-22)
coefficient) J has to cover a number of very
different processes [50], [25], such as the
The product of the collision probability 1/Om and the release of electrons from the cathode by
attachment probability according to Eq. (3.2-22) gives positive ions (JI), by the photo effect (JP), by
the approximation for the attachment coefficient with neutral atoms (JN), by field emission (JF) and
the constants a and b by analogy with Eq. (3.2.21):
by photo emission in the volume (JV) as well
b
-
as the ion emission of the anode (JA).
K a p { 1 - e (E / p) } . (3.2-23)

A qualitative curve for the illustration of this function is J = JI + JP + JN + JA + JF + JV (3.2-27)

shown in Figure 3.2-12.
All these effects are not only dependent on the
The effective ionization coefficient De is cal- electrode material and on the type of gas, but
culated as the difference of the ionization coef- also (in different ways) on the field strength
ficient D and the attachment coefficient K: and the pressure, i.e. on the ratio E/p. There-
fore, the relationship
De = D-K (3.2-24)

According to Eq. (3.2-13), (-21) and (-23), the J = f (E/p) (3.2-28)

effective ionization coefficient is proportional
to the pressure p. Furthermore, it is a function is described by empirical curves, either with a
of the ratio E/p, Figure 3.2-12: given gas for different electrode materials or
vice-versa, e.g. [25].
De = D - K = p· f (E/p) . (3.2-25)
For small values of E/p it can be expected that
Avalanche growth is only possible if the ef- the photo effect is dominant, because of the
fective ionization coefficient is greater than low ion drift velocity at high gas densities and
zero. For air, this point is at approximately low field strengths. At higher E/p values the
(E/p)0 = 24.4 to 25 kV/(cm·bar), and for the ions play a more important role because high
strongly electron-affine SF6 only at (E/p)0 = field strengths and low gas densities allow
higher ion drift velocities [50].
87.7 to 88.4 kV/(cm·bar). The specifications
of different authors can differ as the exact Note: The feedback processes by ions are less dependent
experimental conditions may also be different. on field strength and pressure than avalanche growth. If
a positive ion reaches the cathode, the kinetic energy
For SF6, the effective ionization coefficient Wkin (which is dependent on pressure and field strength)
D - K differs very much from the ionization is the minor part of the released energy. The major part
coefficient D according to Eq. (3.2-21). There- is contributed by the recombination of the positive ion
with the negative electrons at the cathode [16], and it is
fore, D - K is described by a linear postulated equal to the ionization energy Wi during the formation
solution with constants that have to be deter- of the ion. The sum of the two energies, which are re-
mined empirically, Figure 3.2-12: leased at the cathode, has to be high enough to free two
electrons with the work function Wa, Eq. (3.2-28a). The
(D - K)/p = ki{(E/p) - (E/p)0} (3.2-26) first electron is necessary for the recombination with the
incident positive ion and the second electron is the ini-
For SF6, the values ki = 27.7/kV and (E/p)0 = tial electron for the new electron avalanche.
88.4 kV/(bar·cm) are reported at T = 293 K
[39]. 2 Wa < Wi + Wkin | Wi (3.2-28a)
3.2 Gas Discharges 173

Numerical values for J vary significantly de- electron avalanges and for the dielectric
pending on the experimental conditions. For strength of the gas.
example, coefficients that were determined in
vacuum cannot be used for gas discharges be- In the case of an electron with low kinetic
cause impurities and adsorption of gas mole- energy (e.g. caused by thermal movement or
cules can significantly influence the surface by acceleration in the electric field) that
properties. Typical numerical values for short- collides with a neutral gas molecule or gas
distance/ low-pressure breakdowns with high atom, the electron can be attached, so that a
E/p values are given in table 3.2-2. negative ion in an excited state is created. If
the electron can find a position with lower
For the long-distance/ high pressure break- potential energy in the orbitals of the gas
down with low E/p values, the feedback coef- molecule or gas atom, a stable negative ion is
ficients are significantly lower. For air, SF6 formed. The energy difference between initial
and typical electrode materials, the order of state and final state, i.e. the energy that is
-5 released as a photon or as kinetic energy
magnitude for J is 10 (i.e. k = 11.5) [16]. For during the described attachment process, is
p = 1 bar and flashover distances of some cm, denominated as electron affinity [55]. Vice
-6
numerical values are J = 2·10 (k = 13) for air versa, it is equivalent to the energy that is
-7
and J = 10 (k = 16) for SF6 [39]. required for the detachment of the electron.

During the calculation of the breakdown volt- Thus, gas molecules or gas atoms with a high
age, the dependence of J on field strength and electron affinity are required for a high
gas density is mostly neglected because of the dielectric strength.
comparatively weak influence of J on the For a very long time, the denomiantion
breakdown voltage (Section 3.2.2.4). For the “electronegative gases” has been established
given combination of gas and electrode mate- in high voltage engineering for gases with a
rial, a constant numerical value J is used. high electron affinity [16], [46], [480]. Nev-
ertheless, as it came out from an expert discus-
Table 3.2-2: Feedback coefficient (surface ionization sion in this case1, this is not correct from a
coefficient) J in vacuum for slow gas ions (10 eV) and physical point of view.
clean electrode surfaces [51] (*) and for the short-
distance/ low-pressure gas discharges [39]. Note: The term electronegativity that was introduced
by Linus Pauling in 1932 refers to the atomic bond
Al Cu Fe Ba K (covalent bond) between elements by means of binding
electron pairs [49]. Elements that are comparatively
+ + close to full electron shells (e.g. the halogens F, Cl, Br)
N ,O 0.035 0.025 0.020 - 0.070 (*) attract the binding electron pairs in the atomic bonds,
Air 0.035 0.025 0.020 - - and they are therefore denominated as electronegative.
+
N 0.100 0.066 0.059 0.140 0.120 (*) Elements that are far from full electron shells (e.g. the
N2 0.100 0.065 0.060 - - alkaline metals) provide binding electrons for this.
H2 0.100 0.050 0.060 - - Thereby, the positive and negative centers of charge in
+
He 0.021 - 0.015 0.100 0.170 (*) the molecule are displaced against each other and an
Ar
+
0.120 0.058 0.058 0.140 0.220 (*) electrical dipole moment is created.

Based on binding energies, a (dimensionless) scale of

electronegativity was established for the elements with
values between 4.0 (fluorine) and slightly below 1.0
3.2.2.3 Electron Affinity and (alkaline metals). The values for the individual elements
Electronegativity are often listed in the periodic table of the elements

As described before, the attachment of 1

Josef Kindersberger, Volker Hinrichsen, Isabell Hofer-
electrons to gas molecules or gas atoms plays Maksymiw, Johannes Seiler Andreas Hopf and Michael
a dominant role for the development of Rossner
174 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

[49]. The inert noble gases do not form atomic bonds and C2Cl3F3 as well as the so-called alterna-
due to their full electron shells; and they are not listed in
this respect.
tive insulating gases that are described in Sec-
tion 5.1.3.
Electronegativity describes the contributions
of the elements to the binding conditions
within a molecule, and not at all the 3.2.2.4 Paschen’s Law
attachment of free electrons to molecules or
atoms. In contrast, the electron affinity is the After the above digression about ionization,
energy that is released during the attachment attachment, electronegativity and electron af-
of a free electron (coming from outside) to a finity in the Sections 3.2.2.2 and 3.2.2.3, we
gas molecule or gas atom. This energy is the now come back to Townsend’s ignition con-
relevant physical quantity for the description dition in Section 3.2.2.1:
of electron attachment to gas molecules and
gas atoms and should therefore be used for the The calculation of the ignition voltage (also
characterization of insulating-gas properties. known as the sparking or breakdown voltage)
is based on the Townsend mechanism and the
Note: Despite of this, there is an indirect relation related limit case of the ignition condition ac-
between electronegativity and electron affinity: By
means of charge displacements, electronegative cording to Eq. (3.2-9):
elements create new energy levels and orbitals within
the molecules where free electrons that come from Dd = ln (1 + 1/J) (3.2-29)
outside can stably be attached with a significant release
of energy. This can be seen for the most electronegative With the effective ionization coefficient D =
element fluorine which contributes to a high electron De according to Eq. (3.2-25) we find
affinity of the SF6 molecule or of other fluorinated
molecules. pd· f (Ebd/p) = ln (1 + 1/J) . (3.2-30)
Nevertheless, the relevant parameters for the
The feedback coefficient J is assumed to be
created energy levels are not only the
constant.
electronegativity of the involved elements but
also the isomeric structure of the molecule, i.e. A general solution for the breakdown field
the spatial arrangement of the atoms. strength Ebd cannot be given, but it can be seen
A strong tendency for the attraction of elec- that the ratio E/p is a function of the product of
trons in chemical bonds can especially be pressure and distance (similarity law):
found for the electronegative halogens fluo-
Ebd/p = f1(pd) (3.2-31)
rine F and chlorine Cl, both of which can
complete their outer electron shells by the in- After the expansion of the fraction Ebd/p by
clusion of a single electron. Oxygen O and
multiplying numerator and denominator by the
sulfur S both require two electrons for this,
flashover distance d, the ignition voltage Vbd
nitrogen N hardly attracts any electrons and
the inert or noble gases (e.g. neon Ne or he- = Ebd·d can be introduced:
lium He) do not attract any electrons at all.
Ebd/p = (Ebd·d)/(p·d) = Vbd/(pd) (3.2-32)
In chemical bonds, the resulting electron af-
finity determines the attachment behavior. Then, the igniting or sparking voltage is
Here, sulfur hexafluoride SF6 has a strong Vbd = pd·f1(pd) = f2(pd) . (3.2-33)
electron affinity, especially in comparison with
air, which has a very limited residual electron This general relationship is known as
attachment capability only because of its O2 Paschen’s law. It means that the ignition volt-
content. Further examples of strongly electron- age is a function of the product of pressure
affine gases are the fluorocarbons CBrClF2 and electrode distance pd (pressure spacing
3.2 Gas Discharges 175

product, pd value), if the conditions of the B˜ pd


Townsend mechanism are fulfilled (uniform ln (1  1 / J )
field, negligible space charges).
e Vbd
A ˜ pd
.

Example: By solving for Vbd, the approximate equation

Variation of flashover distance and pressure
for Paschen’s law is given in analytical form:
For a flashover distance d = 2 mm in a uniform field, an
ignition voltage Vˆbd = 7.5 kV is measured for air at B ˜ pd
standard atmospheric conditions (p = 1 bar, T = 293 K). Vbd (3.2-35)
For example, Paschen’s law states that the ignition volt- ln A ˜ pd
age does not change for a tenfold greater distance d = 2 ln (1  1 / J )
cm, if the pressure is reduced to the tenth part p = 0.1
bar = 10 kPa. In both cases, the pressure spacing prod- Figure 3.2-13 shows the basic characteristic
uct pd = 2 bar mm is the same. of this function (thinner curve line). By appro-
Note: In the equations (3.2-13) ff, the gas density was priate choice of the constants A, B and J, good
replaced by the gas pressure p at a constant temperature agreement with real characteristics (thicker
T. According to kinetic gas theory, the gas density of an curve line) can be achieved.
ideal gas is proportional to p/T. If the influence of tem-
perature is considered, the breakdown voltage is The range of validity for the approximate
Vbd = f (pd/T) . (3.2-34) equation (3.2-35) is limited to the space-
charge-free discharge, which is described by
Very often, measurements are performed close the Townsend mechanism of consecutive ava-
to the standard room temperature T0 = 293 K lanches. This means that the space charge gen-
(i.e. 20°C) and (small) temperature and voltage erated by the avalanches must not distort the
deviations are taken into account by a voltage initial field too much. The transition region to
correction factor T0/T. However, this is only a space-charge-dominated streamer discharge
possible in temperature ranges where propor- is given in the range of
tionality exists between Vbd and pd/T, see Eq.
Dd | 14 ... 18. (3.2-36)
(6.3.1-2).
Note: In Eq. (3.2-30), the feedback coefficient (surface According to Eq. (3.2-3), this corresponds to
14 6 18 8
ionization coefficient) J was regarded as a constant an avalanche growth of e = 10 to e = 10
quantity, but this is not essential: Even if J according to electrons. In air and SF6 at room temperature,
Eq. (3.2-28) is regarded as a function of E/p = Vbd/(pd),
Paschen’s law according to Eq. (3.2-33) remains valid.
this value is approx. reached at

By means of the Townsend ignition condition pdair | 13 bar mm

Eq. (3.2-9) or (-29) and the analytical ap- and (3.2-37)
proximate equation (3.2-21) for Townsend’s pdSF6 | 10 bar mm,
first ionization coefficient D, an approximate
according to [16]. With very low pd values the
equation for the ignition voltage Vbd can be
ignition voltage Vbd theoretically approaches
derived in an analytical form:
infinitely high values, because there are no
-B/(E/p) longer enough gas molecules at short distances
Dd = A·pd·e = ln (1 + 1/J)
(or low pressures) for avalanche growth by
Note: For gases with low electron affinity, D can be re- collision ionization (short-distance/ low-pres-
garded as the effective ionization coefficient De = D - K,
sure breakdown).
if De is described by Eq. (3.2-23) with sufficient accu-
racy. For the strongly electron-affine SF6, Eq. (3.2-26) Note: According to Eq. (3.2-35), this condition would
must be used. be reached at

Additionally, we find with Eq. (3.2-31) (pd)f = {ln(1 + 1/J)}/A = k/A . (3.2-38)
176 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Vbd
Space-charge-free discharge Transition Space-charge-dominated dis.
region
Vacuum bd Townsend mechanism Streamer discharge (Raether)

Short- Long
distance/ distance/
Low- High-
pressure pressure Note:
discharge discharge A, B : Constants (Tab. 3.2-1)
k = ln (1 + J )
Vbd vac Vbd
Ebd = p e = 2.718: Base of the
pd D d | 14 ... 18 natural logarithms

in air approx. at
Paschen
pd | 13 bar mm
minimum
Vbd min = e·k·B/A
in SF6 approx. at
pd | 10 bar mm
(pd)min = e·k/A
0
pd
(pd)f = k/A

Figure 3.2-13: Paschen's law as an analytically determined approximation (thinner curve lines) and
as a real curve (thicker curve lines). For the higher pd values, the diagram corresponds approximately
to a log-log diagram (schematic).

For air, with the values from table 3.2-1 and with J =
The Paschen curve is characterized by high
0.025 (see table 3.2-2) or k = 3.7, the value (pd)f =
breakdown voltages at very low and at high pd
3.3 bar·Pm is calculated. At atmospheric pressure, this
values. In between, there is a minimum, Figure
would correspond to a flashover distance d = 3.3 μm. 3.2-13.
At low pd values, the breakdown voltage in-
In fact, this theoretical case does not occur creases because the number of molecules that
because electrons are released directly from are available for collisions decreases (short-
the cathode by field emission at short distances distance/ low-pressure breakdown).
and high field strengths. Because of the elec-
tron impact on the anode, metal ions are re- High pd values are given at long distances or
leased, so that a conductive metal-vapor high pressures respectively (long-distance/
plasma is generated. This process is known as high-pressure breakdown). Long distances d
a vacuum breakdown (Section 3.7). The corresponds to a reduction of field strength E.
model of consecutive avalanches according to High pressures p reduce the free path length
the Townsend mechanism is no longer appli- that is available for the acceleration of elec-
cable. The breakdown voltage Vbd vac in vac- trons. According to Eq. (3.2-21) there is a re-
uum depends on the flashover distance (elec- duction of the ionization coefficient D in both
trode spacing) d and on the electrode materi- cases.
als. Therefore, the V-pd-characteristic (Figure
The minimum of the Paschen curve (Paschen
3.2-13) for very low pd values is an example
minimum), which can be derived from Eq.
only.
3.2 Gas Discharges 177

(3.2-35) by extremum determination, is given voltages occur for materials with low work
as function Wa and high corresponding surface
(pd)min = e·{ln(1 + 1/J)}/A ionization coefficient (feedback coefficient) J.
= e·k/A
Table 3.2-3: Paschen minima
= e·(pd)f (3.2-39) for different gases [16], [46].

and Gas Vbd min/ V (pd)min/ bar·μm

Vbd min = e·{ln(1 + 1/J)}·B/A
SF6 507 3.5
= e·k·B/A O2 450 9.3
CO2 420 6.8
= e·B·(pd)f
Air 330 ..... 350 7.3
= B·(pd)min . (3.2-40) N2 240 ..... 250 8.6
H2 230 ..... 270 14

Example: Paschen minimum for air Ne 129 ..... 245 53.2

Ar 94 ..... 265 -
He 155 53.2
With the values in table 3.2-1 and with J =
0.025 or k = 3.7. (See table 3.2-2), Eq. (3.2-39)
gives the value (pd)min = 9 bar·Pm for air at Example: Spark-gap lightning arresters
room temperature. This is close to the actual
pd value of the minimum. At atmospheric pres- Because of the above-mentioned reasons, gas-filled
sure, the minimum is expected for an electrode lightning arresters are filled with inert gases and the
arrester spark gaps are operated in the region of the
spacing d = 9 μm. For a distance d = 10 mm, Paschen minimum if low sparkover voltages are re-
the minimum breakdown voltage is given for a quired [50]. By a special choice of electrode materials
pressure p = 0.9 mbar = 90 Pa. (e.g. cesium Cs or barium Ba) and inert gas mixtures
(e.g. neon Ne with a small percentage of argon Ar), low
The minimum breakdown voltage for air is Vbd min = sparkover voltages in the range of 100 V can be
250 V, if B = 27.4 kV/(mm·bar) is inserted into Eq. achieved [480].
(3.2-40). The actual minimum breakdown voltage is Vbd
min = 350 V according to experiments. This difference
Another approximation for the breakdown
could be caused by a different value of the feedback voltage (ignition voltage ) Vbd can be derived
coefficient J: From Vbd min = 350 V and from Eq. (3.2- if a quadratic ansatz
40) it is concluded that (pd)min equals 12.8 bar·Pm. 2
According to Eq. (3.2-39), this corresponds to the value De/p a {(E/p - (E/p)0} (3.2-41)
k = 5.3 and the feedback coefficient (surface ionization
-3
coefficient) J = 5·10 . for the effective ionization coefficient De is
inserted into the ignition condition (3.2-29),
Below the minimum breakdown voltage (igni- instead of the exponential ansatz according to
tion voltage ) gas breakdown is not possible. Eq. (3.2-21). Gases with a high electron affin-
Table 3.2-3 gives values for some gases. It can ity and with significant attachment coefficients
be seen that the electron-affine gases SF6, O2 K can also be described in this manner, in
and CO2 have a significantly higher minimum contrast to the equations (3.2-21) and (-35).
breakdown voltage than air. For the inert The solution for Vbd is
gases, which are not electron-affine, the gas
1/2
constants B (see table 3.2-1) and the minimum Vbd = (E/p)0·pd + c·(pd) . (3.2-42)
breakdown voltages are low, see Eq. (3.3-40).
Additionally the values vary significantly with with the constants according to table 3.2-4. For
electrode material. Low minimum breakdown pd o 0, Vbd also approaches zero. Therefore,
178 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

the short-distance/ low-pressure breakdown Note: Very often the breakdown strength of atmospheric
physics is not described correctly by this ap- air under standard conditions is given as Êbd = 30
proximation, but it is restricted to higher pd kV/cm = 3 kV/mm. According to Figure 3.2-15, this is
only a guide value for distances in the range of a few
values. centimeters.
Table 3.2-4: Constants for the approximate Note: The high electric strength of SF6 can also be used
equation (3.2-42) at room temperature. in gas mixtures, e.g. in mixtures with nitrogen N2. Even
Gas (E/p)0 c a SF6 content of 20 % is sufficient to reach 70 % of the
dielectric strength of the pure SF6 gas [22]. This also
see Figure 3.2-12
means that slight contamination by other gases does not
kV kV significantly affect the dielectric strength of the elec-
1/2
mm·bar (mm·bar) tron-affine gas.

SF6 8.80 0.27 [39] Eq. (3.2-35) gives the typical Paschen mini-
6.61 2.19 [45] mum for helium (curve 1) and air (curve 2),
CO2 3.21 5.88 [39] Figure 3.2-14. Eq. (3.2-42) no longer describes
Air 1.85 3.87 [39] the region of the minimum correctly. There-
2.43 2.01 [45] fore, calculated curves for air (curve 3) and
2.44 2.12 [16] SF6 (curve 4) differ significantly from reality
N2 2.44 4.85 [39]
in the region of low pd values. Eq. (3.2-42)
H2 1.01 2.42 [39] must only be used for higher pd values. Eq.
(3.2-43) gives a curve for SF6 (curve 5) with-
Instead of the quadratic ansatz (3.2-41), a lin- out describing the strength recovery below the
ear ansatz according to Eq. (3.2-26) is also Paschen minimum.
used for sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), because of
its high electron affinity: The division of breakdown voltage Vbd by the
electrode distance d gives the breakdown field
De/p ki{(E/p) - (E/p)0} strength Ebd for a given pressure (e.g. p = 1
In the region close to the zero crossing, this bar, Figure 3.2-15). The breakdown field
allows positive or negative values depending strength increases with decreasing distance d
on whether ionizations or attachments domi- because of a decreasing probability of ionizing
nate. A rapid increase of the effective ioniza- collisions between the electrodes. The break-
tion coefficient De with the related field down field strengths of SF6 and air approach
strength E/p can also be described, Figure 3.2- constant values with increasing electrode dis-
12. tances.
-6 A lower limit results from the fact that the
With k = 14 (J = 10 ), ki = 27.7/kV and (E/p)0 field strength has at least to be high enough to
= 8.84 kV/(mm·bar), the ignition condition achieve an effective ionization coefficient De =
gives
D - K that is positive, Figure 3.2-12. This
Vbd = pd·8.84 kV/(mm·bar) + 0.5 kV . (3.2-43) means that an electron avalanche is only pos-
sible if the generation of new electrons by col-
Figures 3.2-14 and -15 show numerically lisions outweighs electron attachment. The
evaluated curves related to the approximate ionization coefficient D has to be bigger than
Eqs. (3.2-35), (-42) and (-43). Field strengths the attachment coefficient K. Values for the
were determined by dividing voltages by elec- corresponding field strength limit (E/p)0 are
trode spacings. The figures show that SF6 has
given in table 3.2-4.
a significantly higher electric strength than air.
The electric strength of helium and other inert The influence of the electrodes has previ-
gases is comparatively low. ously been accounted for by the feedback co-
3.2 Gas Discharges 179

1000
V bd
(5) SF6
kV 300
(4) SF6
100
T = 293 K
30
(3) Air
10
(2) Air
3
(2) Air
1
(5) SF6 (1) He Helium
0,3
(3) Air
0,1

(4) SF6 pd
0,03 bar·mm

0,01
0,001 0,003 0,01 0,03 0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100

Figure 3.2-14: Calculated breakdown voltages as function of pd (Paschen curve) for diffenrent gases:
(1) Helium and (2) air according to eq. (3.2-35) and table 3.2-1 with k = 5.
(3) Air und (4) sulfur hexafluoride according to eq. (3.2-42) and table 3.2-4.
(5) Sulfur hexafluoride according to eq. (3.2-43).

100 Lower
E
bd limit
kV/mm 30 for
(5) SF6 D e = 0:
10 SF6
(2) Air
3
Air

1 p = 1 bar
(1) He Helium
0,3
d /mm
0,1
0,001 0,003 0,01 0,03 0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100

Figure 3.2-15: Calculated electrical breakdown field strengths as function of the electrode distance d for diffenent
gases at normal pressure (p = 1 bar) and normal temperature (T = 293 K). Equations and legend see fig. 3.2-14.
180 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

efficient (surface ionization coefficient) J. At avalanches.

higher pd values, the influence of J is weak
because of a twofold logarithmation in Eq. Example: Treatment of electrode surfaces
(3.2-35). Much stronger influences on break- Special requirements can be fulfilled by polished elec-
down voltages are exerted by the surface trodes which must not show any damages (scratches,
roughness of the electrodes. As was already craters, tips etc.).
shown in Figure 2.3-18 and Eq. (2.3-62), mi- If electrode defects cannot be completely excluded, it
croscopic surface elevations (e.g. burrs, has proved to be advantageous to sand-blast the sur-
scratches, craters, tips, edges etc.) can cause faces in order to achieve uniform roughness and to
microscopic field stress enhancements ex- eliminate extreme defects [50].
ceeding the background field several times. Under the influence of moderate discharges, defects
Nevertheless, field stress enhancement is only like deposits or metallic tips are often burned off and a
local and decreases quickly towards the back- conditioning of the surface takes place. Nevertheless,
ground field strength with increasing distance new craters can be formed under the influence of high-
from the surface. Figure 3.2-15 shows that current discharges.
breakdown field strengths in the region of a In many cases, spark gaps have to be conditioned by a
few 10 μm are significantly higher than in the number of discharges in order to ensure reproducible
millimeter region. According to Eq. (3.2-9b), sparkover behavior. In doing so, pre-ignitions at com-
the inception of a discharge in the non-uniform paratively low voltages can frequently be observed. A
field close to a rough surface is determined by simple cleaning of the surface is normally not sufficient
because residual lint and fibers on the surface cannot be
the integral ³D(x)dx. This means that the num- completely excluded.
³D(x)dx
ber of electrons e in an avalanche has to
reach a value corresponding to sufficient feed-
back to the cathode for the initiation of new
3.2.3 Space-charge-dominated
Discharge, Streamer Discharge

E0 Initial electrons for subse- If the avalanche, which is triggered by an ini-

quent avalanches are gene- 6 8
tial electron, grows up to 10 to 10 electrons,
rated by photoionization
the electric field in the environment of the av-
x alanche is significantly influenced by space
charges, Figure 3.2-16. Comparatively immo-
v bile positive ions remain in the avalanche tail.
Electrons that are much more mobile form a
negative and approximately spherical ava-
(-) Cathode
lanche head. Its diameter increases with in-
E (x ) creasing path length because of diffusion proc-
esses.
E max
In relation to the background field E0, a large
E0 field-strength enhancement E(x) = Emax is
caused by space charges at the front of the
x avalanche head. Therefore the number of ion-
izing collisions and photon-emitting recombi-
nation increases.
Figure 3.2-16: Distortion of the electric background
field by space charges of a discharge avalanche on
the axis of the avalanche. The diameter of the ava-
The emitted photons cause photoionization in
lanche head increases with increasing path length the gas volume and generate initial electrons
because of electron diffusion. for consecutive avalanches in the area around
3.2 Gas Discharges 181

the first avalanche’s head, Figure 3.2-16. The means that the effective ionization coefficient
superposition of all the avalanches quickly De = D - K according to Eq. (3.2-25) and Fig-
generates a conductive streamer, Figure 3.2- ure 3.2-12 has to be greater than zero. A
17. Therefore, the mechanism is known as a breakdown is not possible below that field
streamer mechanism or streamer discharge. strength limit (approximate values according
to [16]):
Note: The streamer need not necessarily start at the
cathode. If the first avalanche starts within the gas vol- (E/p)0 = 24.4 kV/(cm·bar) for air (3.2-45)
ume, photoionizations cause the progression of both an
anode-directed streamer and a cathode-directed (E/p)0 = 87.7 kV/(cm·bar) for SF6 (3.2-46)
streamer.
Note: Surface roughness or particles may cause local
Photoionizations in the gas volume cause very non-uniformities of the field and apparently lower field
fast bridging of long distances. A conductive strength limits [16]. This effect results in different
path (streamer) is already formed during the statements on field strength limits, see table 3.2-4.
propagation time of a single avalanche, Figure
Furthermore, the number of electrons has to
3.2-17. Because of the high field strength and
reach the critical value
the secondary avalanches running ahead, the
streamer propagates towards the anode with 6 8
Ncrit = 10 ... 10 . (3.2-47)
high velocity. In air at atmospheric pressure
and in a uniform field, the streamer velocity is Raether’s ignition condition for the streamer
approximately mechanism in non-uniform fields is given by
analogy with Townsend’s ignition condition
vst | 100 cm/Ps . (3.2-44a) for the avalanche-generation mechanism in
uniform fields according to Eq. (3.2-9):
Note: In strongly non-uniform fields, the background
field is rapidly decreasing and consecutive avalanches d
can only start close to the avalanche’s head. The veloc- { ³ (D K ) dx }
ity of streamer propagation e0 t N crit (3.2-48)
vst | 10 cm/Ps (3.2-44b) d

is therefore significantly reduced.

³ (D  K ) dx t ln {N crit } kst 14....18
0
(3.2-49)
It is a precondition for breakdown that the
generation of electrons by collision ionization This means that the ignition condition for the
outweighs the attachment of electrons. This streamer mechanism formally resembles

2
1
2
Figure 3.2-17: A physical
model describing the 0 2
space-charge-dominated
discharge, i.e. the streamer 2
mechanism according to 2
Raether. 1
1
0,1,2,... Starting times for
avalanches
Ignition of new
E
avalanches by (-) Cathode Anode (+)
photoionization.
182 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Townsend’s ignition condition Eq. (3.2-9). a positive ionization coefficient. If the critical
Nevertheless, streamer inception is determined number of electrons Ncrit is reached in doing
by the factor kst which is different from factor so, the avalanche has generated enough space
k = ln (1 + 1/J), the latter being related to the charge for a further self-sustaining growth into
feedback coefficient J (surface ionization coef- the low field region. Otherwise the number of
ficient). electrons decreases by attachment processes
and the ignition condition is not fulfilled, fig
Note: The transition from the Townsend mechanism to 3.2-18 (bottom).
the streamer mechanism is smooth, as can be seen from
the (lower) field strength limits according to Figure 3.2-
15. The ignition condition in the non-uniform field
can also be interpreted with Eq. (3.2-51) as
For air at standard atmospheric conditions and follows: In Figure 3.2-18 (middle), the high-
for a uniform field, Eq. (3.2-42) is lighted “voltage area” above E/p = (E/p)0 has
-1/2 -1/2
Vbd = d·2.44 kV/mm + d ·2.12 kV/mm
(3.2-50) E

if the quadratic ansatz for De/p according to x

DK
! DK

Eq. (3.2-41) is chosen [16].

For the description of SF6 the linear ansatz

according to Eq. (3.2-43) is more suitable.
With the field strength limit (E/p)0 = 8.87
kV/(mm·bar) and with ki = 27.7/kV the igni- E(x ) /p
tion condition Eq. (3.2-49) results in DK
! DK

d
kst k st
³ { E  p ˜ ( E / p ) 0 } dx t
ki
0.5....0.7 kV .
ki
0
(E/p)0
(3.2-51)
x
In agreement with Eq. (3.2-43) it is found that
the total voltage can exceed the voltage calcu-
N(x )
lated from the field strength limit by 0.5 to 0.7 DK
! DK

kV only [16]:
Ignition condition
Vbd = pd·8.77 kV/(bar·mm) + 0.7 kV (3.2-52)
fulfilled
The ignition condition (3.2-48) and (-49) is N crit
also valid in the non-uniform field, Figure 3.2-
not fulfilled x
18. In regions with high field strength charge
carrier generation by collision ionization is x0 d
predominant (D > K). In regions with low field
strength the attachment of electrons (D < K) Figure 3.2-18: Development of electron avalanches in
predominates. a nonuniform field close to a negative electrode tip.
Top: Regions with positive and negative
In Eq. (3.2-48) and (-49) the integration is not effective ionization coefficients.
Middle: Field strength curve along the x-axis.
to be performed until x = d, but it is sufficient Bottom: Avalanche development with electron num-
to integrate until x = x0 within the region with bers above and below the critical number.
3.2 Gas Discharges 183

to exceed the value kst/ki. The value for SF6 is during the formative time lag tf (streamer for-
approximately 0.7 kV. mation delay), Figure 3.2-19. The formation of
a high current discharge and the final voltage
Note: For non-uniform SF6 insulations the critical collapse coincide with a comparatively short
electron number Nkrit can be reached even for compara- time of voltage collapse tc, which is deter-
tively short path lengths x, in comparison with air for
example. This is caused by a strong increase of the
mined by the spark resistance laws and by the
effective ionization coefficient De with E/p above the elements and properties of the discharge cir-
field strength limit (E/p)0 = 8.87 kV/(bar·mm). There- cuit. During the total time to breakdown
fore, very limited local field strength enhancements by
surface roughness or particles can trigger a streamer tT = t0 + ts + tf + tc (3.2-53)
mechanism, even if the field strength limit is not yet
reached in the macroscopic field. the stressing voltage v(t) with the peak value
Vmax can significantly exceed the static break-
The sensitivity of SF6 insulations against surface down voltage V0. This means that the impulse
roughness and contaminations by particles requires
special care during manufacturing and assembly proc- factor
esses of gas-insulated switchgear (GIS). Therefore, they
have to be tested on-site for freedom form partial dis-
f = Vmax/V0 (3.2-54)
charges after the final assembly.
can be much greater than one.
The former considerations are basically valid Note: The sum of statistical and formative time
in non-uniform fields both for negative and lags
positive point electrodes. During the integra-
tion procedure according to Eq. (3.2-48) and tbd = ts + tf (3.2-55)
(-49) it has to be considered that the avalanche is also known as the discharge time lag. Very
grows in the +x direction for a negative and in
often, the time of voltage collapse tc is com-
the –x direction for a positive point respec-
tively. paratively short and can be neglected.
The statistical time lag ts is caused by the
stochastic character of electron generation by
3.2.4 Impulse and High-frequency ionizing radiation and thermal processes. The
Breakdown

3.2.4.1 Statistical and Formative Time Lag Initial electron Voltage

is present collapses
(Discharge Delay)
v(t)
Only static breakdown voltages and field
V max
strengths have been considered previously.
This means that the voltage is applied over Voltage-
such a long period or is increased so slowly time "area"
A Static
that breakdown delay effects cannot be ob- V0
served at all. breakdown
voltage
In the case of fast rising voltages it has to be
considered that breakdown does not occur di-
rectly at t = t0 when the voltage exceeds the t
t0 ts tf tc
static sparkover voltage V0. Breakdown cannot
develop before an initial electron occurs after
Figure 3.2-19: Discharge delay by the statistical time
the statistical time lag ts (ignition delay) and lag and by the formative time lag for a transient
before a conductive streamer has developed voltage stress (impulse voltage).
184 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

time lag decreases with an increasing highly field emission of electrons at high overvoltag-
stressed gas volume as the probability for the es.
generation of an initial electron increases with
Note: Very high values of statistical time lags are meas-
an increasing critically stressed gas volume ured in small voids, bubbles or cavities within dielectric
(volume-time characteristic). materials. The probability for the presence of an initial
electron is significantly reduced in small enclosed gas
Because of statistical size effects according to volumes, see Section 3.6.1.2.
Section 3.1.3, the 50 % value of the ignition
delay time (i.e. the statistical time lag ts50) The formative time lag tf from the first ava-
decreases with increasing number of critically lanche to the formation of a conductive chan-
stressed volume elements 'V, Figure 3.2-20. nel (i.e. the spark formation time) can have
Thereby, Wm = 1 - Fm is the probability for the very different values.
absence of an initial electron in m volume el- If Townsend’s generation mechanism is con-
ements 'V, which decreases with increasing sidered, many consecutive avalanche and ion
volume. For very large volumes, ts50 therefore transit times are required for the formation of a
becomes very small. In a given volume, the conductive channel. The formative time lag is
probability F(ts) for the presence of an initial of the order of 10 μs.
electron (initiating an avalanche) approaches 1
with increasing ignition delay time ts. The Townsend mechanism can only occur for
small pd values and for voltages close to the
The statistical time lag for air is in the region static breakdown voltage V0. At high overvolt-
of a few 10 ns only if the electrode distances ages according to Figure 3.2-19, the ionization
are longer than 1 mm [39]. Longer statistical coefficient D increases significantly. There-
time lags can be found for SF6, because of the fore, the transition to the streamer mechanism
attachment of free electrons to gas molecules. occurs even for significantly smaller pd val-
ues, and the streamer mechanism can be as-
The statistical time lag can be practically sumed in most of the practical cases.
eliminated by irradiation of the cathode with The propagation velocity (growth velocity) of
ionizing ultraviolet light. Furthermore, it can the streamer channel
be reduced by a very rough cathode surface
with local field stress enhancements causing u(x, t) = dx/dt (3.2-56a)
increases with E(x,t) if the reference field
strength for streamer inception E0(x) is ex-
F (t ) Wf = 0 V of
s ceeded [418]. Assuming a proportionality, it
100 %
can be stated that
m
Wm = W1 V = m· 'V
u(x,t) = K·{E(x,t) – E0(x)}. (3.2-56b)
If the dependence of the field strength on the
50 % W1
V = 1· 'V variables position x and time t is described by
the functions g(x) and v(t), i.e. by
E(x,t) = g(x) · u(t) , (3.2-56c)
0 it is concluded that
t t t t
s50(f) s50 (m) s50(1) s
dx/dt = u(x,t) = K · g(x) · {v(t) – V0} .
Figure 3.2-20: Statistical size effect for the decreasing
the statistical time lag with the increasing critically After separation of the variables x and t, two
stressed gas volume. corresponding integrations from one electrode
3.2 Gas Discharges 185

to the other (along x from x = 0 to d) and from Voltage

the beginning of streamer formation to the collapses
beginning of voltage breakdown (over t from t
L
= t0 + ts to t0 + ts + tf) can be performed: circuit
v (t)
i (t)
d t0  ts  tf
dx
䌿K ·g ( x) 䌿 {v(t ) - V0 } dt . (3.2-56d) R (t) v (t)
0 t0  ts sp
C
stray
According to Figure 3.2-19, the right hand side tc
of the equation describes a voltage-time area A
below the voltage curve v(t) and above the
reference voltage V0. The area is related to t
streamer formation only and can therefore be
called a formative area.

Note: Below the reference voltage V0, the conditions for Figure 3.2-21: Ringing discharge process of a (stray)
streamer formation are not fulfilled and streamers are capacitance and collapse of the voltage after
not possible. The reference voltage is nearly identical fomation of a conductive streamer.
with the static breakdown voltage.
comparatively small gas volume with high
The voltage-time area A is also identical with field strength. Thereby, they show a higher
the left hand side of Eq. (3.2-56d), which ex- scatter and the formative time lag is prolonged,
clusively consists of geometric quantities and because of the decreasing streamer velocity in
gas properties. Therefore, A is a constant the low-field region, Eq. (3.2-56b).
quantity which is typical for a given arrange-
ment (Kind’s voltage-time law or equal area The time tc that is necessary for the final col-
criterion) [418]: lapse of the voltage corresponds to the spark
formation time. It depends on the parameters
t0 ts tf of the discharge circuit and the time-dependent
䌿{v(t ) - V0}dt A const. (3.2-56e) values of the spark resistance Rsp(t). In most
t0 ts cases, the final breakdown causes a damped
ringing during the discharging of stray and
If the formative area A is related to the static circuit capacitances via the circuit inductance
breakdown voltage V0, a characteristic time and Rsp(t), Figure 3.2-21. A quarter-cycle is
A/V0 is defined for the given arrangement. It approximately equivalent to the time of volt-
can vary between 10 ns (for nearly uniform age collapse tc.
arrangements) and some 100 ns. A/V0 is
strongly dependent on the field efficiency Note: Very fast voltage collapses in the region of a few
ns can occur in gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) because
factor K, but not so much on the flashover of the small distances and low inductances. For exam-
distance d [418]. ple, the time constant of the current increase during
discharging of a line with the characteristic line imped-
Note: For very non-uniform arrangements, the formative ance ZW = 50 : is W = L/ZW = 2 ns only, if the induc-
area A can also be related to the flashover distance d. tance of a ten centimeter long discharge channel is ap-
For air-insulated point-to-plane arrangements, the con- proximately L = 10 cm·1 nH/mm = 100 nH, see Figure
stants A/d = 400 kV·μs/m (negative point) and 650 2.6-8. Furthermore, the voltage collapse at enhanced
kV·μs/m (positive point) are given as approximate val- pressure can be extremely fast in electron-affine gases,
ues [16]. Section 3.2.7.1 and Eq. (3.2-92). Thereby, traveling
waves are excited on the weakly damped lines, causing
In non-uniform fields discharge delay times are significant overvoltages (fast transients, Section
longer than in uniform fields, because of the 2.6.3.1). Voltage collapses in air-insulated equipment
186 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

are significantly slower because of longer spark forma-

tion times, longer insulating distances and higher circuit v (t)
inductances.

A (1)

3.2.4.2 Voltage-time Characteristics A (2)

If it is assumed that the statistical time lag and

the time of voltage collapse are negligible in A (3)

comparison with the formative time lag tf, the

A (4)
impulse voltage-time characteristic for the
breakdown process can be determined from V0
(5)
the equal area criterion (Kind’s voltage-time
law) according to Eq. (3.2-56e), see Figure t
3.2-22:

For a given impulse voltage curve v(t) (e.g. Figure 3.2-22: Determination of a voltage-time char-
lightning impulse voltage 1.2/50 μs) and for a acteristic according to Kind's equal area criterion
given arrangement with static breakdown A=const. for a lightning impulse voltage 1.2/50 μs.
voltage V0 and voltage-time area A, an initial
electron should be present immediately after cantly up to some kV before they are chopped by a gas
breakdown. Therefore, only coarse protection is real-
exceeding V0, i.e. the statistical time lag is ized, e.g. in order to divert high lightning currents. Sen-
neglected (ts = 0). Thereby, an avalanche/ sitive components have to be protected additionally by
streamer starts and approaches the electrodes. an electronic fine protection.
Breakdown occurs as a voltage collapse when
The voltage-time characteristic is strongly de-
a conductive streamer is formed between the
pendent on the shape of the corresponding
electrodes. This is assumed after the voltage-
impulse voltage curve. This can easily be ex-
time area A is reached, see curves no (1) to (4)
plained by the equal area criterion. Voltage-
in Figure 3.2-22. If the necessary voltage-time
time characteristics measured with the stan-
area is not reached although V0 is exceeded,
dard lightning impulse voltage (1.2/50 μs)
streamer growth stops before a conductive cannot be directly applied to other voltage
channel between the electrodes develops and curves.
the breakdown no longer occurs, (curve no. 5).
Measured breakdown times often show a large
The impulse voltage-time characteristic is de- scatter. On one hand, the scatter results from
termined from the correlation of breakdown the statistical time lag and from the variation
times and voltage peak values of the consid- of the formative time lag especially in non-
ered voltage curve. The voltage-time charac- uniform fields. On the other hand, limited vari-
teristic increases towards shorter times. ations of the area A have a significant impact
on the breakdown time if the voltage curve is
It is of general importance in high voltage close to the limit case of the criterion, see Fig-
engineering that electrical stress amplitudes ure 3.2-22 curve (4).
can be increased if stress durations are re-
duced (impulse voltage-time characteristic). Therefore, the empirical determination of a
voltage-time characteristic gives a broad band.
Example: Spark-gap lightning arrester If enough data are available, cumulative fre-
Spark-gap lightning arresters can be built with low static quency polygons for breakdown times can be
breakdown voltages V0 close to 100 V if they are filled considered and curves for breakdown prob-
with inert gases. Because of their voltage-time charac- abilities of 5 % and 95 % can be calculated
teristic, fast rising overvoltages can overshoot signifi- enclosing 90 % of the expected breakdowns.
3.2 Gas Discharges 187

In many cases the Gaussian normal distribu- vessel in order to achieve a very fast voltage collapse
tion is applied and the breakdown band can be (see Figure 3.2-21, comments above and Section
3.2.7.1).
delimited by the threefold empirical standard
deviation on both sides of the arithmetic mean In uniform and weakly non-uniform fields
value tm. Thereby, estimates for a certain with- there are high field strengths along the entire
stand time tm - 3V and a certain breakdown path between the electrodes and favorable
time tm + 3V are calculated according to Sec- conditions to streamer propagation exist if the
tion 3.1.2.2. reference voltage V0 is exceeded. Therefore,
the streamer propagation velocity according to
Note: Instead of the breakdown time the breakdown Eq. (3.2-44a) is high, the formative time lag tf
voltage can also be regarded as a random variable.
is short and the voltage-time area A is small,
Example: Chopping spark gap see Eq. (3.3-56). Voltage-time characteristics
During testing of high-voltage equipment (transformers, are comparatively flat down to a few 100 ns.
bushings etc.) tests often have to be performed with
“chopped lightning impulses” in order to simulate the In strongly non-uniform fields the streamer
impact of very fast voltage transients. For this purpose, propagation velocity is significantly reduced in
a chopping spark gap is connected in parallel to the test the low-field regions, see Eq. (3.2-44b). There-
object; the gap has to spark over within a time interval
between 4 and 6 μs [52].
fore, the formative time lag tA is long and the
voltage-time area A is large. Voltage-time
If it is not possible to use a triggered spark gap which
can be specifically ignited at a predefined time, prelimi-
characteristics show a significant increase
nary tests are necessary in order to determine the scatter towards shorter times.
of the breakdown times at a given test voltage ampli-
tude. If necessary, the electrode distance has to be ad- Example: Insulation coordination
justed so that all breakdowns occur within the specified Outdoor installations and simple protective air-gaps
time interval. have voltage-time characteristics with comparatively
Note: During the testing of components for gas-insu- high gradients because of their non- uniform fields and
lated switchgear (e.g. grading capacitors) very fast long flashover distances, Figure 3.2-23. Gas-insulated
voltage collapses are required in order to simulate the switchgear (SF6 insulated GIS) with more uniform
impact of fast transients. Very short streamer formation fields and with shorter flashover distances have only
times cannot be achieved in a spatially extended impulse gently sloping voltage-time characteristics. If the refer-
circuit with an air gap, therefore “chopping under SF6” ence voltage V0 is the same, a breakdown is to be ex-
is often required. For this purpose, the chopping spark pected at first in SF6, unless the stress in the GIS is
gap is integrated into the enclosed and SF6 insulated test reduced by traveling wave refractions.
Valve-type/ spark-gap arresters are made of a series
v (t) connection of spark gaps with a non-linear SiC resistor.
The spark gaps have a flat voltage-time characteristic in
order to fulfill their protective function, including for
(1) fast rising overvoltages, according to the principles of
insulation coordination. Modern metal-oxide arresters
no longer need spark gaps, Section 6.1.4.3.

(2)
3.2.4.3 High-frequency Breakdown

(3)
In contrast to transient impulse stresses, high-
frequency stresses are long-lasting.
~ 1 μs
t
With increasing frequency up to 1 MHz, the
breakdown strength of air at standard atmos-
Figure 3.2-23: Voltage-time characteristics for a
simple air-gap (1), an insulating gap in a GIS (2) pheric conditions decreases down to 80 % of
and a lightning arrester (3). the 50 Hz strength [46]. This is caused by re-
188 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

moval of mobile electrons close to the anode Then, the ionization coefficient has to be inte-
and by residual positive ions which form a grated along the electron path x according to
positive space charge cloud. After the polarity Eq. (3.2-9b). Unfortunately, there is no univer-
reversal, the positive space charge is in front sally valid result such as Paschen’s law for the
of the cathode and increases the local field uniform field, but rather the result depends on
strength significantly. the individual field geometry in this case.
The breakdown strength increases again above In weakly non-uniform fields, there are fa-
3 MHz. Then, the electrons cannot follow the vorable ionization conditions with De > 0
fast changing field without decelerating and along the whole path between the electrodes if
the field distortion by residual positive ions no the field strength is sufficiently high. As soon
longer occurs. Additionally, the statistical dis- as the ignition condition for the Townsend or
charge delay has a strength-increasing effect. the streamer mechanism is fulfilled, break-
At 100 MHz the strength is 1.5 to 1.6 times down occurs immediately. Pre-discharges do
higher than at 50 Hz [46]. not occur above a critical field efficiency fac-
In non-uniform fields, high-frequency pre-dis- tor Kc, Figure 3.2-24. For air under standard
charges (both corona and surface discharges) atmospheric conditions, the critical value is Kc
show higher currents and higher light intensi- | 0.2.
ties than low-frequency pre-discharges be-
cause the low-field regions can be bridged In strongly non-uniform fields, high field
more easily by higher displacement currents, strengths and favorable ionization conditions
which are proportional to frequency. This (De > 0) only occur close to the curved elec-
causes a reduction of breakdown strength be- trode surface if the field efficiency factor K is
cause of the early inception of leader dis- below the critical value Kc. In the low-field
charges, see Section 3.2.5. region, De becomes negative for electron-af-
Note: In solids (and sometimes also in liquids) there are fine gases (SF6, oxygen and air), because of
dielectric losses (dissipation) that strongly increase with predominant electron attachment processes,
frequency. If heat transfer conditions are too unfavor- Figure 3.2-18. If the ignition condition is ful-
able, thermal instability and the so-called thermal
breakdown can occur at comparatively low voltages (in
filled at the curved electrode, pre-discharges
comparison with 50 Hz), see Section 3.5.2. (corona discharges) occur without immedi-
ately causing breakdown. They begin as glow
discharges (Townsend mechanism) at the
curved electrode surface in the high-field re-
3.2.5 Discharges in Non-uniform gion only. With increasing voltage, space-
Fields charge dominated streamer discharges (bunch
discharges) start, which can propagate into the
3.2.5.1 Pre-discharges and Breakdown low-field region as long as the background
field is strong enough. If the background field
Prior to the ignition of a gas discharge in a strength is too low for streamer growth, the
non-uniform field, space-charge-free condi- streamer fades away. The remaining low-field
tions can certainly be assumed, but the field is gas volume between discharge head and
not uniform, as was assumed for the derivation counter-electrode is an ohmic-capacitive im-
of Townsend’s ignition condition, Section pedance stabilizing the pre-discharge, Figure
3.2.2.1. For the calculation of electron ava- 3.2-3b.
lanche growth and for the determination of an
ignition condition, it is necessary to consider Note: The stabilization of glow discharges in a strongly
the variation of the ionization coefficient D(E) non-uniform field can be explained by the following
simplified model [2]: The pre-discharge at a curved
with the field strength E(x) and with the loca- electrode shall approximately be regarded as an increase
tion D(E(x)) respectively, see Eq. (3.2-10). of the effective electrode radius [2]. If a concentric outer
3.2 Gas Discharges 189

Vi , Vbd For very long flashover distances (more than 1

m), sufficiently long stress durations and suffi-
Breakdown ciently fast voltage-time responses, the
voltage streamer growth, which is driven by collision
Vd ionization and photoionization, can be intensi-
Pre-discharge fied by thermal ionization. Thereby, a high-
(corona) inception current and bright channel is formed, which is
voltage known as a leader or leader discharge. At the
Vi head of the leader there are divergent streamer
bunches supplying the leader’s channel with
strongly weakly nonuniform field the current that is necessary for thermal ioni-
zation. The conditions for leader discharges in
20 % 100 %
Field efficiency factor K atmospheric air, at distances of some meters
and voltage amplitudes of many 100 kV are
fulfilled for a switching impulse voltage of
250/2500 μs (positive point electrode) or a
power frequency voltage (half-cycle with pos-
itive point electrode) due to displacement
currents and current durations, but not for
Figure 3.2-24: Pre-discharge (corona) inception lightning impulses or DC voltages.
and breakdown voltage in strongly and weakly
non-uniform fields at constant electrode distances.
3.2.5.2 Polarity Effect
conductor with the radius Ra is assumed, there is a
minimum field strength for a specific radius of the inner In a non-uniform field, there is a significant
conductor, e.g. Ri min = Ra/e for cylindrically symmetric difference between the corona inception volt-
arrangements, see Section 2.3.1.2 and 2.3.1.3. If the age and the breakdown voltage, which are both
radius of the glow discharge is smaller than Ri min strongly dependent on polarity. For a negative
(strongly non-uniform field), an increasing glow radius
point electrode, the pre-discharge inception
would cause a decreasing field strength and a stabiliza-
tion of the pre-discharge. For radii that are greater than voltage is comparatively low, but breakdown
Ri min (weakly non-uniform field), an increasing glow only occurs at comparatively high voltages.
radius would cause an increasing field strength. The For a positive point electrode, the pre-dis-
glow radius would no longer be stable and breakdown charge inception voltage is comparatively
would occur immediately, which is in agreement with high, but the breakdown occurs at compara-
Figure 3.2-24.
tively low voltages (polarity effect). The rea-
son for this apparently inconsistent behavior is
The inception voltage Vi of pre-discharges
the formation of a positive space charge close
(corona discharges) decreases with decreasing to the point electrode. It will be explained for
field efficiency factor (i.e. with increasing the example of a point-to-plane arrangement
non-uniformity of the field), Figure 3.2-24. with a very non-uniform electric background
The breakdown voltage Vbd is stabilized at a field Eg, Figure 3.2-25:
higher level because of space charge clouds
shielding the curved electrode (“point elec- For a positive point electrode, avalanches
trode”). Discharge processes are strongly in- have to start within the gas volume because of
fluenced by the polarity of the point electrode the very low field strength at the cathode, Fig-
(polarity effect). Breakdown occurs only at a ure 3.2-25 (left).
higher voltage Vbd, if the field strength in the
A first avalanche can start, if external radiation
low-field region is sufficiently high for generates an initial electron within the region
streamer growth to the counter-electrode. with positive ionization coefficient (i.e. close
190 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

to the point electrode). The avalanche grows point electrode. A positive space charge cloud
into the direction of increasing field strength remains in front of the point electrode because
towards the point electrode. If the critical of the comparatively immobile positive ions,
number of electrons Ncrit is reached, new con- Figure 3.2-25 (left middle). Thereby, the elec-
secutive avalanches are permanently initiated tric field strength is reduced in front of the
within the gas volume by intense photoioniza- point electrode, and it is enhanced in the low-
tion (streamer mechanism). Therefore, the first field region in front of the plane electrode,
avalanche is followed by an abruptly increas- Figure 3.2-15 (left bottom). Simultaneously,
ing discharge current and a stable glow dis- the ionization boundary x = x0 with De = 0 (at
charge. E = E0) is shifted towards the plane electrode.
The electrons are removed via the positive The field stress enhancement in the low-field

De < 0 Eg De < 0 Eg
De > 0 De > 0
x x

Space charge density Space charge density

x Attachment x
of electrons
x0 d x0 to gas molecules d
E(x) E(x)
De > 0 De < 0 De < 0

E0 E(x) E0
De > 0 E(x)
x x
Eg( x) Eg( x)

Figure 3.2-25: Polarity effect in a nonuniform field for a positive point (left) and a negative point electrode (right).
Top: Streamer propagation in high-field regions with positive effective ionization coefficient.
Middle: Formation of positve space charges by remaining positive ions in the high-field region (left and right)
and formation of negative space charges by attachment of electrons in the low-field region (right).
Bottom: Field strength curve E(x) along the x-axis for the space-charge-free background field (thin lines) and
for the space-charge-dominated resulting field (bold lines) with a shifting of the ionization boundaries.
3.2 Gas Discharges 191

region improves the conditions for streamer Accordingly, the breakdown at AC voltage is
growth into the low-field region and for to be expected at the peak of a half-cycle when
breakdown. the point electrode is positive.

For a negative point electrode, an initial Example: Dielectric ion screen

electron has to be provided on a very small Field distortion by ions can be shown impressively by a
surface on the point electrode. Therefore, a thin insulating screen (dielectric ion screen) between
long discharge delay can be caused by the sta- point and plane electrodes in air under standard atmos-
tistical time lag before a free electron is avail- pheric conditions, Figure 3.2-26.
able, see Section 3.2.4.1. If the inception volt- Without a screen, DC breakdown voltages are very
age is reached, a series of sporadic corona im- different for positive and negative point electrodes, as
pulses occurs, which also depend on the work was stated above, Eq. (3.2-57).
function of the cathode material [25].
If the dielectric ion screen were to be replaced by a
plane metallic electrode at the potential of the point
The initiated streamers propagate into the low- electrode, the field between the two planes would be
field region, Figure 3.2-25 (right top). After uniform with breakdown voltages according to curve
crossing the ionization boundary De = 0, the (1). For medium distances the dielectric ion screens
show very similar behavior for both polarities, see
number of electrons in the avalanche is re- curves (2) and (3).
duced by attachment to electron-affine gas
molecules, and a negative space charge is For a positive or a negative point-electrode, positive or
generated in the low-field region, Figure 3.2- negative ions respectively are deposited on the screen
surface. They displace the point-electrode potential onto
25 (right middle). Close to the point electrode, the screen and homogenize the field distribution be-
the avalanches leave a positive space charge tween the charged dielectric screen and the plane coun-
cloud. Thereby, the electric field strength is ter-electrode.
significantly enhanced in front of the point
The screen is most effective when close to the positive
electrode, and the field distribution is made point electrode because the drift of positive space
uniform in the low-field region up to the plane charges into the low-field region is prevented, see Fig-
counter-electrode Figure 3.2-25 (right bottom). ure 3.2-25 (left). Close to the plane counter-electrode,
Simultaneously, the ionization boundary x = x0
with De = 0 (at E = E0) is shifted towards the
Vbd /kV Uniform field with d = 40 mm
point electrode. 120
(1)
Note: The increase of the negative space charge can 100
reduce the field strength in front of the negative point (2)
electrode so that the pre-discharge is extinguished. It is 80
ignited again after the negative ions have drifted to the Negative point without screen
anode. Thereby a continuous series of so-called Trichel 60
impulses is generated. The repetition rate increases with Neg. point
increasing voltage because of the increasing ion drift positive point
40
velocity. If the drain of negative ions is equal to the re- without screen
Pos. point
generation, the intermittent impulse discharge changes (3)
20
over to a continuous pre-discharge.

For the negative point electrode, streamer 10 20 30 40 x /mm

x
propagation into the low-field region and Dielectric
breakdown are postponed by the equalization ion screen
of the field strength profile, Figure 3.2-25 Point electrode Plane
(right bottom). Therefore it can always be
Figure 3.2-26: Impact of a dielectric ion screen on
stated that breakdown voltage in a very non-uniform d.c. field
for a positive and a negative point electrode in air
Vbd (neg. point) > Vbd (pos. point). (3.2-57) under standard atmospheric conditions.
192 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

the ion screen has the effect of a displaced space charge las). The following assumptions are made: a
region for both polarities. This is similar to the positive given radius of curvature for the inner elec-
point-to-plane arrangement without a screen and with a
positive space charge that is responsible for the low trode RC = R1, a large radius of the concentric
breakdown voltages. outer electrode R2/R1 > 5 and a relative air
density G.
During fast transient voltage stresses (e.g.
lightning impulse voltages), space charges Ei = G K1 {1 + K2/(G RC) } .
1/2
(3.2-58)
cannot be accumulated as discussed above. In
weakly non-uniform fields, even the first ava- For different gases, the constants K1 and K2
lanche causes breakdown (streamer discharge). are listed in table 3.2-5, both for cylindrical
Therefore, the negative point electrode has a and spherical symmetry.
lower breakdown voltage than the positive
point electrode because of the better avalanche If the corona inception voltage is reached at
starting conditions, see Section 6.3.1.1 (polar- first, an intermittent corona occurs because
ity effect for the sphere gap). Also for rod- of the statistically scattering generation of ini-
rod spark gaps, there are other dependences tial electrons. At slightly higher voltages, field
because of corona discharges on both sides, conditions start to change because of space
see Section 6.3.1.2. charge accumulation close to the point elec-
trode, see Section 3.2.5.2. A stable and con-
tinuously burning glow discharge is formed.
3.2.5.3 Corona Inception, Pre-Discharges In a dark room, it can be seen as a continuous
weak bluish glow or a continuous corona, Fig-
If the voltage is increased at a very non-uni- ure 3.2-27 (right bottom).
form point-to-plane arrangement and different
pre-discharge phenomena can be observed Note: In the case of a negative point electrode, the so-
prior to breakdown, Figure 3.2-27. They de- called Trichel impulses occur at first, Section 3.2.5.2.
pend on voltage, polarity and flashover dis-
tance d. Table 3.2-5: Constants for the corona inception
voltage according to Eq. (3.2-58).
The inception of corona discharges takes K1 K2
place if the ignition condition for the streamer ———--———-- ——————

kV/cm cm1/2
mechanism in the space-charge-free back-
Cylinder Sphere
ground field according to Eq. (3.2-49) is ful-
filled. To a first-order approximation, the di- Air 30.0 0.33 0.47
rection of integration and the polarity of the N2 44.0 0.28 0.40
point electrode play a minor role. Actually, the SF6 90.5 0.12 0.17
inception behavior is also influenced by the
electrode material and by the statistical time Since glow discharges in air need a specific
lag for the generation of initial electrons. voltage per unit-length

The ignition condition can be interpreted an- EG = 25 kV/cm (3.2-59)

alytically both for concentric cylinders (E ~
2 (for standard atmospheric conditions), the
1/r) and for concentric spheres (E ~ 1/r ) by range of a glow discharge is limited.
the application of an ionization coefficient
according to Eq. (3.2-21), [39]. As a result, At higher voltages, isolated streamers grow
transcendental equations are deduced. They out of the diffuse glow discharge and propa-
can be solved for the inception field strength gate into the low-field region because of their
Ei if the exponential functions are approxi- space-charge field. Superposition of many
mated by second order polynomials (parabo- streamers gives bunch-like discharge phenom-
3.2 Gas Discharges 193

Existence ranges of discharge phenomena Pre-discharge phenomenon Specific

voltage drop
per unit length
Vbd , Vi
Leader d. Leader mech.
Thermal ionization 1.5 ... 0.1 kV/cm
MV Vbd(-) Vbd(+)
4,5 ... 7 kV/cm
Streamer mechanism
Streamer discharge Collision ionization

10 ... 15 kV/cm

Townsend mechanism
Glow discharge Collision ionization 25 kV/cm

Vi
for air at
kV
Flashover distance standard
atmospheric
cm m d conditions
Critical field efficiency factor K
crit

Figure 3.2-27: Existence ranges of pre-discharges in an air-insulated point-to-plane arrangement (schematic).

Inception and breakdown voltages as a function of flashover distance d for positive and negative points (left).
Pre-discharge phenomena and the corresponding specific voltage drop along the discharge channel (right), [22].

ena for both polarities (streamer/ bunch dis- bottom). Nevertheless, such a discharge activ-
charge), Figure 3.2-27 (middle). ity stretches out in the opposite direction with
time, and it is therefore commonly known as a
A negative streamer discharge (coming from “positive streamer”. It propagates through a
a negative point electrode) has to propagate volume with a field strength that is enhanced
through a volume with a field strength that is by space charges. Therefore, the positive
reduced by space charges, Figure 3.2-25 (right streamer only needs a comparatively low volt-
bottom). Therefore, the negative streamer age drop, which has to be provided by the
needs a comparatively high specific voltage background field):
drop, which has to be provided by the back-
ground field (values for air at standard atmos- ES(+) = 4.5 ... 7 kV/cm (3.2-61)
pheric conditions): Values are valid for air at atmospheric stan-
ES(-) = 10 ... 15 kV/cm (3.2-60) dard conditions; the lower value applies to
longer distances above 20 cm. Thus, the range
Negative streamers start directly at the point of a positive streamer is much longer than the
electrode and propagate for comparatively range of an equivalent negative streamer. This
constant lengths depending on field geometry, is in accordance with the lower breakdown
Figure 3.2-27 (right middle). voltage.

A so-called “positive streamer discharge” Positive streamers start randomly distributed

(coming from a positive point electrode) con- within the critically stressed volume. There-
sists of electron avalanches propagating to- fore, the individual streamers have different
wards the point electrode, Figure 3.2-25 (left lengths. They can combine in front of the point
194 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

electrode forming channels with higher cur- Note: Leader discharges can also develop on the sur-
rents, Figure 3.2-27 (right middle). Conse- faces of thin insulating materials (surface discharges)
at significantly lower voltages because there is a com-
quently, positive streamers have a more irreg- paratively high capacitance between the discharge co-
ular and erratic appearance than negative rona and the counter-electrode. Therefore, a high dis-
ones. placement current can be supplied to the thermally ion-
ized discharge channel.
At high current densities, a bright channel of a
so-called leader discharge exists, in which
thermal ionization generates a large number of
3.2.5.4 Breakdown Voltages
additional charge carriers. Since conductivity
increases dramatically, the leader only needs a Breakdown voltages in atmospheric air can be
very low specific voltage drop, which has to described as follows:
be provided by the background field):

EL = 0.1 ... 1.5 kV/cm (3.2-62) Fields with a very weak non-uniformity
(field efficiency factors between K = 1 and K |
Values are valid for air at standard atmos- 0.8) can approximately be described by equa-
pheric conditions. The higher applies to tions for uniform fields, Eqs. (3.2-35), (-42)
shorter distances above approximately 1 m. and (-43). The calculated voltage values are
Thus, the range of a leader is very large. After valid for DC, AC, switching impulse and
the inception of a leader discharge, very long lightning impulse voltages because the ignition
distances will be bridged if the voltage is delay in the uniform field is short owing to the
slightly increased. high streamer propagation velocity in a semi-
uniform field.
Leader discharge inception voltages are only
slightly below breakdown voltages and must In weakly non-uniform fields (field effi-
therefore be avoided. ciency factors between K | 0.8 and Kcrit | 0.2),
Eq. (3.2-58) can be used to calculate inception
At the head of the leader, there is an intense voltages, which are identical with the break-
leader corona supplying the current to the down voltages in this case:
leader channel. A leader always consists of a
thermally ionized high-current channel and a
Vbd = Vi = Ei·K·d (3.2-63)
bunch-like streamer corona at its head, Figure
3.2-27 (right top).
In strongly non-uniform fields (field efficient
The conditions for the formation of a ther- factors K < 0.2), stable pre-discharges occur
mally ionized leader channel are before the breakdown. Very roughly, break-
down voltages can be estimated if the range of
x a sufficiently extended corona, a pre-discharge 'a is compared with the flash-
x a sufficiently long stress duration and over distance d.

x a sufficiently fast voltage-time response According to Figure 3.2-28, the discharge

with high displacement currents. range of a streamer 'aS can be calculated
These conditions are normally fulfilled for from the potential curve of the background
long flashover distances of more than 1 m in field Mg(x) and from the specific voltage drop
air and for both switching impulse voltages along the discharge channel ES·'aS, Eqs. (3.2-
(250/2500 μs positive point electrode) and for 59) to (-62). The discharge grows as long as
power frequency voltages (point electrode at the voltage drop in the discharge can be pro-
positive half-cycle), but not for lightning im- vided by a potential difference in the back-
pulses or DC voltages. ground field. The breakdown voltage is
3.2 Gas Discharges 195

reached if the discharge range reaches the ters and decimeters, lower values for longer
counter-electrode, i.e. if 'a = d. distances in decimeters and meters.

For flashover distances of a few mm, glow For very long flashover distances above 1 m
discharges with EG = 25 kV/cm can be as- and AC or positive switching impulse volt-
sumed and the breakdown voltage can be es- ages, a leader discharge with current-gather-
timated by ing streamers develops, Figure 3.2-27. In this
case, the breakdown voltage is the sum of the
Vbd G | EG·d . (3.2-64) voltage drops VS and VL in the streamer and in
the leader
For longer flashover distances, streamer dis-
charges can be assumed: Vbd L = VL + VS (3.2-66)
Vbd S | ES·d (3.2-65) at the moment at which the whole flashover
distance is bridged:
Specific voltage drops per unit-length ES are
given by Eqs. (3.2-60) and (-61). Higher val- d = 'aL + 'aS (3.2-67)
ues are valid for shorter distances in centime-
For very long flashover distances, the specific
voltage drop per unit-length is very low and
' VS
the breakdown voltage now increases only
'a slightly with distance, Figure 3.2-29.
S

Note: For this reason, there are technological and eco-

nomical limits for maximum AC transmission voltage
E(x) levels.

The literature contains calculation and estima-

E(x)
tion methods for leader breakdown [16], [22].
Space-charge
ES dominated field
Example: Rod-to-plane arrangement
' VS The discharge behavior of a rod-to-plane arrangement
Eg (x)
with a flashover distance d = 1 m and a radius of cur-
Background field x
vature Rc = 1 cm at the end of the rod will be described
'a d for different voltage wave shapes.
S

M (x) 'a
S 1.) The field efficiency factor of the arrangement will
Discharge be estimated for the model of a sphere in free space
ES according to Eq. (2.3-8):
' VS
K = E0/Emax = (V/d) / (V/Rc) = Rc/d = 0.01.

Obviously, the arrangement is very non-uniform. If the

Background field voltage is increased, stable pre-discharges will occur.
M g (x) x
2.) Corona inception will occur at Ei = 44 kV/cm, Eq.
'a d
S (3.2-58). According to Eq. (2.3-8) or (3.2-63), this is
equivalent to an inception voltage Vi = 44 kV that is
Figure 3.2-28: Estimation of a pre-discharge range
nearly independent of the (very long) flashover distance
from the specific voltage drop per unit-length within
a discharge in comparison with the potential curve d. For AC voltages, Û V i = 44 kV is equivalent to the
U
of the background field for a positive streamer [22]. r.m.s. value Vi rms = 31 kV.
196 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

times to breakdown, without changing the flashover

V bd (1) A.c. power frequency voltage
U
Û distance, see Figure 3.2-22 and Section 3.2.4.2 on volt-
(2) Switching impulse voltage age-time characteristics. In a non-uniform field, these
3 MV characteristics are much steeper than in a uniform field
(2) because of the slower streamer propagation velocity,
(1) Figure 3.2-23.
2 MV

1 kV/cm 3.2.5.5 Impact of Different Parameters

Leader breakdown
1 MV The discussions on non-uniform electrode ar-
5 kV/cm rangements in the earlier sections mostly con-
Streamer breakdown d sider air-insulation under standard atmos-
0 MV pheric conditions. The variation of the param-
0m 4m 8m 12 m 16 m
eters geometry, pressure, temperature, gas
Figure 3.2-29: Peak values of the breakdown voltage humidity, type of gas and field distortions has
for a.c. voltage (1) and positive switching impulse significant influences in many cases. For de-
voltage (2) in a point-to-plane arrangement for
tails, see the specialist literature [16], [22],
very long flashover distances d in air [22].
[46], [53], [54], [55]. Only some basic depend-
ences will be discussed here:
3.) Negative DC voltage: With Eq. (3.2-65) and ES(-) =
10 kV/cm, a streamer breakdown is expected at Vbd S(-) 1.) The geometry of the point-to-plane ar-
= 1 MV. A measured value is 900 kV [22]. rangement is the extreme case of a non-uni-
4.) Positive DC voltage: With ES(+) = 5 kV/cm, a
form field with the lowest-possible field effi-
streamer breakdown is expected at Vbd S(+) = 500 kV.
ciency factor. Other arrangements, even the
point-to-point arrangement, have lower field
5.) Power frequency AC voltage: Breakdown is ex- strengths at the non-uniform electrode, Figure
pected in the positive peak with ÊS(+) = 5 kV/cm at Û
V bd
U 3.2-30. First, this causes higher corona incep-
= 500 kV or Vbd rms = 353 kV respectively. For longer tion voltages. Secondly, breakdown voltages
flashover distances, breakdown voltage is no longer are also enhanced, but they are determined
proportional to distance because of the incipient leader primarily by the dominant discharge mecha-
mechanism, Figure 3.2-29.
nism. The growth of the streamers and leaders
6.) Negative and positive switching impulse voltages: is primarily dominated by the space charge
Breakdown voltages are comparable with DC values. field and not so much by the background field
Measured values are slightly higher for negative and and the electrode geometry.
slightly lower for positive polarity (1.1 MV and 450 kV)
owing to the incipient leader mechanism, Figure 3.2-29. Note: For an ideal point-to-point arrangement that is
completely symmetrical relative to ground, there is no
Note: At sufficiently long flashover distances, positive polarity effect. There is always one side from which a
switching impulses have a lower dielectric strength than positive streamer with its comparatively low specific
short-duration lightning impulses and slowly rising AC voltage drop can start. In practice, a polarity effect can-
half-cycles because there are optimum conditions for the not be avoided because one of the point electrodes is
leader mechanism. Therefore, a minimum strength is often connected to ground and the maximum field
given at a “critical time to crest” [16]. strength is reduced there by means of the grounded
structures in the environment.
7.) Peak values for negative and positive lightning
impulse voltages (1.1 MV and 550 kV) are slightly 2.) The influence of pressure, temperature
above the corresponding DC values. This reflects the and air humidity can be described by an air-
breakdown behavior while the test voltages are increas- density correction factor k1 and by an air-hu-
ing in steps. The first breakdowns occur in the tail of the
voltage curve at a voltage that is lower than the recorded midity correction factor k2 [133]. The real
peak value, Figure 3.2-22. breakdown voltage Vbd is deduced from the
Note: While the impulse voltage amplitudes are in- breakdown voltage Vbd 0 under standard at-
creasing, there are increasing overvoltages and shorter mospheric conditions:
3.2 Gas Discharges 197

Vbd = Vbd 0·k1·k2 (3.2-68)

Point-to-plane arrangement

The atmospheric standard conditions are

E x
temperature T = 20 °C,
air pressure p = 1023 mbar,
air humidity (absolute) h = 11 g/m³,
and air humidity (relative) r = 60 %. Point-to-point arrangement

For the air-density correction factor, based E x

on the curved character of the Paschen curve
we use the approximation
m E(x)
k1 = G (3.2-69a)
Point-
to-plane
The relative air density contains the parame-
ters pressure (mbar) and temperature (°C)
Point-
p 293 K
G ˜ (3.2-69b) to-point
1013 mbar 273 K  T
V x
Note: If there are only small deviations from the stan-
dard atmospheric conditions in a uniform field, the 0 d
Paschen curve Eq. (3.2-34) or (-35) can be linearized in
the density range 0.9 < G < 1.1, and an exponent m = 1 Figure 3.2-30: Field strength curves for point-to-
can then be used, see Section 6.3.1.1. plane and point-to-point arrangements at the same
flashover distance d and at the same voltage V.
The breakdown in a strongly non-uniform field
is not determined by the inception of pre-dis- assumed to be proportional to air-density ac-
charges, it is determined by the growth and cording to Eq. (3.2-69a) and (-68).
propagation of the streamer discharge. There-
Note: Since the specific voltage drop in a negative
fore, the influence of air density decreases streamer is approximately twice as great as in a positive
with increasing non-uniformity of the field, streamer, positive streamers determine breakdown,
and the exponent m decreases from one to zero Figure 3.2-27. Dielectric tests with impulse voltages are
[133]. The exponent m is tabulated as a func- normally performed with positive polarity. Negative po-
tion of a parameter g, which gives the ratio of larities are only used as an addition. Therefore, the
above mentioned relationships refer to the positive
the breakdown voltage Vbd and the specific streamer.
voltage drop of a positive streamer discharge
Vstreamer = 500 kV/m · d: The influence of air humidity is negligible for
uniform and weakly non-uniform fields and
Vbd for negative streamer discharges. The break-
g (3.2-69c) down voltage increases with the absolute (and
kV
(500 ˜ d) ˜G ˜ k not with the relative) air humidity only for
m
positive streamer discharges. The correction
The factors G and k contain an air-density and for humidity is
an air-humidity correction respectively [133]. w
k2 = k . (3.2-70a)
Under standard atmospheric conditions, both
factors are equal to one. Above g = 1 the ex- The exponent w is tabulated as a function of
ponent is m =1. I.e. the breakdown voltage is the parameter g. It is w = 1 close to g = 1, for g
198 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Vbd , Vi Kcrit Critical field efficiency factor

0.4
Strongly non-uniform Weakly non-uniform
Weakly non-uniform
arrangement
Vbd 0.3
Stable Vbd = Vi
corona
0.2
Vi Strongly non-unifiorm a.
stable pre-discharges
0.1
p max p crit p 0 1 2 3 4 5 p /bar

Figure 3.2-31: Effect of the variation of gas pressure Figure 3.2-32: Variation of the critical field
on the discharge behavior of a point-to-plane efficiency factor with pressure in sulphure
arrangement [39] (schematic). hexafluoride SF6 [22], [55].

< 0.2 and g > 2 the exponent w decreases to 0, cantly during increasing pressure, Figure 3.2-
i.e. there is no longer an air-humidity correc- 31. At low pressure, a significant difference
tion. For AC voltages, the dependence on the can exist between inception voltage Vi and
absolute air humidity h is given by the factor breakdown voltage Vbd, which disappears at
high pressures. Obviously, the “strongly non-
h /(g/m 3 ) uniform arrangement” has changed into a
k 1  0.012 ˜ (  11) . (3.2-70b)
G “weakly non-uniform arrangement” just by
increasing the pressure above a critical value
The range of validity and variations for DC pcrit. This can also be interpreted as a decrease
and impulse voltages are described in the stan- of the critical field efficiency factor Kcrit with
dard [133]. If a relative air humidity of 80 % is increasing pressure, Figure 3.2-32. For a given
exceeded, the dielectric strength of surfaces
arrangement (K = const.), an increase in pres-
can be reduced significantly because creepage
sure shifts the discharge behavior from a range
currents can cause field distortions and pollu-
with pre-discharges to a range without.
tion flashover.
The suppression of pre-discharges with in-
Note: The empirical relationships for air-humidity cor-
rection are in good accordance with measurements for creasing pressure can be explained by the de-
long flashover distances (d > 1 m) and correspondingly creasing range of photon emission with in-
high voltages. For shorter distances (d < 0.5), i.e. creasing gas density, which significantly de-
mainly for medium voltages (up to approx. 200 kV), the grades the conditions for secondary avalanches
described method is difficult to apply and can provide and streamers.
incorrect results [387]. In particular, surface creepage
arrangements show reductions of flashover voltages in
the medium voltage range even at above 50 to 60 % Example: Locally fixed defect in a GIS
relative air humidity [387]. Nevertheless, this is a sur- Faulty production or mounting procedures in a com-
face effect that is sensitive to relative air humidity and pressed-gas insulation system can cause locally fixed
not a gas-breakdown effect that would be sensitive to defects, e.g. tips, edges, burrs or metal chips. Such de-
absolute air humidity. fects cause a very non-uniform local field, and they
show a pressure dependence according to Figure 3.2-31.
3.) For compressed-gas insulations, the influ- Breakdown voltages can be stabilized at a compara-
ence of high pressure can no longer be de- tively high level by pre-discharges, but they can occur
for sufficiently long lasting stresses only (DC, AC and
scribed by the linear approach according to Eq. switching impulse level). Lightning impulse breakdown
(3.2-68) to (-70). The discharge behavior in a and pre-discharge inception can occur at lower volt-
strongly non-uniform field can change signifi- ages, significantly dependent on the degree of non-uni-
3.2 Gas Discharges 199

formity. Lightning impulse and partial-discharge AC This is not a surface discharge in a narrow
tests can therefore be used as indicators for locally fixed sense. Nevertheless, significant field stress
defects in gas-insulated switchgear (GIS).
enhancements can occur owing to field dis-
Example: Free particles in a GIS
placement (Section 2.4.2.2 and 2.4.4.1). Par-
tial discharges in cracks, gaps and voids can
In a compressed-gas insulation system, free particles erode many organic insulating materials and
can also occur, e.g. chips, abraded matter or welding
sputter. Similar to fixed defects, they also distort the
lead to erosion breakdown.
field. Additionally, they can be electrically charged,
lifted by electric field forces from the less curved elec-
2.) For an electric field, parallel to a surface,
trode (lift-off voltage) and migrate to the counter-elec- the macroscopic field is theoretically not in-
trode where the field is enhanced by the charges of the fluenced by the surface, Section 2.4.2.3. Nev-
particles. These particles are discharged at the electrode, ertheless, the dielectric strength of such an
reloaded, lifted again, transported to the counter-elec- arrangement is lower than the strength of a
trode and so on repetitively. Particle movement doesn’t
play a role for the short-lasting lightning impulse stress,
comparable gas-insulated gap because the mi-
but it causes partial discharges and a strong decrease of croscopic field is distorted by the irregularity
AC and DC breakdown voltages. Therefore, gas-insu- of the surface and because only weakly bound
lated switchgear must also be tested with AC voltage charge-carriers are released. Furthermore,
after the final mounting, in order to test for free parti- significant field distortions can be caused by
cles.
surface contamination, wetting and pollution
layers. Since the field is tangential, the gas
discharge also develops parallel to the surface.
3.2.6 Surface Discharges Often, the discharge is ignited at the triple-
point between electrode, insulating material
3.2.6.1 Arrangements with Surfaces and gas. The dielectric strength of a gas-insu-
lated gap could only theoretically be achieved
Multi-layer dielectrics containing a gaseous under ideal laboratory conditions.
dielectric have interfaces that are known as
“surfaces”. Field calculations are described in If arrangements with fields parallel to the sur-
Section 2.4.2 (for AC, switching impulse and face cannot be avoided in practice, sufficiently
lightning impulse voltages) and in Section long flashover distances and a sufficiently high
2.4.4 (for DC voltage). field efficiency factor are necessary, e.g. in the
case of insulators in GIS or overhead line in-
In high-voltage engineering, surfaces are char- sulators.
acterized by three circumstances:
Note: For post insulators in GIS, the tangential field
x First, they occur in very large numbers in component is reduced by inclination of the surface. For
overhead line insulators, the impact of pollution layers
string and post insulators, bushings, cable is reduced by undulating screen profiles with long
terminations and insulating housings. creepage lengths and sometimes by hydrophobic sur-
x Secondly, they only have a very weak di- face properties. The field strength at the triple-point is
electric strength often reduced by an appropriate electrode configuration.
x Thirdly, surface discharges are compara-
3.) For insulation systems with tangentially
tively strong and have a high erosive effect.
stressed interfaces against solid or liquid di-
Therefore, surface discharges are one of the electrics, the low strength of tangential sur-
main problems in high-voltage design. faces would limit withstand-voltages to very
low values, and the high strengths of the di-
Surfaces occur in three different basic types. electrics would only be partially exploited.
Therefore, creepage arrangements (creepage
1.) For an electric field, perpendicular to a surfaces) are used with insulating materials
surface, the direction of electrical gas dis- that reach far beyond the electrode edges into
charges is also perpendicular to the surface. the low-field regions, Figure 3.2-33.
200 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Unfortunately, a uniform tangential field dis-

tribution cannot be achieved thereby because a
strong field stress enhancement exists at the 80 % 60 % 40 %
20 %
triple-point at the electrode edge. Therefore, Gas
pre-discharges occur at very low voltages, but
the breakdown is prevented by the insulating d
Solid or liquid insulating material
material. If the voltage is increased, a guided
gas-discharge will develop along the surface
(surface discharge, creepage discharge), Figure 3.2-33: Creepage surface with equipotential
which will finally reach the counter-electrode lines (simplified, without considering refraction
and end up in flashover. of the equipotential lines at the interface).

Owing to its general importance, the basic mated from the assumption of a cylindrically
creepage arrangement (Section 3.2.6.2 and symmetric edge field with inner radius Rc and
3.2.6.3) and the pollution flashover (Section outer radius d
3.2.6.5) will be discussed in more detail in
order to deduce methods for the suppression of Vi | Ei·Rc·ln (d/Rc). (3.2-71)
surface discharges.
The order of magnitude for the inception field
strength at cylindrical electrodes is given by
3.2.6.2 Ignition of Surface Discharges Eq. (3.2-58). This does not take the interaction
with the surface into account.
Field distributions for impulse and AC volt- At smoothly curved electrode edges, dis-
age stresses are normally exclusively deter- charge inception is caused by the normal field
mined by the dielectric displacement field, i.e. strength component in the gas-filled interstice,
by the permittivities H1 and H2. Here the ge- Figure 3.2-35 (right). There, the field strength
ometry of the electrode edge has a strong in- is enhanced by dielectric field displacement. A
fluence, Figure 3.2-35. The field can be de- discharge is ignited, if the ignition condition is
scribed by a purely capacitive equivalent cir- fulfilled at any location within the interstice.
cuit, consisting of the capacitances 'C of the During ignition, the surface of the insulating
insulating layers and stray capacitances in air material helps to supply free charge carriers.
'CS, Figure 3.2-34 (left). If there are suffi- The field conditions in an interstice were al-
ciently conductive pollution layers, additional ready used in Section 2.4.3.3 for estimation of
surface resistances 'R are necessary for the the partial discharge inception voltage Vi in a
case of AC voltage stress, Figure 3.2-34 (mid- dielectric displacement field, Figures 2.4-18
dle). In the case of DC voltages, the field dis- and -19:
tribution is determined by the conductivities of
the insulating materials and the conductive d
Vi ~ (3.2-72)
layers; the gas is comparatively high-resistive. Hr
The equivalent circuit consists of a purely oh-
mic lattice network with longitudinal and Note: Numerical values can be calculated with the em-
transverse resistances, Figure 3.2-34 (right). pirical equation (2.4-35).

Since the dielectric strength of the gas-filled

a) Impulse and AC voltage gap decreases with gap width, a breakdown is
(Dielectric displacement field) to be expected in the mm range, Figure 2.4-19.
At very sharp electrode edges, a high tan- Therefore, the first discharge occurs perpen-
gential field strength component exists and dicularly to the surface in a comparatively uni-
stable glow discharges can form, Figure 3.2- form field. Immediately after ignition, the dis-
35 (left). The inception voltage can be esti- charge will turn into a steamer propagating
3.2 Gas Discharges 201

'C S 'C S

'R 'R l
'R q
'C 'C
'x 'x

Figure 3.2-34: Simplified description of tangential field distributions on creepage sufaces by equivalent circuits
with distributed parameters for different kinds of stresses:
Left: Circuit for impulse and AC stresses (dielectric displacement fields only).
Middle: Circuit with recognition of conductive pollution layers for AC voltages.
Right: Circuit for DC voltages (conduction field only).

parallel to the surface under the influence of tesimal element 'x of the lattice network. An
the tangential field component (“creepage dis- exponentially decreasing tangential field
charge”). Glow discharges do not occur. strength is derived from the solution for the
voltage distribution. If the maximum field
b) Pollution layers for AC voltage strength value at the electrode edge is identi-
A calculation of tangential field strength can fied with the dielectric breakdown strength Ebd
be performed by means of an ohmic-capacitive at the interface, the equation can be solved for
equivalent circuit, Figure 3.2-34 (middle). the corona inception voltage Vi:
Stray capacitances 'CS are neglected for this
case, although this is not always justified close E bd E bd d
Vi
to the electrode edge [26]. The related surface Z C' R' Z R†H 0 Hr
capacitance per unit length and the related (3.2-73)
surface resistance per unit length are C' = d
K
'C/'x = H0Hrb/d and R' = 'R/'x = R†/b. The Hr
variables b and d are the width and thickness
of the insulating material, R† is the specific Formally, this equation is equivalent to Eqs.
surface resistance (resistance of a square sur- (3.2-72) and (2.4-35) respectively. Empirical
face element). values for K are given there; Vi is calculated as
the r.m.s. value, Section 2.4.3.3.
The differential equations (line equations) for
current and voltage are set up for an infini- Note: Eq. (3.2-73) is not only valid for plane geome-
tries. Figures 3.2-33 and -34 can also be interpreted with
a vertical axis of rotation, without the product C'R' =
H0HrR†/d changing. The width b is to be replaced by the
Triple- circumference 2Sr, which is also canceled out. In the
case of a horizontal axis, C' is to be calculated accord-
point E1
E ing to Eq. (2.3-30).

E2 Note: The experimentally determined con-

stants K do not show a clear dependence on
surface resistance R† [26]. Therefore, it is
assumed that partial discharge inception is
Figure 3.2-35: Ignition of surface discharges by
caused by the dielectric displacement field
the tangential field component at a sharp electrode
edge (left) or by a normal field component at a
even if there are pollution layers, as long as
smoothly curved electrode edge (right). surface conductance is not too high.
202 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

tion layer in a steady-state conduction field, if

Outer conductor Inner conductor
Solid insulation the surface resistance R† is sufficiently low
and uniform.
s
Glow discharge
3.2.6.3 Development of Surface Discharges

After the inception of partial discharges and at

the time of an increase in voltage, a surface
discharge develops similar to a pure gas dis-
Surface streamer
discharge
charge in a strongly non-uniform field. The
insulating material only acts as a barrier guid-
ing the gas discharge and preventing direct
breakdown (guided gas-discharge).
Surface leader Under the influence of tangential field compo-
discharge
nents, (surface) streamer discharges develop.
At a curved electrode edge, they start directly
(Leader + Streamer) from the breakdown of the air gap, and at a
sharp electrode edge, they emerge from the
RL preceding glow discharge, Figure 3.2-36.
'C
Owing to the high lateral capacitance, the
Hr d streamers carry much higher currents than
streamers in a point-to-plane arrangement in
air. For AC and switching impulse voltages,
Figure 3.2-36: Development of surface discharges current densities allowing thermal ionization
on a cylindrical insulator surface. and inception of leader discharges are already
reached for streamer ranges of a few centime-
ters. For a pure gas-insulated arrangement,
c) DC voltage streamer ranges of approximately one meter
(Steady-state conduction field) would be necessary for leader inception.
The lattice network according to Eq. 3.2-34
(right) gives exponentially decreasing tangen- The surface leader discharge (creeping dis-
tial field strength and an inception voltage charge, creeping spark) consists of a leader
according to Eq. (3.2-73), if the specific ca- channel with low resistance RL (similar to a
pacitive conductance ZH0Hr is replaced by the trunk) and a leader head of current-gathering
conductivity N of the insulating material: streamers with high lateral capacitance 'C
(similar to branches or bunches).
d The length of the leader is determined from the
Vi Ed (3.2-74)
N R† equilibrium between the given voltage drop at
RL and the required voltage for the leader dis-
Conclusion: For all the Eqs. (3.2-71) to (3.2- charge channel, Figure 3.2-36 (bottom). Since
74), there is only a slight increase of inception the required voltage per unit length for a leader
voltage Vi with insulating material thickness d. discharge decreases with increasing length, the
Dielectric strength is reduced by a high rela- leader can easily bridge long distances with
tive permittivity Hr in a dielectric displacement increasing voltage, and complete flashover can
field, and it is enhanced by a (uniform) pollu- quickly be reached.
3.2 Gas Discharges 203

Therefore, increasing the flashover distance Example: Cast-resin bushing without field grading
cannot increase the flashover voltage signifi- For a cylindrical cast-resin bushing (Hr = 4.5) with the
cantly! inner conductor diameter Di = 1 cm, the inception volt-
age for leader discharges VL shall be calculated as a
In practical applications, the flashover voltage function of the outer diameter Da = Di + 2d. Eq. (3.2-
Vf is less important than the inception voltage 77) is used for the calculation of a table of values. The
for leader discharges VL, which must be pre- surface-related capacitance per unit-area is given by Eq.
(2.3-20):
vented in any case for technical insulations.
-1 -1
'C'A = SH z ln (Da/Di)/(SDaz) = 2H{Daln(Da/Di)}
The inception of leaders at VL can be derived
from a simple estimation: If the increasing Table of values:
voltage for AC or switching impulse stresses is
approximated by a voltage step with amplitude Da 2 4 8 16 cm
VL, 'C will be charged via RL with constant d 0.5 1.5 3.5 7.5 cm
2
voltage. In this case, the ohmic losses Wth in 'C'A 0.574 0.143 0.048 0.018 pF/cm
VL 33 61 98 151 kV
RL are equal to the capacitively stored energy
2
½·'C·VL . If it is also assumed that the leader
Obviously, increasing the insulation thickness
inception with thermal ionization is charac-
is not a very effective method for increasing
terized by exceeding a minimum loss energy
the leader inception voltage VL. An analogous
Wth > Wmin, it follows that
conclusion can be drawn for the application of
2 materials with lower permittivity Hr; further-
½·'C·VL = Wth > Wmin . (3.2-75) more, there are only a few different materials
available. At higher voltages, arrangements
Thereby, a limit for the leader inception can with geometric, capacitive (dielectric), resis-
be given: tive or non-linear field grading are therefore
used (Sections 2.4.5, 5.4.5, 7.1.1.4, 7.1.2.1 and
VL = (2Wth/'C)
0.5
~ (d/Hr)
0.5
(3.2-76) 7.1.6)

This proportionality is in good agreement with

the empirical equation for AC voltages: 3.2.6.4 Pollution Flashover

2 Rain, precipitation from fog, dew or moisture

pF/cm 0.44
VL 25.8 kV ˜{ } (3.2-77) absorption causes wetting or humidification of
'C / 'A insulator surfaces depending on the atmos-
pheric conditions. In combination with dirt
The specific capacitance per unit-area 'C'A deposits, electrolytically conductive pollution
can be calculated from geometry. For plane layers are formed. Coastal areas with saline
arrangements it follows that [16] fog, locations with road-salt fog, and environ-
ments with high air pollution (e.g. by dust,
VL 75 kV ˜ {1 ˜
d 0.44
} . (3.2-78) soot, oily particles and dissociable contami-
H cm nants) are especially at risk.
r

Note: The factor and the exponent in Eq. (3.2-77) are

The field distribution in a DC field is deter-
only weakly dependent on pressure and the nature of mined by pollution layers even at low pollu-
the gas. The application of SF6 and increasing the pres- tion layer conductivities, Figure 2.4-29. In an
sure do not give the same enhancements of dielectric AC displacement field, only high conduction
strength as in a uniform field. currents in the pollution layer can influence
204 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

the field distribution. In the case of impulse

voltages, conduction currents are normally
negligible in comparison with displacement
currents. Nevertheless, an impulse voltage can J (a)
prolong an already burning AC pre-arc and
cause breakdown.

Owing to the spatial and temporal develop-

ment, pollution flashover is also called J (b)
creepage flashover, Figure 3.2-37.
At first, the current density lines of the surface
leakage current (creepage current) are dis-
placed from locations with reduced conductiv-
ity (e.g. at dry zones) to areas with higher con- 'V
ductivity, Figure 3.2-27 (a). For leakage cur- (c)
rents in the range of 10 to 100 mA local heat-
ing occurs at locations with higher surface
current densities close to the edges of the dry
zones. Thereby, water is evaporated and the J
dry zones are lengthened perpendicularly to (d)
the current density lines (b).
Ultimately, the current density is high enough
to ignite a pre-arc (d) by thermal heating. If
J
the current path were to be interrupted (c), a
high voltage 'V would be built up across the (e)
dry zone and a pre-arc would also be ignited
(d). Figure 3.2-37: Phases of pollution flashover:
a) Displacement of the "creepage current" by a dry
Note: The total voltage for pre-arc inception can be zone with local heating.
very low in comparison with the flashover voltage. It
b) Increase of the dry zone by ohmic losses,
depends primarily on the wetting of the surface and on
acceleration of surface drying.
the pollution layer conductivity.
c) Interruption of current flow after surface drying
Stable pre-discharges (i.e. pre-arcs) can only along the whole insulator circumference.
d) Flashover of the dry zone, development of an
exist, if there is a stable working point on the
electric arc (pre-arcing).
gas discharge characteristic, Figures 3.2-2 and e) Extension of the dry zone and the arc length by
-3a. The current is limited by the resistance of surface drying.
the conductive pollution layer in series with
the arc. The resistance must be low enough,
i.e. the inclination of the resistance line in Fig- a shifting of the gas discharge characteristic
ure 3.2-3a has to be so low that it intersects the towards higher voltages, Figure 3.2-3. If the
arc characteristic at working point no. 1. sum of the arc voltage and the voltage drop
along the resistive layer is higher than the
The drying of the pollution layer in the envi- source voltage, the arc will be quenched. If the
ronment of the root point of the arc causes a voltage sum always stays below the source
lengthening of the stable burning pre-arc voltage, the prolongation of the arc will lead to
along the current density lines, Figure 3.2-27 flashover. This is only possible for a low pol-
(e). The series resistance of the conductive lution layer resistance (i.e. for a high pollution
layer decreases slightly, but the arc voltage in- layer conductivity) or for a low inclination of
creases very significantly. This is equivalent to the resistance line.
3.2 Gas Discharges 205

lk
1
a f ³ b dl k (3.2-81)
0
as
R = f / N* . (3.2-82)
Typical layer conductivities are given in [16], i.e.
t N* = 5 μS for weak to medium pollution,
N* = 10 μS for medium to heavy pollution and
N* = 40 μS for extremely heavy pollution.

The development of a pollution flashover is

s li lk also influenced by the insulating material.
Thermally and chemically resistant surfaces
(porcelain glazes, glass) are not permanently
modified by weathering or by surface dis-
charges in most cases. Long-lasting pre-dis-
charges on surfaces of organic materials can
cause erosion and enhancement of wettability.
During diffusion of water and contaminants
into the bulk material, conductive paths can be
generated, which can initiate a so-called
tracking flashover [22]. Even silicones can
Figure 3.2-38: Outdoor insulator with creepage- lose their water-repellent (hydrophobic) prop-
path lengthening by means of shed profile. erties under the impact of electrical discharges,
but a recovery of surface properties can occur
Note: If the voltage source is weak, the internal resis-
tance of the source can cause quenching of the arc and because of the diffusion of low-molecular si-
simulate an enhanced flashover voltage. Therefore, the lanes [57].
determination of flashover voltages requires a strong
voltage source with a low internal impedance or a low The following methods can be used in order to
relative short-circuit voltage [56]. avoid pollution flashover:
The magnitude of the creepage currents is de- 1. The basic method is the lengthening of the
termined by the resistance of the insulator sur- creepage path lk by means of a shed profile,
face. The resistance is given by an integration Figure 3.2-38. The ratio of creepage path
of the resistance element dR along the creep- length lk to insulator length li is determined by
age path lk: the ratio of shed overhang a to shed spacing t.
d lk The ratio lk/li | 2 is chosen under normal pol-
dR (3.2-79)
N ˜ǻs ˜b lution conditions and lk/li | 3 under difficult
conditions. The insulator length li or flashover
's is the thickness of the conductive layer and
b is the position-dependent circumference of distance s (thread measure) is dimensioned
the insulator. The pollution severity is charac- according to the impulse voltage withstand-
terized by the so-called layer conductivity, level. Values between 2.5 and 5 cm/kV are
which is defined as product of conductivity common creepage path lengths for outdoor
and layer thickness: conditions; they are related to the r.m.s. value
of the applied operating voltage.
N* = N·'s (3.2-80)
The lengthening of the creepage path (i.e. the
Thus, the surface resistance R is given by the increase of the surface resistance) is not the
layer conductivity N* and a shape factor only effect of insulator sheds. They also pro-
206 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

vide protection of the underside against rain 4. It was proposed to retrofit DC bushing por-
and dirt deposition and they help dry and celain insulators that are at flashover risk. So-
clean zones to remain, which are able to with- called booster sheds consisting of silicone
stand the applied voltage. The partial voltages discs with large diameters are distributed along
can be kept low by means of a higher number the insulator length in order to interrupt devel-
of sheds. For extreme requirements, there are oping pre-arcs [58], [8].
special shed profiles, e.g. the so-called anti-fog
sheds with additional vertical ribs on the
undersides.
3.2.7 Spark, Arc and Lightning
2. In the case of severe pollution, the natural Discharges
cleaning effect of rain might not be sufficient,
and regular cleaning of the insulators would During the breakdown of a gas-insulated gap,
be necessary. Eventually, this can be done a conductive channel is formed by electron
automatically by permanently installed spray- avalanches, the current increases and the volt-
ing units. If pollution is extreme, a water-re- age collapses. Ultimately, a high-current dis-
pellent (hydrophobic) silicone paste (“silicone charge develops; it is the consequence of in-
grease”) can be applied every year. sulation failure, not the cause. However, dif-
ferent kinds of high-current discharges are of
3. Composite insulators with silicone elas- great importance in high-voltage engineering:
tomer sheds (“silicone rubber sheds”, SIR Spark discharges (Section 3.2.7.1), arc dis-
sheds) are a good alternative to the common charges (Section 3.2.7.2) and atmospheric
porcelain insulators. They preserve their wa- lightning discharges (Section 3.2.7.3) will be
ter-repellent property (hydrophobicity) for discussed.
decades, and they can transfer hydrophobicity
to the attaching contaminants by diffusion.
Thereby, the formation of coherent liquid 3.2.7.1 Spark discharge
films is impeded [9], [57].
During breakdown, the gas-insulated gap is
Note: The terms “silicone rubber” or SIR are widely bridged by a streamer at first. Owing to intense
used. However, the material is a synthetic elastomer, not collision ionization the conductivity of the
a natural rubber.

Note: Composite insulators with hydrophobic SIR sheds

have extraordinary surface properties. Nevertheless, it is i(t)
a disadvantage that the hydrophobicity can be lost under
the influence of corona discharges, Section 5.3.4. Coro- C
nas can occur on a bedewed surface if the tangential Vbd R sp(t) v (t)
q (t)
background field is above 0.3 - 0.5 kV/mm [471]. The v (t)
electric field forces deform the water drops and form
tips that cause the water drop corona affecting hydro-
phobicity. Close to the fittings, surface field strengths of
0.8 to 1 kV/mm can be reached. Therefore, maximum Vbd /2
field strengths should be reduced by an appropriate
design, e.g. by means of grading rings. If the corona De-ionization
stress is only temporary and of short duration, the hy- R sp(t)
drophobicity will recover by diffusion of low-molecular i(t)
silanes, Section 5.3.4.
tc t
The application of SIR sheds has significantly
improved the flashover behavior for DC Figure 3.2-39: Spark resistance, spark formation
stresses, especially for HVDC bushings with time (time of voltage collapse), voltage and current
for the discharging of a capacitance (schematic),
rated voltages above 500 kV [7], [8], [10].
see also Figure 3.2-21
3.2 Gas Discharges 207

channel increases and spark resistance Rsp(t) t t

decreases from very high initial values down n D e ˜ e 1 ˜ ³ J (t ) dt D e ˜ e 1 ˜ A1 ˜ ³ i (t ) dt
to very low final values, Figures 3.2-21 and - 0 0
39. In the case of a steady-state source voltage, -1 -1
the transient spark develops into a permanent n = De · e · A · Qsp(t) (3.2-86)
electric arc with a constant final current (Sec-
tion 3.2.7.2). If a source with finite energy In this equation, Qsp(t) is the charge that has
content is discharged, only transient current flowed through the spark until time t. The cur-
and light impulses will occur. After their de- rent density J(t) = i(t)/A is assumed as constant
cay, the discharge gap de-ionizes by recombi- over the cross section area A. The spark resis-
nation processes and the spark resistance tance Rsp(t) is calculated with the spark length
Rsp(t) increases again, Figure 3.2-39. lsp, the electron mobility μ and the conductiv-
ity N = μ n e:
Note: The time characteristic of the spark resistance is
important for equivalent circuit simulations of discharge
circuits. They often experience significant non-linear Rsp(t) = lsp / (N A) = lsp / (μ n e A)
damping as a result of Rsp(t).
= lsp / {μ De Qsp(t)} (3.2-87)
The time of voltage collapse tc from 90 % to 10 % is
also known as the spark formation time. Eq. (3.2-87) is Toepler’s spark-resistance
law, which can also be written with the em-
Note: The spark formation time can play a role in the
pirically determined Toepler constant kT:
discharge delay (Section 3.2.4), but often it is short in
comparison with the streamer formation delay (forma-
tive time lag) and is therefore often neglected. Rsp(t) = kT·lsp / Qsp(t) (3.2-88)

The short spark formation time in SF6 is jointly respon- The Toepler constant is almost independent of
sible for the short rise times of fast transients in gas- pressure and field strength, Tables 3.2-6.
insulated switchgear GIS.
Table 3.2-6: Toepler constants
The increase in charge carrier numbers for different gases [16].
through collision ionization can be described
-4
by an increase dn of electron density n along Air kT = 0.5 ... 0.6 ·10 Vs/cm
the distance dx with the effective ionization -4
Nitrogen kT = 0.4 ·10 Vs/cm
coefficient De:
-4
Argon kT = 0.85·10 Vs/cm
dn = De n dx . (3.2-83) -4
SF6 kT = 0.4 ... 0.8 ·10 Vs/cm
The increase in the electron density with time
results from the drift velocity of electrons u = Note: Toepler’s spark-resistance law is derived from
dx/dt: the idea of collision ionization; i.e. it is only valid as
long as the Toepler mechanism or the streamer mecha-
dn/dt = De n u . (3.2-84) nism can be assumed. If thermal ionization has to be
assumed, an alternative approach will give a better fit:
If the electron current density J- = n·u·e (with The Rompe-Weizel spark resistance law assumes that
the elementary charge e) is approximately the resistance is inversely proportional to the dissipated
energy:
equal to the total current density J, the increase
in the electron density is kRW ˜ lF
Rsp (t ) t
(3.2-89)
dn/dt = De J / e . (3.2-85) ³0 uF (t ) ˜ iF (t ) dt
The electron density n at a given time t is cal- Both spark resistance laws describe a very fast decreas-
culated by integration: ing spark resistance.
208 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

The spark formation time tsp shall be esti- in air (Ebd = 30 kV/cm) tsp = 7.3 ns and
mated for a capacitance C that is charged to
in SF6 (Ebd = 90 kV/cm) tsp = 2.4 ns.
the breakdown voltage Vbd and discharged via
the spark resistance Rsp(t), Figure 3.2-29. There is only an indirect dependence on flash-
over distance due to the dependence of break-
With the instantaneous value of the charge in down field strength on distance. The depend-
the capacitance ence on pressure is strong, and it is given by
q(t) = C·v(t) = C·Vbd – Qsp(t), the breakdown field strength, i.e. if pressure is
increased, Ebd will increase and tsp will de-
the voltage-time characteristic is calculated crease.
according to Eq. (3.2-88):
Note: From these relationships it is clear that there are
kT lsp dq very short spark formation times (or times of voltage
v(t ) Rsp (t ) ˜ i (t ) ˜ ( ) collapse) for compressed-gas equipment, especially with
Qsp (t ) dt SF6 gas. Traveling waves with rise times in the ns-
(3.2-90)
kT lsp dv range (fast transients) can therefore occur in the case of
˜ ( C ) . breakdowns or disconnector switching actions,.
C ˜ {Vbd  v(t ) } dt
Note: The steepness of current increase and voltage
After separation of the variables v and t, the collapse is not only determined by the spark formation
differential equation (3.2-90) can be integrated time but also by the system properties of the discharge
-1/2
and solved for v(t) [46]: circuit, e.g. by the natural frequency Z = (L·C) ,
Figure 3.2-21.
Vbd
v(t ) V bd (3.2-91) Gas-insulated lines must be regarded as systems with
t distributed parameters (traveling-wave transmission-
1  e k T l sp
lines). According to the equivalent transmission-line
circuit in Figures 2.6-8 and -10, the time constant for the
Integration constants are determined by the voltage collapse and the current increase is W = Z/L.
With Z = 50 : and L = 100 nH (for a 100 mm long
theoretical boundary conditions v(-f) = Vbd,
discharge channel), we calculate W = 2 ns. Even in this
v(0) = Vbd/2 and v(f) = 0, Figure 3.2-39. A case, the inductive time constant is significantly longer
practical limitation of this infinitely long time than the spark formation time (tsp < 1 ns for p > 2 bar).
is given, for example, by the time interval for
the collapse of the voltage v(t) from 0.9 Vbd
down to 0.1 Vbd [16]. It can be calculated from 3.2.7.2 Arc Discharge
Eq. (3.2-91):
During breakdown of a gas-insulated gap, a
tsp = 4.4 kTlsp/Vbd = 4.4 kT/Ebd . (3.2-92) conductive spark channel is generated by col-
lision ionization and photoionization at first.
This means that the spark formation time tsp is Then, a high current density causes thermal
not dependent on the value of the discharged ionization within the discharge column and
capacitance. If a large capacitance has to be thermionic electron emission at the cathode.
discharged, the large charge transfer will cause Owing to the highly conductive arc plasma in
a low spark resistance and a high current. The the discharge column, anode potential is dis-
spark formation time tsp is mainly dependent placed close to the cathode and high field
on the breakdown field strength Ebd = Vbd/lsp strengths and field emission occur. This causes
the total voltage drop along the discharge gap
that is given prior to the breakdown incident.
to decrease to very low values of approxi-
Therefore, tsp depends on the type of gas. With mately 10 to 100 V. Owing to the intense
-4
kT = 0.5·10 Vs/cm, we calculate for atmos- thermal ionization, the electric arc is charac-
pheric standard conditions terized by an intense light emission.
3.2 Gas Discharges 209

In circuit-breakers, the arc develops during the temperature-dependent conductivity N(T).

opening of the switching contacts. Shortly be- These conditions are better described by a
fore the separation of the contact pieces, the modified approach [16]:
current narrows down to a very small contact n
area. Owing to the high current densities, the V·I ~ larc (3.2-95)
temperatures are sufficiently high for thermal
ionization; and after the lift-off of the contact With n = 0.5 ... 0.25, the voltage drop de-
pieces, the current flows without any interrup- creases with increasing current and increases
tion through the thermally ionized channel nearly proportionally with length.
(electric arc).
The properties of the arc are strongly influ-
For the most part, the voltage drop of the arc is enced by environmental conditions:
a so-called cathode fall because positive ions
accumulate directly in front of the cathode. If the arc is cooled, the generated heat power
Negative ions cause a significantly smaller has to compensate for the cooling, and the
anode fall. Owing to the high conductivity, the voltage drop will be greater. Depending on the
voltage drop within the arc column is com- source impedance, the current can also be en-
paratively small for shorter discharge lengths, hanced. The equilibrium between heat genera-
and it increases linearly with the arc length. tion and heat transfer will be reached at a
The arc column consists of largely ionized higher temperature. Typical values within the
plasma. arc plasma are between 4000 K and 10,000 K,
in some extreme cases up to 50,000 K. At
The low voltage-drop along an electric arc and 20,000 K, nearly all gas atoms are ionized [2].
a completely different voltage-current char-
acteristic (see Figure 3.2.2) are explained by a The properties of the arc are strongly depend-
completely different process of charge carrier ent on pressure. The cross sectional area de-
generation. creases with pressure because the number of
charge carriers per unit area increases with
It was already mentioned with Eq. (3.2-2) that pressure. Therefore, the current density also
the decreasing V,I characteristic for a steady- increases. To a first approximation, a propor-
state condition of the arc can be derived from tionality can be assumed:
the equilibrium between the generated Joule
2
heat Pgen and the removed heat Ptrans that is SR ~ 1/p and J ~ p. (3.2-96)
transferred to the environment:
Also the voltage drop along the arc increases
Pgen = Ptrans (3.2-93) with p, and therefore the power loss density
increases quadratically with pressure.
The generated heat power is given by the
product of current and voltage Pgen, = V·I, the An increasing current mainly causes an in-
removed (transferred) heat power is a function creasing current density; the arc cross-sec-
of arc temperature T, arc radius R and arc tional area increases only slowly.
m
length larc, i.e. Ptrans = larcR f(T) [47]. The Often, the arc is subject to magnetic forces,
equilibrium gives which are intended to enlarge the current-car-
m rying loops. At higher currents, magnetic
V·I = larcR f(T) . (3.2-94) forces can become stronger than the buoyant
forces on the hot plasma in the arc.
The variables on both sides of the equation are
only independent of each other to a first-order For AC voltages, a load-independent sinusoi-
approximation. Actually, the current I is a dal arc current is assumed, which is deter-
2
function of arc cross-sectional area SR and of mined (i.e. imposed) by the series impedance
210 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

and the source voltage of the circuit, Figure ionization can be accelerated by forced cool-
3.2-40. After the current zero crossing (1), ing. As this occurs, the dielectric strength of
there is still a residual ionization, and the volt- the insulating gap has to increase faster than
age in the positive current half-wave increases the recovering voltage.
with current owing to the ohmic resistance. If Note: For AC circuit-breakers, the natural current zero
the ignition voltage is reached (2), the voltage crossing supports de-ionization and facilitates current
and current will follow the negative V,I char- interruption. For DC circuit-breakers, a natural current
acteristic of the arc until the current maximum zero crossing does not exist and current interruption is
is reached (3). While the current is decreasing, heavily impeded. It can be supported by reverse currents
fed from auxiliary circuits.
the voltage increases again, but to a lesser ex-
tend because the conductivity of the arc chan- 3. The maximum of the recovery voltage,
nel has increased in the meantime. Increasing which has to be insulated by the opened
arc voltage and decreasing arc current lead to switching gap, can be significantly greater
extinction of the arc (4). After the current zero than the operating voltage stresses because of
crossing, the behavior is analogous in the neg- commutation processes and transients
ative current half-wave. If the discharge chan- (switching overvoltages, internal overvolt-
nel is sufficiently de-ionized during the current ages). The voltage stress during switching op-
zero crossing, the positive (or negative) cur- erations is simulated by switching-impulse test
rent cannot increase again, the arc will be ex- voltages (Section 2.2.3).
tinguished permanently and the recovery volt-
age increases between the electrodes (5). The compressed gas-blast circuit-breaker with
SF6 has established itself among the different
The main problems of arc discharges in cir- switching principles for HV power circuit-
cuit-breakers are the extinction of the arc, the breakers. The electron-affine sulfur hexafluo-
de-ionizing of the gas volume and the insula- ride is both an effective cooling and extin-
tion of the fast rising recovery voltage between guishing medium for the arc plasma and an
the electrodes (contact pieces). Switching con- dielectrically strong insulating medium. Dur-
sists of three phases: ing contact separation, the electric arc is ex-
1. The extinction of an arc is caused by a per-
turbation of its conditions of existence. This
V Positive
means that the required arc voltage is in- 5 current
creased so much that a stable working point is 2 half-wave
no longer possible, i.e. the V,I characteristic is Ignition Vi
displaced upwards so far that it no longer
touches the resistance line, Figure 3.2-3a. In Extinction Ve
this case, the current through the discharge 4
3
channel decreases and is interrupted. This situ- -Î
ation can be achieved by lengthening the arc,
increasing the pressure, forced cooling or sep- 1
+Î I
aration into a number of partial arcs.
For AC, the interruption of current occurs - Ve Extinction
during the current zero crossing and the shift-
Negative Ignition
ing of the V,I characteristic impedes the re- - Vi
current
ignition. half-wave
2. The de-ionization of the discharge channel
Figure 3.2-40: Electric arc at AC voltage and load-
by recombination of charge carriers occurs independent imposed AC current with current zero
automatically when the ionized gas cools crossing (1), ignition (2), current maximum (3) and
down after the interruption of the current. De- extinction (4). Voltage recovery after de-ionizing (5).
3.2 Gas Discharges 211

posed to high pressure and intense blow-out evenness, humid and warm air starts to ascend,
with SF6 (Section 7.1.5.2). accelerates upwards (chimney effect) and
cools down owing to the decreasing atmos-
Note: The arc plasma contains highly reactive sulfur and pheric pressure. In the process, the humidity
fluorine ions that react to form residue-free SF6 during
condenses and forms convective clouds, i.e.
cooling down. The presence of water has to be ex-
cluded, in order to avoid the formation of toxic byprod-
clouds with vertical development reaching up
ucts. to 10 km into the troposphere. Heat thunder-
storms are typical summer thunderstorms oc-
In a vacuum circuit-breaker, the current is curring at ground temperatures above 30 °C,
interrupted in the current zero crossing by de- mostly in the afternoon and mainly (but not
ionization of a metal-vapor plasma. necessarily) on mountain sides.
Note: Owing to the limited dielectric strength of the
2. A front thunderstorm (stormy front) is
vacuum-insulated gap, vacuum circuit-breakers can only
be used in the medium voltage range (Section 7.1.5.3). caused by a cold front moving under warm and
Moreover, the fast current chopping would cause fast humid air masses, triggering upward currents
transients. Nevertheless, the series-connection of syn- of air as a result. In the west-wind zone of the
chronously switching vacuum switching tubes is a pos- northern hemisphere, active front-thunder-
sible option for replacement of SF6 circuit-breakers.
storm areas move eastwards in front of low-
pressure areas. They often develop in the sea-
sons with changeable weather conditions.
3.2.7.3 Lightning Discharges
Note: Sometimes dust storms, forest fires or volcanic
Atmospheric lightning discharges can cause eruptions can also cause thunderstorms, but this will not
severe damage. In the field of electrical engi- be discussed in the following.
neering systems malfunctions and destruction In the strong chimney-like updrafts (5 to 30
are caused by so-called external overvoltages. m/s) of a thundercloud, positive and negative
Important systems, e.g. energy transmission charges are separated, both by upwards mov-
grids, communication systems and data trans- ing water droplets and by downwards falling
fer nets or important buildings need lightning ice crystals, hailstones and rain. Charge sepa-
protection systems. Equipment for energy ration are probably caused by many different
transmission is additionally tested with stan- processes, e.g. atomizing of droplets, bursting
dard lightning impulse voltages in order to of ice crystals and electric influence of dipole
guarantee sufficient dielectric strength in case charges in droplets, which are disrupted into
of an external overvoltage. In central Europe, positive and negative droplets [16], [47].
the probability for the progression of a light-
ning discharge down to ground level is ap- A typical charge distribution of a thunder-
proximately 2 lightning strikes per km and
2 cloud consists of a high-altitude region with
year, but there are significant deviations, both positively charged ice crystals, Figure 3.2-41
locally and globally. However, external over- (left). The center of negative charge is located
voltages regularly occur in distributed elec- underneath, at an altitude of approximately 5
tricity supply systems. km. Downwards falling sleet and hail stones
can cause a smaller region with positive
The formation of thunderclouds is related to charge at a lower altitude and associated with
strong and humid air. Two kinds of thunder- strongly positive rain at ground level.
storms can be observed:
A thundercloud develops within 30 to 45 min.
1. A heat thunderstorm is caused by the sum- Finally, the updrafts come to a halt, and cold
mer heating of ground-level air and by an un- downdrafts and “thunder squalls” occur. Rain
stable atmospheric layering of warm air close falls within the next 30 minutes. As thunder
to ground and cold air above. At disturbances cells can develop repetitively, thunderstorm
of the layering, e.g. at a ground surface un- activity can last for longer periods.
212 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Temperature Charge distribution Altitude

ELVE
10 km 100 km
-30 °C + + Ionosphere
+
+ 20 As + + Sprite + + +
8 km
+ + + + + + +
Charge transfer
+ + + + + + +
6 km
+ - -
Blue jet
Leakage
0 °C - current
- - -- 24 As 4 km
- - - - Static
electric
- + 4 As -
Cloud-to-cloud field
- - +++ - - 2 km 10 km
+ + Troposphere
E
- -
+30 °C
Positive - - - - - - - - - - -
rain Cloud-to-ground Ground-to-cloud

Figure 3.2-41: Charge distribution in a typical heat thundercloud (left) and upper-atmosphere lightning
and discharge phenomena (right).

The majority of lightning discharges or fied from discharge branches growing towards
lightning flashes consist of discharges within the ground, Figure 3.2-42 (left). In most cases,
the cloud (cloud-to-cloud lightning), Figure negative charge is flowing to ground (negative
3.2-41 (right). cloud-to-ground lightning), but a minority
consist of positive cloud-to-ground lightnings,
A lower percentage of lightning discharges depending on the charge distribution in the
consist of downward flashes, i.e. discharges cloud, Figure 3.2-41 (left).
between cloud and earth. They can be identi-
For a very low percentage, upward flashes
were observed, starting from tall structures on
ground. These ground-to-cloud lightnings can
be identified from discharge branches growing
towards the cloud, Figure 3.2-42 (right).
Note: World-wide, there are always a few hundred ac-
tive thunderstorms. On average, the downward flashes
carry negative charge to ground; positive charges are
accumulated in the ionosphere and distributed all over
the world., A global static electric field is thus generated
that is determined by the balance of lightning currents
and atmospheric leakage currents, Figure 3.2-41 (right).

Note: At the end of last century, upper-atmospheric

lightning above the thunderclouds was also observed
from space, i.e. blue jets between thunderclouds and the
lower ionosphere and so-called sprites and ELVEs
(Emissions of Light and Very Low Frequency Perturba-
tions from Electromagnetic Pulse Sources) at very high
altitudes between several 10s of km and approx. 100
km, Figure 3.2-41 (right) [483], [484].

In the following, the development of a nega-

Figure 3.2-42: Downward and upward flashes. tive cloud-to-ground lightning flash is dis-
3.2 Gas Discharges 213

8
1

4
3

4
5 7

Figure 3.2-43: Development of a negative cloud-to-ground lightning flash:

1 to 5: Descending stepped leader discharges and accumulation of negative space charge (approx. 300 to 1000 μs).
6: Upward and downward (connecting) leaders, initiated by field enhancements at discharge head and ground.
7 to 8: Main discharge (return stroke) with discharge of negative space charge (approx. 10 to 100 μs).
NN: Subsequent flashes following the pre-ionized channel (approx. during 10 to a few100 ms).

cussed in more detail, Figure 3.2-43. There are paratively low current. The direction of the
four stages; the descending stepping leader individual steps is highly irregular because of
discharge starting from the cloud (approx. 300 local field distortions caused by space charges.
to 1000 μs), the upward and downward lead- Branching can also occur as a result of local
ers connecting close to the ground, the high- field stress enhancements. At first, the de-
current main discharge (return stroke, approx. scending leader discharge path is nearly inde-
10 to 100 μs) and a number of subsequent pendent of structures on the ground. Even tall
flashes through the pre-ionized channel buildings and mountains can be bypassed be-
(within 10 to a few 100 ms). cause they cannot influence the local electric
field direction at the discharge head over
If the breakdown field strength is exceeded, an longer distances.
electrode-free bipolar streamer discharge can
start within the cloud and propagate in oppo- Close to ground, the descending stepped leader
site directions both towards ground (negative discharge causes very high field stress en-
side) and into the cloud (positive side). The hancements and initiates positive upward and
ionized channel is also referred to as a de- negative downward leaders that are approxi-
scending leader. Owing to a lack of charges, mately 10 m long. The so-called connecting
the channel cannot grow steadily towards leaders originate from exposed grounded
ground and the leader propagation stops. Dis- structures and from the discharge head, con-
charges at the opposite end deliver additional nect and cause final breakdown between the
charges within 15 to 100 μs, the field strength stepped leader and ground (see point-to-point
at the discharge head increases and the next arrangement, Figure 3.2-30).
partial breakdown step occurs. Thus, the leader
Note: Owing to the limited range of upward and down-
propagates in steps, each with a length of ap- ward leaders, lightning strikes are also possible along-
prox. 50 m (stepped leader) and with a com- side higher buildings, towers and mountains. Air termi-
214 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

nations of lightning protection systems have a limited

cone of protection only.
i
The discharge propagates along the pre-ion-
ized channel from ground towards the cloud
(return stroke) and discharges the negative
space charge stored alongside the channel. The 1 μs t
return stroke is the main discharge that is
visible as a lightning flash and audible as
q
thunder. Current magnitudes can reach peak
values of from a few kA up to a few 100 kA
within a few μs. The current decay can last for E
a few 100 μs. This behavior can be explained
by the large amount of charge in the discharge
head allowing a rapid increase of current after Figure 3.2-44: Current-time characteristic
contact to ground, Figure 3.2-44. of the return stroke.
Note: The individual current curves differ significantly.
Nevertheless, a standard lightning impulse voltage with electronic systems and they can cause flash-
a front time of 1.2 μs and a time to half-value on wave overs between conductors without sufficient
tail of 50 μs is defined in order to simulate the influ- separation. Section 7.4.1 describes lightning
ences of lightning impulse currents on power equipment protection.
by a standardized test method, Figure 3.2-44, Section
6.2.3.
Lightning flashes are described by four light-
After replenishment of charges from the cloud, ning current parameters, which allow esti-
the pre-ionized channel can be used for some mation of expected damage:
subsequent strikes, generally with lower cur-
1. The peak value of the current allows us to
rent amplitudes.
determine the maximum ohmic voltage drop at
Lightning strikes can cause severe harm and grounding resistances and to calculate over-
damage to men, animals, buildings, trees and voltage amplitudes on traveling wave lines
technical systems. In the following direct and (see Section 2.6.1, example). Mostly, Î is be-
indirect influences on electrical and elec- tween 5 and 100 kA; sometimes a few 100 kA
tronic systems shall be discussed. can occur.

Traveling waves, overvoltages and electro- 2. The rate of current rise di/dt allows the cal-
magnetic forces are direct influences of light- culation of voltage drops at inductive impulse
ning strikes, e.g. in the phase conductors of a current diverters and the calculation of induced
three-phase system. Additionally, heat gen- voltages in nearby conductor loops. Therefore,
eration can damage conductors in the impulse the rate of current rise is the most important
current path. parameter for the description of induced volt-
ages in electrotechnical systems. Typical val-
Voltage drops across ohmic and inductive im- ues of the rate of current rise di/dt are between
pedances are indirect influences. They cause 1 and 100 kA/μs.
transient potential differences between stati-
cally grounded parts and they can cause “back 3. The charge of an impulse current ³ i dt is a
flashovers” from grounded conductors into measure for the heat energy ³ 'v·i dt generated
active lines of electric and electronic systems at the root point of the arc, if a constant volt-
[41]. The strong and time-varying magnetic age drop 'v is assumed at the root point. This
field of the lightning-impulse current induces energy is related to the fusing of metallic con-
high voltages in loops. They can endanger ductors. The range is 0.5 up to some 100 As.
3.3 Discharges in Liquid and Solid Dielectrics 215

2
4. The integral of the squared current ³ i dt is ning strikes into wet soil. In laboratory ex-
related to the ohmic losses in the conductors periments with pulsed energy transfer into
2
R·³ i dt and to the mechanical impulse (mo- water droplets, spherical plasma-magnetic en-
tities (plasmoids) were successfully generated
mentum) ³ F dt. Typical values are between
3 7 2 and kept glowing for approximately 0.3 s
10 and 10 A s. [440], [485].
Lightning discharges are further described in Note: In laboratory experiments, the discharge is ignited
Section 7.4.1 on lightning protection. Light- at a negative rod electrode within a ceramic tube that is
ning current parameters that are assumed for open at the top. The tube contains a small amount of
protection purposes are listed in Tables 7.4.1-1 water, which is brought into a glowing plasma condition
by a discharge, and which expands upwards with high
and -2. velocity. The discharge plasma is extended across the
edge of the ceramic tube and comes into contact with
the outer water surface, and the salted water provides a
3.2.7.4 “Ball Lightning” contact to the anode. Owing to the buoyant forces, the
expanding plasma is detached from the water surface
with a velocity of approximately 1 m/s. Owing to its
For a long time, reports about so-called ball
charge, it takes a spherical shape. The glow duration of
lightning have been comparatively frequent, 0.3 s is much longer than typical ionization times in gas-
but so far there is no commonly accepted discharge plasmas, but it is significantly shorter than
physical explanation. Therefore, a discussion observed durations in nature. Excitation processes of
in a textbook may be too early, but interested molecules, which cause a long-lasting chemilumines-
cence in flames, are the object of current research [441],
readers should be given some information in
[442]. There could be additional chemical contaminants
spite of this, as it might be one of the oldest in the water, on the ceramic tube surface or on the elec-
known high-voltage phenomena of all: There trodes that influence the color and duration of the glow.
are historical eye witness reports from ancient
scholars, mediaeval rulers, Nobel Prize win-
ners and many other people. In modern times,
chance pictures and video sequences have
been taken, but a scientifically founded and 3.3 Discharges in Liquid and
reproducible observation does not yet exist. Solid Dielectrics
Note: There are many diverse and speculative attempts
at explanation. They include optical illusions, mental Discharges in liquid and solid dielectrics also
delusions caused by pulsed magnetic fields, methane develop by the acceleration of electrons, colli-
gas flames, plasma balls, black holes, nuclear reactions
sion ionization and avalanche formation.
and esoteric phenomena. Furthermore, “ball lightning”
might be used for different physical phenomena. However, they cannot be described by a uni-
versal physical theory as is possible for gases
Nevertheless, some often described properties with their homogeneous and well definable
can be figured out from the various reports. properties. The groups of “solids” and “liq-
“Ball lightnings” are described as luminous uids” consist of very many materials with very
effects with different colors. They occur in different physical and chemical properties.
conjunction with a thunderstorm, have a They are subject to variations of material
spherical shape and can exist for compara- compositions, production conditions, contami-
tively long times between seconds and min- nation, defects and ageing processes. This re-
utes. The balls can have destructive effects and sults in strong statistical dispersion and
explode, or they can be harmless and fade changes of breakdown strengths. The differ-
away. ence between ideal strength (under laboratory
conditions) and technical strength (under ap-
The described phenomena could be related to plication conditions) can be more than one
plasma balls that might be generated by light- order of magnitude.
216 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Ebd
1000 HDPE (0.01 mm³)
kV/mm
PE (40 μm, d.c. voltage)

(0.1 mm)
Strongly purified liquids Mica (crystals)
100 (1 mm) L- SF6 (liquified, 5 mm)
Mineral oil (degassed, 40 μm) PE (extruded)
PXE Paper (oil-impregnated)
SF6 (3 bar) Mineral oil (dry)

10 (10 cm) SF6 (1 bar) Paper (unimpregnated)

Mineral oil (wet)
Air (1 bar)
Strongly contaminated
1 liquids
Gases
Vacuum Ne (1 bar)
Liquids Solids

0.1
Figure 3.3-1: Ranges for breakdown field strengths at AC voltage (50 Hz) for atmospheric pressure, ambient
temperature and insulation thicknesses in the cm-range (other conditions are mentioned in brackets).
Abbreviations: SF6 (Sulfur hexafluoride), L-SF6 (Liquified sulfur-hexafluoride),
PXE (Phenyl-Xylyl-Ethane), PE (Polyethylene), HDPE (High-density polyethylene).

Basically, the inception of discharges is im- 1.) Gases have the following advantages: Low
peded with increasing density of the material weight, perfect impregnation properties, well
structure (decreasing free path-length for defined properties, long-term stability, insen-
charge carriers) and with increasing binding sitivity to electrical discharges or self-healing
forces of the electrons. Accordingly, the di- properties (even in case of arcs) and low cost
electric breakdown strength increases from (for air). It is disadvantageous that breakdown
gases through liquids to solids, but a large strengths (at atmospheric pressure) are low and
number of influences blurs this picture, Figure that stresses because of dielectric field dis-
3.3-1. placement are high. Gas (air) is the “natural”
insulating material (e.g. for overhead lines and
Figure 3.3-1 gives breakdown strengths for switchgears), which is only replaced by liquids
liquid and solid dielectrics. Technically pure or solids if necessary.
materials can be found in the middle of the
given ranges, highly purified materials or very 2.) Liquids have different advantages: Good
thin layers are at the upper ends and contami- impregnation properties, high breakdown
nated materials at the lower ends. For gases, strengths and high thermal conductivities by
the technically achievable design strengths are convection. On the other hand, there are the
significantly closer to the physical limits. following disadvantages: Higher weight,
breakdown-strength degradation by ageing and
Gaseous, liquid, and solid insulating materials contamination, thermal expansion, the neces-
have their specific advantages and disadvan- sity for sealed housings and higher costs.
tages. Without respect to their dielectric
strength, they are especially suited as “con- Liquids are the typical impregnation materials
struction materials” for specific purposes: for electrically stressed cavities (in capacitors,
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 217

transformers, cables, etc.). They are also used instrument transformers and capacitors. Addi-
for the convective transport of heat (e.g. in tionally, other liquids based on natural or
transformers). synthetic sources are used for special applica-
tions, Section 3.4.4.
3.) Solids also have specific advantages: High
breakdown strengths (e.g. for thin films), re-
duced stresses because of field displacement
3.4.1 Discharge Mechanisms in
and their applicability as mechanical construc-
tion materials. Low-viscosity resins can be Mineral Oil
used for impregnation; in the cured state, they
allow “dry”, i.e. oil-free constructions. It is Basically, the breakdown strength of mineral
disadvantageous that heat conductivities are oil decreases significantly with voltage-stress
low, that electrical discharges can cause irre- time, Figure 3.4.1-1. Owing to multiple un-
versible destruction, that weights are high and known parameter influences (type, form and
that there are high technological requirements. number of particles; water content, stressed
volume, electrode surface, distance, oil con-
Solids are used in highly stressed dielectrics vection, uniformity of the field …), breakdown
(capacitors, bushings, cables), for the embed- tests show large differences and dispersions
ding of conductors with high surface field which cannot normally be adequately de-
strengths (transformers, electrodes, cable ter- scribed by theory. Therefore, empirical pa-
minations) and for mechanical construction rameter dependences are most important for
elements with insulating properties (string, practical dimensioning.
post and housing insulators, switch rods, parti-
Example: In a weakly non-uniform electrode arrange-
tion plates etc.). ment, the 1 % breakdown values can be lower than half
the 50 % breakdown values for long lasting AC voltage
application [59], Figure 3.4.1-2. This is a dramatic in-
crease of statistical spread, in comparison with short-
3.4 Discharges in Liquids duration voltage applications (impulse voltage) and in
comparison with gas discharges.

Insulating oils based on mineral oil are the The high number of relevant parameters has
most important insulating liquids, Sections initiated many experimental investigations
3.4.1 to 3.4.3. They are used in large quantities since the 1950s, in order to find statistically
in transformers both as insulating and as justified relations between test conditions and
cooling liquids (“transformer oil”). Further- dielectric strength. Nevertheless, there is not
more, mineral oil is used as impregnating liq- yet a consistent theory of oil breakdown which
uid in oil-filled equipment, e.g. in bushings, is comparable with the theory of gas dis-

40
Impulse breakdown
(Discharge delay) 1s 1 min 1h 1d 1m 1a 30 a
30
Ebd Fiber-bridge
Figure 3.4.1-1: breakdown
Breakdown strength of kV/mm Electronic breakdown, Water,
20 contamination,
a liquid dielectric as a streamer breakdown gassing
function of voltage-stress (Percolation theory)
time (transformer oil, 10
d= 2.5 mm, V= 200 mm³) "Intrinsisc breakdown" "Weak-link breakdown"
without respect to the
statistical dispersion
t /s
which increases with -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
time, see fig. 3.4-2.
218 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

imaging, [426]: High local field strengths at

Weibull distribution
98 % electrode tips cause a strong increase of
conductivity, together with space charge
63 %
50 % formation and equalization of the field
F(Vbd ) distribution. From such an impulse-free dark-
current discharge or continuous discharge (1),
F(E bd) luminescent and thermally ionized discharge
2% channels erupt repetitively at very high field
1%
strength (2). By analogy with gas discharge
physics, these channels are referred to as
R.m.s. values leaders, Hauschild [426]. The channels
E bd 4 5 9.2 10.5 14 kV/mm transfer the electrode potential into the liquid
V bd 180 220 410 470 620 kV with a voltage gradient of approx. 1 kV/mm.
Figure 3.4.1-2: Breakdown frequency as a function The discharges can be stabilized in a strongly
of voltage and field strength in technically clean non-uniform field. At sufficiently high
and dry oil at AC voltage (f = 50 Hz, voltage rise voltages or in a uniform (or weakly non-
rise 8 kV/s) between excentric tubulal electrodes uniform) field, the leader channels can reach
(Da = 600 mm, Di = 80 mm, d = 72 mm, l = 300 mm,
the counter-electrode and generate the main
field efficiency factor 62 %), oil flow 100 l/min [59].
discharge, formed by a high-current backward
charges. For very short voltage-stress times, leader (3).
the discharge behavior seems to be similar to
the discharge behavior in gases, Figure 3.4.1- Note: In today’s terminology, the described discharge
phenomena are often referred to as primary (1), secon-
1, but the direct formation of electron ava- dary (2) and tertiary (3) streamers. But in terms of
lanches by collision ionization in an ideal liq- discharge physics, this is not correct where thermally
uid is not conceivable at first glance; free path- ionized channels are concerned; these would be better
lengths are not long enough and the typical referred to as leaders [426]. Today, the term “streamer”
breakdown strengths are not high enough. imprecisely describes the propagation of low-density
volumes without respect to their physical origin. Please
Note: In the past, it was assumed that the liquid con- note that gas-discharge physics uses the term
tains low-density volumes, which could be seen as oil- “streamer” only for a space-charge-related discharge
vapor “mircobubbles” [59]. In these bubbles, free path channel generated by collision ionization, Section 3.2.3.
lengths could be available, allowing collision ionization
similar to gas discharges (“masked gas-discharge”). Owing to physical investigations, the theory of
The increasing breakdown strength with decreasing oil breakdown is now much more sophisti-
stress duration would be equivalent to the voltage-time cated. Different stages from the first initial
characteristics of gas discharges, Figure 3.4.1-1; and
dependences on the static pressure could also be ex-
processes to the final breakdown process (the
plained consistently, Figure 3.4.2-5. There are different so-called streamer development) can now be
theories for the generation of microbubbles [59]: Low- described in detail, Section 3.4.1.1 to 3.4.1.4.
density volumes could occur even below the boiling In the following, physical theories (Section
temperature because of the thermal (Brownian) motion 3.4.1) and empirical parameter dependences
of molecules. Furthermore, it seems to be possible that
density differences occur by electro-hydrodynamic mo-
(Section 3.4.2) are described and discussed.
tion of charged volumes. Another idea assumes that
space charges expand by electrostatic repulsion causing
low-density volumes. Additionally, discharges could be 3.4.1.1 Stages of Oil Breakdown
ignited by charge transfer between particles and elec-
trodes. High electric field strengths at microscopic tips By means of high-speed cameras, shadow im-
at electrodes could additionally cause current injections, ages of different discharge stages can be taken.
local overheating and density reductions.
They show the propagation of volumes with
As early as 1970, a physical theory of oil low density and thus give a sophisticated pic-
breakdown was developed on the basis of ture of oil breakdown, Figures 3.4.1-3 and -
discharge current measurements and optical 7ff. In oil gaps, breakdown processes start at
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 219

the electrode surfaces and they are related to (2) After the application of an electric field,
the generation of gas-filled microcavities. Gas electrons are injected into the liquid. Structural
discharge processes occur in these cavities. differences of electrode surface areas, oxides
and pollution layers cause strong local differ-
Note: So far, similarities with gas discharges can be ences of the work function and for the injec-
explained (voltage-time characteristic, pressure depend-
tion of electrons. Very high injection current
ence), but it is not yet clear, whether microcavities are
the reason for the discharges or whether discharges gen- densities of the order of kA/mm² can occur,
erate the microcavities. Different mechanisms are dis- especially at microtips [423].
cussed in the literature. In all experimental investiga-
tions on mere oil gaps without barriers, discharges start Under the influence of a strong field, the con-
at the electrodes. Therefore it is assumed that both the ductivity of the liquid increases non-linearly.
properties of oil and the interaction with the electrode Electrons are injected at the cathode and build
surface play an important role. up a negative space charge that weakens the
field and restricts the emission. At the anode,
In the following, the different stages will be electrons are stripped in the liquid and focused
discussed in detail, but an overview is given at (concentrated) in front of the positive tips.
first, Figure 3.4.1-3: This significantly increases local field
(1) Without a field, the liquid is in an unor- strengths.
dered state. At the interfaces between liquid In the liquid, current density lines are concen-
and electrodes, electrochemical double layers trated at preferential surface points. At these
(Helmholtz layers) are formed; they reduce the points, energy is transferred into the liquid
work function for electrons [402], [404]. causing local enhancements of temperature

1 2 3
Condition without field Influence of increasing field strength "Initial process"
(microscopic)

Double layer
Current flow Structuring
of conductive,
Orderless Conductivity
charged and
state increase
low-density
volumes
E Formation of low-denstity
Particle drift
volumes at ~1000 kV/mm

4 5 6
Discharge inception Propagation of discharge channel (Stepped discharge) Main discharge

Tertiary
Radiant t discharge
propagation of
Stepped discharge as a sequence
low-density
of ignition and extinction
volumes
Secondary discharge channel, transition to a leader
Primary streamer
(also named "secondary streamer")

Figure 3.4.1-3: The stages of oil breakdown, see also Figure 3.4.1-10.
220 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

and conductivity. The conductive paths are A positive channel propagates stepwise and
connected to the electrode and charged ac- with high velocity (approx. 2 mm/μs) towards
cordingly. The charged current paths form the counter electrode, which is always reached.
semi-spherical and regular bunch-like struc- The discharge is interrupted and ignited sev-
tures in the liquid because of their electrostatic eral times during propagation. A negative
repulsion. As a result, preferential paths for channel leaves a positive space charge cloud
current flow are imprinted in the liquid (per- behind which weakens the local field and lim-
colation theory). its the discharge range and velocity (approx.
0.1 mm/μs). Thus, the negative channel is less
(3) At very high local field strengths between dangerous than the positive one [405], [406].
250 and 1000 kV/mm (i.e. far above the mac-
roscopic technical breakdown strength of ap- (6) For long streamer lengths or if the counter
prox. 25 kV/mm), microscopic volumes with electrode is reached, the conductive channel is
low density are generated, which can be re- used for a high-current luminescent tertiary
garded as gaseous. Their bunch-like and discharge (main discharge) with high conduc-
branching structures in the liquid can be de- tivities and temperatures causing oil vaporiza-
tected by shadow images. There are three dif- tion, gas discharges, ionization, light emission
ferent theories describing the initial processes and voltage collapse.
of discharge evolution in strong electric fields:
(a) discharges caused by collision ionization After this overview, the stages of oil-break-
within the liquid [403], [407], (b) destruction down will be discussed in detail in Sections
of surface tension [404] and (c) current-in- 3.4.1.2 (The liquid before ignition), 3.4.1.3
duced conductivity increase [310], [423]. (Initial processes) and 3.4.1.4 (Discharge
Propagation).
Note: In addition to these (intrinsic) initial processes in
the liquid itself, influences of weak links (con-
taminants) have to be considered.
3.4.1.2 The Liquid before Ignition
(4) Today, the bunch-like and radially ex-
panding low-density regions are referred to as a) The liquid without a field
“streamers” in the literature. This is not quite Even without a field, there are free charge car-
precise, because there is no reference to the riers in the liquid, mainly in the form of posi-
physical cause. Nevertheless, as long as the tive and negative ions and a few quasi-free
initial or primary streamers are caused by electrons. The charge carrier density is deter-
collision ignition, i.a. at high local voltage mined by the equilibrium of recombination
drop, this wording is in accordance with gas and ionization (dissociation).
discharge theory, cf. Section 3.2.3.
At the interface between oil and electrode,
(5) A discrete branched secondary discharge there is a thin and diffuse electrochemical
channel develops from the uniformly struc- double layer with a thickness of approx. 100
tured branch-like primary streamers as a nm. There is a preponderance of negative
stepped discharge similar to the leader dis- charge in the liquid, whereas the positive im-
charge of a cloud-to-ground lightning flash, age charges are situated on the electrode [402],
Figure 3.2-43. As high current densities at low Figure 3.4.1-3 (1).
local voltage drops occur during the stepped
growth of the channel, thermal ionization, i.e. Note: The microscopic field strengths can reach 1000
kV/mm. Electrons need an energy of approximately 4 to
a leader discharge is assumed [426]. Never- 5 eV (work function) in order to leave the electrode
theless, the phenomenological term “second- against such a field. Normally, there is an oxide layer on
ary streamer” is further used in literature the metal electrode surface with traps that can exchange
without physical reason. a limited number of electrons with the liquid.
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 221

Double layers, energy levels and microscopic uids decreases within the transit time of the
field strengths are strongly dependent on sur- ions. At higher field strengths, energy-band
face roughness, surface conditions and con- structures and potential walls are displaced
taminants, and they are subject to strong local according to the potential gradient. Conse-
and temporal variations. This might be one of quently, tunneling, hopping and generation of
the reasons for the high statistical spread of quasi-free electrons in the conduction band are
oil-breakdown, which can often be observed. made easier. The conductivity increases sig-
nificantly, Figure 3.4.1-3 (2) left, Section
b) Impact of an external field 4.2.2.2.
An external field changes the double layers at Note: It is assumed that even “quasi-free” electrons are
the electrodes. At the (negative) cathode, not completely free. Owing to the high material density,
electrons are injected into the liquid and a neg- they remain in a permanent interaction with the mole-
cules and lose energy continuously. Therefore an accu-
ative space charge is built up. It weakens and
mulation up to the ionization energy seems to be impos-
homogenizes the field in front of the electrode, sible [310]. Nevertheless, there are controversial opin-
thus reducing the injection. The injection pro- ions regarding this, Section 3.4.1.3 (a) [402], [407].
cess can only start again when the space
charge has been removed by charge carrier c) Imprinting processes in the liquid
drift. A repetitive process results that is com- (percolation)
parable to the gas-discharge Trichel impulses.
There is an interesting theory about imprinting
In front of the (positive) anode, the micro-
processes in the liquid: The percolation the-
scopic field is significantly enhanced because
ory [310], [423] assumes that an ideal liquid
drifting electrons, which were generated in the
without a field is without any long-range order
liquid or at the cathode, are concentrated (fo-
and remains in a condition of complete disor-
cused) close to surface in-homogeneities. This
der, which is in contrast to a solid. In this situ-
explanation corresponds to the observation
ation, there are no energy levels within the
that breakdowns are caused by positive
liquid which can absorb charge carriers. Under
streamers in most cases (polarity effect).
the influence of an electric field, the molecules
In the liquid, the mean free path lengths are are arranged and a short-range order is gener-
short. Even at high field strengths, electrons ated with different energy levels, which are
cannot get enough energy for collision ioniza- occupied by electrons. Drifting, hopping and
tion processes and avalanche formation. tunneling electrons polarize the adjacent mole-
Therefore, it is hardly imaginable that the pro- cules and create new energy levels that facili-
cesses are comparable to gas discharges; it tate the motion of subsequent electrons. As a
seems to be more reasonable to compare the result, coherent regions with enhanced con-
processes with the energy-band model of an ductivity and enhanced current density (al-
amorphous solid dielectric. lowed zones) are generated. In these regions,
electrons “percolate” through the oil. In a lim-
Note: The energy levels of the charge carriers are de- ited volume, molecules are arranged in regular
scribed by erratic energy-band structures similar to an (short-range) order, Figure 3.4.1-4 (bottom).
amorphous solid (conduction and valence bands, traps),
Figure 3.5-2. Electrons can move along chain molecules Note: “Percolation” refers to the imprinting of prefer-
by tunneling and hopping. During the transition between ential directions for charge carrier movement in the oil
molecules, electrons have to get over higher potential by the incipient charge transport itself. This process is
barriers (intermolecular transition). Quasi-free electrons analogous to a coffee percolator, in which the water
in the conduction band are generated by energy transfer percolates through the coffee powder and impresses
from thermal motion, radiation or the electric field. macroscopic propagation structures.

At low field strengths, the ions drift to the Ordered ranges can be built by generating
electrodes where they are neutralized or accu- clusters from charge carriers and molecules,
mulated [486]. Thus, the conductivity of liq- they can be extended by charge supply from
222 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

the electrodes and they can be connected to 3.4.1.3 Initial Processes

each other. Thereby, the liquid is structured
with temporarily stable quasi-crystalline clus- The actual ignition of the breakdown process
5 is called the initial process.
ters (consisting of up to 10 molecules and
with dimensions up to 0.1 μm), which are sep-
arated by disordered regions. Similarly to an Basically, the intrinsic breakdown of the
amorphous solid, there are “allowed zones”, pure liquid itself and the weak-link break-
which can carry electrons and in which elec- down caused by contaminants have to be
tronic charge transport occurs by quantum- distinguished.
mechanical processes (hopping, tunneling)
Experiments with very sharp point-electrodes
[310], see also Figure 3.5-2. The electronic
show that the inception of streamers in pure
charge transport through the liquid takes place
liquids requires very high local field strengths
by charge transfer between the allowed zones.
of the order of
The higher their number and the higher their
degree of order, the higher currents can flow. E = 1000 kV/mm
The conductive paths are spherically or semi- The inception field strength for positive
spherically arranged under the influence of the streamers is lower than for negative streamers
local field close to microscopic tips by the (polarity effect), Section 3.4.1.2. The physical
repulsion forces of the space charges, Figure nature of the initial processes can be explained
3.4.1-3 (2) right. by a number of different theories, Figure 3.4.1-

E.g. cathode (-) E E E E

1000 kV/mm
x = rTip
250 kV/mm
Gas
Electron avalanche First
dis-
in the liquid Microbubble
charge
High local
rB = rTip= 3 μm
field strength 3 ns, 3 pC
Series of bubbles

E E E E

S S S
A

A
2 - 3 mm/μs
E.g. anode (+)

Figure 3.4.1-4: Different theories about initial breakdown processes in insulating oil at an electrode (E) with high local
field strength.
Top: Generation of microbubbles by electron avalanches in the liquid at very high local field strengths (“hot micro
cavities”).
Bottom: Arrangement of allowed (conductive) zones (A) around an interconnected source region (S): Interconnection
with the electrode (E), structuring of the conductive zones, current increase and gas formation (G) by vaporization
(percolation theory).
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 223

4. They describe the initial processes in differ- assumed to start with an electron avalanche directly in
ent ways, (a) as avalanche formation in the oil the liquid phase as described above.
itself, (b) as a reduction of surface tension, (c)
as an imprinting, structuring and heating of the b) Destruction of surface tension
liquid or (d) as a thermal instability in wet and (“cold microcavity”)
conductive cellulose fibers. Different techno- Lewis [407] has also shown that the surface
logical influences have to be taken into ac- tension of the liquid is reduced at high field
count (e). The sections a), b), and c) describe strengths. This means that the cohesion of the
initial processes for intrinsic breakdowns, liquid-molecules could be broken up at the
sections d) and e) refer to weak-link phenom- locations of the highest electric field strength
ena. (especially in the double layer at the anode)
and a “cold” microcavity could occur. In such
a) Avalanches in the oil (“hot microcavity”) a cavity, collision ionization processes could
occur, and initial electrons could be generated
Tobazéon [403] assumes that collision ioniza-
by charge transfer between incident charge
tion and electron avalanche formation can
carriers and the electrode (Auger process). In
occur in the liquid itself for a field strength of
this case, the electric discharge would be the
approximately 1000 kV/mm.
consequence and not the cause of the initial
Note: Lewis gives the following explanation based on a process.
reduction of the collision cross section with increasing
electron energy: At 1000 kV/mm, collisions would be c) Interconnecting of electrode-liquid
elastic and the electrons would keep their energy, which interfaces (percolation theory)
could be accumulated up to the ionization energy of
approx. 9 eV [402]. Furthermore, electron exchange According to the percolation theory, conduc-
processes (Auger processes) could generate high energy
tive (“allowed”) zones in the liquid are ar-
electrons at the electrodes [407]. Owing to a simple
estimation, Tobazéon’s theory is quite plausible, if the ranged at points of locally focused field lines.
situation at a point electrode with a μm radius is com- The current flow causes an imprinting (perco-
pared with a gas discharge: The ratio of oil density (800 lation), which further increases the conductiv-
kg/m³) to air density (1,2 kg/m³) and the ratio of the ity, Section 3.4.1.2 [423].
inception field strengths of approx. 1000 kV/mm (oil) to
3 kV/mm (air) are in the same order of magnitude. Note: Kist [310] assumes that the interfaces between
metal, oxide and liquid block at first, switch through
In a non-uniform field, the range of the ava- after a threshold is exceeded and interconnect an “al-
lanches is very limited, because free charge lowed zone” in the liquid with the electrode, Figure
3.4.1-4 (bottom). This zone becomes an inception or
carriers are trapped below 250 kV/mm. As a source region which is charged from the electrode and
result of energy dissipation, every avalanche creates a spherical micro-field. The allowed (or rather
causes a microcavity or a microbubble with a conductive) zones are arranged in the spherical micro-
radius approximately equivalent to the point- field. They are enlarged by means of charge supply
electrode radius (up to approx. 10 μm). Subse- from the electrodes (electrons at the cathode, “holes” at
the anode.
quent avalanches (approx. 3 pC every 3 ns)
generate a series of bubbles which gives Owing to electrostatic repulsion, the growing
enough length for the ignition of gas dis- conductive and charged zones are arranged in
charges and for their development into a so- tree-like or threadlike spherical structures. The
called streamer [403], Figure 3.4.1-4 (top). structuring imprints channels for increased
current flow, which causes local heating and
Note: For tests with sharp point electrodes, it was ob- vaporization of the liquid when energy dissi-
served that only the positive streamer inception depends
on pressure and not the negative streamer [414]. For the
pation becomes high enough. The resulting
positive point electrode, it is concluded that there is a radial and branched primary streamers are
concentration of current, overheating and pressure-de- oriented in the direction of the microscopic
pendent vaporization (see c)). The negative streamer is field.
224 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Low-density streamers also play an important stresses of dielectric interfaces do not depend
role in percolation theory, but they aren’t the on polarity. In the case of impulse voltage,
reason for the current flow. Streamers are the stress duration is not long enough for particle
consequence of the current, which already drift.
exists because of field-induced ordered states.
Electric discharges can be ignited in the gase- The initial process is a local thermal instability
ous streamers, which were generated by over- (thermal breakdown), similar to the processes
heating. Thereby, a pressure dependence ac- according to the percolation theory c). How-
cording to a) could be explained. ever, breakdown occurs at significantly lower
field strengths because of the weak links.
d) Wet fibers (fiber-bridge breakdown)
e) Technological influences
There is very good experimental evidence that
Statistical investigations show that discharge
wet fibers reduce AC and DC breakdown
inception is subject to significant size effects.
voltages and increase statistical spread [59].
First of all, it seems contradictory that ex-
Therefore, weak-link breakdown caused by
tremely high inception field strengths of 1000
contaminants and intrinsic breakdown of the
kV/mm occur on highly rounded tips with rtip
liquid itself have to be distinguished.
= 1 μm, and that inception field strengths de-
Owing to the electrostatic field forces, fibrous crease with increasing radius or electrode area
impurities can drift in the direction of the down to macroscopic strength values of ap-
electric field lines and line up as fiber bridges, prox. 10 kV/mm, Figures 3.4.1-5 and -6. It has
especially during long stress durations. Of- been discussed for a long time whether these
ten, the hygroscopic cellulose fibers contain size effects are volume, area or distance ef-
water in the percentage range and they form fects. [408] … [411].
conductive paths which are overheated. Evap-
orated water generates microcavities and Note: This ambiguity results from the experimental
difficulty of distinguishing these influences: if one of
causes the so-called fiber-bridge breakdown the parameters is changed, the other two cannot be kept
at comparatively low field strengths, Figure constant at the same time. It has been shown that ex-
3.4.2-2. These processes are relevant both for perimental data from distribution functions for a unit
DC and for AC voltage stresses because the volume or for a unit area can be extrapolated over 8
orders of magnitude both by a volume rule and by an
area rule. [412].
1000
Point-to-plane The oil condition and the type of voltage stress
Ei 50 % Positive streamer inception profile are obviously strong influences. These
kV/mm influences can be explained by the difference
E i ~ A 0.17 between intrinsic breakdowns, which are
100
Uniform field
determined by the properties of the oil itself
Lesaint and Top [413] (in the case of small “faultless” electrode sur-
Breakdown
faces), and weak-link breakdowns, which are
caused by impurities such as particles, water or
Trinh [412]
significant surface defects.
10
-6 -3 3
10 10 1 10
A / cm² 1.) Intrinsic breakdowns occur in very clean
oils, for very short stress durations (impulse
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 r tip / mm voltages) and for very small electrode areas.
They show very high local inception field
Figure 3.4.1-5: Size effects for impulse voltage stresses
strengths of about 1000 kV/mm and low sta-
at point electrodes with different tip radii rtip [413]
tistical spread, Figures 3.4.1-5 (left) and -6
and at plane electrodes with different electrode areas A
[412]. (left).
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 225

2.) Breakdown strength decreases with in- cur, Figure 3.1.4-6 (left). However, there is a
creasing size of the arrangement, including in significant decrease in AC breakdown strength
the case of lightning impulse voltages, Figures with increasing size of the insulation arrange-
3.4.1-5 and -6. Because stress duration is not ment and with increasing particle content of
sufficient for particle drift, an electrode-area- the oil, Figure 3.1.4-6 (right).
related weak-link breakdown is observed. It
is caused by faulty electrode surfaces or by The observed size effects can be explained
adjacent particles. In this way, a certain influ- well both by volume and by size effects. They
ence of the oil quality can be explained. are consistent with the idea of initial processes,
which are triggered at the electrode surfaces
Note: It was shown experimentally that the assumption
by drifting particles from the oil volume.
of an area rule gives a good fit over more than 12 orders
of magnitude, Figure 3.4.1-5 [413], [412]. Additionally,
experiments with artificial field stress enhancements Note: In particle-loaded oils, the probability of a parti-
show that high and constant microscopic inception field cle-induced weak-link breakdown increases with the
strengths occur at local tips, even for low averaged (i.e. number of available particles per unit area. In particular,
macroscopic) inception field strengths [414]. This oils with wet fibers show weak-link breakdowns with a
means that the local field strength at a field non-uni- large statistical spread during long-lasting voltage
formity, and not the average field strength, is responsi- stresses [59]. Obviously, slow particle drift through the
ble for streamer inception. In order to explain the size oil reduces the long-term strength; short-term impulse
effect according to Figure 3.4.1-5 as an area effect, it strengths are not dependent on particles. By means of
has to be assumed that surface defects cause the field the addition of conductive particles it was determined
stress enhancement factors between 10 and 100 and that that free particles trigger the discharge at comparatively
the probability for the existence of such defects in- low field strengths, just at the instant of electrode con-
creases significantly with increasing stressed electrode tact. It is assumed that the field strength at the particle’s
area. First of all it doesn’t seem plausible that typical end is significantly increased without a protective
surface roughness causes such extreme field stress en-
hancements. Therefore, it is assumed that particles
adhering to the electrode surface cause a strong tip 1000
effect [413], [415]. The extreme difference between Point-to-plane (Lesaint [445]),
high microscopic and low macroscopic inception field streamer inception (20 streamers/min.)
Ei 50 %
strengths, which at first appeared to be contradictory, Ê
kV/mm
thus seems to be quite plausible to explain. Ê

Note: The size effect for streamer inception is inter- 100

preted as an area effect here. Nevertheless, streamer Uniform field,
propagation is of course strongly influenced by the breakdown
flashover distance, Section 3.4.1.4. (Trinh [412])
Ê
3.) Volume-related weak-link breakdowns 10
occur, if particle-loaded oils and long-lasting
voltage stresses (AC or DC voltage) are sub- AC (25 mg cellulose / l oil) Erms
ject to particle drift and breakdowns at com- AC (filtered oil)
paratively low voltages with a high statistical Impulse voltage fig. 3.4.1-5 (filtered oil)
Erms
spread [59]. Figure 3.4.1-6 [445] shows the
-6 -3 3
strength for an impulse voltage (dashed line, 10 10 1 10
A / cm²
see Figure 3.4.1-5) which is not influenced by
weak links in the oil volume. For very small
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 r Tip / mm
insulation arrangements and for AC voltages,
there are discharge inception field strengths,
Figure 3.4.1-6: Size effects for AC voltage stress (peak
which are even slightly higher than for im- values) for tips with different radii rTip [445] and
pulse voltages [445]. This is explained by in- electrodes with different areas A [412]. Intrinsic
jected space charges homogenizing the field breakdowns (for AC only for small areas/ volumes and
distribution for AC voltages and by the small for impulse voltage) as well as weak-link breakdowns
size, for which volume effects do not yet oc- (for AC for two different oil qualities).
226 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

space-charge cloud that could reduce the field strength weak-link breakdown affects breakdown
[415]. strength, (area effect). For oils with a high
These processes are not only volume effects particle content and with a sufficiently long
but also distance effects, because the free oil voltage stress, a volume-related or distance-
gap in the field direction determines how fast related weak-link breakdown dominates be-
and how many particles can drift towards the cause of particle drift (volume or distance
electrode. Furthermore, distance effects play effects). For technically purified oils, the area-
an important role in streamer propagation, related and the volume-related effects can be
Section 3.4.1.4. superimposed.

Conclusion: Initial processes and discharge From this the decrease in breakdown strength
inception depend on microscopic surface with stress duration can be explained, Figure
properties and oil quality (particle and water 3.4.1-1. The voltage-time characteristic plays
content); they are initiated at the electrode sur- an important role in the design of insulation
face. The intrinsic breakdown only dominates systems, and it is characterized by the so-
for very pure oils, for very short impulse volt- called impulse factor, i.e. by the ratio of im-
age stresses or for small electrode areas. With pulse to AC breakdown strength.
increasing electrode areas, an area-related
3.4.1.4 Discharge Propagation

After the discharge process is started by an in-

itial process, the discharge develops from the
source region. Often, all kinds of low-density
structures that propagate under the influence
of an electric field are often referred to as
“streamers”, irrespectively of wether or not
they are electrical discharges at all, streamer
discharges with collision ionization (i.e.
streamer discharges in a strict sense) or leader
discharges with thermally ionized channels,
Figure 3.4.1-7.

a) Polarity effect
Positive discharge channels are much more
dangerous than negative ones because they
have a lower inception voltage (polarity ef-
fect), Figure 3.4.1-7, and they may result in a
lower breakdown voltage.
Note: Figure 3.4.1-7 is a sequence of eight shadow im-
ages with intervals of 500 ns. There is a positive tip at
the bottom and a negative tip at the top of each picture.
It can clearly be observed that the visible positive dis-
charge phenomena (at the lower tip) start approximately
two intervals earlier than the negative ones (at the upper
tip).
Figure 3.4.1-7: Negative and positive discharge chan-
nels (at the upper and lower tips). Point-to-point elec- Additionally, the penetration power and the
trode in insulating oil. The delayed start of the negative range are larger for positive channels than for
discharge corresponds to the polarity effect [424], Fig- negative channels. This is due to the fact that a
ure R. Badent, IEH Univ. Karlsruhe.
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 227

negative space charge cloud is formed in the c) Propagation

region around the negative channel owing to in a non-uniform background field
highly mobile electrons, and this homgenizes The most important physical investigations
and weakens the local field at the channel’s were conducted for discharge propagation in a
head. For the filament-shaped channels of the strong non-uniform field with impulse volt-
positive channel, significantly higher local ages, far above the 50% discharge voltage of
field strengths at the discharge head, better the arrangement. Thus, the discharge can be
propagation conditions and greater penetration sparked off in a controlled manner and syn-
power result, Figure 3.4.1-8. Consequently, in- chronized with high speed recordings.
sulation tests with positive voltage usually pre-
sent tougher stress conditions and are gener- 1.) Under these conditions, the discharge be-
ally explicitly stipulated in the test specifica- gins with the regularly structured primary
tions. streamers (second mode), whose filamentous
and branched spherical structure is oriented
b) Propagation modes towards the radial microfield in the region
around the non-uniform point electrode,
The propagation of discharge channels is gen-
Figures 3.4.1-8 and -9. The propagation
erally determined by the arrangement (homo-
velocity is in the range of
geneity of the field, distance) and hence there
can be four different propagation modes whose 2 to 3 mm/μs
propagation velocity differs respectively by and is stabilized by the build-up of space
approximately one order of magnitude and charge associated with the streamer propaga-
which exhibit partially distinctive structural tion and by the streamer’s charging current
differences. The methods of classification and (self-regulation).
description of different authors are not consist-
ently the same, Table 3.4.1-1. Note: The increasing field strength at the head which
results from the discharge growth and which has an
Note: The first mode with very low propagation veloc- accelerating effect is reduced again by the space charge
ity occurs only under special conditions at very sharp built up in the adjacent channels and by the throttling of
edged points and is of no significance for many break- the supply of charge.
down processes. The practically relevant propagation Note: For this form of discharge, different terms such as
modes no. two, three and four are sometimes also re- “primary streamer” [310], “second mode”, “micro-
ferred to as primary-, secondary and tertiary streamers crown” [406] or “fan-shaped filaments” [413] are used
[423], but actually, the last two aren’t streamers [426]. as descriptions, Table 3.4.1-1.

Table 3.4.1-1: Propagation modes of discharge phenomena (or so-called streamers )in mineral oil

Hauschild [426] Leader discharge

First mode Second mode Third mode Fourth mode
Top, Massala and
Slower subsonic Ultrasound discharge Very fast discharge Extremely fast
Lesaint [405]
discharge discharge
Badent [423] Primary streamer Secondary “streamer” Tertiary “streamer”
First step Step wise discharge
Torshin [406]
“micro crown” propagation
0.1 to 1 mm/μs 2 to 3 mm/μs ~ 10 mm/μs > 100 mm/μs
For a strongly non- Only for very sharp Normal case Start mode at the point Develops from the
uniform field points (r < 1 μm) and with self-regulation as well as just in front of streamers that are
for very low voltages by space charges the counter electrode greatly accelerated in
the third mode and is
(only for negative (only for very large
For a quasi homo- self-luminous
streamers) increase in the field
geneous field
>50 kV/mm)
228 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

2.) For distances greater than approx.. 50 mm, conductive channel. By reducing the potential
discrete discharge channels, so-called second- difference, the discharge is extinguished again,
ary streamers (third mode), with a high ve- but the charged head is still further accelerated
locity of by the field so that a larger potential difference
is re-created, which in turn leads to re-ignition
10 mm/μs
of the discharge channel.
or more erupt from the primary structure and
Note: The discharge channel is of high impedance and
rapidly pass over the oil gap, since the velocity
low impedance in phases, and it does not give rise to
stabilization caused by space charges loses its any permanent collapse of voltage across the channel.
effectiveness, Figure 3.4.1-10 That is, there is not initially a permanent thermally ion-
ized channel but there are recurrent collision ionization
In the case of positive polarity, wide ranging processes which can finally lead to thermal ionization.
and irregular discharge channels are formed In gas discharge physics, this is a transition from the
streamer discharge to leader discharge [426].
and they spark through the entire gap in a
stepwise sequence of ignition and extinction 3.) From this mode, the streamers can change
(stepped discharge [406]) , Figure 3.4.1-3: into a faster, high current and self-luminous
After the (re-)ignition of a formerly extin- propagation mode, the so-called tertiary
guished channel, the discharge head is con- streamer (fourth mode) at more than
nected to the point-electrode potential via a

Figure 3.4.1-8: Positive discharge channels (so-called Figure 3.4.1-9: Negative discharge channels (so-called
primary streamers) with umbel-shaped or spherical primary streamers) with branched structure [424]. For
structure [424]. Rod to plane in insulating oil, with r = explanations see Figure 3.4.1-7.
5 mm and d = 50 mm. Voltage: lightning impulse
voltage 1.2/50 ȝs approx. 250 kV. Light exposure time
100 ns, image distance 500 ns. Figures 3.4.1-8 and 9, R. Badent, IEH Univ. Karlsruhe
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 229

Figure 3.4.1-10: Propagation of negative and positive discharge channels (top and bottom). Point to plane in
insulating oil. Left to right: regular primary streamers, eruption of fast discrete channels (so-called secondary
streamers) and inception of self-luminous main discharge [425], see also Figure 3.4.1-3. Images by R. Badent, IEH
Univ. Karlsruhe.

100 mm/μs. slow rate; the transition to secondary streamers requires

significantly higher local field strengths, Figure 3.4.1-11
In the terminology of gas discharge physics, (left). At the negative point electrode (cathode), the
this must instead be referred to as a leader space charge formed by injected electrons delays
discharge [426]. The main discharge that streamer inception, Figure 3.4.1-11 (right)
leads to this breakdown results in partially
discharging of the smaller secondary branches, The type of appearing discharge modes de-
Figure 3.4.1-8 (bottom right) and to a blast pends significantly on the external condi-
wave that can also be identified in the shadow tions: In a strongly non-uniform field, pre-dis-
image, Figure 3.4.1-9 (bottom). charges (primary streamers) can occur with-
out resulting in breakdown. The prerequisite
Positive and negative channels show different for this is that the voltage is not too much
structures, Figures 3.4.1-8 to -10. The forma- above the partial discharge inception voltage
tion of negative channels is less regular and (discharge inception voltage) or that the stress
the transition to the so-called secondary duration, for example, in the case of an im-
streamer is less identifiable in the structural pulse voltage, is so short and the flashover
changes. The propagation modes can better be distance is so large that the streamer cannot
distinguished by the different velocities. reach the counter electrode. The range of posi-
tive discharges in this case is greater than that
Note: Oil breakdown was also described with the help
of the percolation theory as a sequence of so-called
of negative ones. For impulse voltage stress,
streamer discharges [423], [310], Figure 3.4.1-11: After the voltage stress can significantly exceed the
creation of a source volume, imprinting of the liquid voltage necessary for breakdown for a brief
(percolation) and inception of primary streamers, period ("overstressing"). With adequately large
higher local field strengths at the streamer head lead to a flashover distances, this results in the for-
wide-ranging percolation structure with extended states,
increased charge flow and drastically increasing current.
mation of the sequence of discharge modes as
This phenomenon, which is described as a percolation explained above.
threshold, is the basis for the wide-ranging secondary
streamer that erupts from the primary structure with d) Discharges in a uniform background field
higher propagation velocity in the direction of the mac-
roscopic field. Streamer propagation in oil shows a dis- The above-mentioned d modes are generlly
tinct polarity effect: Umbel-shaped primary streamers
are formed at the positive point electrode (anode) in the
possible also in a uniform or weakly non-
permitted areas of the micro-field at a comparatively uniform background field. However, there are
230 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

three significant differences that influence ports the effect of the space charge which lim-
discharge propagation: its and regulates the discharge velocity.
1.) In a uniform field, discharges start at local Positive discharge channels, at first, occur as
defects, whose position is generally not so-called primary streamers with the “normal”
known. velocity of 2 to 3 mm/μs. In the case of large
flashover distances, the positive channel corre-
2.) The field strength is relatively high over
sponds to a “stem with a bunch” (or a leader),
the entire distance, so that positive discharge
whose stem is extinguished and whose bunch
channels with high penetrating power practi-
drifts away electrode-free until its potential is
cally always lead to breakdown.
shifted so much that the stem re-ignites
3.) The large-area electrode of equal polarity (stepped discharge). The relatively constant
present behind the discharge channel weakens propagation velocities of v = 2 to 3 mm/μs
the local field at the discharge head and sup- have been observed both in uniform as well as

Positive point electrode (anode) Negative point electrode (cathode)

Disordered state without field

A
A Formation and arrangement of permitted (and more conductive) volumes (A)
E S A under the effect of an electric field,
Exchange of charge between source volume (S) and electrode (E)
A
Formation and arrangement of
permitted volumes (A) under
the effect of the field and
Sucessive linking of
the supply of charge
permitted volumes through
(percolation)
pulsed electron-supply
leads to rapid growth of the
Increased current flow,
primary streamer 1 - 16 mm/μs
heating and vaporization
(300 - 400 kV/mm)
2 - 3 mm/μs in the micro field: umbel
and to a rapid
shaped primary streamer
transition to the
400 - 600 kV/mm
secondary streamer 3 - 55 mm/μs
Far-reaching
secondrary streamer
11-32 mm/μs in the macroscopic field
with exponetially
increasing current

> 100 mm/μs Self-luminoustertiary streamer > 65 mm/μs

Attention: the so-called "streamers" above are physically leader discharges, as long as thermal ionization is domiant.

Figure 3.4.1-11: Explanation of breakdown processes in non-uniform oil insulated electrode arrangements through the
percolation theory; inception field strengths result from the values of the applied impulse voltage and from the radius of
the point, streamer velocities from the temporal distances of shadow images [310], [423].
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 231

non-uniform fields. That is, the field around strict the length, charge and energy consump-
the positive discharge head has distinct self- tion of a discharge channel (barrier effect). It
regulating properties. The faster, secondary must, therefore, be concluded that the effect of
propagation modes with v >10mm/μs are only barriers is better for finer division of the oil
reported for very high overvoltages from ap- gaps in the field direction.
prox. 50kV/mm, which can only be applied as Note: It must be noted that introducing barriers and
a short-term impulse voltage [405]. In weakly electrode coverings into the field volume causes
non-uniform fields, Torshin has observed fast changes in the field distribution which can sometimes
discharges with stepwise propagation [406] be disadvantageous, but which can also often be
even for average field strengths of 12 kV/mm. specifically exploited.
Note: It must also be noted that insulation components
Negative discharge channels are highly of cellulose are very hygroscopic in dry condition and
branched and have an almost ball-shaped hence the oil is kept dry over wide ranges. This is an
(spherical) charge distribution which homog- important prerequisite for the high electric strength of
enizes the field, slows down the discharge and insulating oil, see Section 3.4.2.1.
brings it to extinction after a limited range
[405]. For low voltages, the propagation can
occur in a slow first subsonic mode at approx. 3.4.2 Important Parameters
0.1 mm/μs. If the discharge head has passed
Influencing Breakdown in
through a field strength minimum at about
half the flashover distance, the “point of no Mineral Oil
return” is reached and this leads to breakdown.
The physical laws of oil breakdown described
e) Barriers and insulated electrodes in Section 3.4.1 unfortunately do not allow the
calculation of electric strengths, as is possible,
The electric strength of oil insulated gaps can for example, for gas discharges using
be considerably increased by using insulating Paschen‘s law. The relationships are too com-
barriers and insulated electrodes, since both plex and too many parameters are involved.
the initial processes at the electrode surfaces Therefore, insulation systems must be de-
and discharge propagation are significantly signed based on tried and tested semi-empiri-
influenced by this. cal relationships in order to take the various
influencing parameters into consideration [65].
Note: In practice, barriers and electrode insulations of
high- quality insulating pressboard or transformerboard
(made of pure cellulose), which are suitable for impreg-
nation and wetting with oil, have proven to be both 3.4.2.1 Water and Pollution
technically and economically excellent [27], [82], Sec-
tion 3.4.2, Section 5.5, Section. 7.1.3, Section 7.2.3 and In the case of very long stress durations, a
Section 7.3.4. drastic reduction in the strength can occur
Coatings can mask electrode surface defects, owing to water (moisture), pollution and age-
can hamper injection at the cathode and focus- ing, Figure 3.4.1-1. In particular, even the ab-
sing of electrons at the anode, prevent the sorption of water in small quantities leads to
contact of particles with the electrode and may a loss of strength, Figure 3.4.2-1.
restrict the energy input into the discharge.
For a relative water content of 100 %, the
Barriers obstruct the electron transport from solvent power of the oil is depleted; this leads
the cathode to the anode, they prevent particle to the formation of free water in the form of an
drift over larger distances (distance effect) and emulsion with a drastically reduced residual
they reduce the weak link volume (volume ef- strength of 15% to 20% of the strength of dry
fect). Finally, the barriers obstruct the im- oil. This is generally equivalent to a complete
printing of the liquid (percolation structure) loss of the insulation strength and must be
that precedes the breakdown and they may re- avoided under all circumstances.
232 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

The measure for this is the solvent power of oil

for the water. As long as the water content in
oil remains far below the saturation limit, the
electric strength also remains high.

Therefore, oil-insulated high-voltage equip-

ment must always be filled with oil that is
dried and degassed under vacuum to a few
ppm of residual moisture. The ingress of water
during operation must be prohibited by con-
structive measures, for example, by air her- Figure 3.4.2-2: Formation of fiber bridges under
metic sealing or with the help of dryers filled the effect of an electric field (right) in an oil
with desiccant. Despite this, during the course loaded with dielectric fibers (left).
of time, water content can increase owing to
air contact of the oil, through diffusion via For both alternating voltage and for direct
walls and sealing systems or owing to oil de- voltage, the fibers drift in the direction of
composition (oxidation) as a result of oil age- electric field gradients, that is in the direction
ing. Therefore, the oil quality must be checked of increasing field strengths, and form linked,
periodically. largely unbranched fiber bridges within sec-
onds to minutes, which reduce both the
The oil strength is also greatly reduced by fi- strength and the insulation resistance. The
bers, especially by cellulose fibers along with dynamics of fiber bridge formation are greatly
moisture (fiber-bridge breakdown). Compact accelerated by increasing particle content and
particles cannot bypass larger oil gaps, and especially water content. The formation of a
therefore, they have a lesser influence on the fiber bridge is associated with partial dis-
strength [59]. This means that a large flashover charges [443], [444].
distance and a large oil volume favor the for-
Note: In contrast to a solid insulation that is irreversibly
mation of moist fiber bridges, Figures 3.4.2-1
destroyed by a breakdown, repeated breakdowns in oil
and 3.4.2-2. are possible without loss of strength, if the energy is not
too large, if the accumulation of soot particles is not
yet too great and if the resultant free gas is removed or
released. However, the regeneration capacity of oil is
Ê bd1% limited and must not be compared with that of gases.
kV/mm Solution Emulsion
(1)
30 The oil quality can be checked by determin-
Technically
pure oil ing the breakdown voltage in a standardized
20 test arrangement, Figure 3.4.2-3. However, oil
quality data based on different test arrange-
10 ments cannot be directly compared!
Oil with fibers
Note: It must be noted that despite similar test condi-
tions and same flashover distance d=2.5mm, different
0% 100 %
breakdown voltages occur for different arrangements
Water content w rel and this cannot be interpreted just by different field
(relative moisture content)
efficiency factors (degrees of homogeneity) [16]. In the
case of ASTM electrodes, the comparatively large vol-
Figure 3.4.2-1: AC voltage strength of technically ume used between the plates and the sharp edged rims
pure and fiber containing insulating oil [59]. reduce the strength. The strength is increased again by
d = 1 mm, volume = 14 cm³, with oil flow the increased oil flow in the non-uniform field.
d = 5 mm, volume = 25 cm³, without oil flow
Curve (1) corresponds to about 50 % breakdown
field strength determined according to VDE 0370
While carrying out the test according to IEC
section 1 with d = 2.5 mm (r.m.s. value) [16]. 60156 (VDE 0370-5) [177], a sinusoidal alter-
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 233

nating voltage (50 Hz) with 2 kV/s is rised un- Solubility for water in ppm (abs. water content)
til breakdown occurs. The arithmetic mean 1000
value from 6 successive breakdown voltages is
600
specified as the r.m.s. value. Gases and break- 400
down products must be removed from the
stressed volume by stirring and a two minute 200
waiting time between the single breakdown
tests. 100
60
Note: From curve (1) in Figure 3.4.2-1 it can be inferred 40
that the breakdown voltage determined according to or
IEC 60156 (VDE 0370-5) only decreases significantly 20
for relatively large relative water contents. Also sensi-
tivity towards detection of particles is low. Particles and 10
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
fibers can be better detected if a cylindrical electrode
Oil temperature in °C
arrangement with a larger test volume is used and the
voltage is increased in a stepped manner with one mi- Figure 3.4.2-4: Absolute water saturation con-
nute waiting times [59]. Thus, the probability of the centration in ppm as function of oil temperature
formation of a particle constellation or fiber constella- for a mineral oil with low aromatic content
tion that causes a breakdown is increased. (approx. 10 %, lower curve) and for aromatics
(100 %, upper curve) [59].

3.4.2.2 Temperature Dependence water is based on the aromatic content of the

oil, on the type of oil and on the ageing status
The influence of moisture and fibers on the and increases with the temperature, Figure
electric strength of oil is shown in Figure 3.4.2-4.
3.4.2-1 as a function of relative moisture or of
relative water content. Since the solvent Example: “Wet oil” (wabs = 40 ppm)
power for water and hence also the relative
For example, an insulating oil with low aromatic con-
humidity change with temperature, there is a tent (lower curve) attains the saturation concentration
distinct temperature dependence of the elec- (that is wrel = 100 %) at room temperature (20 °C) even
tric strength. The solubility of insulating oil for for an absolute water content of 40 ppm (40 parts per
-6
million = 40·10 ), Figure 3.4.2-4. The electric strength
is too low to be of use, Figure 3.4.2-1 (curve 1). For an
Spherical increase in temperature, for example, in a device at
Sphere to sphere Plate to plate
cap electrodes operating temperature, the solvent power increases and
d the relative water content decreases at constant absolute
25 water content. According to Figure 3.4.2-1, the electric
Diameters
Diameters strength therefore increases again. At 75 °C, wrel
36 25.4 mm
12.5 mm
Sharp edges amounts to 40 ppm/400 ppm = 0.1 or only 10 %, so that
~3,8 a strength increased by a factor of 6 can be expected.
Electrodes Electrodes
Hence, in the case of wet oil, a very strong temperature
According to according to according to
dependence of the electric strength is observed.
IEC / VDE [62] UTE [63] ASTM [64]
Example: “Relatively dry oil” (wabs = 10 ppm)
Field efficiency factors for d = 2.5 mm
K = 0.97 K = 0.87 K << 1 For oil dried to a residual water content of 10ppm, a
relative water content of wrel = 10 ppm/40 ppm = 0.25 =
50 % and 63 % breakdown voltages
for technically pure, dry and degassed oil [16]: 25 % occurs at room temperature (20 °C) and results in
a high electric strength, Figures 3.4.2-4 and 3.4.2-1
63 kV 55 kV 38 kV (curve 1). Although the relative water content falls by
65 kV 57 kV 39 kV increasing the temperature, this is no longer associated
with a significant gain in strength. Therefore, only a
Figure 3.4.2-3: Breakdown voltages (r.m.s. values) weak temperature dependence of the electric strength is
of insulating oil in different test arrangemets [16]. seen.
234 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Note: In the case of a fall in temperature, the “dry” oil down values. The technical oil strength is thus
with 10 ppm water content also attains its saturation comparable with the strength of SF6 at 3 to 5
concentration at a temperature between -10 °C and -20
°C. This implies that even this oil is not yet adequately bar.
dried. Residual moisture of approx. 5 ppm is common.
Note: The pressure dependence of the oil strength was
First and foremost among the problems is a earlier perceived as a reference to the theory of a “hid-
den gas discharge”. However, they can also be ex-
drastic fall in temperature during operation. plained well with the relationships described in Section
For example, insulating oil in a transformer at 3.4.1: under increased pressure, the formation of gase-
summertime ambient temperatures or in an ous microcavities is made difficult and in the gaseous
operational temperature state can have a high phase of streamers they also possess increased electric
strength despite a certain amount of water strength under increased pressure.
content, since the solvent power of oil is rela-
tively high. In winter, for example, in the 3.4.2.4 Barriers and Insulated Electrodes,
switched-off state of the transformer, if drasti- Dependence on Gap Width
cally reduced temperatures are attained, the
saturation limits can be largely reduced and According to experience, volume, gap width,
the absolute water content of the oil can corre- electrode surfaces and electrode coatings
spond to a dangerously high relative moisture have a significant influence on the strength of
level. insulating oil and this has been well explained
Note: In practice, this problem is generally solved by with the relationships of gas-discharge physics
the insulation components made of cellulose (paper and according to Section 3.4.1.4 e).
pressboard or transformerboard) as they are very hygro-
scopic in the dried state and they can keep the oil dry to With the help of barriers oil gaps can be sub-
a large extent as moisture traps. The water content of divided, gap widths can be reduced and di-
the oil then results from equilibrium conditions between electric strength can be increased, because the
the oil and the cellulose, see Figure 5.5-6, as well as
from dynamic moisture exchange processes induced by
formation of fiber bridges and the drifting of
temperature changes. particles or charge carriers over larger gaps is
prevented and the stressed volume is reduced.
Furthermore, if necessary, the formation of
3.4.2.3 Pressure Dependence

The breakdown strength is also basically de- 100

Oil (1,2/50 μs)
pendent on pressure, however the increase in 90 d = 2 mm
strength with pressure is significantly less pro- 80
nounced than for gases, Figure 3.4.2-5. For 70
Oil (AC 50 Hz) Êbd50
alternating voltage stress on oil, according to 60 d = 1 mm
Figure 3.4.1-2, a very large statistical disper- kV/mm
50
sion range around the presented 50 %-values
must additionally be taken into consideration. 40
Therefore, the pressure dependence is often 30 SF6
ignored in practice. Other parameters are of 20
greater significance. 10 Air
Note: A drastic fall in strength can also result when oil 0
that is gas saturated at higher pressure is suddenly re-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 p /bar
lieved of the pressure. Thus, free gas can be released, Figure 3.4.2-5: Pressure dependence of electrical
comparable with an opened mineral water bottle. strength (50 % breakdown peak-values) for
The comparison between oil and compressed air at d = 2 mm (Eq. 3.2-25 with k = 5),
sulfur hexafluoride at d = 2 mm (Eq. 3.2-43),
gases is of interest, Figure 3.4-2.5: withstand oil at AC voltage and d = 1 mm [60],
voltages with lower breakdown voltages for oil as well as oil at lightning impulse voltage
are often about half the illustrated mean break- (1.2/50 μs) and d = 2 mm [66].
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 235

Ebd / kV/mm Discharge inception field strength (r.m.s values)

100
Figure 3.4.2-6: 80
60
Electric strength of oil gaps for
AC voltage stress (1 minute, 40
50 Hz) as a function of gap
width d for 20
(1) insulated electrodes and
degassed oil, 10
8
(2) insulated electrodes and
6
gas saturated oil,
(3) bare (uninsulated) elec- 4 (1)
trodes and degassed oil, (2,3)
(4) bare electrodes and 2 (4)
gas saturated oil [27].
The curves are valid for very 1
low discharge inception prob- 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100
abilities in large oil volumes of Gap width d /mm
transformers (design curves).

streamers is limited to the gap width. Insula- following values are used: E0 = 21.5 kV/mm
tion and coatings of the electrodes influence for insulated electrodes in degassed oil (1), E0
the initial process of the streamer ignition and = 18.5 kV/mm for insulated electrodes in gas
the energy input into the streamer may be re- saturated oil (2), E0 = 17.5 kV/mm for bare
stricted, which in turn reduces its penetration (unisulated) electrodes in degassed oil (3) and
power, Section. 3.4.1.4 e). E0 = 14 kV/mm for bare (uninsulated) elec-
The inception field strength for discharges in a trodes in gas saturated oil (4).
uniform field increases with decreasing gap The breakdown of the oil gap leads directly to
width. The empirical function breakdown for electrodes that are bare (unin-
-a sulated) on both sides, and in the case of insu-
Ebd = E0· (d/mm) (3.4.2-1)
lating barriers or insulated electrodes, it leads
is one of the basic practical dimensioning initially to partial discharges.
guidelines for the one-minute AC voltage test Eq. (3.4.2-1) and Figure 3.2.4-6 are also ap-
loading of oil gaps, for example in transform- proximately applicable to weakly non-uni-
ers [27], Figure 3.4.2-6. The curves are valid form fields, if potential differences and their
for a low inception probability of discharges. respective mean field strengths are to be com-
Note: According to Section 3.1.3 and Figure 3.1-11, Eq.
pared:
(3.4.2-1) can be interpreted as a statistically motivated !
d
size effect analogous to Eq. (3.1-19). A distance effect 'Vbd ³0 E ( x) dx Ebd ˜ d (3.4.2-2)
must be adopted for this, instead of a volume effect or
an area effect. The distribution that is taken as the basis
In strongly non-uniform fields or along
is a two parameter Weibull distribution.
creepage paths (surfaces), Eq. (3.4.2-1) and
The slope of the straight lines in Figure 3.4.2-6 (-2) cannot be applied. For these instances, a
corresponds to an exponent a = 0.37 [289]. procedure for determining cumulative field
The gap boundaries and the oil quality can be stresses at the interfaces was specified and this
described by the value E0, which corresponds is explained in Section 7.1.3.3 (d) with Figure
to the value for d = 1 mm. For example, the 7.1.3-12 [274].
236 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Note: The field strengths according to Figure charge physics: For example, (1) a statistical
3.4.2-6 and Eq. (3.4.2-1), (-2) correspond to time lag (ignition delay time) elapses until the
very low breakdown probabilities of the oil emergence of a start electron, (2) the growth of
gap under consideration. For a comparison streamers requires time (formative time lag)
with Figure 3.4.1-2, a uniform oil gap with d = during which an impulse voltage shall not
72 mm for bare electrodes in degassed oil is have died down too far, (3) particle drift and
considered. According to Eq. (3.4.2-1), Ebd = 3 fiber bridge formation for direct voltage and
kV/mm results; with Eq. (3.4.2-2) it is deduced alternating voltage are slower processes with
that 'Vbd = 216 kV. According to Figure longer formation time and (4) moisture ab-
3.4.1-2, this would correspond to a breakdown sorption as well as ageing take place over very
probability of less than 2%. The stress on an long periods of time. This explains, for exam-
oil gap in a device, for example for a short ple, that the 50 % breakdown voltages in the
duration AC voltage test, must be below the case of a lightning impulse voltage for uni-
values determined according to Eq. (3.4.2-1) form or weakly non-uniform fields are ap-
or (-2) if an oil gap breakdown must be ruled proximately double the values for an AC volt-
out with high probability. age relative to the peak value, Table 3.4.2-1.
Note: For a comparison of strengths for impulse volt-
Note: The above-mentioned considerations are related age and AC voltage in Figure 3.4.2-5 it must be noted
to a pure distance effect. However, also a volume effect that the AC voltage strength has still to be converted
or a surface effect can be detected [59]. With the infor- from the gap width d = 1 mm to d = 2 mm with the help
mation on the distribution function (as in Figure 3.4.1-2, of Eq. (3.4.2-1) so that the AC voltage values must be
for example) and the critically stressed volume, the reduced to about 78 % of the illustrated values. Fur-
distribution function for larger volumes can be calcu- thermore, it must be noted that owing to the especially
lated according to Eq. (3.1-14) to (-17). large dispersion for AC voltage breakdowns, the actual
stress must be kept significantly lower than the 50 %
In practical arrangements, however, there are not only breakdown voltages. The technically usable dielectric
uniformly stressed volumes but also volumes with var- strength of oil at AC voltage corresponds approximately
ying field strengths. Generally, the volume in which to the strength of SF6 for about 3 bars.
90% of maximum field strength is exceeded is consid-
ered as the critically stressed volume. Sinz [59] has For increased frequencies there is a strength
however shown that this results in too little volume and
proposed to weight the magnitude of individual volume reduction and no increase in the strength as
elements with the breakdown probability for the local could be inferred by comparison with the im-
field strength. pulse voltage strength [421]. The causes for
this are dielectric losses that increase greatly
Note: Figure 3.4.2-6 directly shows that the from about 1 kHz, leading to thermal insta-
subdivision of a large oil gap by impregnated bilities and decreasing breakdown voltages,
pressboard barriers into several narrow gaps which at 1.5 MHz in a uniform field amount to
with insulating boundaries leads to a drastic only about 20% of the initial values at 50 Hz.
gain of strength. Thus, considerably smaller
dimensions can be achieved for transformers. Note: This loss of strength is important also for repeti-
tively switched or square-wave voltages and for power
This reduces the magnetic leakage flux and frequency voltages with high total harmonic distortion.
especially the weight and hence also the di- Thermal instabilities can occur, especially in insulations
mensions and costs. with large volumes and poor heat removal, such as in
older compensation capacitors with oil-paper insulation.
Special care is required also for power electronic appa-
ratus with voltage-source converters and repetitively
3.4.2.5 Time Dependences, Time Factors switched voltages.

The basic dependence of electric strength on For direct voltage, especially favorable con-
stress duration corresponds to the curve in ditions are given for the drift of impurities and
Figure 3.4.1-1. Different reasons are given for correspondingly low strengths occur, Table
this in Section 3.4.1 with reference to dis- 3.4.2-1.
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 237

The lightning impulse voltage, which is influenced the Also for gap widths in mm range, one can de-
least by impurities in the oil and which exhibits the duce from this example that the curves given
lowest dispersion, is selected as a reference quantity in
Table 3.4.2-1.
in Figure 3.4.2-6 correspond to a low break-
down probability of a few percent and that the
50 % breakdown field strengths, in accordance
Table 3.4.2-1: 50 % breakdown strengths of techni-
cally pure and degassed transformer oil for different
with Figure 3.4.1-2, are about twice as high.
types of stress for different durations. The strengths Example: Oil gap with d =20mm
are related to the reference value 1 for lightning im-
pulse voltages between bare electrodes and are re- An oil gap with d = 20 mm between blank electrodes,
ferred to as time factors: according to Figure 3.4.2-6 , has a “discharge inception
field strength” of about 6 kV/mm for one-minute AC
voltage stress. This corresponds to a breakdown prob-
Electrodes: bare bare
ability of about only a few percent. The reliable with-
(insulated)
stand voltage, therefore, lies below V = E d = 120 kV
[22] [39]
for the r.m.s. value or below 170 kV for the peak value.
Lightning If this value is extrapolated according to Table 3.4.2-1
impulse voltage 1.2/50 μs >1 1 to a lightning impulse voltage of 170 kV/0.5 = 340 kV,
then the breakdown probability is significantly less than
Switching 200/5000 μs 0.7 that for AC voltage V = 120 kV, since the statistical
impulse voltages 250/2500 μs 0.7 (0.8) dispersion of breakdown voltages for lightning impulse
AC voltage, peak value voltage is less than that for AC voltage. This implies
Voltage rise: that this estimation is on “the safe side”.
30 s 0.55 According to Figure 3.4.1-2, the 50 % breakdown volt-
10 kVr.m.s./min 0.35 age is larger by the factor 410 kV/220 kV = 1.85 than
Stress duration: the 2 % breakdown voltage, which is equated to a rough
1 minute 0.45 (0.59) approximation with the values according to Figure
3 hours 0.36 (0.53) 3.4.1.2-6. For AC voltage, a value of about Vbd50 | 220
Direct voltage kV and Û V bd50 | 310 kV serves as a rough indicative
1 minute 0.20 (0.26) value. For lightning impulse voltage, Û V bd50 | 310
kV/0.5 | 600 kV would result as the orientation value.
For [22]: Values in brackets relate to insulated elec-
Measured values [39] also correspond to this. If the 1 %
trodes.
breakdown values are set at about 70 % of Û V bd50 [66],
For [39]: Values from measurements for lightning then for the 1 %-breakdown voltage, a value with a
impulse voltages up to 1250 kV in a cylindri- magnitude of 660 kV·0.7 = 420 kV is estimated.
cally symmetric arrangement (Ra = 100 mm,
Ri variable). In the oil channels of transformers, test
stresses of 5 to 10 kV/mm for AC voltage
(r.m.s. value) and about double those values
Example: Oil gap with d =2 mm
for lightning impulse voltage are permitted.
According to Figure 3.4.2-6, an oil gap with d = 2 mm [23], [67]. The widths of the oil channels must
between bare electrodes has a “discharge inception field be dimensioned according to Figure 3.4.2-6 in
strength” of about 13.2 kV/mm for a one-minute AC
voltage stress. Therefore, the reliable withstand field dependence on the local field strengths in the
strength lies below Ebd = 13.2 kV/mm for the r.m.s. transformers. The permissible operating field
value and below Ê = 18.7 kV/mm for the peak value. strengths (r.m.s. values of AC voltage) are
substantially lower and range from approx. 2
According to Figure 3.4.1-2, the 50 %-breakdown volt- kV/mm for devices with air contact with the
age is larger by the factor 410 kV/220 kV = 1.85 than
the 2 % breakdown voltage, which is equated in rough oil up to 5 kV/mm for hermetically sealed de-
approximation with the values according to Figure vices [16].
3.4.2-6. By extrapolation of Êbd50 | 1.85·18.7 kV/mm
The graduation of test voltages is taken from
= 35 kV/mm to a lightning impulse voltage stress of
Êbd50 | 2·35 kV/mm = 70 kV/mm (factor 1/0.5 = 2, see
Tables 6.1-2 and 6.1-3. It takes the time fac-
Table 3.4.2-1), a value that comes close to the measured tors into account and shall ensure the coordi-
50 % impulse breakdown field strength of 74 kV/mm is nation of equipment insulations for a particular
obtained, Figure 3.4.2-5. voltage level (insulation coordination). The
238 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

large difference between test voltages and op- Example: Edges of metallic foil electrodes in capaci-
erating voltages shall also take the loss of tor insulations (Continued from Section 2.4.3.3)
strength owing to ageing in decade-long op- For the numerical example for Eq. (2.4-36) and Figure
eration into consideration. 2.4-21, at E0 = 60 kV/mm, an edge field strength of
Eedge = 220 kV/mm was estimated at an ideally round
edge (Redge = 6 μm). If a further enhancement of the
field is assumed owing to unevennesses of the edge
3.4.3 Partial Discharges (PD) in surfaces, one arrives at the order of magnitude given in
Table 3.4.3-1. Moreover, it must be noted that the rather
Mineral Oil cylindrically symmetrical field at the foil edge decreases
more slowly with increasing distance from the edge than
In highly non-uniform fields, stationary partial a spherically symmetrical field at the point electrode.
discharges (PD) can occur in oil, similarly to Therefore, partial discharges must be expected at the
PD in gases, during which the streamers stabi- cylindrical foil edge for lower field strengths.
lize as a result of space charges, without
Furthermore, it can be concluded that conduc-
reaching the counter electrode and without
tive particles which lead to a local field stress
resulting in a direct breakdown. The partial
enhancement owing to the point electrode ef-
discharge inception field strength of point to
fect become less critical with decreasing parti-
plane arrangements is a more sensitive indi-
cle size as the local partial discharge inception
cator of gas content, water content and con-
field strength increases to very large values.
tamination of oil than the breakdown voltage
in an approximately uniform field [16], [22], The most common cause for partial discharges
Table 3.4.3-1. in insulating oil is gas bubbles or gas layers.
The field strength in gas is increased through
The comparatively high edge field strengths dielectric field displacement. While increasing
are responsible for the fact that in an apprecia- the voltage, the Townsend’s ignition condition
ble field volume, the field strength is increased is reached in the gas for relatively low voltages
so much that primary streamers can be initi- and this leads to partial discharges.
ated.
Free gas in oil, similar to free water, means an
From this it is also understood that signifi- extreme loss of strength, very much below the
cantly greater field strengths are possible at the strength of technically clean oil and usually
sharp edges of capacitor foils than in the uni- below the typical values of test field strengths.
form field volume between capacitor foils, see Free gas in oil-impregnated devices must be
Figure 2.4-20 and example in Section 2.4.3.3 avoided under all circumstances.
(“Edges of metallic foil electrodes in capacitor
For estimating the field strength in oil during
insulations”).
the inception of partial discharges in gas, at
first the partial discharge inception field
Table 3.4.3-1: Partial discharge inception (PDI) field strength in gas is determined. It is calculated
strengths at hyperbolic point electrodes in oil (r.m.s.
values) [16]
from the breakdown voltage of the gas gap
according to Paschen’s Law (3.2-25) for air
Insulating oil Radius EPDI and hydrogen or according to Eq. (3.2-43) for
SF6 as well as from the flashover distance d in
kV/mm
the gas. For spherical bubbles, the bubble di-
ameter must be used, since the ignition condi-
Mineral oil (wrel = 10 %) 100 μm 170
tion is initially fulfilled for this longest possi-
Mineral oil (wrel = 100 %) 100 μm 110 ble path while increasing the voltage see Fig-
Mineral oil 6 μm 785 ure 2.4-22. The inception field strengths in gas
Phenyl-xylyl-ethane (PXE) 6 μm 981 can be converted to field strength values in oil
with the field displacement equations (2.4-38)
3.4 Discharges in Liquids 239

for spherical bubbles or with Eq. (2.4-18) for fission gases of oil, generally, hydrogen is
plane gas layers. formed as the key gas. With the help of an
analysis of gases dissolved in oil (“gas-in-oil
Example: Spherical gas bubble in oil analysis”), the occurrence of partial discharges
The estimation described gives the effective partial can even be subsequently identified, Section
discharge inception field strength according to Eq. (3.4- 6.4.3.2.
2) as a function of bubble diameter d in oil with air
bubbles under atmospheric standard conditions: In the case of a point electrode, the fission
gases are dissolved in oil until the gas absorp-
d: 10 100 1000 μm
tion capacity is exhausted. The formation of
Eoil PDI 20 5 3 kV/mm free gas leads to an increasing partial dis-
charge intensity that can increase until break-
These values must be understood as orientation values,
down, with irreversible damage to the insula-
since in Eq. (3.2-25) with k = 5, no special surface value
was used for the feedback factor J However, owing to tion.
the use of double logarithms, J has only a weak influ-
ence on the result.
In case of a gas bubble, the free gas can dis-
solve in the oil under the stimulating effect of
The example shows that very small air bub- partial discharges. However, the oil must pos-
bles (d << 10 μm) cannot practically worsen sess the property of “gas absorbing behavior”
the technical AC voltage strength of insulating with a high proportion of aromatic com-
oil (approx. 20 kV/mm for a 1 mm wide oil pounds, that is to say, it has the property of
gap, Figure 3.4.2-6). Larger bubbles as well as gas absorption under the influence of partial
gas layers that are transverse or longitudinal discharges. Under favorable conditions, there-
to the direction of the electric field must defi- fore, the partial discharge intensity can de-
nitely be avoided, however. crease and can even be completely quenched if
all the free gas is dissolved. However, if the
Free gas can especially occur owing to insuf- gas absorption capacity of the oil is not suffi-
ficient vacuum while filling the device with oil cient, or if it is not an oil with gas absorbing
or owing to insufficient degassing of the filling behavior, then free hydrogen gas, which ex-
oil. Small gas bubbles could also be released hibits a lower electric strength than air, is pro-
from an oil containing gas owing to flows and duced. The partial discharge inception voltage
turbulences. decreases and the partial discharge intensity
can intensify until breakdown occurs.
Note: Another source of free gas in oil is the water that
may be bound in insulation components made of hygro- Note: The gas absorbing behavior is determined ac-
scopic cellulose. Inadmissibly high water content of cording to a procedure standardized in IEC 60628 and
several percentage points by weight can lead to the described by specifying a gas absorption coefficient in
formation of bubbles of water vapor at high operating μl/min.
temperatures (bubble effect [446], [447] ).

If the gas absorption capacity of the oil is ade-

quate, small gas bubbles are even dissolved 3.4.4 Other Insulating Liquids
back into the oil over time. Many days are
often required for this, if the gas is trapped in Also other liquid dielectrics generally show
the back tapers and only small contact areas similar dependences of electric strength like
are available for the oil or if gas diffusion mineral oil. The strengths that can be attained
through impregnated paper or pressboard bar- are basically not different.
riers is obstructed.
Therefore, the application of insulating liquids
Another dangerous source of gas formation is is especially oriented towards other properties
partial discharges at existing defects, such as that predestine or exclude a liquid for a spe-
electrode tips or gas bubbles. Along with other cific purpose, as in Chapter 5. Important prop-
240 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

erties include permittivity, dissipation (loss) defects and to ageing. This implies that the
factor, conductivity, thermal and chemical practically applicable electric strength is de-
resistance, viscosity, pour point, heat removal termined more by the individual manufactur-
capacity (thermal conductivity), thermal ca- ing and application conditions and less by the
pacitance, thermal expansion, flash point, physical material properties.
combustibility and biological compatibility.
Following discharges, the solid can no longer
Besides the dominating mineral oils, synthetic be regenerated as can gases and liquids
silicone liquids, ester liquids, chlorinated hy- through convective material exchange. Dam-
drocarbons (askarels or polychlorinated bi- age is usually irreversible.
phenyls PCBs, no longer permitted) and chlo-
rine free hydrocarbons as substitutes for the In the area of short stress durations, break-
askarels are important. For special applica- down occurs at very large field strengths ow-
tions, even vegetable oils (ricinus oil, rapeseed ing to electronic collision ionization processes,
oil), liquefied gases (He, LN2) and de-ionized Figure 3.5-1. We refer to electrical breakdown
water are used, among others, see Section 5.4. (Section 3.5.1). In case of longer stress dura-
The importance of vegetable oils and “natural tions, the generation of heat in the dielectric
esters” made out of it as substitutes for mineral can lead to thermal destruction of the insulat-
oil is already given today owing to their better ing material. This so-called thermal break-
biodegradability, and it will further increase down (Section 3.5.2) strongly depends on the
with increasing mineral oil prices. operational conditions (heat generation, heat
removal). Over long periods of time, the elec-
tric strength can be drastically reduced owing
to ageing processes (Section 3.5.3). Erosion of
3.5 Discharges in Solids insulation through partial discharges can lead
to erosion breakdown or ionization breakdown
Solids basically have a very high electric respectively. Chemical changes by electric
strength, and this strength is distinctly higher fields and currents can cause so-called electro-
than the strength of liquids and gases, Figure chemical breakdown. Furthermore, there are
3.3-1. However, it is greatly reduced in the non-electric ageing processes which can re-
case of technical insulating materials owing to duce the electric strength significantly, e.g.
non-ideal material structures, to impurities to embrittlement, cracking or water absorption.

Impulse breakdown 1s 1 min 1h 1d 1m 1a 30 a

(Discharge delay)

Ebd
Thermal
Electrical
breakdown
breakdown Ageing
Erosion
Moisture
Figure 3.5-1:
Breakdown strength of a
solid dielectric as a func- t /s
tion of stress duration, -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9
without considering the 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
statistical dispersion
(schematic).
3.5 Discharges in Solids 241

3.5.1 Electrical Breakdown lations. Crystals always exhibit irregularities

in the form of dislocations, grain boundaries,
Electrical breakdown by the formation of crystal impurities and amorphous areas. This
electron avalanches requires free electrons and is exhibited as additional states (traps, donor
adequate free path lengths for effective colli- states) in the “forbidden zone” that are below
sion ionization. According to the energy-band the conduction band, from which electrons can
model of solid-state physics, the conduction be released even at lower field strengths.
band in insulating materials in which the elec- Crystal defects and grain boundaries form pre-
trons can move freely is only poorly occupied ferred directions for the breakdown (“direc-
[25], Figure 3.5-2 (center). Therefore the elec- tional breakdown” [68]).
trons must be brought into the conduction Note: Energy-band models are also used to describe
band from the electrodes (external field emis- electronic processes in amorphous solids and in liquids.
sion), from the valence band or from occupied They are characterized by less clearly separated bands
states in the forbidden zone (internal field and by a larger number of intermediate energy levels.
emission), only under the influence of the
Crystalline materials are not only mineral ma-
field, Figure 3.5-2 (right).
terials such as quartz and mica, but also high
Note: Thus, it is assumed that the regular potential field polymer synthetics such as polyethylene, in
of the positive atomic nuclei in an ideal crystal is dis- which both crystalline and amorphous areas
torted by an electric field to such an extent that, from can be formed simultaneously.
the upper occupied states, the valence electrons can
“tunnel” through the potential barriers between the For thin polyethylene films (d is about 100 μm, DC
atoms and enter the conduction band. A very low prob- voltage stress) Ebd | 800 kV/mm at 20 °C and Ebd | 300
ability exists for this according to the quantum me- kV/mm at 100 °C. For epoxy resin molded materials,
chanical tunnel effect, which increases with the reduc- Ebd | 400 kV/mm was measured with impulse voltages
tion of the potential to be overcome. for d = 3 mm [39].

The field strengths necessary for internal field Loss of strength occurs with increasing tem-
emission in ideal crystals are extremely high, perature through additional free electrons
and they cannot be achieved in practical insu- caused by thermal activation.

W W W Distortion of
energy level pattern
by an electrical field
Conduction band (unoccupied)
"Forbidden band"

1 F (W) x x
Occupation Valence levels (fully occupied) in the Release of valence electrons from
probability "potential wells" that are assigned to their bonds to the lattice atoms
(Fermi statistics) the lattice atoms (internal field emission)

Figure 3.5-2: Occupation probability of energy levels in energy-band models (left), periodic potential field
of an ideal non-conductive crystal with potential barriers between individual atoms (center) and release of
valence electrons owing to the quantum mechanical "tunnel effect" under the effect of an electric field (right).
242 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Electrical breakdown exhibits a distinct vol- x Heat supply from outside, for example, by
ume effect. This pertains to a statistical size the ohmic losses PI of a neighboring con-
effect, since the probability for defects causing
ductor.
breakdown increases with the volume, see
Section 3.1.3, Figure 3.1-11 and Eq. (3.1-19) x Poor heat removal to the surroundings, for
example, owing to a high ambient temper-
Moreover, there is a physically explainable ature, owing to a thick insulating material
loss of strength with insulating material thick- (for high voltages) or owing to low ther-
ness d, which is a thickness effect, owing to mal conductivity of the insulating material.
negative space charges at the positive elec-
trode. The thickness of the space charge layer Note: Generally, thermal breakdown is also possible in
and the local field stress enhancement increase liquids, for example, when convection is hampered by
with the thickness of the insulating material. blockage of oil channels. Generally, however, heat
transport owing to liquid flow prevents thermal insta-
For high density polyethylene, for the example of AC bility. Dielectric losses in gases are extremely low;
voltage it is specified that Ebd1 = 800 kV/mm for a vol- hence, a thermal breakdown cannot occur.
-5 3
ume V1 = 10 cm and Ebd2 = 600 kV/mm for a volume
-3 3 Example: Compensation capacitors
V2 = 10 cm [39]. Extrapolation to larger volumes (V3
3
= 100 cm ) leads to breakdown field strengths that are Thermal breakdowns can occur, for example, in older
lower by about one order of magnitude (Ed3 = 70 compensation capacitors with oil-paper dielectrics. The
kV/mm). Practical values, depending on the quality of relatively large losses and the compact structure for the
the material, are even lower and may only achieve a few realization of bigger capacitance values can lead to
10 kV/mm. thermal instability at increased voltage or in the case of
harmonics with higher frequencies. Even modern com-
pensation capacitors with low-loss polypropylene film
dielectrics are at thermal risk by the increase in the
3.5.2 Thermal Breakdown

Insulations in which the supplied (input) ther-

mal power Psup is constantly higher than the V < Vb
removed thermal power Prem are constantly P ( T)
heated up and ultimately thermally destroyed. V = Vb
This process of thermal breakdown may take
V > Vb 2
place within seconds or possibly even gradu-
ally over many hours, depending on the ther-
mal conditions of the insulating body, Figure
3.5-1 (thermal instability).
b
In practice, the following factors favor the
Dielectric
development of the described thermal instabil- Psup power loss
ity: 1
x High dissipation factor (loss factor) tan G Prem Ohmic conductor losses
of the insulating material, that is to say,
high dielectric power loss PG. Ta T1 Tb T2
x Increased dielectric losses owing to the 'Tab T
total harmonic distortion of the applied
voltage.
Figure 3.5-3: Balance of supplied and removed heat
x Disproportionately high increase of dissi- for thermal breakdown with stable (1) and instable
pation factor (loss factor) and dielectric (2, b) working points for determining the so-called
power loss with the temperature T. thermal breakover voltage.
3.5 Discharges in Solids 243

harmonic distortion factors in the network, as the power PI is independent of temperature to a first ap-
loss increases with the frequency, Eq. (3.5-2).
proximation. Owing to the exponential in-
Example: Epoxy resin bushing
crease in conductivity, PG(T) and the dissipa-
tion factor tan G also increase exponentially
Bushings between the hot oil of a transformer and the with the temperature, Figure 3.5-3:
gas volume of an enclosed switchgear are specially
thermally stressed: the heat supply through the conduc- 2
tor, the relatively high dielectric losses of some epoxy PG = V ZC·tan G(T)
resins at higher temperature and the high ambient tem-
perature lead to a situation in which a thermal equilib-
rium can occur only for a very high insulating material V 2 ˜ ZC ˜ tan G a e E (T Ta ) . (3.5-2)
temperature. The thermal stability, therefore, must often
be verified by means of a thermal stability test. Note: The frequency dependency included in
Eq. (3.5-2) leads to a strong increase in losses
Note: The so-called RIP (resin-impregnated paper)
with increasing frequency. Additionally, also
bushings are made of a crepe paper core with alumina
grading layers impregnated with an epoxy resin, see the dissipation factor often increases with an
Sections 5.3.3.1 and 7.1.2.3. increase in frequency. Thus, thermal problems
can occur at high frequencies, for power elec-
Example: Thermal stability test tronic switching impulses and, often unexpect-
edly, even for AC line voltages with high
Thermal stability is verified by simultaneous stress of a
test object with voltage and current. Thermal stability, harmonic contents, Section 4.2.4. Assuming
which is a steady-state condition, is assumed if the ob- linear materials, dielectric power loss results
served parameters, such as dissipation factor tan G or from the superposition of loss components that
conductor temperature, do not vary over a period of 5 are associated with the individual components
hours. of the frequency spectrum, see Eq. (4.2-20).

Example: Thermal breakdown owing to ageing The removed heat Prem is proportional to the
Even a successful thermal stability test offers no guar- heat transmitting surface A(x), the thermal
antee of thermal stability over a long period of time. In conductivity O and the gradient of insulating
the case of mineral oil-impregnated paper, a significant material temperature grad T = wT/wx in the
increase in the dissipation factor can occur owing to
thermally accelerated ageing. In insulations with unfa- direction of heat flow x:
vorable heat transmission conditions, for example in
thick-walled insulated bushings, this can result in ex- Prem = O·A(x)·wT/wx (3.5-3)
ceeding the thermal stability limit, Figure 3.5-7.
In Figure 3.5-3, it is assumed for simplifica-
No breakdown strength with the meaning of a tion that the insulating material temperature T
material specific quantitiy can be given for is location-independent. The removed heat is
thermal breakdown. The breakdown voltage then determined by the heat transfer at the sur-
(“breakover voltage”) for a specific arrange- face of the insulating material and is propor-
ment is derived from consideration of the bal- tional to the difference (T – Ta) between T and
ance of supplied and removed heat, taking the ambient temperature Ta. Prem can be plotted as
geometry and ambient conditions into account, a straight line against T.
Figure 3.5-3.
In the stationary state, supplied and removed
The supplied thermal power Psup results heat are equal (thermal balance):
from the sum of the power loss PG in the di-
Psup = Prem (3.5-4)
electric and the heating effect of the externally
supplied ohmic losses in the conductor PI: If the applied voltage is lower than the break-
over voltage (V < Vb), a stable working point 1
Psup = PG + PI (3.5-1) and an unstable working point 2 are possible.
244 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

For temperatures T > T1, the removed heat is measures can be applied to shift the thermal
greater than the supplied heat. The stable breakdown to higher voltages:
working point 1 with the insulation tempera- By using dielectrics with lower losses or by reducing
ture T1 is re-adjusted by cooling down. It does the ohmic losses in the conductor, the power curves for
not lead to breakdown. Only when the tem- Psup(T) for uniform voltage are shifted downwards. The
breakover voltage is only attained after increasing the
perature of the insulating material is pushed losses Psup(T) by increasing the voltage.
above T2 by a temporary additional heat sup-
ply is the arrangement no longer thermally A steeper increase in the power lines Prem(T) results
from more effective heat removal, for example by cool-
stable, since the supplied heat is permanently
ing. Thus, higher losses Psup(T) and a higher voltage are
greater than the dissipated heat. necessary to attain the breakover voltage.

On increasing the voltage further, the losses in A reduction in the ambient temperature Ta shifts the
the dielectric also increase until Psup(T) and power line Prem(T) to the left. Here too, higher losses
Psup(T) and a higher voltage are necessary to attain the
Prem(T) no longer intersect, and in any case it
breakover voltage.
leads to thermal escalation: the voltage is
above the breakover voltage (V > Vb). Using equations (3.5-1) to (3.5-5), the thermal
breakover voltage (breakdown voltage) can be
If, in the borderline case of the thermal break- calculated for different arrangements. This
over voltage (V = Vb), both the power curves always shows that the breakdown voltage no
touch each other at an unstable point b, this longer increases linearly with the insulating
leads to thermal breakdown. Owing to the material thickness d. Moreover, significant
idendity in gradients, the following applies at variations occur depending on the arrange-
the “breakover point”: ment.

wPsup/wT = wPrem/wT (3.5-5) Global thermal breakdown and local thermal

breakdown are distinguished, Figure 3.5-4. In
Note: From Figure 3.5-3 it can be seen which the first case, general (“global”) warming

a) Ta c) d) Ta e) x
x x
T T
Ohmic
losses T Ta
b) Ta T
Ta
T x
(Ohmic losses) Global thermal breakdown Local thermal breakdown

Figure 3.5-4: Heat flow for global and local thermal breakdown for example arrangements.
The areas of highest temperature T (hot spots) are marked with white bars.
a) Plane arrangement with global heating and heat transfer through the electrodes on both sides.
b) Plane arrangement wiht heat transfer on one side and with additional thermal loading by ohmic losses.
c) Coaxial arrangement with thermal loading by ohmic losses (for example, cables or bushings).
d) Plane arrangement with local heating and axial heat transfer through the electrodes on both sides.
e) Plane arrangement with local heating and radial heat transfer into the cooler dielectric.
3.5 Discharges in Solids 245

takes place in a homogeneous dielectric with though oil-impregnated paper is suitable as a high-volt-
uniform stress. In the second case of a non- age insulating material, it can however lead to thermal
instability in the case of extremely high field strengths
uniform or non-uniformly stressed dielectric, (in capacitors) and in the case of poor heat removal (for
only a locally restricted (local) warming oc- large capacitances),
curs, which in the case of thermal instability
leads to the formation of a breakdown channel. Table 3.5-1: R.m.s. value of thermal breakover voltage
In the literature, for example, instances a) and for different materials in a plane arrangement according
e) are calculated according to Figure 3.5-4 to Figure 3.5-4 a) and d) for f = 50 Hz and T = 20 °C.
[16].
Quartz (depending on the purity) 2....20
For plane arrangements with heat removal on MV
both sides through the electrodes according to Mica (depending on the purity) 7....18 MV
Figure 3.5-4 a) and d) (Kreifuß approach), a Steatite (depending on density) 1.5...9.8 MV
thermal breakover voltage Vb that is independ- Hard porcelain (dto.) 0.4...2.8 MV
ent of insulation thickness d results from Eq. Glass (20 °C) 2......6 MV
(3.5-1) to (-5). Glass (350 °C) 0.1...0.2
MV
Note: Instead of a derivation, a plausibility considera-
Polyethylene (PE) 3......5 MV
tion is presented here: by doubling the insulation thick-
ness d, and for the same applied voltage V, the field Capacitor paper 3.5...4 MV
strength is halved and the specific power loss (power Sulfate paper 0.6 MV
loss density) is reduced to one fourth. Owing to the Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 0.1...0.2 MV
doubled volume, the power loss is halved, see also Eq.
(3.5-2), with halved capacity. Owing to doubling of the
insulation thickness, the thermal resistance is also dou-
bled and the removed heat for the same temperature
According to Figure 3.5-4 e) (Wagner ap-
difference is halved. In a presentation according to Fig- proach), for a narrow channel of increased
ure 3.5-3, therefore, only the two curves Psup(T) and conductivity with lateral heat dissipation, the
Prem(T) are reduced in equal measure. Therefore, the same power loss per unit length occurs, if both
same temperatures develop in the insulating material, the voltage V and the channel length d or the
and the breakover condition is attained for the same insulation thickness d are doubled. However,
voltage.
experience shows that the breakover voltage is
Significantly different values for the thermal not proportional to thickness d but to the root
breakover voltage are obtained for different of d:
materials, Table 3.5-1 [47]. In the case of thin 1/2
insulations, these values cannot be attained, Vb ~ d (3.5-6)
since the breakdown is not caused thermally
but electrically. The significance of the ther- Apparently, the radius r of the discharge chan-
mal breakover voltage is that the breakdown nel increases with increasing insulating mate-
voltage strength of lossy dielectrics can not be rial thickness or channel length d. Therefore,
increased further by increasing the thickness the heat-producing volume grows more than
of the dielectric. The limits are a few cm for proportional to d and the breakover voltage
dielectrics with comparatively high losses and increases more slowly than the insulation
a few 10 cm for low-loss dielectrics. thickness d.

Note: Table 3.5-1 also shows that some materials, under Generally, the thermal breakover voltage is not
unfavorable heat transfer conditions, are not suitable for only dependent on the material but also on the
high-voltage insulations. For example, PVC cables can arrangement, on the external heat sources and
at the most be used up to the medium voltage range. on different ambient conditions (temperature,
Even in the case of cast resins, an increase in losses in
the region of the glass transition temperature can lead to heat transfer). Therefore, with simplifying
thermal problems depending on the type of resin. Al- analytical calculation, only simple cases can
246 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

be discussed and general trends are described mately leads to so-called erosion break-
(see above.). down.

In many cases, the insulating material volume x Under the effect of penetrating moisture,
can be divided into thermally similar volumes the material structure can change owing to
for a calculation. For example, for the case of hydrolysis (for example, depoymerization,
bushings, discretization into the insulation decomposition of bondings or delamina-
layer volumes between electrically and ther- tion of fiber reinforced materials).
mally highly conductive metallic grading lay- x Under the combined effect of moisture and
ers makes sense. The solutions for all partial electric fields, conductive tracks caused by
volumes lead to an equation system which can electrochemical changes can appear, they
be solved iteratively, for example. initiate so-called electrochemical break-
down (e.g. formation of “water trees” in
Below the breakover voltage, an iterative so-
polyethylene cables).
lution converges on a temperature distribution.
Above the breakover voltage, there is no con- x Owing to thermal stress of insulating mate-
vergence. rials, conductivities and dissipation (loss)
factors can increase. This can lead to com-
In very complex cases, a non-linear thermal pletely changed field distributions for DC
field calculation with temperature dependent voltages and to thermal instabilities or
material parameters must be carried out on the thermal breakdown for AC voltages.
basis of an electric field calculation. The
method of finite elements is generally applied The danger of the above mentioned ageing
for this. mechanisms depends primarily on to what
extent the mentioned effects on the insulating
material can be foreseen and preemptively
ruled out during design and production.
3.5.3 Ageing, Erosion Breakdown
and Lifetime b) Lifetime characteristics
a) Ageing processes The so-called lifetime characteristic is an
important dimensioning tool, which is deter-
Solid insulations may not be stressed over long mined with the help of constant-voltage tests
periods with the voltages and field strengths according to Figure 3.1-13. It primarily de-
that are possible for short periods owing to scribes the ageing of insulation under the ef-
electrical and thermal breakdown, Figure 3.5- fect of an electric field, Figure 3.5-5.
1. There are many mechanisms that lead to
ageing and to a reduction in the quality of The curves of lifetime characteristics are de-
solid insulations and enforce the setting of pendent not only on the type of material but
relatively low operating field strengths: also on various other conditions. For example,
for polyethylene films, the type of impregna-
x Mechanical, chemical and thermal stresses tion (air, SF6 or oil) is decisive for its service
as well as weather influences and radiation
lifetime, but in contrast short term strength is
can lead to brittleness and formation of
hardly influenced, Figure 3.5-5. The loss of
cracks.
service life is especially drastic in the case of
x Partial discharges and creepage currents in partial discharge erosion owing to air impreg-
existing or newly formed defects (cavities, nation. In the case of epoxy resin insulations,
conductive points, pollution layers, and the high strengths of the actual resin (EP 1) are
cracks) particularly attack organic insulat- not made use of in technical insulations, since
ing materials. Progressive erosion ulti- local increases of field strength enhancements
3.5 Discharges in Solids 247

caused by production only allow a reduced Table 3.5-2: Guide values for the short duration
background field (EP 2). In bulk insulations strengths (1 minute), lifetime exponents and operat-
with large volume, the probability of inhomo- ing field strengths (30 years) for some insulations
geneities that increase field strengths in- for f = 50 Hz and T = 20 °C [22], [16], [23].
creases, so that an additional reduction in
strength must be expected (EP 3) according to k Êbd Êop
the statistical law of size (size effect). Dielectric Application (1 min) (30 yr.)
kV/mm kV/mm

The service lifetime of insulation can therefore PolyethyleneCables 140 3 ... 7

only be determined through experiments with PE + SF6 Films 9 > 200
samples that were manufactured under the PE + Oil Films 30 > 200 < 40
actual production conditions. Paper + Oil Capacitors 30...40 180 < 40
Cables 30...40 55 ...80 < 20
Transformers 20 ...30 3 ... 7
The lifetime stress relationship according to Porcelain Insulators 125 1 ... 3
Eq. (3.1-21) is Epoxy resin 12 125 1.5... 4
-1/k
Êbd/Ê0 = (tbd/t0) . (3.5-7)
Note: Frequently, lifetime characteristics are extrapo-
lated from experiments ranging over several months up
According to Eq. (3.1-22) a double logarithmic to 30 years (2.6 105 h). Owing to the associated uncer-
representation results in a straight line with the tainties, operating field strengths must be specified
gradient -1/k. Here the lifetime exponent k is much below the 1 % breakdown values at the time of
characteristic of a specific ageing mechanism. the nominal service life (for example, at 30 years).
If the ageing mechanism changes in the course
of time, then the gradient of the lifetime lines The ageing effect of other environmental in-
also changes. fluences must be simulated through practice
oriented experiments. Often, short term elec-
With the values from Tables 3.5-2, and for a tric strength and other material properties are
known short term strength Ê0 (for a stress du- determined after artificial ageing under inten-
ration t0), the lifetime tbd for a stress Êbd can be sified conditions (accelerated ageing). The
roughly estimated according to Eq. (3.5-7). “conversion” of artificial ageing time under
intensified conditions to actual ageing periods
is, however not generally possible.
100
PE
EP 1 PE+Si c) Examples of ageing
EP 2 1.) For example, the influence of air humidity
EP 3 PE+SF6 or direct exposure to water can be simulated
10 by immersing in water at 50 °C or 100 °C.
PE + air Thus, of diffusion processes and hydrolysis
Êbd50
processes are accelerated. In this way, com-
kV/mm parative material investigations can be carried
out in an accelerated time scale. Such investi-
1
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6 gations are especially important for all types of
t /h compounds and interfaces, such as bondings,
vulcanizations, fiber reinforced plastics or ep-
Figure 3.5-5: Lifetime characteristic for different oxy resins with fillers in which the chemical
dielectrics at AC voltage [22]:
bonds can be weakened or broken by hydroly-
PE: PE films in air, SF6 and silicone oil.
EP 1: Epoxy resin in model arrangement (d =1 mm). sis.
EP 2: Insulation sample with locally increased field
through corrugated metal foil layers [69].
2.) Material compatibilities, similarly, are
EP 3: Like EP 2 in large volume insulations. generally investigated at increased tempera-
248 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

tures to attain acceleration. Thereby, the com-

tan G thermal t
patibility of dielectrics, casings, paints, seals stability limit =1
and conductor materials with liquid and gase- t max
ous impregnating media must be verified. In- Non- Service
life = 0.9
compatibilities can be seen inter alia in the significant end
form of swelling, dissolution, chemical de- dissipation
composition, gas formation or weakening of factors at = 0.5
room tem-
mechanical and electric strength. perature
Aged =0
3.) Increases in temperature and moisture have
a strong accelerating influence on the ageing New
of organic insulating materials. In particular,
paper is mechanically weakened by depoly- RT Operating Tmax T
temperature
merization of cellulose molecules, that is to
say through decomposition into components
with shorter chain lengths. Figure 3.5-6 (Bou- Figure 3.5-7: Worsening of thermal stability of an
oil-paper dielectric due to increase in dissipation
vier diagram) distinctly shows that poorly
factor at power frequency, caused by ageing during
dried paper and high operating temperatures the lifetime (schematic).
lead to an extremely accelerated decomposi-
tion of paper. That is, high operating temper- can also lead to an increase in the dissipation
atures, for example in transformers, require (loss) factor, which can only be detected at
well dried paper (relative water content of the increased operating temperatures, Figure
paper w < 0.5 %). 3.5-7.

4.) In the case of oil-paper insulations, ageing This is due to high thermal stress in the re-
gions around the hot spot of the insulation.
Thus, the insulating oil is decomposed and this
process is accelerated by increased tempera-
Relative depolymerisation rate tures, oxygen and catalytically effective mate-
1000 rials. Conductive and polar decomposition
products are formed.
120 °C
100 It is especially critical that these increases in
dielectric losses cannot be identified through
diagnostic dissipation factor measurements at
100 °C power frequency and at normal ambient tem-
10
peratures, Figure 3.5-7 (left).
80 °C
1 With increasing temperature, the losses of
aged materials also increase more intensely
than those of new insulations, Figures 5.5-2
0,1 and 3.5-7, so that under suitable conditions
0,2 % 1% 2% 3% 4% (operating temperature, insulation thickness,
Water content w heat removal and ambient temperature) there is
a risk of further overheating with accelerated
thermal ageing leading to acute thermal insta-
Figure 3.5-6: Relative depolymerisation rate of bility or thermal breakdown, Figure 3.5-3. The
paper as a function of water content for various
thermal stability limit of insulation is only
temperatures (Bouvier diagram according to
[70]) with the reference value 1 for w = 0.2 % reached at high temperatures for new materials
and T = 80 °C. (with lower losses), Figure 3.5-7 (lower
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 249

curve). During the course of ageing, the losses for the evaluation of insulation quality also at
increase and always limit the permissible DC voltage. Nevertheless, the interpretation of
temperatures to steadily decreasing values. PD is much more difficult than the interpreta-
The end of service life is reached if the ther- tion of PD at AC voltage.
mal stability limit is reached at the maximum
possible operating temperature, Figure 3.5-7 The intensities of partial discharges as well as
(upper curve). a few other parameters (e.g. PD inception and
PD extinction voltages) are generally meas-
Note: For the diagnosis of this dangerous development, ured while testing the withstand voltage of a
on-line monitoring that is not yet currently available device. Thus, the criterion for passing a high-
would be ideal, Section 6.4.8.2. In the case of off-line
diagnostic measurements at room temperature, PDC voltage test is not only the short-term strength
analysis can be applied as greatly increased polarization but also the partial-discharge behavior (inten-
currents indicate a well-advanced ageing process [236], sity limits, inception and extinction voltages)
[392], [398], Section 6.4.7.6 f), Figure 6.4.7-9. that has been recommended in the standards
for specific categories of devices (e.g., high-
5.) Another example is ageing through erosion voltage transformers, high-voltage cables etc.),
of solid insulation by partial discharges associ- or which has been individually agreed upon
ated with repetitive pulse stresses, such as in between the manufacturer and the customer.
impulse capacitors, in motor insulations with In the following sections, the causes of partial
enamel-insuated wires or in oil-pressboard discharges (Section 3.6.1), important sources
barrier systems, see Sections 7.3.3 and 7.3.4. of partial discharge (Section 3.6.2) and char-
acteristic properties (Section. 3.6.3) are de-
scribed. Based on this, experienced high-volt-
age engineers can, in many instances, present
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) an intuitive diagnosis on the cause of defect
and the location of defect. The methods of
Partial discharges (PD) are discharges that af- modern data processing allow a multitude of
fect only a part of the insulation distance extensive methods of analyses for which there
and that do not immediately lead to break- are different possible approaches (Section
down, they take place in all types of insulation 3.6.3). The actual measuring technique for
systems. Often, partial discharges do not affect acquisition and diagnosis of partial-discharge
short-term electric strength. However, in the data is described in Section 6.4.2.
case of organic insulating materials, erosion
due to partial discharges, mainly in case of
frequent and repetitive discharge impulses at
AC voltage and repetitive impulse voltages, 3.6.1 Causes of Partial Discharges
leads to a usually drastically reduced service
life. Hence, the occurrence of partial dis- Causes of partial discharges are local increases
charges is an important criterion for the evalu- in field strength (for example, at conductive
ation of insulation quality also for DC voltage. points or through field displacement) or local
reductions in electric strength (e.g. owing to
In the case of DC voltage, discharge frequency gas-filled cavities). During discharge proc-
and erosion efficiency are enormously reduced, esses, there is a large difference between DC
and the question can be raised whether PD at DC voltage, AC voltage and impulse voltage. Par-
voltage is still a danger for the insulation system. tial discharges have the greatest technical sig-
The answer is: “That depends”. For example, nificance for AC voltages due to the erosion of
charge displacments on interfaces or the charging sensitive materials.
of surfaces by corona discharges can lead to field
distortions and flashovers. Hence, the occurrence A distinction is made between corona dis-
of partial discharges is an important criterion charges at conductive electrode tips in air or in
250 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

gas insulated arrangements, internal partial age is increased. For a peak electode at earth
discharges within insulation and surface dis- potential, corona inception accordingly takes
charges at interfaces. During partial discharge place at a positive maximum, Figure 3.6-1. For
measurements, interfering signals are also a further increase in voltage, partial discharge
recorded that belong to the so-called inception follows in the other half-cycle.
background noise level and which are neither
associated with the external nor with the Note: The inception voltage for the discharges must not
be confused with the breakdown voltage of a point to
internal insulation of the tested device. A great plane arrangement which is at much higher values for
technical effort must be made to reduce the strongly non-uniform arrangements. The breakdown
background noise to a tolerable level, Sections voltage is significantly lower at a positive point than at a
6.3.8 and 6.4.2. negative point, since the field strength at the negative
plane is increased by the formation of a positive space
charge (see Section 3.2.5.2 Polarity Effect).

3.6.1.1 Corona Discharges The discharges are a close sequence of current

impulses, which discharge a partial capaci-
According to Section 3.2.5, corona discharges tance of the discharge gap and appear as cur-
occur in the strongly non-uniform field of a gas rent impulses i(t) in the capacitively closed
insulated electrode arrangement, if the ignition external electrical circuit. After an impulse, the
voltage is exceeded when the voltage is in- space charges built up during the discharge
creased. They occur for AC voltages in an must first recombine or drift away before an-
area of maximum voltage, as long as the volt- other discharge can ignite, so that a relatively
age is higher than the corona inception volt- regular sequence of impulses occurs (Trichel
age, Figure 3.6-1. For this, the ignition volt- impulses, see Section 3.2.5.2 and Figure 3.2-
age at a negative point is slightly lower than 25).
one at the positive point (polarity effect).
In the case of DC voltage, a continuous coro-
For a peak electrode at high-voltage potential, na discharge results from an uninterrupted se-
corona discharges appear at first in a negative quence of current impulses after exceeding the
maximum of the voltage cycle when the volt- ignition voltage, Figure 3.6-5 (top right no. 2).

i (t)
v (t)
i (t) t
Figure 3.6-1: Corona discharges in a
gas-insulated point-to-plane electrode
v (t)
arrangement for slightly exceeding the
partial discharge inception voltage:
Top: Point to high voltage, |u|> U
Z
plane to earth potential. |u|> U
Z
Bottom: Point to earth potential,
plane to high voltage. i (t)
The discharges begin for negative t
polarity of the point in the respective v (t)
half-cycle. For a further increases of i (t)
voltage, discharges are also ignited in
the other half-cycle.
v (t)
The discharges occur as a close sequence
of current impulses (Trichel impulses).
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 251

Discharge current impulses occur even for 3.6.1.2 Internal Partial Discharges at AC
impulse voltages after exceeding the ignition Voltage
voltage. However, generally they cannot be
filtered out from very large and rapidly Internal partial discharges occur in defects
changing surge currents. Therefore, the discus- within solid or liquid insulations. Defects are
sion of partial discharges is restricted to AC frequently formed by gas-filled cavities or
and DC voltage stresses here. bubbles. During partial breakdown in a cavity,
field changes occur that are associated with
Note: Corona discharges, which occur in air outside of a charge transfers in the cavity and at the
device, i.e. outside of a solid, liquid or encapsulated external electrodes Figure 3.6-2 (top left and
insulation, are also described as external partial dis-
charges. middle). The latter can be recorded by
sensitive partial discharge measurements that
Note: Corona discharges at sharp edges in a test set up are decribed in Section 6.4.2.
can lead to an unacceptably high noise level for partial
discharge measurements. Therefore, if corona dis-
charges in the negative or positive half-cycle are de-
Whenever the voltage at the cavity experiences
tected, points and edges on the high-voltage side or on a voltage excursion corresponding to the igni-
the ground side of the test set up must first be checked. tion voltage, the next discharge takes place.

Insulating Insulating
material material

Cavity Cavity
insulating ionized

v (t)
Field theoretical description of a cylindrical cavity
before and after partial breakdown (left insulating,
right ionized cavity) [216] vCav(t) without PD

Partial discharge event PD

C0 CS
Ignition voltage
Extinction v.
v (t) vCav(t) t
vCav(t) with PD

C Cav
Gray: Phase angle area
Insulating material Capacitive equivalent circuit of external voltage v(t),
with cavity for an insulating material in which partial dis-
with a cavity (Cav) charges can occur

Figure 3.6-2: Internal partial discharges (PD) at AC voltage in a gas-filled cavity.

Top: Field theoretical model with equipotential lines before and after the partial discharge event (left
and right) with measured test voltage curves and partial discharge impulses (extreme right).
Bottom: Equivalent circuit model for a cavity (left). External voltage v(t) and cavity voltage without PD
well as cavity voltage with PD, i.e. along with ignition and extinction of PDs.
252 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

Ignition voltage
If the cavity voltage exceeds the ignition volt-
vCav(t) age Vbd of the gas gap (see Paschen’s law Eq.
without PD t (3.2-35), (-42) and (-43)) and if an initial
electron is available, the cavity voltage col-
Extinction voltage vCav(t) lapses down to the value of an extinction volt-
with PD age Vex. The cavity capacitance is recharged
capacitively via CS with unchanged rate of
Figure 3.6-3: Existence of partial discharges below voltage rise. That is, the individual partial dis-
the partial discharge inception voltage, i.e. without
charge event acts similarly to a downward dis-
the peak value of the cavity voltage attaining the
value of the ignition voltage. placement of voltage curve by the voltage dif-
ference 'V = Vbd - Vex, Figure 3.6-2 (bottom
Therefore, internal discharges occur typically right).
in the area of larger voltage-time gradients at
regular intervals with equal voltage excur- Depending on the cavity voltage magnitude,
sions, as the re-charging of the defect is pri- multiple partial discharges can often occur up
marily performed in a capacitive way, Figure to the voltage maximum, i.e. the ignition volt-
3.6-2 (top right). age can be reached, voltage breakdown can
occur and the voltage curves can be displaced
Note: Analytical calculations are possible for spherical by 'V several times. In the next half-cycle, the
and ellipsoidal cavities [209]. The example according to repeated displacement of the cavity voltage
3.6.2 (top) was evaluated with the help of numerical
curve leads to a very early attainment of the
field calculations and the calculated and measured
charge values matched well [216]. In practice, however, ignition voltage, possibly even before the zero
geometries are almost always unknown and hence crossing of the externally applied voltage v(t).
quantitative calculations are impossible. Principal con- In Figure 3.6-2 (bottom right), the phase rela-
siderations are therefore usually restricted to a simple tion of the partial discharges is marked by
capacitive equivalent circuit, Figure 3.6-2 (bottom).
grey shading of the voltage curve v(t). A typi-
Strictly speaking, this is however not correct since the
equipotential surfaces do not exactly coincide with the cal discharge area begins before the zero
cavity surfaces so that the allocation of capacities is at crossing and extends along the voltage curve
best possible as an approximation. ascending towards the maximum.
In a simplified capacitive equivalent circuit, Note: When the AC voltage is increased, the first dis-
an individual partial discharge impulse can be charge might take place at an phase angle close to the
described as the discharge of a cavity capaci- maximum, since the ignition voltage Vbd is attained there
for the first time, but
tance CCav. The recharging is carried out for
AC voltage by the capacitive displacement in the next and in subsequent half-cycles discharges
current that flows via the partial capacitance already occur during the increase in voltage before the
CS. that is assumed in series. C0 approximately negative or positive maximum is reached as a result of
the voltage curve displacement.
corresponds to the total capacitance of the in-
sulation arrangement, that is, C0 >> CS. Be- On lowering the AC voltage, the partial dis-
sides, CCav >> CS and often even C0 > CCav charges can continue to exist, even when the
can be assumed: peak value of the cavity voltage no longer at-
tains the value of the ignition voltage. As a
C0 (>) CCav >> CS (3.6-1) result of the displacement of the voltage curve
by 'V in each half-cycle, the ignition voltage
With no ignition of partial discharges, the cav-
is exceeded at least once for each half-cycle,
ity voltage vCav(t) follows the external voltage
Figure 3.6-3. Theoretically, the partial dis-
v(t) according to the capacitive divider ratio of charge extinction (PDE) could be around 50
CS and CCav with no phase shifts, Figure 3.6-2 % below the partial discharge inception
(bottom right). (PDI). Actually, reductions of around 10 to
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 253

35% are observed. "Partial discharge the statistical ignition delay. Figure 3.6-4
inception" shows the example for spherical cavities in
epoxy resin. The smaller the diameter d of the
Generally, devices must be dimensioned in cavity, the lower is the probability of the pres-
such a way that the operating voltage is al- ence of an initial electron and that much
ways below the partial-discharge extinction greater is the average ignition delay time or the
voltage, so that partial discharges that are ig- statistical dispersion time tS until the emer-
nited by a temporary over-voltage are defi- gence of an initial electron and until the start
nitely quenched again at the operating voltage. of streamer development. Thus, there is a risk
Note: The regular discharge sequence according to
that a cavity up to a specific size in the mm
Figure 3.6-2 is substantially disturbed in practice. For range remains undiscovered during a one-min-
lower voltages, the lack of initial electrons in small ute AC voltage test if the partial discharge
cavities mainly leads to a statistical dispersion of partial could not be initiated early enough. However,
discharge inception voltages. A regular discharge only the probability of discharge inception in-
occurs for higher voltages, since initial electrons are
available owing to ionization in the cavity.
creases in practical tests, since cavities do not
appear alone but form a part of a larger vol-
Note: The simple equivalent circuit according to Figure ume. Moreover, the inception probability in-
3.6-2 offers only an inaccurate description of the actual creases if the field strength significantly in-
field distribution. For example, the conductivity of in- creases beyond the static inception field
sulating material or conductive decomposition products
at the surface of the cavity can lead to a phase shift of
strength of the cavity.
the cavity voltage. Even a temporary reduction of the
field strength in the cavity is in fact possible through Example: Air bubble in insulating oil
diffusion of conductive discharge products, [71]. For insulating oil with spherical air bubbles, it shall be
specified at which field strengths in the insulating oil
Note: During the inception of a partial discharge, im- (background field E0) partial-discharge inception and
pulses occur according to the streamer mechanism,
partial-discharge extinction are to be expected.
since no conductive electrodes are available for the
release of new initial electrons. Thus, inception voltages
The field strength E1 in the gas bubble is increased by
occur that have values about 10% above the values
expected according to Paschen’s law. The half-value field displacement relative to the field strength E0 in oil
width of the impulses is accordingly very short at a few (see Figure 2.4-22). According to Eq. (2.4-38) it follows
ns [67]. that E1 = 1.222 E0 with Hr1 = 1 (air) and Hr2 = 2.2 (oil).
During an increase in the voltage, the ignition condition
In the literature, the inception field strength for streamer is at first fulfilled at the longest path in the center of the
discharges in cavities is specified with [209]

8.6
E 25.2 m·Pa
V
· p·[1  ] (3.6-2)
pd m·Pa 100 k
Theoretical relation
Depending on the material, the cavity surfaces become tS 10 k
so conductive through ageing based on partial dis- Measurements
s
charges that the discharge changes from the streamer
mechanism to the Townsend mechanism within a period 1000
of few minutes to an hour. The inception voltages, then,
correspond to Paschen’s law. The half-value width of 100
the impulse increases to 80 to 800 ns for flashover dis- 1 min
tances of 0.1 to 1mm. Since approximately the same
charge is transfered, the current amplitude is signifi- 10
cantly lower. [67]. 0.1 1 10
d / mm
In the case of internal partial discharges, it
must be noted that the streamer inception is Figure 3.6-4: Ignition delay in spherical cavities
delayed under certain circumstances owing to as a function of diameter d [209].
254 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

bubble. Assuming Paschen’s law, according to Eq. (3.2- 3.6.1.3 Internal Partial Discharges at DC
35) the following is applicable: Voltage
V bd =
Û Ê1 d = 1.222 Ê0 d = B pd/ln (A pd/k). Also in case of DC voltage stresses, internal
partial discharges can occur in defects within
-1
With the constants A = 1130 (bar mm) , B = 27.4 kV/ solid or liquid insulations such as in gas-filled
(bar mm) and k = 5, the partial-discharge inception field cavities or bubbles. During partial breakdown
strength in oil under atmospheric standard conditions (T
in a cavity, field changes occur that are asso-
= 293 K, p = 1 bar) is
ciated with charge transfers in the cavity and
E0 PDI = 15.9 kV/mm /ln (226 d/mm), (3.6-3)
at the external electrodes Figure 3.6-5 (top left
and middle). The latter can be recorded by the
after conversion to r.m.s. values.
same sensitive partial discharge measurement
methods as for AC voltages, cf. Section 6.4.2.
This results in the numerical values mentioned in Sec-
tion 3.4.3 for the "spherical gas bubble" example. In the Whenever the voltage at the cavity experiences
case of partial-discharge extinction field strength, up to a voltage excursion corresponding to the igni-
30% lower values must be adopted. tion voltage, the next discharge takes place.

(1) On: Transient stresses with PD (4) Off

Insulating Insulating 
material material
(3) Discrete single PD events at DC

Cavity Cavity (2) Superimposed corona discharges at DC

insulating ionized   

Field theoretical description of a cylindrical cavity

before and after partial breakdown (left insulating,
right ionized cavity) [216]
Applied DC voltage v (t)
Partial discharge event PD

R 0 C 0 R CavC Cav
v (t) steady-state cavity voltage without PD
Cav

v (t) Ignition voltage

vCav(t) vCav(t) with PD
Extinction voltage

R CavC Cav t
Insulating material Resistive-capacitive equiva-
with cavity lent circuit for an insulating
material with a cavity (Cav)
and residual conductivity (R)

Figure 3.6-5: Internal partial discharges (PD) at DC voltage in a gas-filled cavity.

Field theoretical model with equipotential lines before and after the partial discharge event (left
and right) with measured test voltage curves and partial discharge impulses (extreme right).
Equivalent circuit model for a cavity (left). External voltage v(t) and cavity voltage without PD
well as cavity voltage with PD, i.e. along with ignition and extinction of PDs.
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 255

For an applied constant DC voltage, the cavity time in the range of several hours, in order to
must be re-charged via the highly-resitive in- reach the steady states within the insulation
sulation material, which can take very long system that must be tested. Unfortunately, also
times in the range of minutes. Therefore, in- after a long test duration, “spontaneous”
ternal discharges at DC voltage typically occur breakdowns are still possible without any pre-
after long periods of time, Figure 3.6-5 (top ceding indication by partial discharges.
right).
Also the interpretation of PD measurements
Note: In practice, geometric conditions of the insulation at DC voltage is significantly complicated,
defects are almost always unknown and hence quantita- mainly as there is no relation to a phase angle
tive field calculations are impossible. Principal con-
siderations are therefore usually restricted to a simple
or to a voltage difference [465], [512], [513],
resistive-capacitive equivalent circuit, Figure 3.6-5 cf. Section 3.6.3.2.
(bottom), which is an extension of the capacitive equiv-
alent circuit according to Figure 3.6-2 (bottom). Strictly
speaking, this is however not correct since the equipo- 3.6.1.4 Surface Discharges
tential surfaces do never exactly coincide with the cav-
ity surfaces so that the allocation of capacities and in-
sulation resistance is at best possible as an approxima- Creepage discharges frequently develop from
tion. electrode edges similar to corona discharges.
Therefore, their inception is often dependent
If a DC voltage is switched on, an initial ca- on the magnitude of the currently existing AC
pacitive displacement field and a subsequent voltage v(t). If this increases during the volt-
transition process occur, in which the defects age half cycle, the length of the streamer and
can also be re-charged capacitively so that an the intensity of the discharges become greater.
increased but decreasing PD activity can be Thus, creepage discharges frequently exhibit
observed, Figure 3.6-5 (top right no. 1). The intensities increasing from the zero crossing to
figure shows a practical example which in- the peak, Figure 3.6-8. A polarity effect is pro-
cludes the superposition of a permanent exter- duced with the involvement of the electrode.
nal DC corona (no. 2).
Note: If the discharge channel only burns normal to the
surface and has not yet deviated into surface direction,
For a steady-state DC voltage stress, the re- the conditions can be described according to Figure 3.2-
charging of a discharged cavity capacitance 34 (left) by an equivalent circuit which corresponds to
CCav can only happen very slowly with the the equivalent circuit for internal partial discharges ac-
time constant RS·CCav via the high insulation cording to Figure 3.6-2. Directly after the partial dis-
resistance RS being in series with CCav, Figure charge inception these discharges would be comparable
with internal partial discharges.
3.5-6 (top right no. 3 and bottom right).
Whenever the ingnition voltage is reached, In the case of increased voltage, the surface
PD events occur comparatively regularly, but discharges can bridge long lengths with the
with scattering of times and amplitudes as the formation of streamers. Thus, irregular im-
the ignitition voltage is scattering and cannot pulses with large charge transfer and half
be well defined. The PD events at DC voltage value widths of several 10s of ns occur.
are significantly less frequent than for AC
voltage, and they are in the range of seconds, In the case of DC voltage, surface discharges
minutes or hours. This large spread is caused can no longer be fed by capacitive displace-
by the fact that conductivities of insulating ment currents. However, surfaces can accu-
materials can easily vary over several orders of mulate surface charges, e.g. due to DC co-
magnitude. rona. Then, the surface charge can be partially
discharged by single, high-current and far-
The long time constants require very long du- reaching surface discharge impulses that can
rations of DC voltage withstand tests, some- possibly lead to flashover.
256 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

3.6.2 Sources of Partial Discharges 3.6.2.2 Sources of Partial Discharges in

Liquids
Typical sources of partial discharges in gase-
ous, liquid and solid insulating materials are Small radii of curvature in conductors, points
described in the following sections. and conductive particles are less critical than
in gases owing to the higher strength in liq-
For the estimation of partial discharge incep- uids, Figure 3.6-6 (top left).
tion voltages/ field strengths, refer
In liquids, the release of gas in the form of
x to Section 3.2.5.3 (corona inception) bubbles or gas layers has a serious effect, Fig-
with Eq. (3.2-58), ure 3.6-6 (top right). Owing to field displace-
ment, already electrically weak gas bubbles
x to Section 3.2.6.2 (surface discharges) are yet more heavily stressed so that partial
with Eq. (3.2-71) to (-74) and also (2.4- discharges are initiated in oil at very low back-
35), ground field strengths, see Eq. (3.6-3).
x to Section 3.2.2.4 (Paschen’s law)
with Eq. (3.2-35), (-42) and (-43), Furthermore, water (moisture) causes a sig-
nificant reduction in electric strength, espe-
x to Section 3.4 (oil breakdown) cially when drop-shaped water is released. Oil-
with Figure 3.4.2-6 and Table 3.4.3-1, as insulated devices must, therefore, be well
well as dried and filled with degassed and dried oil
under vacuum.
x to Section 3.6.1 (partial discharge causes)
with Eq. (3.6-2) and (-3), Also tangential overstresses of insulating ma-
terial surfaces, such as at the metallic foil
edges in capacitor dielectrics and in the press-
3.6.2.1 Sources of Partial Discharges in board barrier systems of transformers, can
Gases lead to surface discharges, Figure 3.6-6 (center
and bottom).
Typical sources of corona discharges in gases
are closely rounded point s and edges, con- In the pressboard barrier system, partial dis-
ductors with (very) small diameters and sharp- charges can even occur as a result of the
edged particles, Figure 3.6-5 (top). In practice, breakdown of individual oil gaps, for example,
surface defects, scratches, roughness and dirt by the formation of fiber bridges.
deposits on electrodes as well as conductive
particles, e.g. in the form of metal chips, often
lead to partial discharges. Production and as-
sembly of gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)
therefore require special care and partial dis-
charge testing is carried out after assembly.
Point Thin wire Particle
Surface discharges in gases represent one of
the basic problems of high-voltage engineer-
ing, Figure 3.6-5 (bottom). In practice, they
are suppressed for example by capacitive po-
tential grading (for bushings), by geometrical
Creepage configuration
field grading (for cable entrance fittings) as
Corona discharge Streamer discharge
well as by elongations of creepage paths and
hydrophobic surfaces (for insulators), see
Section 2.4.5. Figure 3.6-5: Partial discharge sources in gases.
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 257

3.6.2.3 Sources of Partial Discharges in Figure 3.6-7 (top left and right). Extended
Solids cavities occur also in incompletely impreg-
nated layers such as those between smooth
Owing to the high electric strength of solid polymeric films in capacitor dielectrics.
insulating materials, partial discharges are
practically always caused by defects in the Extended delaminations in fiber-reinforced
dielectric. These defects almost always consist materials are especially dangerous. These can
of cavities which are filled with lower molecu- allow large insulation gaps parallel to the
lar components from the surrounding media electric field to be bypassed by gas or probably
owing to diffusion processes. Therefore, lower even by diffused water, Figure 3.6-7 (bottom
electric strength can often result from air-filled left). Critical interfaces parallel to the electric
cavities, in which the stresses are greatly in- field are also produced by pushing cable en-
creased owing to field displacement, Figure trance fittings on to the cable dielectric, Figure
3.6-7. 3.6-7 (bottom right).

Cavities closed on all sides usually occur ow- After a discharge, solids no longer have the
ing to incompletely degassed cast resins or ability to regenerate, as in gases and liquids.
owing to secondary chemical reactions (for That is, partial discharges lead to a progressive
example, for polyurethane resins containing erosion and therefore must definitely be pre-
moisture), Figure 3.6-7 (top left). Also, pro- vented. This results in extreme requirements
gressive erosion, for example owing to “water for the production quality of solid insula-
trees” in polyethylene cable insulations, ulti- tions. Vacuum casting of cast resins, the im-
mately leads to the formation of cavities, Fig- pregnation of interfaces, the use of bonding
ure 3.6-7 (bottom right). Moreover, detach- agents (sizing, silanization) for fiber-rein-
ments between electrode and dielectric as well forced materials or materials containing fillers
as cracks and gaps in the dielectric can occur and the use of semi-conductive layers at the
owing to reaction shrinkage, mechanical interfaces between insulating materials and
stresses, brittleness and inadequate adhesion, electrodes shall be mentioned as key words.

Barrier 2
Point electrode 1

3
Cavities, holes with- Cracks, gaps and im-
Particle Gas bubbles Gas layers
out (1) and with (2) perfect laminations
electrode contact as or impregnations
well as detachments (3)

Creepage configuration Capacitor dielectric

in oil with metallic foil edge
2
1
E E
Delamination Cable with entrance fitting
of fiber inter- (1) Cavities from "treeing"
Barrier arrangement Tangentially stressed
faces (FW) (2) Cavities at interfaces
with fiber bridge interfaces

Figure 3.6-6: Partial discharge sources in liquids. Figure 3.6-7: Partial discharge sources in solids.
258 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

3.6.3 Classical Interpretation of discharge measuring technique is described in

Partial Discharges Section 6.4.2.

Figure 3.6-8 reflects the respective state

3.6.3.1 Classical Interpretation of Partial
shortly after the inception of partial dis-
Discharges for AC Voltage
charges, and the images change considerably
According to Section 3.6.1, different causes for higher voltages. Moreover, the figures re-
for partial discharges also appear in different present single defects whose images are not
partial discharge phenomena with characteris- blurred owing to the overlapping of different
tic properties. As a result, the type and loca- effects.
tion of the defect can be presumed in many
Corona discharges at points appear owing to
cases. However, even modern diagnosis sys-
the polarity effect both in gases (a) and liquids
tems very often fail owing to the multitude of
(b) as regular impulses of constant magnitude
probable sources of partial discharges, to the
close to the AC voltage peaks at the negative
complexity of insulation systems and to the
point electrode. Thus, it can be distinguished
superimposition of partial discharges from
different defect sources. whether the discharges take place on the high-
voltage side (left side in the figure) or on the
The measured intensity of partial discharges is
ground side (right side in the figure). The fre-
not so helpful for error diagnosis since only
quency of the impulses increases with the
the “apparent charge” at the connections of the
voltage.
test object and not the "actual charge" of a
partial discharge impulse itself can be record- In liquids, larger irregular discharges occur
ed, see Section 6.4.2.2. However, meaningful when the point is of positive polarity. In gases,
parameters in the discharge images that can be this can be observed only for distinctly in-
represented with an oscilloscope are creased voltages.
x phase angle of partial discharges, Discharges in cavities (shrink holes, bubbles,
gaps, cracks, detachments ...) and on surfaces
x polarity effects, can be identified from a phase position for an
x impulse frequency and impulse regularity, increase in the voltage to the maximum.For a
contact to an electrode (c), different images
x changes in intensity with the voltage, appear in the half-cycles owing to the polarity
effect. Here the larger impulses occur at the
as well as positive electrode. Here too, discharges on the
ground side and on the high-voltage side can
x the ratio of inception voltage to extinction be distinguished. Discharges without contact
voltage (hysteresis). at an electrode (d) show a comparable image
in both half-cycles.
Figure 3.6-8 shows a few characteristic par-
tial discharge images with their reference to Caution: Unfortunately, the development of
the applied AC voltage as a phase-resolved phase-resolved partial discharge pattern is in-
pattern. The amplitude of an impulse on the tensely dependent on the voltage shape. That
screen of the oscilloscope is an indicator of the is, a voltage highly distorted by harmonics no
impulse charge, if the current impulses are longer gives the partial discharge images
amplified and integrated in a partial discharge known from sinusoidal voltages. It is therefore
measuring circuit by a sensitive partial dis- essential to use an undistorted sinusoidal test
charge measuring device. The relevant partial voltage profile for the interpretation.
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 259

a)
Corona discharge in gas
at a point, against a plane. t t
Regular impulses with
constant amplitude,
Point at
frequency increasing
high voltage Point at ground
with the voltage.
(For higher voltage, dischcharges also occur in the other half-cycle)
b)
Corona discharge in oil
at a point, against a plane.
gegen eine Platte. t t
Smaller, regular impulses
with constant amplitude,
frequency increasing Point at
with the voltage. high voltage Point at ground

c)
Cavity discharge or
surface discharge t t
with one-sided
contact to an electrode
(Surface discharges can Electrode at
be identified through high voltage Electrode at ground
irregular and intensive
(The amplitudes of both half cycles vary by minimum of factor of 3)
streamer discharges at
higher voltages).
d) t
Cavity discharge or (The amplitudes of both half cycles
surface discharge without vary by maximum of factor 3)
electrode contact,
discharges between
insulated conductors.
t For creepage discharges and surface
e)
discharges, the intensities increasing
Creepage discharge or
from zero crossing to peak is often
surface discharge
observed.

t t

f)
Contact noise
(left) and "Contact noise" between poorly Metallic part at floating potential.
connected conductors in the area of Regularly recurrent discharges at
g) the largest (capacitive) current, that is equal intervals. Frequency increasing
Discharges from at voltage zero crossing. The contact with increasing voltage, however
electrodes on floating noise can extend over the entire period. amplitude (charge) is constant. Some-
potential It disappears when the conductors are times discharges occur in pairs and
(right). welded. wander over the image.

Figure 3.6-8: Characteristic partial discharge pattern for the observation with the oscilloscope. The impulse
amplitude is a measure for the apparent charge [67], [72].
260 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

voltage, Figure 3.6-9. A logarithmic charge

scale is recommended for this.After the incep-
Q log PD Surface tion of discharges, corona discharges do not
pC intensity discharge significantly change their intensity until there
(streamer)
is a change in the discharge mechanism
Large
cavity (streamer inception). Inception voltage and
extinction voltages are nearly identical; a small
difference can only be caused by the ignition
(Streamer)
delay.
Small cavity
In case of cavity discharges and surface dis-
Corona
charges, in accordance with Figure 3.6-3, the
(Glow discharge) extinction voltage is distinctly lower than the
inception voltage. For large cavities and for
Contact noise
surface discharges, a steady increase in the
intensity with the voltage is observed. Surface
V /kV discharges finally develop into streamer dis-
charges of high intensity.
Figure 3.6-9: Characteristic curve of partial discharge For the practical execution of partial discharge
charge intensity Q against voltage V.
analysis, the evaluation and diagnosis
PD inception (PDI) PD extinction (PDE)
scheme according to Figure 3.6-10 has proven
its value. It is based on the observation partial
discharge images with an oszilloscope and on
At higher voltages, surface discharges show the determination of partial discharge intensi-
very intense and irregular streamer-discharges ties (apparent charge in pC) with a classical
that can bridge across larger stretches of sur- partial discharge measuring device [73]. The
face and which frequently show a growing partial discharge images and their phase an-
intensity with the voltage amplitude (e). gles are plotted on ellipses (to save space).
Contact noise (f) occurs for poorly connected Note: There are also partial discharge measuring de-
conductors (electrodes, connecting leads, vices that show the partial discharge images on an el-
shields) in the area of maximum capacitive lipse.
charging current (that is, near voltage zero), if
Note: For transformers, the measured phase relation of
the non-connected metallic part is connected a partial discharge to the phase-to-ground voltage does
by a flashover and recharged by a current im- not necessarily correspond to the actual phase angle of
pulse. the impulse at the defect point, since, according to the
location of the defect, different voltages (for example,
Metallic parts at floating potential (particles, three phase-to-ground voltages and three phase-to-phase
chips, free electrodes ...) can be recharged or voltages) can be responsible for the partial discharges.
discharged by partial discharges (g). This
Note: Under favorable circumstances, the location of the
causes impulses of constant amplitude to occur defect can be roughly concluded by three-phased re-
at constant intervals. The frequency increases cording of partial discharges. Great progress in defect
with the voltage. Impulse groups that drift localization for different equipment was achieved by the
across the image often occur. synchronous multi-channel PD measurement, Section
6.4.2.7.
Another important criterion for the identifica-
tion of partial discharges is the curve for par- In a hysteresis test, which must not be carried
tial discharge intensity (partial discharge in- out too far above the partial discharge incep-
tensity or apparent charge Q) against the tion voltage, the ratio of partial discharge in-
3.6 Partial Discharges (PD) 261

ception voltage to partial discharge extinction by a flashover and recharged by a current im-
voltage is determined. In doing so, one can pulse.
generally distinguish between corona dis-
charges on the one hand and cavity discharges Metallic parts at floating potential (particles,
and surface discharges on the other hand. chips, free electrodes ...) can be recharged or
discharged by partial discharges (g). This
During a voltage increase test according to causes impulses of constant amplitude to occur
Figure 3.6-9, information may be gained about at constant intervals. The frequency increases
the size of the cavities and the existence of with the voltage. Impulse groups that drift
surface discharges. across the image often occur.
In a continuous test at constant voltage, the Another important criterion for the identifica-
discharge behavior can vary significantly, so tion of partial discharges is the curve for par-
that indications on the risk of partial dis- tial discharge intensity (partial discharge in-
charges may be given. For example, gas bub- tensity or apparent charge Q) against the
bles in insulating oil can completely dissolve voltage, Figure 3.6-9. A logarithmic charge
or can steadily increase under the effect of scale is recommended for this. For a contact to
partial discharges. Thus, partial discharges can an electrode (c), different images appear in the
die out or lead to breakdown, depending on the half-cycles owing to the polarity effect. Here
type of oil, see Section 3.4.3. the larger impulses occur at the positive elec-
trode. Here too, discharges on the ground side
For a contact to an electrode (c), different im- and on the high-voltage side can be distin-
ages appear in the half-cycles owing to the
polarity effect. Here the larger impulses occur
at the positive electrode. Here too, discharges Partial Discharge Test object:
Evaluation and Diagnosis Scheme
on the ground side and on the high-voltage Asessment of the defect:
Date: Name:
side can be distinguished. Discharges without
contact at an electrode (d) show a comparable PDI:
EPDI/o
kV PDE:
E PDI/max
kV PDI/PDE:
(if the field strength values are known)
image in both half-cycles. Observation of phase position:

Caution: Unfortunately, the development of 0

Phase resolved
pattern
0 0
Phase resolved
pattern
0 0
Phase resolved
pattern
0

phase-resolved partial discharge pattern is in-

tensely dependent on the voltage shape. That V = (.......%)· V PDI = kV V = (.......%)· V PDI = kV V = (.......%)· V PDI = kV

is, a voltage highly distorted by harmonics no pos.

regular
neg. pos.
regular
neg. pos.
regular
neg.

irregular irregular irregular

longer gives the partial discharge images Impulses per half cycle Impulses per half cycle Impulses per half cycle

known from sinusoidal voltages. It is therefore Observation of intensity curves:

essential to use an undistorted sinusoidal test Hysteresis test Test for voltage increase Continuous test
Q = f (V) Q = f (V) Q = f (t)
voltage profile for the interpretation. 1000 pC 10000 pC 10000 pC

At higher voltages, surface discharges show

very intense and irregular streamer-discharges 100 pC 1000 pC 1000 pC

that can bridge across larger stretches of sur-

face and which frequently show a growing 10 pC 100 pC 100 pC

intensity with the voltage amplitude (e).

Contact noise (f) occurs for poorly connected 1 pC

V /kV
10 pC
V /kV
10 pC
t /min

conductors (electrodes, connecting leads,

shields) in the area of maximum capacitive Figure 3.6-10: Partial discharge diagnosis scheme for
the documentation and the evaluation of partial dis-
charging current (that is, near voltage zero), if charge observations with the help of an oscilloscope
the non-connected metallic part is connected and a classical PD measuring device [73].
262 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

guished. overlapping of congeneric errors. The differ-

entiation between similar, but different errors
Discharges without contact at an electrode (d) is often not possible. Again, great progress in
show a comparable image in both half-cycles. differentiation between different defects was
achieved by the synchronous multi-channel
Caution: Unfortunately, the development of PD measurement, Section 6.4.2.7.
phase-resolved partial discharge pattern is in-
tensely dependent on the voltage shape. That Despite intensive research, for a long time it
is, a voltage highly distorted by harmonics no has not been possible to go beyond the limits
longer gives the partial discharge images of classical partial discharge diagnosis. But
known from sinusoidal voltages. It is therefore modern data technology today allows ad-
essential to use an undistorted sinusoidal test vanced computer aided interpretation ap-
voltage profile for the interpretation. proaches, Section 6.4.2.6 ff.
At higher voltages, surface discharges show
very intense and irregular streamer-discharges The entire topic of data acquisation and
that can bridge across larger stretches of sur- evaluation of electrical and non-electrical
face and which frequently show a growing partial discharge signals is dealt with in
intensity with the voltage amplitude (e). Section 6.4.2.

Contact noise (f) occurs for poorly connected

conductors (electrodes, connecting leads, 3.6.3.2 Interpretation of Partial Discharges
shields) in the area of maximum capacitive for DC Voltage
charging current (that is, near voltage zero), if
the non-connected metallic part is connected The interpretation of partial discharge events
by a flashover and recharged by a current im- for DC is not yet as developed as that for AC
pulse. voltages. Since a phase relation to an AC volt-
age cannot be produced, the above mentioned
Metallic parts at floating potential (particles, classical visualization and interpretation pro-
chips, free electrodes ...) can be recharged or cedures are largely missing. Even the defini-
discharged by partial discharges (g). This tion of inception voltages and extinction volt-
causes impulses of constant amplitude to occur ages is not possible because of the long-lasting
at constant intervals. The frequency increases transition processes in the insulation system
with the voltage. Impulse groups that drift and the long durations between single dis-
across the image often occur. charge impulses.

Another important criterion for the identifica- Possible remaining parameters are the im-
tion of partial discharges is the curve for par- pulse shape or the frequency spectrum and the
tial discharge intensity (partial discharge in- apparent charge of an individual impulse, the
tensity or apparent charge Q) against the time difference to the preceding and to the
voltage, Figure 3.6-9. A logarithmic charge following impulse, the apparent charge of the
scale is recommended for this. preceding and the following impulse, the im-
pulse frequency (repetition rate) as well as the
Note: The classical partial discharge inter- temporal development of the discharge pro-
pretation is often made more difficult by the cess.
superimposition of partial discharges on sev-
eral defects. Traditionally, for direct voltages, individual
partial discharge impulses are plotted
The described criteria are generally only appli- against time. Generally, DC partial discharge
cable to a single (dominant) defect or to the impulses occur regularly, but only very rarely.
3.7 Vacuum Breakdown 263

For internal discharges, that is for discharg- is greatly distorted on the path between the
ing a defect within an insulating material, the source and the sensor, as with AC voltages.
defect must at first be recharged, usually via
very large insulation resistances and with very A great step forward for partial discharge diag-
long time-constants. During a DC voltage nosis for AC voltages and DC voltages is
withstand test, it is often required that only a given by the synchronous multi-channel PD
specific number of impulses of a specific measurement of impulses from the same
magnitude may occur within a time window. source, Section 6.4.2.7: by developing ampli-
tude relations or propagation time relations, all
Even external interference impulses can be impulses can be assigned to a certain, although
significantly more difficult to identify than for perhaps as yet unknown source. In this way,
AC voltages, since they are individual events the separation and identification of interfer-
without any phase relation. ence sources and partial discharge sources is
considerably improved.
Note: Corona discharges in air behave totally different;
they occur in the form of very frequent regular dis-
charges, which are determined by space charge forma-
tion, Section 3.2.5.2.
3.7 Vacuum Breakdown
It was therefore proposed that the M, Q, N pat-
tern for AC voltages are to be substituted by In many cases, the insulation of higher volt-
't, Q, N pattern for DC voltages [465]. This ages is even necessary in a vacuum, such as in
implies that time difference 't between suc- X-ray tubes, transmitting tubes, image tubes,
cessive impulses would appear instead of the accelerators, superconducting equipment, sat-
phase angle M. ellites or vacuum switches, Section 7.1.5.3.

It was shown that in this way a differentiation

between different types of defect is possible.
External discharges in air are represented, for 3.7.1 Physical Process
example, by very small time differences and
by a low statistical spread of the charge Q. For While considering the electric strength of a
internal discharges, time differences occur vacuum, it is not enough to consider only the
that are longer by many orders of magnitude limiting case of Paschen’s law for pd Æ 0: in
and these are slightly dispersive for strongly vacuum and as well as in gases with very low
scattered charge values. pressures, there are practically no gas particles
between the electrodes, the free path lengths
Based on the above-mentioned parameters, are significantly larger than the electrode dis-
histograms can be calculated that differ for tances and no increase in charge carrier num-
the basic types of defects and that enable a di- ber can occur owing to collision ionization.
agnosis of insulation systems right through to
initial approaches for automated classification Theoretically, Paschen’s law would subse-
[512], [513]. quently lead to an infinitely high breakdown
voltage; see Section 3.2.2.4, Figure 3.2-13 and
The impulse form is another starting point for Eq. (3.2-38).
the interpretation which provides very good
classification results on lab-scale samples and Of course, an infinitely high breakdown volt-
with a high-frequency and distortion-free cou- age cannot be attained even in a vacuum; it is
pling between discharge location and a broad- other physical processes, primarily at the elec-
band PD measuring system [514]. However, it trodes, which determine the vacuum break-
is problematic that the impulse form normally down [316]:
264 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

a) Breakdown between electrodes even for field strengths of the order of magni-
tude of 1 to 10 kV/mm, field emission pro-
The breakdown is initiated by processes at the
cesses must be expected.
electrode surfaces that are not dependent on
(very low) gas pressure. Thus, a metal vapor is
Electron emission can initiate breakdown by
formed in which the breakdown takes place by
two processes:
collision ionization [23], [67], [316]:

At the cathode surface, at very high local mi- 1.) The microtips heated by the field emission
croscopic field strengths Eμ, a field emission current vaporize explosively and release the
metal vapor responsible for the breakdown.
of electrons in the vacuum takes place. The
For this cathode-initiated breakdown, local
work function or potential barrier for fre- 8 2
quently used metals (copper, stainless steel) current densities above 10 A/cm are possi-
amounts to about I = 4.5 eV and is overcome ble.
beyond about Eμ = 1000 kV/mm by the quan-
tum-mechanical tunnel effect, Figure 3.7-1. 2.) For anode-initiated breakdown, the elec-
Owing to field stress enhancements at micro- trons released at the cathode owing to field
tips or at conductive channels in oxide films, emission are accelerated as an electron beam
significantly lower macroscopic field strengths towards the anode which is locally heated up
Em are sufficient for field emission: until the anode material vaporizes. This also
results in X-ray bremsstrahlung. New initial
electrons are generated at the cathode as a re-
Eμ = E·Em (3.7-1) sult of feedback. In the course of a generation
mechanism, finally metal vapor plasma is
The field stress enhancement factor E can be formed [16].
considered as the reciprocal of a microscopic
field efficiency factor and is of the order of Note: Adsorbed gas layers can also vaporize at the
magnitude of a few 100 to a few 1000. Thus, anode surface under electron bombardment and facili-
tate ionization processes and avalanche processes. At
the cathode, adsorbed gas layers can reduce the work
function.

Potential energy Breakdown processes induced by field emis-

sion can be expected to have approximately
Metal Vacuum Emission level constant breakdown field strength.
without field
Work
function For larger distances of 5 to 10 mm, processes
I Potential profile gain influence under the participation of
with field charged particles. They are accelerated in the
field and create a microplasma on impact on
the electrode. Critical velocities for this are
Fermi level e approx. 100 m/s. Thus, a non-linear relation
e
Occupied Emission with field
e between breakdown voltage and distance re-
states (Tunnel effect) sults, Figure 3.7-2.

x Moreover, the migration of particles takes time

so that short-term lightning impulse stresses
give rise to more rapidly increasing strengths
with increasing distances than long-term AC
Figure 3.7-1: Field emission at the cathode surface voltage stresses.
during vacuum breakdown.
3.7 Vacuum Breakdown 265

b) Conditioning
Vbd ~ d (3.7-2)
In an electrode arrangement, an improvement
of the microscopic surface structure and a For larger distances, for which accelerated
considerable increase in the breakdown particles initiate the breakdown, the icrease of
strength can be attained by means of condi-
breakdown voltage Vbd is often approximated
tioning (partly above 300 %). It is assumed
that emission centers for pre-discharge cur- by the square root of the distance d, Figure
rents, that is microtips or gas layers, are re- 3.7-2. The introduction of an exponent D is
duced and micro-particles are removed during more precise:
the conditioning process. D
Vbd ~ (d /mm) (3.7-3)
Current conditioning, thermal conditioning
and spark conditioning are approved condi- The exponent, however, varies from D = 1 to
tioning procedures. Spark conditioning con- about D = 0.3 depending on the distance [316].
sists of a larger number of breakdowns during The following is valid as a rough approxima-
which breakdown voltages increase. The en- tion for the r.m.s. value of the breakdown AC
ergy of the breakdowns must be limited by voltage [67]:
protective resistors to an extent so that no new
microtips can be created. An (undesired) deg- Vbd rms | 30 kV·(d/mm)
1/2
(3.7-4)
radation of the arrangement is described as de-
conditioning.
The impulse voltage strength is not very much
different from the AC voltage strength. As a
A prerequisite for the relatively high electric
guide,
strength in a vacuum is the high quality of the
vacuum. Even low gas densities lead to a dras- 1/2
tic loss of strength to the point of the Paschen Vˆbd | 30 ... 40 kV·(d/mm) for d < 2mm
minimum, Figure 3.2-13. Therefore, not only
the electrodes must be conditioned. Other and (3.7-5)
components (shields, insulators) can also con-
tain adsorbed gas layers and these must be
removed by annealing. The quality of the vac-
uum can be maintained over a long period of V / kV
Û V r.m.s./ kV
time with getter materials of rare earths. 500

400
3.7.2 Technical Strengths
300
a) Strength for AC and impulse voltages
The previous explanations show that the 200
strength of an electrode arrangement under
vacuum depends on many parameters and can 100
therefore vary, depending on the test set up.
10 20 30 40 d /mm
For very small distances (d < 2mm), field
emission induced breakdowns and constant
breakdown field strength are expected. This
Figure 3.7-2: AC voltage strength and lightning
corresponds to a linear dependence of break- impulse voltage strength in vacuum (according
down voltage on the electrode distance: to [316]).
266 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

These shields, along with electric field grading, also

1/2
Vˆbd | 60 kV·(d/mm) for d > 2mm serve as protection against the direct depositing of metal
vapor plasma on the insulator surface. Owing to this,
increasingly conductive layers would be formed on
are given in [67]. unshielded insulator surfaces over a period of time,
which would have a very negative effect on the electric
strength of the interfaces.
A more exact investigation of vacuum break-
down shows that there is a distinct dependence
on the material and the condition of the elec-
trodes. 3.7.3 Applications

b) Breakdown along surfaces a) Classical applications

The strength at the surfaces of insulating ma- The classical application areas of vacuum in-
terial (glass, ceramics) is distinctly reduced in sulation are electron tubes, vacuum interrupt-
vacuum owing to emission processes. ers and picture tubes. Although they are in-
creasingly losing significance owing to semi-
The starting points are the triple points be- conductor technologies, x-ray tubes and
tween the metal electrode, insulator and vac- vacuum circuit-breakers are still of high
uum, Figure 3.7-3. Owing to microscopic field importance, they are described in detail in
displacement, comparatively low macroscopic Sections 7.4.4 and 7.1.5.3. A few special ap-
field strengths are sufficiently high for the plications are mentioned here.
emission of electrons. At the insulator surface,
comparatively loosely bound electrons can be b) Magnetic insulation
released owing to collission ionization (secon-
Impulse generators for generating high power
dary electron emission) and an avalanche can
impulses with extreme peak values in the MV,
be formed (“electron cascade”). Thus, the sur-
MA and TW ranges (pulsed power technol-
face is charged and adsorbed gas layers are
detached and ionized.

Measures for increasing the strength at the

interfaces are especially Cathode (-)
e Vacuum
x a specific reduction of the field strength at Tripel- +
the triple point to prevent electron emis- point
+ Field emission
e
sions,
+
e Collission ionization
x a conical design of the triple point, + Secondary electro emission
e
e Avalache, electron cascade
x a coating of ceramic surfaces with CuO2 e e Charging of surface
e
and Cr2O3, Ceramic Releasing of a gas cloud

x a polishing of the surface or

x an annealing at 1000 °C for removing ab-
sorbed gas layers.

Example: In vacuum circuit-breakers, the tangential Anode (+)

stress of ceramic surfaces in the area of the triple point
must be completely avoided in practice by covering the
surfaces largely with metallic shields, Section 7.1.5.3
and Figure 7.1.5-3. Figure 3.7-3: Reduced surface strength in vacuum.
3.7 Vacuum Breakdown 267

ogy), use the so-called line generators with technology or in particle accelerators, must be
energy storage, traveling wave transmission discharged quickly in special instances, for ex-
lines and water insulation with higher permit- ample during a quench (loss of superconduc-
tivity for the temporal and spatial compression tivity), so that the ohmic heat loss occurring in
of impulse energy, see Section 2.6.3.3 and the expanding normal conductive area does not
6.2.3.2 d). Often, the impulse must be trans- lead to damage [450]. For this purpose, the
ferred to a line insulated with vacuum and to coil is usually connected in series with an ex-
the matched load, for example to a so-called ternal ohmic load resistor. The voltage thus en-
particle beam diode in which ions or electrons forced reaches the tens of kV range and effects
are highly accelerated. a discharge of the coil according to wi/wt = V/L.
In this situation, the conductor insulation as
The impulse traveling on a vacuum insulated well as the surrounding vacuum can still work
line (guided TEM-wave, Section 2.6.1), is thus as insulation. However, if gas should enter into
linked to a strong magnetic field. The electrons the vacuum space owing to leakages and the
emerging from the cathode, owing to the conductor insulation should exhibit weak spots
forces of the electric field, are forced on to a (for example, small cracks), here too the
curved track by the Lorentz force of the mag- Paschen curve will be traversed and the insu-
netic field and ideally led back to the cathode. lation fails when the Paschen minimum is ap-
Above a critical current value, the electron proached.
bombardment of the anode required for vac-
uum breakdown is inhibited (magnetic insula- Therefore, in the given examples it is neces-
tion) [439]. sary to design the insulation systems in such a
way that they include the so-called “Paschen
Note: At the front and rear of the impulse, current and strength”. This is, for example, possible when
magnetic field strength are reduced so that the magnetic
all voltage carrying conductors are enclosed by
insulation is no longer effective. However, if the im-
pulse is considered as a guided TEM wave, then, ac- a solid and “electrically sealed” (that is, gap
cording to Eq. 2.6-10 and -12, even a lesser stress is free) insulation, on whose external surface the
given through the electric field. ground potential is applied as a closed shell
with the help of conductive covering, compa-
c) Insulations for different pressures rable with the semi-conductive layers (screens)
on a cable insulation. The external vacuum
Insulation systems, caused by external circum- volume or gas volume that may have low
stances, can sometimes be exposed to different strength, is thus maintained completely free of
pressures down to the level of a vacuum and field. In this case, for superconducting insula-
they must still retain their insulating properties tion systems, there exists the difficulty that the
under all circumstances. electric strength must also be assured at low
temperatures close to absolute zero. This has
An example is the insulation of devices, which especially to be considered during the choice
are transported from the Earth’s surface into of suitable insulating material (coefficients of
space. Thus, the Paschen minimum with an thermal expansion, crack formation) and suit-
extremely low strength of approx. 330 V is able processing techniques. ”
passed, if air or the subsequent space vacuum
are provided as the insulation medium, Figures The Paschen strength, i.e. the strength against
3.2-13, -24, Table 3.2.3. discharges in the Paschen minimum, can nei-
ther be tested under atmospheric pressure nor
The environment of superconducting instal- under evacuated conditions. The completely
lations is evacuated as thermal insulation has assembled insulation system must instead be
to be guaratueed, see Section 7.5. Large mag- tested in a vessel that can be evacuated and in
netic coils, such as those seen in nuclear fusion the relevant gas (such as air, nitrogen, helium)
268 3 ELECTRIC STRENGTH

at different pressures. [451]. After adjusting this, no discharge between the conductors and
the different pressure levels, the test voltage is ground coverings or walls of housing may oc-
applied in each case for a specific period. cur. The Paschen test is well suited for finding
Thus, the Paschen curve including the mini- production defects that cannot be identified at
mum is passed through (Paschen test). For other pressures.
 mechanism needs time and energy and thus,
4 DIELECTRIC for high frequencies, the dipoles cannot follow
SYSTEM the field or can only follow it with a delay, as
in Figure 2.4-5. This result in far-reaching
CHARACTERISTICS consequences dealt with below in the time and
frequency domain.

In addition to the electric strength dealt with 4.1.1 Description in the Time Domain
in Chapter 3, there are many other important The system characteristics of a dielectric can
characteristics of insulating materials: be determined, for example, in the time do-
The electric field is significantly influenced by main by measuring a step function response,
dielectric properties, i.e. through different i.e. with the help of a step voltage or a field
polarization phenomena that are usually de- strength step function, Figure 4.1-3.
scribed by parameters such as permittivity and E(t) = E · V(t) (4.1-1)
dielectric dissipation factor and by the con-
ductivity, cf. Section 2.4. They will be dealt V(t) is the so-called unit step function. E(t) is
with in detail in Chapter 4. the dielectric system response in the time
domain. The vacuum field is formed under a
Other characteristics such as surface resis- very large charging current impulse by the
tance, tracking resistance, arc resistance and field step and, according to Eq. (2.4-7), the
water repellence (hydrophobicity) are more charge density H0E results at the electrodes,
related to the surface area and less to the ma-
Figure 4.1-1 (left). The delayed orientation of
terial volume itself. Material-specific data are
dipoles (polarization) creates additional
given in Chapter 5.
charges on the electrodes with a charge density
Further, the insulating materials, according to increasing with time Pi(t), Figure 4.1-1 (cen-
a common and adequate terminology of the ter).
past, are always “construction materials” for
Note: Generally there are many polarization mecha-
devices or installations [81]. Important char- nisms that are denoted by different indices i. The polari-
acteristics are already compiled and summa- zation thus results from the superposition of individual
rized in Section 2.2. The characteristic profile mechanisms:
of an insulating material must be compatible
with the technical requirements. I.e. mechani-
P(t ) ¦ i Pi (t ) (4.1-2)
cal, thermal and chemical characteristics as After the dipoles are orientated, a steady-state
well as their processing technology must al- current flows, Figure 4.1-1 (right):
ways be taken into consideration and it is of
utmost significance in many cases (Chapter 5). J = N·E (4.1-3)
These procedures can be described for linear
materials with the help of a network model,
Figure 4.1-2. The formation of the vacuum
4.1 Polarization in the Time and field corresponds to the charging of the vac-
Frequency Domain uum capacitance C0. The steady-state current
flows for t Æ f through the DC resistance Rf.
In Section 2.4.1, the dielectric characteristics When describing the delayed and time-varying
such as “conductivity” and “polarization” were polarization Pi(t), it is assumed that the rate of
explained without taking the time-based
transients into consideration. The explanation change wPi/wt is proportional to the actual dif-
was only about the fact that the orientation of ference between Pi(t) and the steady-state end
dipoles according to the type of polarization value Pi(f) (Debye approach):

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_4
270 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

wPi 1 t
˜ >Pi (f)  Pi (t )@ (4.1-4) 
Wi
wt Wi Pi (t ) Pi (f) ˜ [1  e ] (4.1-5)

This differential equation produces a polariza- Note: A generalization that goes beyond the exponential
approach according to Eqs. (4.1-4) and (-5), is given in
tion that is exponentially tending towards
the literature [269]. However, most of the practical
Pi(f): problems can be resolved and demonstrated using the
exponential approach described.

According to Eq. (4.1-5), polarization corre-

sponds to a charge density that is exponen-
tially tending to an end value, and this is also
described in the network model by the RC-
charging of an additional capacitance Ci via a
resistance Ri with the time constant

Formation of
Polarization
Conduction Wi = Ri·Ci , (4.1-6)
vacuum field current
H0 E + Pi (t) J Figure 4.1-2 (center). Since several polariza-
Current tion mechanisms are generally effective, they
Charge density must be summed up according to Eq. (4.1-2).
density
In the network model, this corresponds to the
Figure 4.1-1: Phyisical processes in a dielectic
after application of a step field.
parallel connection of RC-elements with dif-
ferent indices i or different parameters Ri and
Ci and different time constants Wi.

tan G Dissipation factor

C R R
0 i f
Conduction
losses
Ci
Polarization
losses
Charging the Charging the Steady-state
vacuum additional conduction
capacitance capacitance current

Figure 4.1-2: Network model of the dielectric.

fi f, Z
C~ H Permittivity
f Charging
ip(t) Polarization current Capacitance
current Step field
impulse E (t) = E·V (t) Ci + C0
Ci
E (t) ip(t) Delayed
charging of Steady-state
C0
the additional
C0
conduction
capacitance C
i current t
fi f, Z
Figure 4.1-3: Dielectric system response in the Figure 4.1-4: Dielectric parameters in the
time domain. frequency domain.
4.1 Polarization in the Time and Frequency Domain 271

The polarization current as a response to the ment Ri, a parallel connection of multiple re-
step field in the time domain can be directly sistances Ri is used.
assigned to the elements of the network model,
as in Figures 4.1-2 and -3. It contains all the The capacitance Ci can be determined from
information that is necessary to form a dielec- the time constant of the current decay accord-
tric equivalent circuit: The integration of the ing to Eq. (4.1-6), but only if a single polariza-
initial current gives the charge and therefore tion mechanism dominates. If several polari-
the initial capacitance C0: zation mechanisms overlap, the sum of addi-
tional capacitances can be determined from
1 't
C0 ('t ) ˜ ³ ip (t ) ˜ dt (4.1-7) the total charge that has flowed by integration
V 0 of the charging current:
Note: However, this is only the vacuum capacitance if
1 f
the integration interval is chosen to be so short that no ¦ Ci ˜ ³ [i p (t )  i p (f)] ˜ dt (4.1-10)
polarization phenomenon has yet been included. This is i V 't
practically impossible. It is therefore better to speak of
the “initial capacitance” (or “high-frequency capaci- Complete dielectric equivalent circuits can
tance”) C0('t), whose magnitude depends on the be determined by so-called “curve fitting”, i.e.
considered time interval 't and on the included polari- by approximation of the measured polarization
zation mechanisms. currents ip(t) with the help of exponential
The direct current resistance Rf results from functions which have to be simulated with as-
the stationary end value of the polarization sociated RC-elements [229], [230].
current ip(f): Until now it has been assumed that the de-
Rf = V/ ip(f) (4.1-8) creasing polarization currents must be inter-
preted as charging currents of additional ca-
Note: According to the standards (e.g. [157]) the meas- pacitances Ci and not as time variable con-
urement of volume “resistance” is performed with var-
ying and sometimes very short measuring durations. ductivities (which is conceivable, for exam-
This is of no physical significance, since not only the ple, in the case of oil with ion drift processes,
resistive conduction current flowing through Rf is re- Sections 4.2.2.2 and 4.3.2.3). Both of these
corded but also the polarizing current in an unknown options can be distinguished by measuring the
state of transition, i.e. also the charging current of the depolarization current or the discharge or
additional capacitances Ci is recorded. Improved meth- relaxation current id(t) after disconnecting the
ods for determination of end values of resistance or
conductivity can be found in Section 4.2.2.3 and 6.4.1.2.
voltage and short circuiting the test object. For
a linear system according to Figure 4.1-2, the
The polarization equivalent circuit elements depolarization current is supplied from the
Ri and Ci representing polarization phenomena fully charged capacitances Ci (if charging time
can likewise be determined from the polariza- was long enough) and corresponds to the time
tion current: for t = 't, the initial current im- profile of the charging current ip. It thus
pulse has decayed and the polarization current indicates the charge stored through po-
is largely the charging current of the still un- larization.
charged capacitance Ci flowing through the
resistance Ri. The steady-state current compo- The proportion of the conduction current as
well as the conductivity are derived from the
nent through Rfmust be subtracted: difference of currents that are shifted in time
V relative to one another ip(t) and id(t+tL), see
Ri (4.1-9) Figure 4.2-8 and Eq. (4.2-6d).
ip ('t )  ip (f)
Note: Polarization current measurements are used inter
If multiple polarization mechanisms must be alia to determine material properties for insulation
considered, then instead of an individual ele- designs. Section 7.2 Another important application is
272 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

the dielectric diagnosis of operating equipment, in At very low frequencies, all dipoles can follow
which circuit elements are calculated from current the field with no delay. As a result, the elec-
measurements to draw conclusions regarding the wet-
ting or ageing state of an insulation, Section 6.4.7.6.
trodes are additionally charged. In the network
model, this corresponds to a charging of all
capacitances C0+Ci or C0+6iCi. A capacitance
4.1.2 Description in the Frequency measurement for very low frequencies would
thus give the value of the sum of capacitances,
Domain
Figures 4.1-4. The dissipation factor tends to-
wards infinity, as in the ratio of dissipation
By analogy with the description of dielectric
losses to reactive power, the reactive power
properties in the time domain, treatment in the 2
frequency domain is also possible based on ZC0V tends towards zero, and the ohmic
2
Figures 4.1-1 and -2: losses V /Rf largely remain constant.
The transformation of Eqs. (4.1-4) and (-5)
In the case of medium frequencies, the dipoles
into frequency domain gives a complex polari-
lag in following the field and perform me-
zation P and a complex permittivity H*, Section chanical work that is supplied to the medium
4.2.4. The real part essentially describes the as heat (the so-called dielectric losses or dissi-
dependence of capacitance C or permittivity pation of heat). In the network model, this cor-
H on the frequency f or the angular frequency responds to the losses of the charging current
Zrespectively, Figure 4.1-4 (bottom). The im- in Ri. The capacitance measurement would
aginary part describes an additional phase
result in a mean value. The dissipation factor
shifting G being induced by dielectric losses. shows a maximum of polarization losses in the
Phase angle between voltage (stimulation) and transition region, Figures 4.1-4.
current (response) is M = 90° - G. The losses
are generally specified by the dissipation fac-
tor tan G which equals the ratio of dissipation
losses to capacitive reactive charging power, 4.2 Dielectric Parameters
Figure 4.1-4 (top) and Eq. (4.2-13). The re-
cording of these parameters (especially the In the following sections, dielectric parameters
complex permittivity) against frequency re- that are important in practice, such as permit-
sults in the dielectric system response in the
tivity Hr (Section 4.2.1), conductivity N (Section
frequency domain.
4.2.2), dissipation factor tan G (Section 4.2.3)
The parameters of the frequency domain tradi- and complex permittivity H* (Section 4.2.4) are
tionally have great significance for describing considered for insulating materials. The meas-
dielectrics. The relationships are explained in urement of dielectric parameters is described
detail in Section 4.2.3. in Section 6.4.1.
The frequency dependences can be explained
Widely different substances are grouped under
clearly with the help of Figures 4.1-1 and -2:
the collective term insulating materials,
At very high frequencies, the dipoles cannot which exhibit a common characteristic: rela-
follow the rapidly varying field and only the tively low conductivity, Figure 4.2-1. How-
vacuum field is created. In the network model, ever, conductivities are still significantly dif-
this corresponds to a dominant displacement ferent for gaseous, liquid and solid insulating
current through C0. A capacitance measure- materials.
ment for high frequencies, therefore, would
Gases possess nearly ideal dielectric proper-
give only the value C0 which often comes
ties, although the electric strength is low: Be-
close to power frequency capacitance. The
sides the extremely low conductivity N the
dissipation factor tends to zero, Figure 4.1-4.
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 273

constant permittivity Hr | 1 and the low losses x The electric strength is lower for AC volt-
must especially be mentioned. age stress than for DC voltage stress and
impulse voltage stress.
Liquid and solid dielectrics are characterized
by a few common attributes:
x The conductivity is, generally, 3 to 6 orders 4.2.1 Permittivity Hr
of magnitude higher than for gases.
x Permittivities are generally higher than 2 The occurrence of relative permittivities Hr > 1
and lower than 7 for common insulating through polarization of charge carriers and
materials. However, there are substances electrical dipoles in insulating materials has
with significantly higher values, Figure already been explained in detail in Section
4.2-2. 2.4.1.2. Here, guide values for technically im-
portant materials and their basic dependences
x Permittivity, conductivity and losses are on different parameters are compiled.
dependent on temperature, frequency and
stress duration.
x The losses increase with the temperature 4.2.1.1 Polarization Mechanisms
and are greater for AC voltage than for DC
voltage. Materials which exhibit neither significant
orientation polarization nor lattice polarization
have permittivities in the range of 2. This in-
9 cludes, for example, mineral oil and many
10
Conductor materials thermoplastic synthetic materials with sym-
6 Resistance metals metric non-polar molecules, Figure 4.2-1.
10
N Several organic insulating materials with com-
S/m 3 plex and stronger polarizable molecules and
10
groups have higher permittivity of up to about
Hr = 7 owing to orientation polarization. Im-
1 portant examples are cellulose, duroplastic cast
resin (e.g. epoxy resin) and a series of thermo-
Semiconductors
-3 plastic synthetic materials. Extreme values are
10 attained, for example, for water (Hr = 81) or
Water glycerin Hr = 40).
-6
10
In many inorganic insulating materials, lattice
-9
polarization leads to largely increased per-
10 mittivity of up to Hr = 10.
Liquid and
-12 solid dielectrics In dielectrics with interfaces orthogonal to the
10 electric field (for example in capacitors or in
(insulating
transformers with pressboard barriers in oil),
-15 materials)
10 in materials with fillers (e.g. epoxy resin with
quartz powder) and in mixed dielectrics, in-
Gaseous terfaces between partial capacitances with
-18
10 dielectrics different time constants HN occur (see Figure
2.1-16). For very low frequencies, only partial
Figure 4.2-1: Electrical conductivity for conductors, capacitances with the higher resistances are
semiconductors and insulating materials. charged so that it results in a high capacitance
274 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

or a high resultant permittivity. Owing to the connection of the partial capacitances is effec-
charges accumulated at the interfaces, we refer tive, Figure 4.2-3.
to interfacial polarization (see Figure 2.4-
23). With increasing frequency, the dipoles can no
longer follow the field with no lag and the
permittivity decreases, Figure 2.4-5.
4.2.1.2 Frequency Dependence (Dispersion) The decay of the different polarization mecha-
nisms takes place in steps for different fre-
Fig 4.2-3 shows the fundamental profile of
quencies, starting from the interfacial polari-
permittivity Hr and polarization losses against zation through the orientation polarization
frequency from the electrical engineering and the lattice polarization to atomic polari-
viewpoint and the optics for different polari- zation, Figure 4.2-3. In particular, the decay of
zation mechanisms. The profiles correspond to orientation polarization can occur in multiple
the relationships explained in the example of a steps depending on the size and mobility of the
single polarization mechanism in the Section molecular groups that are polarized.
4.1.2 and Figure 4.1-4.
Note: For very high frequencies, the frequency
In mixed dielectrics with interfacial polariza- dependence (dispersion) is no longer described
tion (that is with polarity reversals of the more through the permittivity Hr as a function of fre-
resistive insulating layers), ohmic losses occur
quency, but only with the quantities of optics
with increasing frequency since the more re-
as a refractive index against the wave length.
sistive layers are charge reversed via the re-
Basically, the relationship
sistances of the more conductive layers. Fi-
nally the total capacitance, the resultant per- Hr = n
2
(4.2-1)
mittivity and the losses decrease again, if the
displacement current through all layers domi- is applicable, but only if frequency or wave-
nates the conduction current, so that the series length coincide.

Inorganic materials
Resins and
81 Water
Thermoplastics fillers < 10
40 Glycerin Alkali-free
E-glasses
8 8 Polyvinylidene- 8 Calcium
Hr fluoride (PVDF) carbonate
(Chalk)
7 Oil-paper 7 Polyamide (PA 6) 7 Dolomite, 7 Mica
Mica
Liquids |
6.1 Cellulose
6 6 (1.53 g/cm³) 6 Porcelain
| PCB ' 5.8 Epoxy resin
| (prohibited) (filled) |
5 5 Ricinus oil 5 PVC with softeners 5 RBP Resin
bonded paper
4.4 Mineral oil 4.5 Polyamide (PA 12)
4 paper 4 PVC pure 4 Quartz powder
(1.2 g/cm³) 3.8 Quartz glass
3.5 Polyimide (PI) 3.5 Epoxy resin
3.3 Ester fluids (unfilled)
3.2 Polycarbonate (PC)
3 3 SIR Silicon
2.7 Silicon oil 2.8 Paper elastomer
(1.2 g/cm³, not 2.4 Polyethylene (PE)
2.2 Mineral oil impregnated) 2.2 Polypropylene (PP)
2 2 PTFE ("Teflon")
Gases
1 1.0 Gases

Figure 4.2-2: Permittivities of technically important materials at technical frequencies (up to 1 MHz) under
atmospheric standard conditions (T = 20 °C, p = 1 bar) as orientation values.
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 275

Hr Permittivity Electrical Optics Refractive index n n2

Interfacial engineering
polarization
H r = n2
Orientation
polarization

Latttice polarization

Atomic or deformation polarization

1 1

0 0
Hz kHz MHz GHz Frequency

Wavelength m mm μm nm
Polarization IR Licht UV X-rays J -rays
losses
Heating Absorption of light
Joule's heating Sluggish
Crystal Atoms are
during rechar- dipoles lag
lattice in excited
ging of partial in following
resonance
capacitances the field

Figure 4.2-3: Dispersion (frequency dependence) of permittivity and polarization losses from the electrical
engineering viewpoint (left side) and the optics viewpoint (right side), schematic representation.

Example: Water The steps in the profile of the permittivity Hr

In the visible light region, water has a refractive index n correspond to maxima of the dissipation factor
= 1.333. This corresponds to a permittivity Hr = n = 1.8. tan G, which however, can often no longer be
2

However, for low (electro-technical) frequencies, owing or can only poorly be identified in the cumula-
to pronounced orientation polarization of water mole- tive curve, Figure 4.2-4. At higher tempera-
cules Hr = 81. In the micrometer wave region, large tures, the influence of the strongly increasing
polarization losses occur which can be used in so-called
“microwave” chambers for dielectric heating of water
conductivity is dominant. For further increases
based media. in temperature, the thermal agitation disturbs
the orientation of the dipoles, and Hr again de-
creases, Figure 4.2-4.
4.2.1.3 Temperature Dependence
Increases in the permittivity often result from a
The temperature dependence of permittivity Hr transformation of the material structure, for
is primarily caused by orientation polariza- example close to the glass transition temper-
tion, see Figure 2.4-5. With increasing tem- ature Tg.
perature, the “frozen” dipoles at first become
Example: Epoxy resin
mobile, so that orientation polarization can be
effective. The permittivity frequently increases The thermosetting epoxy resin loses its considerable
mechanical strength above the glass transition tem-
in multiple steps, corresponding to the “de- perature Tg without melting. As a result of the softening,
frosting” of different polarization mechanisms, polar molecule groups become more mobile and Hr dis-
Figure 4.2-4. At the same time, the increase of tinctly increases. Depending on the epoxy resin, Tg lies
temperature can also lead to changes of the above approximately 100 °C. Even for temperature
conductivities and to the inception of interfa- increases from 20 °C to 80 °C, there is an increase in
cial polarization. permittivity by up to 20 %.
276 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

4.2.1.4 Field Strength Dependence For a layered dielectric with n layers and with
interfaces orthogonal to the field, Hr res results
Often, permittivity, conductivity and dissipa- from the resultant capacitance, Eq. (2.4-28):
tion factor increase with increasing field
strength. Hr res = d /{d1/Hr1 + .... + dn/Hrn} (4.2-2)
Note: For example, for unfilled epoxy resins, even for For mixtures of substances, the resultant
field strengths of approx. 42 kV/mm (that is, for about
20 to 50 % of the breakdown field strength), an increase permittivity is derived from the relative per-
in the permittivity by about 10 to12 % is observed (T = centage by volume v1 to vn as an approxima-
20 °C); at 80 °C these values are increased to about 15 tion according to the empirically substantiated
to 20 % [16]. By using fillers, the field strength depend- Lichtenecker’s law of mixtures:
ences can be reduced.

In liquid dielectrics (e.g. in mineral oil) there are sig- ln Hr res = v1·ln Hr1 + .... + vn·ln Hrn (4.2-3)
nificant field strength dependences of conductivity and
dissipation factor, already at low field strengths. This is Note: With the help of Eqs. (4.2-2) and (-3), the tem-
caused by the field-dependent processes of charge car- perature coefficient of Hr res can be determined from the
rier drift, charge carrier generation in the volume and temperature coefficients of the material components by
charge carrier injection at the electrodes, see Section differentiation with respect to the temperature T. By
4.3.2.3. selection of materials with positive and negative coeffi-
cients, compensation of temperature dependences is
thus possible. This is applied during the production of
temperature stable capacitors.
4.2.1.5 Mixed Dielectrics
Eqs. (4.2-2) and (-3) are applicable under the
In layered dielectrics and in mixtures of sub- assumption of a predominantly dielectric dis-
stances, the resultant permittivity Hr res can be placement field. For very slowly changing
calculated from the permittivities of the com- processes (or for highly conductive mixture
ponents. components), higher capacitances and higher
resultant permittivities result when the more
conductive partial capacitances can be re-
garded as being short circuited (interfacial
Hr ( T ) polarization). In Eq. (4.2-2), this extreme case
3 can be considered with Hr k o f. In Eq. (4.2-
2 3), Hr k o f does not give any meaningful re-
1 sult.
T

tanG 4.2.2 Conductivity N

In the strict sense, conductivity refers to so-

called direct current conductivity (DC con-
ductivity), which according to Section 4.1.1,
4 Eq. (4.1-8) and Figure 4.1-3, can be deter-
mined from the end value of the so-called
2 T
1 3 polarization current, which is a steady-state
conduction current. Conductivities in the
broader sense that are determined (prema-
Figure 4.2-4: Temperature dependences of turely) from polarization currents after finite
permittivity and dissipation factor for a material
measuring periods, should actually be termed
with three different polarization mechanisms
(1 to 3) and with increase in conductivity (4). as “apparent conductivities”, since their cal-
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 277

culation still includes polarizing current com- tion can increase the conductivity of gases by
ponents that aren’t conduction currents. many orders of magnitude and this can be uti-
lized in the radiation measurements.
For stresses with DC voltage, for transition
processes and for low frequency AC voltages, Under standard atmospheric conditions, at
the formation of electric fields is very low field strengths, an initial conductiv-
-14 -14
(co)determined by the conductivities N, if the ity of Ninitial = 2.5·10 to 5·10 S/m for air
conduction current cannot be neglected against is mentioned [16], [24]. This value results
the displacement current (see Section 2.4.4). from the equilibrium between the generation
Moreover, the conductivity leads to losses in and recombination of charge carriers. It is
the case of AC voltages, which at higher tem- valid only for so long as there is no saturation,
peratures, often dominate compared to polari- i.e. as the flowing current remains clearly be-
zation losses (see Section 4.2.3). low the generation rate for new charge carri-
ers. For atmospheric air in the vicinity of the
Conductivity is caused by freely mobile charge
Earth’s surface, the generation rate amounts to
carriers and is comparatively low in insulating
wn/wt = 1 / s cm³. The elementary charge e =
materials, Figure 4.2-1. For the multitude of -19
the conduction processes, differentiation into 1.6·10 As and the air gap width d give rise
ionic conduction and electron conduction to a saturation current
(N-type conduction) is common [16].
Jsat = e (wn/wt) d
-19
= 1.6·10 A/cm² d/ cm. (4.2-4)
4.2.2.1 Conductivity in Gases
If d = 10 cm, this current corresponds to an
In gases, a very low conductivity is seen ow- approximation value according to Eq. (3.2-1).
ing to a low number of ions that are created The current attains the saturation current, ac-
owing to collision ionization caused by radia- cording to Esat = Jsat /Ninitial, even at field
tion (see Section 3.2 and Figure 3.2-1). Radia- strength values in the range of V/m that are
much below the relevant values for insulation.
At higher field strengths, according to N = Jsat/
N Water
S/m (deionized and without atmospheric contact)
E, conductivities must be estimated with the
constant saturation current value which gives
rise to extremely low values (Figure 4.2-5) and
-9 extreme non-linearity.
10
(PA 6) Note: The conductivity of gases increases greatly owing
Resin Polyamide to ionization. This can be induced, for example, by
(wet) bonded (PA 12) photoionization caused by radiation, by collision ioni-
paper
-12 zation at high field strengths (from approx. 2.5 kV/mm
10 Mineral oil in normal atmosphere, see Section 3.2) or by thermal
(dry) Porcelain ionization at high temperatures (for example, in the
(filled) vicinity of spark plugs in combustion engines).
(Wepri-Board)
Epoxy resin
-15 Oil Pressboard
(unfilled)
10 paper (Transformerboard)
Amber 4.2.2.2 Conductivity in Liquids
Polyethylen Quartz
Ionic conduction dominates in liquids. Positive
-18 and negative ions are formed owing to disso-
10 Gases
ciation of impurities. Free electrons play a role
Figure 4.2-5: Conductivities at room temperature only at high field strengths; at low field
(orders of magnitude [2], [16], [82], without taking strengths they are attached to molecules or
diverse parameters into consideration, see text). they recombine with positive ions.
278 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

steadily after some time. The transit time W is

During step voltage response measurements on dependent on the ion mobility μ, the oil gap
liquids, there are a falling current profiles, width d and the field strength E:
Figure 4.2-6. Here they do not relate to linear
polarization processes, according to Figures W = d/ (μ · E) (4.2-5)
4.1-2 and -3, but to a time-variant conductivity
due to ion drift and charge accumulation close Thus, the conductivity of the liquid is not
to the electrodes, cf. Section 4.3.2.3. only dependent on temperature (by way of the
ion mobility μ) but also on time, field strength
Note: For insulating oils, depolarization current meas- and oil gap width!
urements often supply very small currents after only a
few seconds. But after polarity reversal, higher currents Example: For E = 1 kV/mm, d = 2mm and at room
are measured again. That is, the charge carriers wer ac- temperature, a transit time of W = 6 s was measured for a
cumulated as space charge close to the electrodes, and new insulating oil [271]. In HVDC insulations, viewed
without applied voltage, they can be hold by the mirror in the field direction, there are significantly larger oil
charges on the electrodes for long periods. With the gaps in the centimeter range and hence transit times in
voltage applied already after a few seconds a low resid- the range of a few minutes are possible.
ual current is measured. It must therefore be attributed
to a low residual conductivity [270], [271], [456], After the removal of ions, for an applied con-
[486], cf. Section 4.3.2.3.. stant field strength which leads to the perma-
nent removal of ions, a new equilibrium is set
At lower field strength, insulating oils show an
at a lower level of conductivity and this is also
initial conductivity that results from the equi-
described as DC conductivity, Figure 4.2-6.
librium between generation and recombination
of charge carriers. Since in an alternating This conductivity end value is extremely de-
field, overall there is no removal of charge pendent on field strength, as an intensely in-
carriers, the initial conductivity is retained and creased creation of new charge carriers is initi-
we refer to it as AC conductivity, too. ated for field strengths above 2 to 3 kV/mm
[82], [271], Figure 4.2-7. The implied mini-
For an applied direct voltage, the charge carri-
mum of conductivity results from the opposing
ers migrate to the electrodes and they are
effects of a depletion of charge carriers and the
accumulated there. Charge carrier density and
generation of free charge carriers with in-
conductivity decrease, Figure 4.2-6. That is,
creasing field strength, see also Section 4.3.2.3
the number of freely mobile ions decreases
and Figure 4.3-6.
Note: In used oils, increased conductivities occur owing
i, N to acids and metal ions that have been delivered by
Constant conductivity
without depletion of charge carriers
AC conductivity -11
10
Charge carrier depletion and
(Orientation built up of space charge
of dipoles) -12
10
DC conductivity
Transit N
time Steady-state S/m
W current
-13
10
μs ms s min h d 0 2 4 6 8
Time t E / kV/mm
Also see Figure 4.3-4 and -5 See also Figure 4.3-5

Figure 4.2-6: Reduction in current and conductivity Figure 4.2-7: Field strength dependence of mineral
with the stress duration in an insulating liquid. oil conductivity at room temperature [82], [271].
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 279

electrodes. Thus, the described changes in conductivity

can sometimes be masked. 100

Section 4.3.2.3 describes the nonlinear con- i (t) Polarization current

duction behavior by equivalent circuits and pA i p(t)
by multi-physics approaches, Figures 4.3-5 10
Depolarization current
and 4.3-6.
i d(t) If

1
4.2.2.3 Conductivitiy in Solids 10 100 1000 t /s
W << W1 < W2 < W3 < ··· t - tL / s
In solids too, charge transport at low field
strengths takes place predominantly by ionic Quick and slower DC
polarization processes conductivity
conduction. For high field strengths close to
the electric strength limit (breakdown
strength), also electron conduction is involved. Cgeo ··· Rf

In step voltage response measurements, at

room temperature, the conductivity can often
Figure 4.2-8: PDC measurement and equivalent
be identified as a steady-state end value only circuit model for linear solid materials.
after very long times of several hours, days or
even weeks since the currents are still domi- After short circuiting the test object, for t > tL,
nated by polarization phenomena even after exponentially decaying depolarization current
long measuring periods. At higher tempera- components occur and these are dependent on
tures, the end values are identified earlier. the attained charge status and these comprise
By assuming linear system properties, the system properties with the exception of DC
material characteristics can yet be determined resistance Rf, which is short circuited during
from the step function response by approxi- depolarization:
mating the current profile for t > 0 with expo- t t
L
nential functions that are correlated with RC- vCi (tL )  W
elements (curve fitting), see Figure 4.2-8 as id (t )  ¦( e i ) (4.2-6b)
i Ri
well as Section 4.1.1 with Figure 4.1-2. Thus,
the entire information is incorporated in a sin- If the polarization current and the depolariza-
gle measurement. tion current are shifted by tL relative to each
t other and added, the related current compo-
V V 
ip (t )  ¦( e Wi ) (4.2-6) nents compensate each other partially:
Rf i Ri
ip (t )  id (t  tL )
The current component V/Rf caused by the t t
V V  vCi (tL )  W
conductivity corresponds to a theoretical end  ¦( e Wi  e i)
value ip(f), which can be developed more pre- Rf i Ri R i
cisely with the help of depolarization current L t t
id(t): After the charging time t = tL, the equiv-
(4.2  6a) V V  Wi
 ¦( e ) (4.2-6c)
alent capacitances Ci are charged by polariza- Rf i Ri
tion current components to differently high Eq. (4.2-6c) represents a significantly better
fractions of the diagnostic voltage V: approximation for the end value of the polari-
tL zation current caused by conductivity than Eq.

Wi (4.2-6), since the exponential terms result in
vCi (tL ) V ˜(1 e ) (4.2-6a)
smaller values. For very long measuring peri-
280 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

ods and charging times, that is for t+tL >> Wi, samples, on the basis of preliminary laboratory
the exponential terms can be largely neglected examinations for new material [234], [231], an
and the following is valid as an approximation: exponential relationship is assumed, according
to which the end value of DC conductivity
V
ip (t )  id (t  tL ) | If (4.2-6d) w
Rf N oil (f) K3
N board (f) |  K2 ˜ e (4.2-7)
If the magnitudes of the consecutive currents K1
ip(t) and id(t) are mutually shifted by the
is dependent both on the water content w of
charging time tL on the time axis, the de- the board or paper as well as on the conduc-
scribed system-theoretical relationship can be tivity of the impregnating oil Noil(f), Figure
recognized, Figure 4.2-8. The sum (or the dif-
6.4.7-4. This corresponds to a conduction cur-
ference of the magnitudes) of the two currents,
rent along moisturized fibers and background
which are mutually shifted by tL, allows an conductivity due to oil-filled capillaries.
improved estimation for the end value of the
polarization current, even at earlier times t, Note: The constants K1 = 300, K2 = 0.00018 pS and K3 =
Figure 4.2-8 (top). 0.714 % are guideline values only for new materials at
room temperature. For other temperatures, a tempera-
Note: The conductivity end value can also be calculated ture correction, according to Eq. (4.2-9) is necessary.
by the charge difference method (CDM): charges
result from the integration of the measured currents. The Water content and ageing products or dete-
charge difference forms approximately a straight line rioration products do not only increase con-
increasing with time, and the gradient converges rela-
tively rapidly towards the conductivity end value, Sec-
duction currents but also polarization currents.
tion 6.4.1.3, Figure 6.4.1-5, [427], [392], [428]. This Depending on the polarization mechanism, the
type of conductivity determination is advantageous for increase occurs in the time range of seconds,
diagnostic measurements for which there is not enough see Figure 6.4.7-9, or even after very long pe-
time as well as for overlying disturbances which can riods [392], see Section 6.4.7.6 b). Thus, not
averaged out by integration.
only conductivity but also RC elements for the
Note: In Figure 4.2-8, slower polarization processes are description of polarization according to the
represented by RC-elements. The vacuum capacitance Figures 4.1-2 or 4.2-8 must be adapted de-
C0 and quickly changing polarization processes, which pending on the state of the material.
cannot be recorded for a step function response meas-
urement with finite rise time, are summed in the so-
called geometrical capacitance Cgeo, see Figure 4.3-2.
b) Highly polymerized substances
In highly polymerized substances such as
a) Oil-impregnated cellulose products polyethylene, polypropylene or epoxy resin,
Oil-impregnated cellulose is an important the conductivity is comparatively very low,
group of materials, which are used in the form Figure 4.2-5. Freely moving ions are present in
of impregnated insulation paper (OIP oil- much lower concentration than in oil-impreg-
impregnated paper) and also as pressboard. nated pressboard or paper. Freely moving
For dry materials, the conductivities deter- electrons are not available even for high field
mined according to Eq. (4.2-6d) are only strengths. Charge transport is rather affected
slightly dependent on the field strength in the by so-called “hopping” of electrons from one
range of 1 to approx. 20 kV/mm. For higher trap to the next. This results in extremely re-
field strengths, an increase in conductivity by duced charge carrier mobility.
about 20 % at 30 kV/mm was observed, per- Note: Since no regular crystal structure is generally
haps caused by the non-linear characteristic of present, the energy-band model with valence band and
the insulating oil. [271]. conduction band is not applicable to high polymer in-
sulating materials. Owing to irregularities in the crystal-
The conductivity of impregnated paper in- line structure, there are a large number of traps between
creases with the water content w. For wetted the unoccupied conduction levels, in which the electrons
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 281

are no longer attached to a specific atom, and the occu- served [271]. Probably, available ions here are
pied valence levels. The traps are partly occupied by exhausted by the field with no new ions being
electrons (donor states) and are also partly unoccupied.
For current conduction, the electrons must not be raised
formed. In the case of higher field strengths,
from the low lying valence levels to the conducting the conductivity in liquids increases owing to
levels. Electrons in traps are raised to the conduction additional ions as a result of dissociation proc-
level and can again settle down in other traps. Under the esses and by injection of electrons from the
effect of the field, “hopping” occurs in the direction of cathode, Figure 4.2-7. In mineral oil, the in-
the field.
crease is from field strengths of about 2
Note: In composite materials, a higher conductivity is kV/mm at 20 °C and from about 0.8 kV/mm at
possible even for high polymer basic material if, for 70 °C. Significantly higher values are applica-
example, fibers that are admixed with it are conductive ble for synthetic insulating liquids [16]. As an
either intrinsically or owing to wetting. In silicone ma-
terials, based on the admixture of lower molecular
approximation, an exponential law with posi-
components (silanes), ionic conductivity can be present tive exponent m is applicable for constant
to a certain extent. temperature:
m
c) Porcelain N = N0·(E/E0) (4.2-8)
Porcelain and ceramics, depending on the mix- In solid insulating materials, the field strength
ture components used, can exhibit differently dependence is significantly weaker.
high ionic conductivities which are generally
quite large in comparison with other insulating For increasing temperature, the ion mobility
materials, Figure 4.2-5. and the number of electrons raised to the con-
duction levels exponentially increase. For both
ionic conduction as well as for electron con-
4.2.2.4 Influence of Field Strength and duction, the so-called Arrhenius equation
Temperature -W/kT
N = Nf·e (4.2-9)
The order of magnitude of conductivities can can be determined with the material specific
be stated only very inaccurately for different activation energy W and with the Boltzmann
materials, Figure 4.2-5. The conductivity is constant k = 1.3807·10-23 J/K. In a logarithmic
dependent on the parameters stress duration, representation, straight lines result, Figure 4.2-
field strength, temperature, water content, 9. With the help of the presented examples, the
purity, and material composition. Therefore, following statements can be made:
the conductivity can easily fluctuate over some
orders of magnitude, despite of apparently x The increase in conductivity with tempera-
similar conditions. Determining reliable values ture can amount to 4 to 5 orders of magni-
presents a serious problem, especially in field tude between ambient temperatures and
calculations for HVDC-transmission devices operating temperatures.
[7], [10], [82], [271] (see Section 2.4.4). x Conductivities of different substances can
With time, charge carrier depletion in an insu- vary by several orders of magnitude.
lating material volume results from the with- x The conductivity ratio between different
drawal of mobile charge carriers for the elec- substances can vary substantially with in-
trodes. It can be observed as time dependence creasing temperature.
of electrical conductivity, especially for fluids,
see Section 4.2.2.3. Therefore, it is often diffi- This results in serious technical consequences:
cult to compare the conductivity values.
Example 1: Thermal stability: The exponential in-
crease in conductivity leads to an exponential increase
With increasing field strength, the conductiv- in dielectric power loss, and hence in unfavorable ther-
ity is at first constant. For liquids, even con- mal conditions a thermal breakdown according to Fig-
ductivity minima at 1 to 2 kV/mm are ob- ure 3.5-3 can be initiated (see Section 3.5.2). Insulations
282 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

with relatively high losses (e.g. resin-bonded paper,

various resins), poor heat dissipation (solid, unfilled
4.2.3 Loss or Dissipation Factor tan G
insulating materials), greater insulation thickness (for
voltages of a few 100 kV) and high ambient tempera- For a dielectric at AC voltage, the current I of
tures (e.g. in hot transformer oil) are crucial. the voltage V leads by an angle of approxi-
Example 2: Field displacement in pressboard barri-
mately M | 90°, Figure 4.2-10. Owing to po-
ers at DC voltage: In layered dielectrics, pressboard larization losses and conductivity losses, the
barriers of transformerboard under oil are extremely phase angle M deviates by a “loss angle" G
highly stressed by fields orthogonal to the interfaces. from 90°. The current component IG (“in-phase
The barriers must practically insulate the entire voltage,
whereas the oil gaps are largely unloaded, Figure 2.4- current", “active current”) is in phase with V
23. and results in the real power that is dissipated
in the dielectric, i.e. the dielectric power loss
Example 3: Barrier systems for a direct voltage
bushing: Fig 2.4-28 shows a bushing in a barrier system PG. The current component IC leads V by 90°
of poorly conductive pressboard (transformerboard) in and results in capacitive reactive power QC.
more conductive oil. According to Figure 4.2-9, the
conductivity ratio between oil and pressboard amounts According to Figure 4.2-10, the loss angle G is
to about 1000:1 at room temperature. A uniform poten-
tial distribution in the axial direction thus results in the defined by the loss factor (dissipation factor):
oil gap. At an operating temperature of 100 °C, the
IG
conductivity ratio reduces to about 30:1. The potential tan G . (4.2-10)
grading effect of barriers is thus greatly reduced. The IC
radial resistance must be maintained high enough, even
at operating temperatures, by using an adequate number With the power quantities
of barriers. Temperature gradients can cause problems
as they can lead to conductivity gradients and field PG = V·IG (4.2-11)
displacements.
and
QC = V·IC (4.2-12)
-8
10
Wepri- the loss (dissipation) factor is also given by
N board (2)
10
-10 S/m PG
tan G . (4.2-13)
QC
-12 Oil (1) The loss factor (dissipation factor) tan G there-
10 filled (5) Trans-
former- fore also specifies the ratio of dielectric power
board (3)
-14 Epoxy unfilled (4)
10 resin

-16 I V
10 Complex
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
I I plane
T /°C C G
QC P V
Figure 4.2-9:Temperature dependence of apparent G
I
M
conductivity at E = 0.5 kV/mm (low field area).
(1) Mineral oil, steady-state values [82]. C, H r tan G
I G
(2), (3) Pressboard (Wepri board and Transformer- G
board), steady-state values [82]. I
(4), (5) Epoxy resin (unfilled and filled), C
5 minutes values [16].
Note: The steady-state conductivity values are much
lower than the 5 minutes conductivity values. Figure 4.2-10: Description of lossy dielectrics
Note: Bisphenol-A epoxy resin with liquid dicar- with active current, power loss and loss factor
boxilic acid anhydride hardeners and aminic accel- (dissipation factor) using the complex AC cal-
erator (4), filled with 350 parts per weight of Al2O3. culation methods and phasor diagrams.
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 283

tan G Oil-impregnated paper

with moisture (water)
1 10 % Polyamide
Epoxy resin
(PA 6)
-1 (filled
10 % 10 Mineral oil 6 % & wet) Resin-bonded paper
(PA 12)
(wet)
PVC
-2 2 % Porcelain
1% 10 1 % (unfilled)
Pressboard Steatite
0.1% Paper
-3 (dry)
1‰ 10
Polyethylene Mica
Silikonöl
(dry) VPE
-4 LDPE PTFE Quartz glass
10

Figure 4.2-11: Dissipation factors (loss factors) at power frequency (50 Hz) and room temperature.

loss PG to capacitive reactive power QC in a ger than the DC conductivity (see Figure 4.2-
dielectric. If the capacitive reactive power is 6). Especially for solids, the dissipation factor
known, the dielectric power loss can be di- includes additional polarization losses that
rectly stated with the dissipation factor: occur largely owing to orientation polarization
and interfacial polarization. 
PG = (tan G)·QC (4.2-14)
Figure 4.2-11 shows that substances which
Note: In the English language, the quantities loss angle have relatively high permittivity owing to ori-
G, loss factor tan G, dissipation factor cot M and power entation polarization (for example, PVC,
factor cos M are used for the description of dielectric polyamide, epoxy resin, cellulose, resin-
losses, Figure 4.2-10. tan G and cot M are identical, and bonded paper, see Figure 4.2-2), also exhibit
for a small angle G, even the power factor cos M can be relatively large (polarization) losses. Moisture
compared, Table 4.2-1.
results in a great increase in losses owing to
Table 4.2-1: Description of dielectric losses:
water molecules that can be easily polarized as
well as owing to an increase in conductivity.
G Loss angle 0.0573° 0.573° 5.71° 45°
This is especially crucial for moisture sensitive
tan G Loss factor
10
-3
10
-2
0.1 1 substances such as paper, pressboard, poly-
cot M Dissipation factor
amide and reinforced and filled synthetic
cos M Power factor
-3 -2
10 10 0.0995 0.707
materials.
Nevertheless, dissipation factor is a very This results in strong dependences on the pa-
common wording in high voltage engineering, rameters such as frequency and temperature,
and it will be used predominantly in this book, Figures 4.2-13 and 2.4-5.
instead of loss factor.
The dissipation factor increases with the con-
The dissipation factor tan G is a material pa- ductivity and hence possibly also with the
rameter, which according to Eq. (4.2-13) is field strength. On inception of strong partial
determined by the polarization losses and the discharges there is a sudden increase in losses
conductivity losses, Figure 4.2-10. The dissi- (“partial discharge bend”), and some deca-
pation factors are greater than is to be expected cades ago, this was considered as a rough indi-
on the basis of DC conductivity. In the case of cator for the occurrence of partial discharges.
liquids, this is because AC conductivity is lar- This is still of practical importance in partial
284 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Complex V,E D=
I
plane H 0 H r*E

Conduction Total current density

(loss) J+ j Z D
current density
E D J H 0 H r' E
J =NE jZ D M
Polarisation
Displacement current density
(loss)
current density
G
Z H 0 H r" E j Z H 0 H r' E - j H 0 H r" E

Figure 4.2-12: Description of lossy dielectrics with conduction losses and polarization losses by means of
phase shift of field quantities in a complex phasor diagram (for AC voltage).

discharge-resistant insulations of generators Note: Polarization P should not be confused with the
and resin-bonded paper bushings. power loss PG

Generally, materials with low dissipation fac- In the alternating electric field, the phase lag
-2 in polarization is expressed by a phase shift
tors (generally under 10 = 1 %) are used for between the electric field E(t) or the voltage
high voltage insulations, in order to avoid v(t) and the electrical displacement density
thermal instabilities and thermal breakdowns. D(t). That is, in a (complex) phasor diagram,
In that connection, it must be noted that in- the complex phasor for the r.m.s. value D lags
creased operating temperatures prevail in de- in phase with regard to the complex phasors
vices, which also lead to distinctly increased for the r.m.s. values E or V, Figure 4.2-12.
losses. It is a problem that the dissipation fac-
tor values measured at ambient temperature Note: By assuming a uniform field or by taking very
still do not give any indication of dissipation small field areas into consideration, the vectorial char-
acter of field quantities E, D and J needs not be consid-
factors and thermal stability at increased oper- ered.
ating temperatures. Along with the material
properties, the insulation design and heat Formally, the phase lag of D can be described
transmission conditions also play a decisive with a decomposition into two phasors H0Hr' E
role in evaluating the thermal stability, see and -jH0Hr" E. The first phasor corresponds to
Section 3.5.2.
the standard displacement density that is not
out of phase. the second phasor lags by -90°
corresponding to the multiplication with –j.
4.2.4 Complex Permittivity With the approach

For a material with losses owing to conductiv- D = H0 Hr* E (4.2-15)

ity and orientation polarization, it is assumed
the phase displacement is thus described by a
that the electrical polarization P(t), according
complex permittivity
to Eqs. (2.4-7) and (4.1-4), shows a lag in fol-
lowing the electric field E(t). For a single po- Hr* = Hr' - j·Hr" . (4.2-16)
larization mechanism with the relaxation time
W, and for example assuming a step field E(t) = The real part Hr' equals the standard (relative)
Estat·V(t), an exponential approximation to the permittivity Hr; the imaginary part -Hr" can be
stationary end value is obtained, Eq. (4.1-5). correlated with the polarization losses via the
4.2 Dielectric Parameters 285

phasor diagram of current densities, Figure the temperature this results in a static permit-
4.2-12: tivity Hstat, Figure 4.2-13 (top left), see also
Figure 4.2-3. Above the frequency f = 1/W, the
The displacement current density jZD which
dipoles can no longer follow the rapidly
leads D by 90° is composed of purely capaci-
tive component jZ H0Hr' E and polarization changing field and the permittivity falls to Hf.
(loss) current density Z H0Hr" E . With the con- The polarization losses have a maximum in the
duction (loss) current density phasor J = N E, frequency range of f = 1/W, because although
total current density J + jZ D results. the dipoles can still follow the field, impacts
and other interactions cause a lag (phase shift)
According to Figure 4.2-12, the dissipation with a withdrawal of energy. In the case of
factor (loss factor) is given by
lower frequencies f << 1/W, there is no phase
tan G = (N + ZH0Hr")/(ZH0Hr') displacement between D and E; for higher fre-
quencies f >> W, the dipoles cannot move at
= tan GL + tan GPol . (4.2-17) all, Figure 4.2-13 (bottom left). With increas-
ing temperature, the dipoles become more mo-
The dissipation factor components that have to bile, the relaxation time W decreases and the
be assigned to the conductivity losses and po- loss maximum is shifted to higher frequencies.
larization losses are
The conductivity losses must be superimposed
tan GL = N/(ZH0Hr') on the polarization losses. Owing to Eq. (4.2-
and (4.2-18) 18), the dissipation factor tan GL infinitely in-
creases with decreasing frequency Z o 0 be-
tan GPol = Hr"/Hr' . cause the ratio of power loss to reactive power
increases accordingly.
Figure 4.2-13 represents the profile of dissipa-
tion factor tan G and relative permittivity Hr =
Temperature dependencs:
Hr' against frequency and against tempera-
ture. The analytical derivation, assuming a lag The permittivity increases at first with in-
in dipole orientation according to Eq. (4.1-4), creasing temperature because the dipoles be-
results in [25] come more mobile. For this, with increasing
frequency, ever higher temperatures are neces-
2
Hr' = Hf + (Hstat - Hf)/[1 + (ZW) ] sary to make the “frozen” dipoles sufficiently
mobile, Figure 4.2-13 (top right).
and (4.2-19)
With further increasing temperature, the ther-
2
Hr" = ZW·(Hstat - Hf)/[1 + (ZW) ] . mal agitation disturbs the orientation of di-
poles and hence the permittivity again de-
In this, the decrease in Hr' with frequency can creases.
be noticed. The loss-determining component
In the range of increasing dipole mobility, a
Hr" has a maximum at the frequency f = 1/W.
maximum of polarization losses results, Figure
Instead of a theoretical derivation, the pre- 4.2-13 (bottom right).
sented curves should be made physically plau- The superimposed conductivity losses with the
sible. conductivity N(T) according to Eq. (4.2-9) lead
to an exponential increase in the dissipation
Frequency dependences: factor with temperature. According to Eq.
At low frequencies, the dipoles follow the field (4.2-18), a greater increase must be expected
practically without any lag, and depending on at lower frequencies.
286 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Practical curves: Harmonics:

Practical curves often comprise a superimpo- Often, not only the dissipation factor at a cer-
sition of various polarization mechanisms. tain frequency has to be considered: har-
Thus, they are related more to the representa- monics in the network can lead to significant
tion in Figure 4.2-4. Moreover, there are large reactive currents and losses. Also power elec-
differences between different materials, dif- tronic switching impulses with steep switch-
ferent material states (e.g. ageing, moisture) ing edges always exhibit a pronounced har-
and different insulation designs (interfacial monic spectrum with high amplitudes Vi. In
polarization). Loss maxima and step levels in these cases, the total dielectric power loss re-
the permittivity profile can frequently no sults from the superposition of loss compo-
longer be clearly identified. nents resulting from the individual harmonics,
wherein the insulating material is considered
Note: For the practically important oil-impregnated
paper, the dissipation factor reduces for increasing
as linear.
temperatures up to about 50 °C and beyond that it again
sharply increases. This “bath-tub curve” has a favorable PG PG 0  PG 1  PG 2  .....
impact on the thermal stability of oil-impregnated insu- f (4.2-20)
lations at increased operating temperatures. ¦ ( tan G )i ˜ (ZiC ˜ Vi2 )
i 0
Unfortunately, the dissipation factor minimum disap-
pears for wetting and ageing of insulation owing to 2
which wetting and ageing represent a risk for the ther-
Since the reactive power ZiC·Vi increases
mal stability of insulations. proportionally to the frequency Zi, the associ-

Dipoles can no longer Dipole become more mobile

follow the fast changing ("defrosted")
Hr ' Hr '
field
Hr Hr f1< f2< f3
T1 < T 2 < T3 Thermal agitation
Hstat { Dipole sind
unbeweglich
disturbs the orien-
tation of the dipoles
Dipoles do not lag ("eingefroren")
Hf
behind the field
1 1
f T
At higher temperatures, the transition range At higher frequencies, the transition range
with decreasing dipole orientation is shifted with increasing dipole orientation is shifted
to higher frequencies due to the increased to higher temperatures with higher dipole
dipole mobility. mobility.
tan G tan G
T1 < T2 < T 3 f1< f2< f3

Rise due to
Rise due to
conductivity
conductivity
f T
1/W 1 1/W 2 1/W 3

Figure 4.2-13: Basic dependence of relative permittivity and loss factor (dissipation factor) on the parameters
temperature and frequency for a dielectric with orientation polarization (schematic, see Figure 2.4-5).
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 287

ated loss components also increase. In addi- Note: In the case of rectangular switching impulses,
the losses can be computed from the harmonic spectrum
tion, the dissipation factor (tan G)i often also
according to Eq. (4.2-20). An alternative would be a
increases with frequency, especially since calculation in the time domain, by computing the loss
various polarization mechanisms normally energy 'Wp created by the polarization during a
overlap, which is not represented in Figure switching operation. The loss energy is calculated from
4.2-13. the polarization current:

Thus, for high harmonic content, unexpectedly 'Wp ³ V ˜ ip (t ) ˜ dt (4.2-21)

high thermal stresses can occur owing to di-
electric losses, along with the risk of thermal With the switching frequency, the number of switching
processes for each time unit and from that, the power
instability (thermal breakdown), see Section loss is calculated. For a dissipation factor assumed to be
3.5.2. independent of frequency, a power loss created by a
square wave voltage is about four times greater than
Example: The oil-paper capacitors formerly used for that created by a sinusoidal voltage of equal frequency
reactive current compensation were thermally capable [284].
of coping with the losses for the fundamental compo-
nent f = 50 Hz. However, the increasing harmonic con-
tent in the network has led to an intolerable thermal
load. As a result, the oil-paper dielectric has been re-
placed by low loss synthetic dielectrics. 4.3 Description of Dielectrics
Simple equivalent circuits of capacitances and
resistances can only describe the properties of
I I dielectrics in an incomplete way.

Rs Nevertheless, the classic parallel and series

Cp Rp equivalent circuits (Section 4.3.1) are still a
V V valuable calculating aid if restricted to one
Cs frequency or a narrow frequency range. The
flaw in simple equivalent circuits lies in their
Parallel Series
inability to correctly simulate complex physi-
equivalent circuit equivalent circuit cal interrelationships. Extended material-relat-
ed equivalent circuits, which can be deter-
mined from dielectric systems responses in
tan G Parallel equiv. c. Series equiv. c. time domain or frequency domain, offer a bet-
tan G aZ tan G aZ ter simulation of dielectric properties (Section
only for very only for very 4.3.2). For the description of insulation sys-
low frequencies high frequencies tems of various materials, multiple equivalent
circuits must be combined in a geometry-ori-
ented arrangement (Section 4.3.3).
Formal conversion
values are valid only for
the frequency under
consideration 4.3.1 Classic Parallel and Series
Equivalent Circuits

Z0 f, Z
Parallel and series equivalent circuits consist
of a single equivalent capacitance and a single
equivalent resistance respectively, Figure 4.3-
1. The dissipation/ loss factors, according to
Figure 4.3-1: Parallel equivalent circuit and series-
equivalent circuit (top) with conversion at a fixed Eq. (4.2-10), result from the ratio of real
frequency (bottom). power (that is converted into resistance) to
288 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

reactive power (that is assigned to the capaci- The physical interpretation of a series equiva-
tance). lent circuit consists of an ideal capacitor that is
connected through a series resistance which is
For the parallel equivalent circuit not negligible. In particular, the capacitor im-
pedance 1/(ZCs) decreases very sharply at
tan G = PG/ QC high frequencies and Rs increases owing to the
skin effect and may no longer be ignored.
2 2
= [V / Rp] / [ZCp·U ]
The losses of any dielectric at one fixed fre-
= 1/(ZCpRp) . (4.3-1) quency can be formally described by both the
series equivalent circuit and the parallel equiv-
Note: The hyperbolic decrease in the dissipation factor alent circuit. However, the elements of the
with frequency ~ 1/Z included in the above would only equivalent circuits, that is, Cp and Rp and Cs
be physically correct for materials whose losses can be and Rs respectively, are applicable only for the
assigned exclusively to a constant conductivity. Gener-
ally, this may only be assumed for very low frequencies. considered frequency. A change in the fre-
In the limiting case of Z approaching zero, even the quency without adjusting the circuit elements
reactive power approaches zero, but the power loss leads to incorrect results!
remains finite owing to the ever available conductivity,
so that the dissipation factor tends towards infinity. For a specific frequency Z0, a conversion of
Practically, this is important below mHz.
the elements of both the equivalent circuits is
The series equivalent circuit leads to possible by equating the complex impedances
Zp = 1/[1/Rp + jZCp] and Zs = Rs + 1/(jZCs)
tan G = PG/ QC and the dissipation factors, according to Eqs.
(4.3-1) and (-2). From both the conditions, the
2 2 following results for the equivalent capacitan-
= [Rs·I ] / [I / ZCs)] ces

= ZCsRs . (4.3-2) 2
Cp = Cs / (1 + tan G)
and (4.3-3)
Note: The linear increase of dissipation factor with the 2
frequency ~ Z present in the above would only be Cs = Cp·(1 + tan G)
physically correct for arrangements whose losses can be
exclusively assigned to a constant series resistance, for
example on the basis of supply lines or contact resis-
as well as for the equivalent resistances
tances. However, this is not the case with pure dielec-
trics. Rp = 1 / (ZCp·tan G)
and (4.3-4)
This means that both the equivalent circuits Rs = (tan G) / (ZCs)
are not capable of correctly describing the fre-
or
quency dependence of the dissipation factor, 2
Figures 4.3-1 and. 4.2-12. Rp = Rs (1 + 1/ tan G) .

However, the parallel equivalent circuit en- The equivalent capacitances Cs and Cp are
ables the physically correct description of con- therefore, not exactly equal. In practice, how-
ductivity losses. Therefore, for very low fre- ever, the difference is usually negligible in the
quencies, there is a correlation with the actual case of dielectrics with dissipation factors tan
profiles. -1
G < 10 .
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 289

In a dielectric with low losses, the parallel For a PE cable with Ra/Ri = e, H’ = Hr·H0 = 2.3·8.85
-4
equivalent resistance Rp is very large, accord- pF/m and tan G = 10 , the following dielectric power
ing to Eq. (4.3-4). Very small values are ob- dissipation at f = 50 Hz is given in dependence on the
voltage V (r.m.s. line-to-ground voltage):
tained for the series equivalent resistance Rs.
Vm, line-to-line in kV 12 24 36 123 245 420
Several equations can be used for the calcula-
tion of power loss PG of a dielectric: V, line-to-ground in kV 6.93 13.9 20.8 71.0 141 242
P/l in W/km 0.19 0.77 1.74 20.3 80.4 236
Under the condition Cp | Cs | C, generally the
following is applicable, according to Eq. (4.2- It is interesting to note that the absolute value of the
10) dielectric power dissipation does not depend on the
absolute value of the cable diameter, but on the ratio of
2
PG = QC tan G = ZC V tan G . (4.3-5) the radii only.

For a high-quality polymeric-insulated cable, the di-

In the equivalent circuits 4.3-1, the following electric losses are very small and can often be neglected
results for the power loss in comparison with the ohmic loss in the conductor. For
2 2
an oil-paper-insulated cable with Hr = 4.4 and tan G =
PG = V / Rp and PG = Rs·I . (4.3-6) -3
3·10 , the dielectric power dissipation is approximately
sixty times greater than that calculated above, and it can
For the power loss density, according to Eq. further increase during the ageing of the cable.
(4.3-5), considering an infinitesimal volume
'Vvol = 'A·'x with uniform field E = 'V/'x,
the generally applicable relation is
4.3.2 Description of Dielectric
pG = 'PG/ 'Vvol Material Properties
2 Generally, more complex dielectric material
= Z(H''A/'x)(E 'x) (tan G) / ('A 'x)
properties can be described by means of the
2 dielectric sytem response according to Eq.
= Z H0 Hr' (tan G) E (4.1-1). For practical applications, it is used for
2
determination of material-related equivalent
= Z H0 H r" E . (4.3-7) circuits or physical description models that
represent dielectric properties much better than
Example: Coaxial cable simple parallel or series equivalent circuits
according to Section 4.3.1.
By means of the power loss density pG, the dielectric
heat generation (power dissipation) P of a coaxial cable Important applications of equivalent circuits
(length l, outer and inner radii Ra and Ri) can be calcu- for the description of materials are in the area
lated by integration over the volume of the cable. The of dielectric diagnostics. Under this, one seeks
electric field strength E in Eq. (4.3-7) is expressed by
Eq. (2.3-21): to draw conclusions regarding the magnitude
of the equivalent elements from dielectric
Ra measurements and correlate them with the
Z H ' (tan G ) V 2 1
P ³³ pG d Vvol ³ 2ʌ r l d r material properties, in order to make state-
R 2
Vvol ln 2 a Ri r ments about the insulation condition and the
Ri
ageing condition, Section 6.4.7.
2 ʌ l Z H ' (tan G ) V 2
R Another application is the description of high
ln a
Ri voltage DC fields and the related transition
(4.3-7a) processes in which slow polarization occurs
290 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

and which can substantially influence the cur- hence linear equivalent circuits can be used.
rents and fields, Section 7.2.1. Strong polarization is often characteristic
here. It causes depolarization currents, which
Solid materials can often be regarded as linear exhibit similar current-time characteristics and
and are modeled with the help of dielectric similar magnitudes as the preceding polariza-
equivalent circuits (so-clled material-related tion currents, cf. Figure 4.2-8. This can be de-
equivalent circuits), Section 4.3.2.1 and scribed in the following way:
4.3.2.2. Liquid insulating materials generally
exhibit a distinct non-linear behavior and A linear material equivalent circuit consists of
therefore must be described with suitable the vacuum capacitance C0 and the insulation
functional relationships, Section 4.3.2.3. resistance Rfto allow for the dielectric con-
stant H0 and the conductivity N. The increase of
the capacitance or the permittivity by material
4.3.2.1 Linear Polarization Equivalent
polarization as well as the occurrence of
Circuit for Solid Materials
slower polarization mechanisms is taken into
For linear materials, a linear equivalent circuit account by the parallel connection of RC-ele-
for describing different polarization mecha- ments according to Figures 4.1-1 and -2. Here
nisms can be developed by expanding the ba- the series resistance Ri delays the charging and
sic parallel equivalent circuit, Figure 4.3-1 and discharging of the additional capacitance Ci
4.3-2. Many solid materials behave largely according to the time constant
linearly with respect to field strength and
Wi = RiCi (4.3-8)

in accordance with Eqs. (4.1-5) and (-6). Wi

R1 R R R corresponds to the relaxation time constant(s)
C0 i i +1 f for a polarization mechanism with the index i.
The charging and discharging of Ci corre-
sponds to the binding and release of charge
during polarization and depolarization respec-
C1 C C tively.
i i +1

Vacuum W1 << Wi < W i +1 < .... Some of the polarization mechanisms have
capacitance

i pol (t) / E
Geometric or Slower DC
high frequency polarization pA / kV
resistance mm
1000
90 °C
capacitance processes
E = 1 kV/mm E = 1 kV/mm
= 3 kV/mm
R R R 100
Cgeo = H r C0 i i +1 f =10 kV/mm
=30 kV/mm 50 °C

10
tanG T = 22 °C

C C 22 °C
i i +1 1 - 10 °C
10 100 1000 t / s 10 100 1000 t /s

Figure 4.3-2: Equivalent circuit for the description Figure 4.3-3: Field-strength dependence and tem-
of polarization processes in general and simplified perature dependence of dielectric system responses
form (top and bottom). for a dry oil-impregnated Transformerboard [271].
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 291

such small relaxation time constants that they ner. Nevertheless, as the equivalent elements
need not be taken into account in the fre- in practice are determined by pure mathemati-
quency domain that is under consideration. cal curve fitting, they cannot directly be re-
Therefore, the related series resistances can be lated to particular physical polarization mech-
ignored and the then parallel partial capacitan- anisms. That is, a single RC element could for
ces can be combined into a “geometrical ca- example represent the superposition of several
pacitance” or a “high-frequency capacitance” polarization mechanisms with similar time
constants.
Cgeo = Hr C0 . (4.3-9)
Polarization and conduction processes, dielec-
It must be noted here that this capacitance, tric system responses and equivalent circuit el-
depending on the frequency, can still exhibit ements are primarily subject to variation with
losses (shades areas in Figure 4.3-2), which, parameters such as field strength, temperature
for example, can be described with the help of or water content.
a loss factor (dissipation factor) tan G Then,
Example: For a dry oil-impregnated transformerboard
only slower polarization mechanisms are taken Figure 4.3-3 shows a specific non-linearity only at
into account by RC-elements, Figure 4.3-2 higher field strengths, probably caused by the non-line-
(bottom). arity of the oil. Furthermore, there is a distinct temper-
ature dependence, which especially manifests itself as a
The elements of a dielectric equivalent cir- reduction in the time constants and an increase in the
currents with increasing temperature.
cuit can be determined by polarization and
depolarization current measurements or step The especially important dependence on tem-
response measurements in the time domain, perature is looked at closely in Section 4.3.2.2.
Figure 4.1-3. For this purpose, the charging
current impulse must be integrated up to the
time of interest, from which a geometric ca- 4.3.2.2 Dependence on Temperature
pacitance can be calculated. For longer dura-
tions, the polarization elements RiCi result The dielectric equivalent circuit according to
from a curve-fit with exponential functions Figure 4.3-2 can be used for the description of
having different time constants Wi, Figure 4.2- linear dielectric behavior of materials both in
8. The DC resistance can be estimated the frequency domain and in the time domain,
according to Eq. (4.2-6) from the sum (or i.e. also for the calculation of the frequency-
difference of magnitudes) of the polarization dependent spectrum of dissipation factor or the
and depolarization currents that are displaced time-dependent curve of the polarization cur-
in an overlapping manner, without having to rent, Figure 4.3-4 (right) and (left). Here, the
measure it for "infinitely long" periods. equivalent circuit elements and the associated
dissipation factor spectrum as well as the as-
According to system theory, it is equivalent to sociated polarization current are only valid for
determine the circuit elements by frequency the currently considered temperature.
domain analysis, which is performed by the Note: The assumption of linear material behavior is an
measurement of capacitance and dissipation approximation only. Nevertheless, it is often appropriate
factor or complex permittivity as a function of mainly for solid materials and at low field strengths.
frequency. An equivalent circuit can then be
generated from measured or calculated fre- It is already shown in Figure 4.2-13 (bottom
quency responses by curve fitting. left) that the dissipation factor spectrum is
shifted with temperature rightwards to higher
In linear materials, the equivalent elements frequencies because of increasing conductivity
are generally suited to simulate real polariza- of the material and increasing mobility of the
tion mechanisms in a physically correct man- dipoles. Figure 4.3-4 (left) shows a typical ex-
292 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

tract (schematic), e.g. for oil-impregnated pa- [501].

per, with a minimum close to power fre-
quency. According to this concept, the behavior of the
material with increasing temperature can be
In the equivalent circuit, increasing conductiv- described both in the frequency domain as a
ity and increasing dipole mobility correspond single shift of the dissipation factor curve to-
to a reduction of the resistance R an the re- wards higher frequencies and in the time do-
sistances Ri with the time constants Wi. The main as a double shift of the current curve to-
charge that is stored or displaced during po- wards shorter times and higher amplitudes,
larization is assumed to be independent of Figure 4.3-4.
temperature to a first approximation, so that
the capacitances Ci can be regarded as constant For oil-impregnated paper and pressbord, it

Equivalent circuit for a linear dielectric

considering displacement, polarization and conduction currents

Ri
C R
V Ci v(t)
Wi
Description in the Description in the
frequency domain I i(t) time domain

Dissipation factor spectrum (log-log representation) Current response (log-log representation)

tanG i(t)

90 °C

70 °C Extra-
90 °C polation
Extra-
polation 70 °C

20 °C
1 pA (e.g.) 20 °C
Extrapolation Resolution limit
of the measuring system

Time span for measurement

f t

0.001 0.01 0,1 1 10 100 1'000 Hz 0.1 1 10 100 1'000 10'000 100'000 s

Figure 4.3-4: Conversion of dielectric system responses in the frequency domain (left) and in the time domain
(right) performed between different temperatures by "shifting" of the curves (schematic).
Measurement: solid curves. Extrapolation: dotted curves.
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 293

was shown that the DC resistance R and the

resistances Ri can be recalculated for other i (t)
temperatures according to the Arrhenius equa- pA
tion Eq. (4.2-9) assuming the same activation 100

energy [501], [511]. For a first-order approxi- Polarization current

mation, the equivalent capacitances C and Ci 10 Depolarization current

need not to be changed. This represents a

physical hypothesis according to which polari- 1
1 10 100 1000 t/s
zation phenomena exhibit similar temperature
dependences (i.e. interfacial polarization is di- Geometric capacitance Varying resistance
rectly related to conductivity and orientation
polarization to dipole mobility) and according R{[ Q- q (t) ], E, T }
to which the amount of polarizable charge "Oil model"

does not change with temperature.

The recalculation of the curves has a high Figure 4.3-5: Modeling for a non-linear insulation
liquid, see also Figure 4.2-6.
practical value: For a linear material, the com-
plete dielectric system response and the DC
conductivity that were measured at higher i pol(t) E = 10 kV/mm
i pol(f) / E
temperatures (e.g. 90 °C and 70 °C) in a feasi- pA
104
6 kV/mm kV
pA / mm
ble time span (e.g. 1 to 10’000 s) and at a high
90 °C
current amplitude can therefore be extrapo- 3 kV/mm 103
lated to lower temperatures (e.g. 20 °C), to 50 °C
longer times (e.g. 100’000 s) and to very low 102
1 kV/mm
22 °C
current magnitudes below the measuring sen- 0.3 kV/mm
10 - 10 °C
sitivity (e.g. 1 pA), even without the possibil- T = 22 °C
0.1 kV/mm

ity for direct measurement in this range, Figure 1

1 10 100 t /s 0 2 E / kV/mm
4.3-4 (right).
Figure 4.3-6: Field-strength dependence and tem-
perature dependence of dielectric system responses
4.3.2.3 Drift, Diffusion and Injection in for a new oil [271], see also Figure 4.2-7 .
Liquids

Insulating liquids show a strongly non-linear (1) At low field strengths, conductivity or the
behavior, and they cannot be described with current through the liquid decreases during the
linear equivalent circuits that were discussed time of voltage application as the intrinsic
before for the solid materials. charge carriers (ions) drift towards the elec-
trodes with different and field-strength-de-
a) Physical processes pendent velocities and transit times, cf. Figure
4.3-6 (left). A large amount of this charge is
Insulating liquids exhibit time-variant not neutralized at the electrodes but forms
polarization currents during polarization and space charge layers of opposite polarity close
depolarization current measurements, but they to the electrodes (heterocharges). The distri-
exhibit practically no depolarization currents bution of the space charges is determined by
after a depolarization time of a few seconds, an equilibrium of the drift current in the elec-
Figure 4.3-5. This can be explained in the fol- tric background field and the oppositely di-
lowing way: rected diffusion current that is caused by the
294 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

concentration gradient of the accumulated duced in front of the injecting electrodes and is
charge carriers of equal polarity. increased in the bulk of the liquid.

Thereby, local field strength and injection of (5) If voltage or background field strength is
charge carriers at the elektrodes are intensified increased, current increases disproportionately
resulting in a steady-state conduction current until breakdown takes place.
which is also dependent on the background
field strength (global or average field strength Figure 4.3-6 (right) gives an example of the
resp.), Figure 4.3-6 (left). This causes a small so-called “bath-tub curve” of oil conductivity
reduction of field strength in the bulk of the which can be explained by the described be-
liquid. havior, i.e. at low background field strengths
by a depletion of intrinsic charge carriers by
(2) If the voltage is switched off, and the the electric field forces (drift motion) and at
electrodes are short-circuited, only a very high background field strengths by a flooding
small depolarization current is flowing as the by injected charges.
electrically influenced counter-charges (so-
called mirror charges) on the electrodes hold b) Global description with equivalent network
the space charges for a long time, Figure 4.3-5. elements
This can lead to very long relaxation times be-
fore the liquid has returned to the its original For a global description of an oil gap, it was
state (memory effect). proposed to use an equivalent circuit based on
a variable resistance [271]. However, polari-
(3) Nevertheless, if the polarity is reversed, zation phenomena and local field strength en-
the space charges are free again, and the po- hancements are neglected.
larization current has an amplitude as high as it
is expected from the originally present intrin- The dielectric equivalent circuit reduces es-
sic charges [486]. Here, it takes some time for sentially to that of a geometrical capacitance
all of the accumulated charge carriers to start for very fast (high frequency) polarization
to move which is comparable to the dissolving phenomena and a time-variant conductivity,
of a “traffic jam”. Therefore, the current in- which has already been described under Sec-
creases at first. Then it decreases as the charge tion 4.2.2.2.
carriers reach the counter electrode. Finally it
approaches the steady-state value [503], [504]. Here, the dependence of conductivity or re-
The time, when the current reaches its maxi- sistance on different parameters must be con-
mimun, is the “time of flight”, when most of sidered, Figure 4.3-6. The initial conductiv-
the charge carriers are moving or “flying” re- ityN(0) is reduced for an applied field E by ion
spectively. transport (ion drift). According to Eq. (4.2-5),
the time constant or the transit time W is pro-
(4) At high field strengths (i.e. with effect portional to the gap width and the reciprocal of
from approx. 2 kV/mm), strong injection of the field strength, Figure 4.3-6 (left). After the
homocharges (mainly electrons at the cathode) removal of ions, a new charge carrier equilib-
starts to increase conduction current signifi- rium or a final conductivity N(f) is set, which
cantly. Then, a large number of ions and is intensely field strength dependent and in-
charged particles is drifting between the elec- creases sharply above 2 kV/mm, Figure 4.3-6
trodes and results in comparatively high and (right).
fluctuating currents, Figure 4.3-6 (left). Even
Note: It is interesting that the end values of conductivity
in this case, space charges are built up by an apparently exhibit a minimum in the range between 1
equilibrium of drifting and diffusing charge and 3 kV/mm, Figure 4.3-6 (right). This can be ex-
carriers, whereby the local field strength is re- plained as follows: At very low field strengths, the ef-
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 295

fect of the field on the number of charge carriers is only of the complex behavior of conduction phe-
weak and the initial conductivity is almost maintained. nomena in liquids.
With increasing field strength, the final conductivity
decreases owing to depletion of charge carriers, before
new charge carries are again injected from the elec- Functional relationships, which describe the
trodes or released from traps and lead to a sharp in- variation of conductivity by ion movement and
crease in the conductivity at high field strength. by the effect of higher electric field strengths,
can be used in the form of a nonlinear equiv-
These processes cannot be described by linear alent circuit according to Section 4.3.2.3 b) if
equivalent circuits. Instead, a functional rela- space charges and local field stress enhance-
tionship, a so-called physical “oil model” is ments in the oil are neglected, Eq. (4.3-10) to
proposed [271], in which the initially available (…-13). Here, the material condition is as-
amount of charge Q(0) is calculated from the sumed to be homogeneous which is a rough
initial current ip(0) and the transit time W: approximation only.

Q(0) = ip(0)·W (4.3-10) In reality, additional phenomea occur which

are described in Section 4.3.2.3 a). That relates
Note: Both the quantities can be read directly from the essentially to the built up of space charges and
polarization current profile. Thus, the ion transit time W to local field stress enhancements, especially
according to Eq. (4.2-5) is dependent on the ion mobil- close to the interfaces. These processes can be
ity μ, on the gap width d and the field strength E. described by a multi-physical approach, i.e. a
set of differential equations that couples the
If the the initially available amount of charge different relevant physical processes. In doing
Q(0) is reduced by the charge so, the motion of charge carriers or ions must
generally be considered in accordance with the
q(t) = ³ip(t)·dt , (4.3-11) universal Boltzmann transport equation. For
example, the starting point is given by Fick’s
which is already transported by ip(t), the actual laws of diffusion that describe how particle
current carrying amount of charge Q(t) and flow is driven by the particle concentration
from this the current ip(t) is given: gradient. In the Nernst-Planck equation the
drift current is added, i.e. the flow of charged
Q(t) = Q(0) - ³ip(t)·dt (4.3-12) particles driven by the electric field forces. Fi-
nally, the Poisson-Nernst-Plank equation
extends this approach to include the interac-
ip (t )
tion of charged particles among each other.
Q(t ) ˜ μ (4.3-13)
˜ E (t )  i (f, E (f)) This approach, which is used in biochemistry
d
and electrochemistry for the description of
conduction processes in electrolytes and mem-
Q(t) reduces to zero after all the transition pro-
branes, can also be used for the description of
cesses elapse, and an end value of the current
insulating liquids and liquid-impregnated fiber
i(f) remains, which results from the end value
materials [503], [504]. With this, it becomes
of the field strength E(f), Figure 4.3-6 (right). possible to calculate charge injection at the
electrodes due to very high local field
Note: The dependences of conductivity on time t, field
strength E(t) and gap width d included in Eqs. (4.3-10) strengths by means of the Fowler-Nordheim
to (-13) were experimentally checked [271]. equation, charge carrier drift due to potential
gradients (electric field forces resp.) and
c) Multi-physical description charge carrier diffusion due to concentration
gradients. The build-up of surface charges and
A linear equivalent circuit according to Sec- space charges in transient and steady states is
tion 4.3.2.1 is not suitable for the description determined by the transition processes and
296 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

equilibrium conditions for the charge carrier assign the elements to material specific equiv-
flows or currents respectively. alent circuits.

The influence of geometry will first be ex-

plained at a layered arrangement of two paral-
4.3.3 Description of Geometrical lel equivalent circuits (Maxwell’s two-layer
Properties model) connected in series, Section 4.3.3.1,
before discussing layered arrangements in
If insulation consists not only of a single (uni- which the material polarization as well as
form) dielectric, geometry-related polariza- complex insulation geometries are considered,
tion effects (interfacial polarization) occur at Section 4.3.3.3.
the interfaces, and these effects cannot be dif-
ferentiated from material-related polariza-
tion effects by means of dielectric measure- 4.3.3.1 Maxwell’s Two-layer Model
ments. If an equivalent circuit according to
Figure 4.3-2 is established for the complete Maxwell’s two-layer model consists of the
insulation, then the geometrical properties and series connection of two parallel equivalent
material properties can no longer be distin- circuits, Figure 4.3-7. Thus, a physically exact
guished. The equivalent circuit loses most of description of interfacial polarization at the
its physical significance. It is therefore sensi- interface of two layered “conductive” dielec-
ble to discretize the insulation geometry and tric is provided.

ip(t) Maxwell's Dissipation factor

two-layer model tan G

C1 R1
C1
tan G 
u C1 + C2
R 1 >> R 2
C2 R2
tan G  << tan G 

tan G 
E (t) E (t) = E·V (t) Step field
f, Z
f Charging Cges
current impuls Polarization current Permittivity
ip(t) ip(t) Capacitance
ip(0) C1
W R 2 C1 ip(f) = V 1
R 1+ R 2 1 1
Charging of the +
capacitance C1 Steady-state C1 C2
via R 2 current

t f, Z

Figure 4.3-7: Maxwell's two-layer model in the Figure 4.3-8: Maxwell's two-layer model in the
time domain. frequency domain.
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 297

a) Discussion in the time domain has significantly lower losses than dielectric 2
(that is, tan G1 << tan G2 and respectively R1
The dielectric system response in the time >> R2).
domain at first results in a high capacitive
charging current impulse, Figure 4.3-7. Sub- 
sequently, an approximately exponential re- Z o 0:
charging of capacitance C1 takes place via the With decreasing frequency, the displacement
smaller resistance R2 with the time constant. current through C2 becomes small compared to
the conduction current through R2. To a rough
W | R2·C1 . (4.3-14) approximation, R2 can be considered as a short
circuit for C2, so that the capacitance C ap-
The initial current ip(>0) is primarily driven proaches the value C1, Figure 4.3-8 (bottom).
by the partial voltage applied at R2 as a con- The dissipation factor tan G approaches the
duction current through R2 and thus contains dissipation factor tan G1 of the non-short cir-
the information about the magnitude of R2. A cuited medium with decreasing frequency,
more precise calculation which considers the Figure 4.3-8 (top).
displacement current through C2 is included in
Section 6.4.7.6 with Eq. (6.4.7-6). Z o f:

The steady-state end value of the current re- With increasing frequency, the displacement
sults from the series connection of both the currents prevail and the resultant capacitance
resistances: reduces to the value of the series connection of
partial capacitance C1 and C2, Figure 4.3-8
V (bottom). The dissipation factor is primarily
i p (f ) (4.3-15) determined by tan G2 at higher frequencies,
R1  R2
since tan G1 reduces to negligibly small values.
2
If R1 >> R2 is valid, then information about the However, the power loss ZC2·V2 ·tan G2 pro-
magnitude of R1 is included in this. duced in the dielectric 2 must be related to the
2
reactive power ZC·(V1+V2) at the resultant
Note: In Section 2.4.4.3 the recovery voltage of a ca- capacitance. This gives the resultant dissipa-
pacitor has already been calculated with Maxwell’s two-
layer model, see Figure 2.4-31. It is also apt for the
tion factor tan G o (tan G2)·C1/(C1+C2), Fig-
description of dielectric diagnostic measurements in ure 4.3-8 (top).
layered insulations, if to a first approximation only in-
terfacial polarization is assumed and material polariza-
tion is ignored, see Section 6.4.7.
Therefore, the frequency responses of the
capacitance and the dissipation factor in the
two-layer model include also a remarkable
b) Discussion in the frequency domain
formal correlation with the frequency re-
In the frequency domain, the frequency de- sponses with the assumption of orientation
pendence of the parameters of capacitance C polarization, Figure 4.2-13.
and dissipation factor tan G are especially sig-
nificant. Instead of a derivation of detailed Additionally, there is a formal correlation with
formulae for the resultant capacitance C and regard to the temperature response: An in-
the resultant dissipation factor tan G, only the crease in temperature leads to a reduction in
limiting cases will be considered for high and the resistances R1 and R2 and an increase in the
low frequencies that are for Z o f and for Z dissipation factors tan G1 and tan G2 respec-
o 0. For this, it is assumed that dielectric 1 tively. Thus, the effect of an increase in tem-
298 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

perature is equivalent to the effect of a de- i(t) / pA

crease in frequency. 10³
Measurement
(b) linear model
This behavior is also found for the assumption 10² (c) non-linear oil model
of orientation polarization, Figure 4.2-13
10
(right). (a) Maxwell's two-layer model
1
Note: Therefore, while considering the frequency re- 1 10 100 1000 10000 t/s
sponses, it must also be ensured that geometrical and
material specific properties are not confused.
Figure 4.3-9: Comparison of measurement and
simulation with different dielectric models for an
example of a step response measurement for an
4.3.3.2 Simple Layered Arrangements insulation of two Transformerboard barriers (1 mm
each) and an oil gap (2 mm) [271].
The above described Maxwell’s two-layer
model gives only an incomplete description of 10) to (-13) shows good correlation between
a layered insulation, since material polariza- measurement and simulation for short and long
tion is not taken into consideration. measuring durations, Figure 4.3-9 (c).

For a more accurate consideration, a step Note: For medium measuring durations, deviations can
function response measurement will be con- be identified and this is attributed to the fact that the
sidered in the time domain: A step voltage or functional relation of the oil model only takes one single
dominant ion type with a short transit time into consid-
step field is applied to layer of two transformer eration. A more accurate description must include addi-
board barriers (each of 1 mm) with an inter- tional types of ions with longer transit times.
mediate oil gap (2 mm). As a step function
response, the polarization current is measured As a conclusion it can be stated that linear and
in a guard-ring electrode arrangement [271]. non-linear dielectric models that have been
determined from material measurements are
A comparison between measurement and also suitable for properly describing the tran-
simulation shows that the simple Maxwell’s sition behavior of layered insulations.
two-layer model supplies currents that are
much too small for short periods (currents in-
duced by polarization are missing), but it re-
produces interface polarization properly for 4.3.3.3 Complex Geometries
longer periods, Figure 4.3-9 (a).
The layered arrangements dealt with in Sec-
A simulation with linear equivalent circuits, tions 4.3.3.1 and 4.3.3.2 represent simple, one-
according to Figure 4.3-2, in which polariza- dimensional plane arrangements, in which
tion effects are also taken in to account using interfaces between different materials are also
RC elements, leads to significantly improved simultaneously equipotential surfaces, which
results, Figure 4.3-9 (b). can be used for demarcating areas that are dif-
ferently simulated, Figure 4.3-10 (top).
Note: The simulation of non-linear oil by a linear
equivalent circuit is physically not correct. On changing Each area is thus assigned to its own dielectric
the field strengths or dimensions, the correlation be-
tween measurement and simulation is not that good equivalent circuit. The elements of the equiv-
while using the same oil-equivalent circuit. alent circuit (Index “E”) must be determined
from the material equivalent circuit (Index
The physically correct simulation of the oil by “M”) by a conversion with geometrical dis-
a non-linear oil model according to Eq. (4.3- tance and area relationships:
4.3 Description of Dielectrics 299

RE d E AM An application example is the simulation of

˜ transformer insulations for dielectric diagno-
RM d M AE
sis, Section 6.4.7 with Figures 6.4.7-2, -6 and -
10. But it must be noted that along with cylin-
(4.3-16)
drically symmetric layering of oil gaps and
barriers, there are also areas with spacers and
CE d M AE oil channels that are in parallel and disturb the
˜
CM d E AM cylindrically symmetric field. They can be
included in a simplified manner using parallel
This principle is also applicable to one-dimen- equivalent circuit elements.
sional rotationally symmetric arrange-
ments, if the interfaces can be considered as In true two or three dimensional arrange-
equipotential surfaces due to the symmetry. ments, interfaces are generally no longer
However, for the calculation of equivalent equipotential surfaces. Hence, “equipotential
circuit elements, the relationships of the plane points”, so-called nodal points or nodes, must
field in Eq. (4.3-16) for RE and CE must be be selected for meshing. Between adjacent
substituted by those of a cylindrically symmet- nodal points, dielectric equivalent circuits are
ric field, Eq. (2.3-20). However, in the case of interconnected in two or three dimensions,
thin layers, it can again be approximately cal- Figure 4.3-10 (bottom). For the conversion of
culated assuming plane geometry. equivalent circuit elements analogous to Eq.
(4.3-16), the geometrical dimensions of the
network element under consideration must be
considered in the spatial directions that are
One-dimensional plane arrangement with cross- defined by the equivalent circuit element.
linkin gof dielectric equivalent circuits (DEC)
between the equipotential surfaces (EPS).
Since the number of equivalent circuit ele-
EPS
ments is very large, the procedure described is
DEC
EPS
extremely complex even for comparatively
DEC simple insulation arrangements. As a result, a
EPS network for calculation of two or three dimen-
sional field distributions is generated, similar
to that for numerical field calculations.
Two or three-dimensional arrangement with cross- Numerical field calculation programs would
linking of dielectric equivalent circuits (DEC)
between nodal points (NP).
be actually better suited to calculating com-
plex, spatial field distributions. In the time
domain, till now, transient field calculation
NP DEC NP programs could only take the permittivity and
conductivity of a material into consideration
DEC
DEC DEC DEC DEC (which corresponds to a simple parallel equiv-
DEC alent circuit), but not material-specific polari-
zation processes. However, Figure 4.3-9 shows
NP DEC NP that the interfacial polarization, which is
dominant after longer times, can be properly
EPS
calculated for that times, even with simpler
material models.

Figure 4.3-10: Description of insulation systems An application example is the insulation for
with dielectric equivalent circuits (DEC). high voltage direct current transmission
300 4 DIELECTRIC SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

(HVDC transmission). In complex insulation

arrangements the transition processes are in-
fluenced by polarization effects and lead to
time-varying field stresses that are difficult to
understand, see Sections 2.4.4 and 7.2.
 (epoxy resin, polyurethane, silicone
5 INSULATING elastomers)
MATERIALS 5.4 Insulating liquids (mineral oil, synthet-
ic fluids, vegetable oils)
5.5 Fibrous materials
The electric strength and the dielectric proper- (paper, pressboard, synthetic materials)
ties of insulating materials were dealt with in
Chapters 3 and 4 as basic high voltage engi- The extensiveness of the topic and the variety
neering material properties, without going into of materials do not nearly allow an exhaustive
the details of special features of individual approach. The presentation therefore must be
materials. Often, however, non-electrical pro- restricted to certain important fundamentals
perties of a “construction material” are crucial and points. The user requires the exact details
to their use and practical application. of the respective manufacturer in each case.
Moreover, he must assure its suitability for the
Chapter 5 will therefore deal with special given application by means of his own tests for
properties of a few important insulating mate- himself.
rials. The following are considered for this:

x The importance of an insulating material in

high voltage engineering applications, 5.1 Gases
x Its basic material structure,
All gases are ideal embedding media and im-
x Special dielectric properties, pregnation media owing to their ability to uni-
x Other special properties and formly fill accessible cavities. Even closed
cavities can be filled by diffusion processes
x Technology (manufacturing, processing) (usually very slowly).
and performance in operation.
Note: These properties are also present in liquids, but to
A systematic classification of insulating mate- a lesser extent.
rials cannot be done readily. As a principle of
classification, for example, physical states of Atmospheric air is the naturally available in-
matter (gaseous, liquid, solid), the chemical sulating material for all “outdoor insulations”.
structure, the processing technology, or the
areas of application can be considered. Each Unfortunately, the electric strength in the case
principle of classification leads to a classifica- of atmospheric air is comparatively poor and
tion, which comes across as illogical from an- even sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) only attains the
other point of view. In the following classifi- strength of liquid dielectrics in the compressed
cation, therefore, groups of substances are condition (see Section 3.2). Immediate recur-
formed, which appear significant on the basis rence of electric strength after flashovers and
of specific high voltage engineering features: discharges through recombination of free
charge carriers is of advantage. Even due with
5.1 Gases (air, SF6, alternative gases) ageing, there is no change in the properties
under practical conditions.
5.2 Inorganic solid insulating materials
(ceramics, porcelain, glass, mica) The dielectric properties are exceptionel pro-
vided that a high constant relative permittivity
5.3 Highpolymer synthetic materials,
i.e. thermoplastic insulating materials Hr = 1.0 (5.1-1)
(polyethylene, PVC...) as well as ther-
mosetting plastics and elastomers and an extremely low dissipation factor

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_5
302 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

-4
tan G << 10 (5.1-2) Solid insulating materials can absorb moisture
due to diffusion and possibly accumulate at the
can be expected nearly under all application interfaces (e.g. filled or fiber reinforced or-
conditions. ganic materials).

x The application of gases includes, for ex- In case of insulating oils, the electric strength
ample, is reduced due to absorption of moisture and
gases. Oxygen and moisture can also acceler-
x external insulations (air as natural embed- ate ageing.
ding insulating material),
x enclosed, often compressed gas insulated The conductivity of de-ionized water increases
devices (SF6, N2, air and “alternative by many orders of magnitude due to absorp-
gases” as embedding insulating material), tion of CO2 from the atmosphere.

x circuit-breakers (with SF6 as insulating

medium and extinguishing medium),
5.1.2 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
x gas impregnated film insulations (with SF6
as impregnating medium) and Owing to its electron-affine properties, SF6 is
x measuring capacitors and reference ca- the most important insulating gas as well as
pacitors (with air and SF6 as temperature extinguishing gas in high voltage engineering.
independent and frequency independent It is used for the insulation of enclosed switch-
dielectrics). gear systems (Section 2.6.3.1) and gas-insu-
lated transmission lines (Section 7.1.1.3). It is
Note: Gases are also used in liquid form at very low also used as extinguishing and insulating gas
temperatures both as insulating medium and as cooling in high voltage circuit-breakers (Section
medium for superconducting devices, see Section 5.4.6. 7.1.5.2) and in some cases in medium voltage
circuit-breakers.

5.1.1 Air SF6 has about three times higher electric

strength than air, see Section 3.2. In associa-
Air as natural ambient medium does not re- tion with increased pressures of 3 to 5 bars,
quire any special "processing" or treatment. electric strengths that are about a factor of 10
above the strength of atmospheric air can be
The dimensioning of devices must take the attained. High voltage switchgears thus have a
changes of electric strength with pressure and drastically reduced area and volume require-
temperature into consideration, see Eq. (6.3-2) ment and can even be set up for reasonable
as well as Section 3.2. costs within cities or buildings.

The use of synthetic air as an alternative gas Additional information on the strength of SF6,
for encapsulated switchgear is discussed in for example even in non-uniform fields, is also
Section 5.1.3. given in the specialist literature, such as [22],
[28], [55].
Moreover, it must be noted that admission of
atmospheric air can have an unfavourable in- Note: Even higher strengths can be attained for a series
fluence on other insulations: of fluorocarbon compounds and chlorofluorohydrocar-
bon compounds (CFC) [22]. However, more or less all
Owing to rainfall or deposition of atmospheric of them have unfavorable properties, such as a reduced
temperature range, an increased toxicity or a classifica-
humidity (condensation on colder surfaces), tion as a hazardous greenhouse gas or as hazardous for
the surface strength decreases. the ozone layer.
5.1 Gases 303

Note: Also SF6 has a very high global warming poten- Note: SF6 is invisible, odorless and heavier than air, i.e.
tial and must not be released into the atmosphere. It has it presents a risk of suffocation within rooms, test ves-
to be used, processed and re-used in closed circuits with sels, tubs and sinks that can be filled with SF6 with the
low leakage rates. displacement of air without this being noticed. There-
fore, effective ventilation must always be provided.
SF6 is distinguished from all other gases with
high electric strength owing to a unique char- 3. Owing to the effect of flashovers and
acteristic profile: switching arcs, SF6 molecules are broken
down into their components, which are so re-
1. A relatively low temperature of condensa- active that they immediately re-combine to
tion (TK = -63°C at p = 1 bar) allows its use form inert SF6 molecules. The advantage here
even at low ambient temperatures. The phase is that it does not involve a hydrocarbon and
diagram of SF6 shows that at pressures of sev- hence carbon deposits cannot be formed.
eral bars condensation must be expected in
climatically cold zones, Figure 5.1-1. For ex- However, in the case of flashovers or in
ample, SF6 condenses at a temperature of switching arcs, potential remanents of mois-
-30°C for a pressure of 5 bars. By mixing it ture or oxygen lead to the formation of toxic
with N2, the temperature of condensation can substances through secondary reactions. On
be reduced, since the (partial) pressure of SF6 opening enclosures, they can be seen as white
is reduced. The electric strength of the gas powder or they can be identified from the pu-
mixture remains high even for a high propor- trid smell of hydrogen sulfide H2S. Inhalation
tion of N2. For example, a gas mixture with an of the gas or contact of the powder with the
SF6 proportion of 20 % still has about 70 % of skin must definitely be avoided.
the electric strength of pure SF6 gas [22], Fig- The gas in gas insulated switchgear (GIS) is
ure 5.1-2. therefore dried and hermetically sealed against
the environment. A possible gas loss is regis-
2. Moreover, the SF6 molecule is chemically tered by the pressure drop; this generally
very stable under natural ambient conditions; amounts to a maximum of 1 % per year. The
this implies that it is not toxic. total gas volume is subdivided into part vol-
umes by partition insulators so that the effect
of a leakage is locally restricted. For mainte-
14

12 1

p 10 0.8
bar
8 liquid Ebd SF6 N2
Ebd SF6
6
0.4
4 gaseous

2 0.2

SF6 - portion
0
-60 -40 -20 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
T /°C
Figure 5.1-2: Electrical strength of mixtures of
Figure 5.1-1: Phase diagram of sulfur hexafluoride. nitrogen and sulfur hexafluoride [22].
304 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

nance purposes, the entire SF6 filling of an 5.1.3 Alternative Insulating Gases
installation is pumped into the reservoir of a
processing station and is used for refilling Among insulating gases, sulphur hexafluoride
after drying and filtering. The containers (SF6) has an absolutely dominant position be-
should be opened only outdoors or in well- cause of its extraordinary profile of properties.
ventilated environments; an unchecked release Dielectic strength is approximately three times
of gas must be avoided. higher than the strength of air, the gas is inert
and non-toxic, and it can be used in a wide
The electric strength of SF6 is affected by the range of temperatures. The high global warm-
presence of particles and impurities. The haz- ing potential is a disadvantage. Today, loading
ards due to particles can be avoided by par- of the atmosphere with greenhouse gases is
ticulate traps in the form of spaces with low avoided by specifying very low leakage rates,
field strengths in which particles can be de- by using closed cycles and by using small gas
posited or by insulating coating of the outer quantities in electrical equipment. But owing
(grounded) electrode that hampers the charg- to the development of global energy infra-
ing of the particles. Assembly of installations structure, total gas volumes of switchgear,
must be carried out with particular care, not switches, instrument transformers and espe-
only during production but also during final cially gas-insulated lines increase drastically.
assembly at the site. The internal strength of an As a result, the interest in alternative insulat-
installation can therefore be proven only by ing gases is also increasing.
means of partial discharge measurements after
completing the final assembly, Section 6.4.2. The insulating gases synthetic air (so-called
“clean air”), nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide
Note: Particles in gas-insulated switchgear can lift off (CO2) at high pressure show up with many
and jump under the force of the electric field. A jumping favorable properties that are also given for
particle causes a partial discharge impulse that can be SF6, such as chemical stability, non-toxicity,
measured. Nevertheless, the the designed service field
strength should be lower than the lift-off field strength nonflammability and low boiling temperature.
of the remaining particles. Moreover, they are even much better with re-
spect to global warming potential, decomposi-
SF6 affects the ozone layer significantly less tion product toxicity and boiling temperature.
than the chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFC). Nevertheless, dielectric strengths at compara-
However, a 23900-times larger global warm- ble pressures are significantly lower, which
ing potential (GWP, time frame 100 years) in requires technical solutions with a complex,
comparison to CO2 is noteworthy [316]. Al- heavy-weight pressure-resistant encapsulation
or a dimensioning with longer insulation dis-
though only small quantities are used in power
tances.
engineering, special measures are undertaken
to restrict its release into the atmosphere.
Among the above mentioned gases, synthetic
Thus, steps are taken to reduce the quantity of
air has some advantages: As the composition
SF6 by mixing with N2 and to minimize the
is very close to atmospheric air, release to the
release into the atmosphere by low leakage atmosphere or into rooms doesn’t cause any
rates and through closed reprocessing cycles. danger. In contrast to CO2, no global warming
SF6 circuit-breakers were replaced in the me- potential is given. In comparison with N2, the
dium voltage domain largely by vacuum cir- electronaffine oxygen causes a slight im-
cuit-breakers, but they continue to dominate as provement of dielectric strength. In the case of
before in the high voltage applications, Section an emergency requirement, the insulating gas
7.1.5. Fully adequate alternatives are currently can be refilled at little effort directly from the
not yet known. atmosphere.
5.1 Gases 305

Note: In order to avoid the use of SF6 circuit-breakers in low boiling point which allows the use at low
a SF6-free switchgear, vacuum interrupters are in- ambient temperatures.
cluded. However, today they are only available up to the
lower high-voltage levels.
Note: A low ozone depletion potential is generally given
for fluorinated hydrocarbons if they do not contain chlo-
Because of the low dielectric strength of the rine [509].
above mentioned atmospheric gases, an inten-
sive research for dielectrically strong electro- Finally, only a limited number of candidates
naffine alternative gases is still going on. remain, such as isomers of Fluoronitriles, e.g.
(CF3)2CFCN which has approximately twice
As already discussed in Section 3.2.2.3, a high the dielectric strength than SF6, or the Fluoro-
electron affinity of the gas molecules is re- ketones CF3C(O)CF(CF3)2 (C5K ketone) and
quired for an effective attachment of electrons C2F5C(O)CF(CF3)2 (C6K ketone), which is
and for a high dielectric strength. This can be also used as cooling agent owing to its low
achieved by the use of electronegative ele- global warming potential. A selection is given
ments (such as F or Cl) and by a favorable in Table 5.1-1. None of these gases reaches the
isomeric structure of the molecule which both properties of SF6 or the above mentioned re-
can cause energy levels for attached electrons. quirements in all respects.
Also collisions or interactions of electrons
with the molecules of an eventually used car- Especially the comparatively high boiling
rier gas (e.g. air, nitrogen or CO2) have an temperatures of alternative gases require
influence on the attachment processes. mixing with a carrier gas (buffer gas) in most
of the cases. Then, the dielectrically effective
Very high dielectric strengths can be reached gas can be used at a low partial pressure with
with a number of chlorinated and fluorinated a low boiling temperature without having low
hydrocarbons, but many of them, such as gas pressure in the equipment. Similar to SF6,
CCl4, C2F5CN and CF3CN, are omitted due to carrier gases can be used in a high concentra-
their toxicity. tion without loosing the electroaffine proper-
ties of the dielectrically effective gas. Some
Furthermore, alternative gases should neither reductions of the dielectric strength must be
be corrosive nor flammable, and they should accepted, but at the same time the toxicity of
have a low global warming potential (GWP), a fluoroketones and fluoronitriles and the global
low ozone depletion potential (ODP) and a warming potential of fluoronitriles is also

Table 5.1-1: Properties of selected alternative insulating gases according to [509]

Sulphurhexa- Fluoro Trifluoroiodo- Hydrofluoro- Hydrochloro- Fluoro-
Insulating gas fluoride ketone (C5K) methane olefin fluoroolefin nitrile
SF6 C5F10O CF3I HFO1234zeE HCFO1233zd C4F7N
Boiling point -64 °C *) + 26.5 °C -22.5 °C -19 °C + 18.3 °C -4.7 °C
*)
Sublimation point

GWP (CO2: 1) 22,800 1 0.4 6 7 2,100

Ozone depletion
0 0 very low 0 very low 0
potential
Flammability no no no no no no
Toxicity >20,000 160,000 >207,000 120,000 <15,000
LC50 4h/rat (ppm) mutagene
Dielectric strength 85 % of SF6 120 % of SF6 100 % of SF6 90 % of SF6 120 % of SF6
(LI) at -15 °C (air as a carrier gas) (air as a carrier gas) (air as a carrier gas)
306 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

drastically reduced for the gas mixtures in isting equipment is not yet possible at the mo-
comparison with the unwanted properties of ment. The use of alternative gas mixtures as
the pure gases. breaking gases is a controversial issue.

Nitrogen, air and CO2 are considered as carrier

gases (buffer gases).
5.2 Inorganic Solid Insulating
If the gas mixture shall be used as a breaking Materials
gas in circuit-breakers, CO2 should be used
because of its superior arc extinguishing prop-
Inorganic solid insulating materials in the form
erties. Eventually, a small quantity of O2 can
of porcelain, glass, and mica products are gen-
be added for binding of cabon and decomposi-
erally characterized by a high temperature
tion products, and for the improvement of arc
resistance and are insensitive to chemical in-
extinguishing properties.
fluences, weather influences, radiation and
partial discharge stresses. Moreover, in com-
During partial discharges (to a smaller ex-
parison to other insulating materials, they have
tend), during flashovers and especially during
a relatively high thermal conductivity and in
arcing in switches, severe decomposition of
many cases, a very high mechanical strength.
the alternative gases takes place, and it can-
not be compensated completely by recombi- However, in the case of mica products the
nation as for the simply constructed SF6 mole- good properties of mica deteriorate owing to
cule. Thereby, the dielectric strength can be organic binding agents.
further reduced, especially for low concentra-
tions of the alternative gases. Furthermore,
highly toxic decomposition products are gen-
erated, and their components and their hazard 5.2.1 Porcelain and Ceramics
potential are not yet investigated completely,
and absorbers or catalysts are not yet available External insulations which are produced in the
[509]. Decomposition of the gases can be de- form of mechanically stable suspension insu-
tected from a pressure increase in the gas vol- lators, supporting insulators and housing insu-
ume. lators are predominantly made of mechanically
strong porcelain. Moreover, ceramics and por-
Note: For the design of the sealing systems it must be celain are suitable for all thermally highly
considered that the carrier gas molecules are smaller stressed insulations, such as immersion heat-
than the SF6 gas molecules. ers, spark plugs or thermally conductive insu-
As an example, an alternative gas miture of a fluoroni- lations for the assembly of power semicon-
trile with CO2 shall be mentioned [510]. With a con- ductors. Owing to a closed porous surface
centration of 6 percent by mole (equivalent to 22 per- (glazing), excellent weathering resistance and
cent by weight) of a branched isomer of the hep- impassivity against the effect of chemicals are
tafluorobutyrnitrile (CF3)2CFCN an application down to provided. Only hydrofluoric acid, concentrated
-25 °C is possible, the global warming potential de-
creases to 462 and is only 2 % of value given for SF6. phosphoric acid and long acting hot sodium
The gas mixture is not classified as toxic any more hydroxide and potassium hydroxide can be
[510]. corrosive for porcelain glazings.

In summary, compact gas-insulated switchgear The surface resistance strongly decreases for
and gas-insulated lines can principally be in- relative air humidity above 80% or for direct
sulated with alternative gas mixtures today. wetting by the formation of moist, conductive
Nevertheless, they must be designed according layers and hence the risk of pollution flash-
to the given characteristic profiles of the gas overs increases. Dirt deposits have a particu-
mixtures, a simple replacement of SF6 in ex- larly negative effect. The moderate surface
5.2 Inorganic Solid Insulating Materials 307

automobile engineering leads to the fact that a large

100 % proportion of ceramics for high voltage applications is
Feldspar used in this field.

33 %
For manufacturing porcelain insulators, the
67 % mineral raw materials feldspar (alkali alumi-
High
elektrical num silicate), kaolin (aluminum silicate) and
strength quartz (SiO2) or aluminum oxide are finely
67 % ground with water and mixed to give a mold-
33 %
High
mechanical able mass. The composition of the porcelain
High strength paste determines the mechanical, thermal, and
Kaolin thermal
stability electrical properties of the finished insulator,
100 %
33 % 67 % 100 %
Figure 5.2-1. Thus, Aluminum oxide-porce-
lain has better mechanical properties and can
Quartz be better processed than quartz-porcelain.
Figure 5.2-1: Properties of quartz-porcelain with
regard to the composition porcelain paste. In an extruding machine, the soft paste is
formed into cylindrical blanks. In this process,
gas bubbles must be removed by the action of
properties of porcelain must be taken into con-
a vacuum. After drying to a water content of
sideration during design through ample creep-
approx. 15%, the insulator achieves the desired
age lengths (see Section 3.2.6.4 and Figure
shape by pressing or lathing, Figure 5.2-2.
3.2-28). Silicone composite insulators have
significantly better hydrophobic properties, i.e. After drying further, the formed body is pro-
water-repellent surface properties, and in the vided with a coating of low melting point min-
case of difficult ambient conditions, they are erals by dipping into an immersion bath or by
increasingly replacing porcelain insulators, spraying, and this forms a closed glassy coat-
Section 5.3.4 and 7.2.4.2. ing (glaze) in a subsequent firing process.
Note: Moreover, ceramic substances and metal oxides A solid sintered product is obtained from the
are used as capacitor dielectrics at lower voltages, such porcelain paste in the kiln at 1400 to 1500°C
as ferroelectric ceramics with extremely high permittiv- for approximately 40 to 50 hours. It consists of
ity or thin layers of aluminum oxide in electrolytic ca- crystals in a molten glass phase primarily
pacitors.
comprising feldspar. Drying, firing and sin-
In spark plugs, insulators made of aluminum oxide tering results in large shrinkage of about 15 to
ceramics are used, wherein the miniaturization of the 20 %.
spark plug body leads to very high field strengths, even
for impulse voltages of a few 10 kV, and requires a Note: A reduced shrinkage of about 5 %, better me-
corresponding material development. During produc- chanical properties and a lower dissipation factor are
tion, the insulation bodies are pressed and subsequently obtained for steatite, which comprises lardite (soap-
fired, Section 7.4.6. The extensive use of spark plugs in stone, magnesium silicate) instead of kaolin. Manufac-

Figure 5.2-2: Porcelain Molding, Glaze Post

Blank Kiln
Manufacture of paste lathing bath processing
porcelain insulators
308 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

turing larger insulators is, however, not possible and Glass fibers can also be used in oil as me-
hence steatite is mainly used in high frequency engi- chanical bonding agents.
neering.

Owing to the intense shrinkage, which cannot The basic component of glass is quartz (Sili-
be exactly defined, it is very difficult to pro- con dioxide SiO2), which is present in non-
duce parts with dimensional accuracy and crystalline form in a supercooled molten mass.
only larger tolerances are achievable. Narrow-
tolerance dimensions must be refinished by Pure quartz glass, owing to its very high
grinding. melting point, can only be used for a few spe-
cial applications, such as for transmitting
tubes. For this, along with the extreme thermal
resistance, very low dissipation factor is also a
5.2.2 Glass -4
decisive factor (tan G = 1... 30·10 ).
Glass can be used instead of porcelain for For simple glass quality (mirror glass, alkali
smaller insulators, for example, cap-and-pin glass) approx. 20 to 30 % alkali oxides are
insulators. Damages and cracks can be visu- added to lower the melting point. However,
ally identified. However, the mechanical stress owing to sharply increased volume conductiv-
that can be applied is lesser than that for hard ity and surface conductivity, its application as
porcelain. Insulating glass (E-glass, Pyrex electrical insulation glass is generally not pos-
glass) may only contain very little alkali oxide sible, Table 5.2-1.
(< 0.8 %, "alkali free"), and thus no large,
conductive layers with alkali ions are formed Almost “alkali-free” glasses contain boroxide
when moisture is deposited on the surface. (B203) for lowering the melting point (boro-
silicate glasses). Owing to their good electrical
Moreover, glass is used in the form of thin
properties, they are used largely for electrical
fibers for mechanical reinforcement of plastics
insulation (E-glasses), Table 5.2-1.
(glass-fiber reinforced plastics, GRP). Appro-
priate surface treatment (silanization) of fibers Lead glasses with the addition of lead oxide
is essential for electric strength as this facili- were earlier used as capacitor dielectric owing
tates a reliable bonding between fiber and to their high permittivity and low losses, Table
polymer (generally, cast resin). Detachments 5.2-1.
must definitely be prevented in order to avoid
adsorption of moisture that is diffused into the
Table 5.2-1: Guide values for the dielectric properties
material (see Section 3.4.2.3, Figure 3.4-6). of various types of glass [16], [47].
The fibers, in the form of strands, help in the
Hr tan G N N
reinforcement of rods (e.g. in composite insu-
lators with reinforced epoxy resin rods and ‰ S/m S/m

silicone sheds) During the manufacture of fila- 50 Hz 20°C 300°C

ment wound pipes (FW-pipes) according to the -6 -3

“filament winding” procedure, fiber strands Simple glass quality 4 ... 8 100 ... < 10 10
(with alkali oxides) 10
are drawn through a resin bath and are wound
-8
in a crisscross manner in several layers on a Lead glass 8 ... 10 10 ... < 10
winding mandrel on which the hardening takes (with lead oxide) 1
place. Moreover, the glass fibers are inserted E-glass approx. 6 < 1 < 10
-11
10
-8

in the form of fiber mats for the reinforcement (with boroxide)

of pipes, plates or any resin bodies. For this -16
application, vacuum casting is necessary to Quartz glass approx. 4 3 ... 10
(without supplements) 0.1
ensure freedom from cavities.
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 309

5.2.3 Mica Products stressed commutators, machine insulations,

immersion heaters, spools and tube holders.
Mica is a naturally occurring mineral. The so-
called potassium mica (potassium-aluminum Mica films are a type of mica paper: mica that
double silicate, “muscovite”) is predominantly has been freed from crystal water by baking is
suitable for application in high voltage engi- processed as a suspension in a paper machine
neering. Owing to its crystal structure, it can to form a thin, paper-like mica insulation film.
be divided into very thin plates and can be It can be applied to different carriers, e.g. of
processed to form larger insulations with paper, glass silk, polyester fleece or polyester
binding agents (mainly epoxy resins and sili- silk, along with binding agents and must be
cone resins as well as enamels). protected with a liner [319]. This material is
used in machine insulations and generator in-
Pure mica in the form of muscovite has very sulations as well as in dry transformers for
good electrical properties (Hr = 7, tan G < 1 ‰, taping of conductors. If necessary, it is im-
Ebd = 50...150 kV/mm). The properties of pregnated with resin and hardened, see Section
phlogopite (magnesium mica) are slightly 7.1.6.2.
poorer.

Special properties of mica products are the

resistance against partial discharges as well 5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics
as a high thermal resistance of 130°C to
500°C, depending on the binding agent. Mica Highly polymerized plastics occur in many
based insulations are, therefore, suitable for different substances. There is a correspond-
insulations that are thermally stressed and for ingly wide palette of different properties, pro-
those in which partial discharges during op- cessing options, molding options and applica-
eration due to cavities or delaminations cannot tion options. Hence, the following presentation
be ruled out. Generally, the thermal and elec- can only deal with a few important points as
trical properties of mica insulations are af- examples. For detailed information, the spe-
fected by the unavoidable binding agent. cialist literature and the datasheets of the man-
ufacturer must be referred to [88], [89], [90],
Micanites are products of mica plates with [91].
binding agent that are used for thermally
Characteristically, polymers have a relatively
low thermal stability. In some cases thermo-
Shear modulusG
N/mm² polymeric materials melt only very slightly
Inflexible, brittle above 100 °C. However, specific fluorinated
hydrocarbons and silicones can also be
Thermoplastic
stressed with temperatures of a few 100 °C.
Thermosetting The temperature dependence of the shear
plastic modulus (as a measure of the resistance of a
Highly flexible material against mechanical distortion) gener-
ally differs for thermoplastic and thermoset-
Glass ting substances, Figure 5.3-1.
transition Melting
temperature temperature
The weight of polymers is very low compared
Tg Tm T to porcelain or glass. Comparably low me-
chanical strength must be frequently improved
Figure 5.3-1: Shear modulus G as function of with reinforcements (composite materials).
temperature for thermoplastic and thermosetting
Also the relatively low thermal conductivity
plastic materials (schematic).
310 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

can be increased to a certain extent with min- x Under polymerization similar monomers
eral-based fillers. are linked by breaking double bonds to
form a high-polymer chain molecule with-
The resistance of polymers against the influ- out the separation of by-products, Figure
ences of weather, radiation and the effect of 5.3-2. If at least two different types of
chemicals or media in the environment can monomer are cross-linked, this is known as
vary depending on the material. Therefore, co-polymerization.
compatibility tests under realistic conditions
are often necessary before use. Here problems x Under polycondensation different kinds of
such as diffusion of moisture and hydrolytic monomers are linked by separation of low-
decomposition (e.g. in case of adhesive bonds molecular reaction products, such as water
and composite materials) are of importance. or ammonia. The reaction products often
lead to cavity formation, and hence poly-
Maximum possible electric strengths can be condensation products are generally not
attained with polymers (e.g., thin foils), but used for highly stressed insulations, Figure
they are strongly dependent on the processing. 5.3-2.
Unfortunately, partial discharges at defects can
x During polyaddition, different types of
often lead to very rapid erosion.
monomers are linked without the separa-
The conductivities of polymers are very low tion of by-products. It gives rise to high-
when compared to ion-conductive substances quality insulating materials.
such as porcelain and glass. Permittivity and
The mentioned poly-reactions can lead to
polarization losses depend on the dipole mo-
thermoplastic, thermosetting and elastomer
ments of the molecules.
materials depending on the type of spatial
cross-linkage. This classification does not re-
late to the type of the above-mentioned forma-
5.3.1 Reactions of Formation and tion reactions, but to the behavior during
Cross-linking heating, Figure 5.3-1:

Highly polymerized plastics result from link- Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplastics)

ing of low molecular components (monomers)
to high-molecular chain molecules (polymers). If the cross-linking of molecules is largely
Here the cross-linking of molecules can take linear, then chain molecules can be displaced
place in one, two or three dimensions. There relative to each other if the Van der Waals
are three different formation reactions: forces are weakened during heating. That is,

H H
OH OH H
H
C C
C OH
+ C O o
H H
H
H
Ethylene (Ethene) Phenol Formaldehyde Phenolic alcohol

Figure 5.3-2: Ex- H H H H OH H OH H

amples of polyre- C C C C OH H C OH H C OH H
actions:
polymerization and H H H H H H
     
polycondensation
with elimination of Polyethylene Phenolic resin and water
water.
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 311

the substance can melt and can solidify again versible cross-linking of chain molecules
on cooling, i.e. it is thermoplastic, Figure 5.3- among each other.
1. This enables thermal processing by casting,
pressing, extrusion, blowing and welding. Elastomeric polymers
Thermoplastic materials, for example, are used Elastomers are thermosettings that exhibit an
for cable insulations (polyethylene, PVC), ca- elastic behavior even at operating tempera-
pacitor dielectrics (foils) and for casings. tures, owing to very loose spatial cross-link-
ing. Molding takes place through cross-linking
Thermosetting polymers in the provided form by casting. Subsequent
processing is generally not possible.
In a multidimensional cross-linking between
the chain molecules, the resultant bond can no Elastomers are used, for example, as sealants,
longer be broken due to heating. Only disso- for flexible-line insulation and for the sheds of
ciation of the Van-der-Waals’ bonds occurs composite insulators as well as for cable fit-
and results in softening. However, melting is tings (silicone elastomers).
no longer possible, since the three-dimensional
cross links between the chain molecules still
exist. The material exhibits duroplastic be-
5.3.2 Thermoplastic Insulating
havior, Figure 5.3-1. Above the glass transi-
tion temperature Tg, duroplasts remain in a Materials
flexible state that is determined by the tight-
5.3.2.1 Polyethylene (PE and XLPE)
ness of the cross linking. In the case of further
heating, an irreversible thermal decomposition Polyethylene, as a thermoplastic material that
of the material structure occurs. can be readily extruded, is largely used for the
Note: The glass transition temperature generally corre- insulation of cables from the medium voltage
sponds to an increase in the permittivity and to a polari- range up to the 500 kV level.
zation loss maximum, since polarizable dipoles become
mobile, Figures 4.2-2 and -12. Polyethylene is produced from the polymeri-
zation of ethylene (ethene) molecules, Figure
The formation reaction (hardening) must take 5.3-2 (left). Depending on the method of prep-
place according to the required shape. A sub- aration, variously structured materials are pro-
sequent change in the shape is possible only duced:
by mechanical post-processing (grinding,
turning and milling), but it is no longer possi- a) In the case of the low-pressure method po-
ble by heating. The shape stability of thermo- lymerization takes place in the presence of
setting polymers under mechanical stress is of catalysts at ambient temperature and pressures
advantage because the spatial cross-linking of a few bars. Thus, a high-density polyethyl-
counteracts the standard “creepage” of the ene (HDPE) is produced, which consists of
material in thermoplasts and hence only a re- linear chain molecules. They are arranged par-
versible elastic distortion occurs. allel to each other in space-saving crystalline
regions that are interrupted by smaller amor-
Typical thermosetting polymers are cast res- phous regions. The melting temperature lies at
ins, which harden in a mold. They are used for about 135 °C. However, the degradation of the
manufacturing insulation bodies and for cast- crystalline regions starts at only about 100 °C.
ing assembly components. Even cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) in cable insulations, b) In the case of the high-pressure method,
whose molding is done via extrusion in ther- polymerization takes place under pressures of
moplastic condition, is subsequently trans- 1500 to 3000 bars at 200 °C. This results in a
formed into a duroplastic medium due to irre- polyethylene of lower density (LDPE: low-
312 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

density polyethylene) from partly branched short-duration AC voltage stresses for up to an

chain molecules. They disturb the formation of hour) and respectively of above 150 kV/mm
crystalline regions of parallel chains and hence (peak value for lightning impulse voltage
larger amorphous regions of lower density stress) are reported; data on dispersion and
occur. The melting temperature is at about 110 service life are given in the literature [324].
to 115 °C, but the crystalline regions start de-
grading even at -20 °C. Hence, the continuous Note: Breakdowns occur largely in the amorphous re-
gions in which donor states seem to exist, from which
emperature resistance is only about 70 °C. electrons can be more easily released than in the crys-
talline regions.
When compared to many other insulating ma-
terials, polyethylene exhibits excellent dielec- Initially, only lower operating field strengths of 2 to 5
kV/mm were applied owing to the sensitivity to partial
tric properties:
discharges and owing to field distortions by the build up
of space charges. With increasing improvement in pro-
Its non-polar, symmetrical molecule results in duction technology for the development of higher volt-
low permittivity (Hr = 2.3) and very low losses age levels, the operating field strengths could be in-
-4 creased up to approx. 15kV/mm, Section 7.1.1.2, Figure
(tan G < 10 ). 7.1.1-3.

Thin layers (d < 1 mm) give rise to very high The processing of polyethylene during the
breakdown field strengths (Ebd > 100 kV/mm). manufacture of cable insulations is carried out
For production samples of high voltage and by extrusion, Figure 5.3-3 (top right). The in-
extra-high voltage cables of cross-linked poly- ternal conducting layer, insulation and external
ethylene XLPE (l = 100 m), strengths for conducting layer are applied on the conductor
Ebd50% of 40 to 50 kV/mm (r.m.s. value for in a triple extrusion head, Figure 5.3-3 (bot-

Clean room

Material reservoir
Thermoplastic granulat

Material dispenser
Heating
Extruder

Pneumatic sifter Conductor

Magnetic separator Coating of the conductor by extrusion (schematic)

Melting with optical monitoring Cable lead

Conductor
Scanning of
Triple extruder with filter modules
cable lead
Lubricating agent with x-rays
Drive Cross linking tube Cooling tube Drive

Figure 5.3-3: Manufacturing a high voltage XLPE cable lead by triple extrusion in a horizaontal procedure.
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 313

tom). While manufacturing extremely stressed For the so-called horizontal method, the cable
extra high voltage cables, special quality as- core is drawn through the heated horizontal
surance measures are applied [325]. The ther- tube with the help of an internal lubricant. In
moplastic granulate is purified under clean the tube, cross-linking takes place with ad-
room conditions by pneumatic sifters and mixed peroxides [325], Figure 5.3-3.
magnetic separators. Melting and compaction
as well as optical detection of particles in the The service life of polyethylene insulations is
melt are carried out in the extruder. Additional often reduced owing to so-called “water
safety can be ensured by using filter modules trees”. This refers to conductive tree-shaped
at the outlet of the extruder. structures which are formed by electrochemi-
cal processes under the effect of the electric
Owing to low permanent temperature resis- field and in the presence of diffused moisture.
tance and the creepage of the material under The growth of the “tree” in the direction of the
mechanical and thermal stress, a three-dimen- field ultimately leads to the formation of finer
sionally cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is discharge channels (so called “electrical
used in cables. Cross linking takes place after trees”) and leads to insulation breakdown, see
extrusion of thermoplastic insulation, for ex- Section 7.1.1.2.
ample by electron bombardment. This results
in a thermosetting condition at ambient tem- For insulations that are exposed to UV radia-
perature and an elastomeric condition at higher tion, embrittlement occurs owing to cross-
temperatures with a certain degree of residual linking reactions. Dark, absorbing fillers (e.g.
mechanical strength, see Section 5.3.3.5. The carbon black) are therefore admixed for out-
stability of shape of polymer molecules that door applications, e.g. in cable sheaths.
are cross-linked to each other, which prevents
the creepage of the material, is of special sig-
nificance. Permanent temperature resistance 5.3.2.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
increases to about 90 °C.
Vinyl chloride prepared from ethylene and
Cross linking can occur through the direct ef- chlorine is catalytically polymerized under
fect of radiation or through reaction with per- pressure to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
oxides that are added to the polyethylene. The Figure 5.3-4. This gives rise to a more brittle
temperature of about 200 °C necessary for the plastic that has a permittivity of Hr = 4 owing
reaction can be attained, for example, by heat to the polar Cl atoms. By admixing polar flexi-
supply through steam, nitrogen or ultrasound. bilizers, which interact with the polar Cl at-
oms, a flexible and elastic mixture is obtained.
H Cl Cl H Cl Cl This greatly increases the permittivity and dis-
sipation factor. For a cable mixture with a
C C C C C C
flexibilizer portion of 20 to 25%, Hr = 5.3 and
H H H H H H
tan G = 30 to 50% approximately. Typical op-
Vinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) erating field strengths are under 3 kV/mm.
Figure 5.3-4: Polymerization of vinyl chloride. Owing to the high losses, PVC is used as a
dielectric only in the low voltage range, cur-
H CH 3 H H CH 3 CH 3 rently only up to 10kV for shorter medium
voltage cable runs. Cable sheaths are manu-
C C C C C C
factured from PVC also for higher voltages.
H H CH 3 H H H
Propylene Polypropylene (PP)
In PVC, ageing due to the flexibilizer diffusing
out is a problem. In the event of fire, corrosive
Figure 5.3-5: Polymerization of propylene. gases (e.g. hydrochloric acid HCl) are formed.
314 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

5.3.2.3 Polypropylene (PP) Thin insulating films for capacitor dielectrics

are at first extruded with a sheet die and are
Polypropylene (PP) is obtained by polymeri- cooled down as a 1-3 mm thick film on a
zation of propylene (propene), Figure 5.3-5. roller. By extreme extension in the longitudi-
This involves the methyl side groups (-CH3) nal and transverse directions, the molecules
pointing outwards in a twisted chain sequence. are aligned and the mechanical properties are
Thus, a higher degree of regularity is attained vastly improved. Insulating films can also be
which favors the crystallization and leads to a manufactured by blowing or casting.
largely non-polar character of the chain mole-
cule. The space required by the side groups is A rough surface or imprinting creates impreg-
responsible for a relatively low density [49], nation channels for the layers of films and
[89]. these enable the penetration of impregnating
agents, Figure 5.3-6 (bottom). By diffusion,
The electric strength and the dielectric prop- even cavities enclosed on all sides, e.g. formed
-3 by closely lying aluminum foils, are impreg-
erties (Hr = 2.3 tan G < 10 ) are comparable
with polyethylene. The thermal resistance is nated. Paper layers are no longer required as
distinctly better than that for other bulk plas- an impregnating wick for low viscosity im-
tics such as PE, PVC and polystyrene (PS): pregnating agents and an adequate “space-
The crystallite melting point lies at 160 to 168 factor” (> 10%).
°C, and hence continuous use up to 105 °C and
For AC voltage, the films in the all-film di-
a temporary stress up to 150 °C are possible.
electric can be more heavily stressed because
Low temperature flexibility is limited to about
electrically weaker paper is not present. Also
-20 °C.
for DC voltage, significantly better volume
Along with high dimensional stability under utilization is achieved in all-film dielectric,
heat, especially a relatively high degree of since the electric field is forced out of the pa-
hardness, rigidity and strength at lower den- per owing to difference in conductivity.
sity must be mentioned. Polypropylene exhib- Note: The permissible field strengths are especially
its a low water adsorption and is highly resis- oriented towards field distortion at the edges of the
tant to chemicals. In chlorinated and aromatic conductive foils; see Figures 2.4-20, -21 and -30. They
oils, a swelling occurs on heating. must be determined for real production samples by
durability tests. Operating field strengths for multilayer
dielectrics with dtotal = 50 μm can be in the range of 20
to 30 kV/mm (50 Hz, r.m.s. values). Transient strengths
are two to three times higher. Thus, lower values are
more applicable to paper dielectrics and higher values to
PP all-film dielectrics.
Paper
PP Polypropylene is also suitable as a construc-
Paper
PP
O O
PP C
N S
PP C
O O
PP
Imide group Diphenyl sulfone group

Figure 5.3-6: Impregnation of a mixed dielectric Figure 5.3-7: Components of polyimide (left) and
(top) and an "all-film" dielectric (bottom). polysulfone (right).
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 315

tion material, e.g. for housings (casings) ow- comparatively high mechanical tensile
ing to its good mechanical properties. It can be strength, toughness and abrasion resistance.
processed by injection molding or extruded. Therefore, they are often used as fiber rein-
PP parts can be joined by heated tool welding forced material for insulating, mechanically
or hot gas welding. Reinforced PP modifica- loaded parts such as bracings, threaded rods,
tions are available for increased mechanical screws, nuts or casings. Their operation is pos-
stresses. sible even at very low temperatures.

The types of polyamides are characterized by

5.3.2.4 High-temperature Resistant the length of the carbon chains in the compo-
Thermoplastics sitions of chain molecule (PA 6 to PA 12). The
polar carbon amide groups -CO-NH- that
Polymers of pure CH compounds can no form the links, increase the permittivity, the
longer be used for temperatures that are dis- dissipation factor, water absorption and the
tinctly above 100 °C. Significantly higher melting temperature according to their relative
temperatures for continuous use are obtained proportions in the molecule:
in the case of polymers which, along with ben-
PA 6 Hr = 7 tan G = 300 ‰ water absorption 4 %
zene rings, also comprise oxygen atoms, nitro-
gen atoms or sulfur atoms, Figure 5.3-7. PA 12 Hr = 4.5 tan G = 50 ‰ water absorption. >1 %

Polyimides (PI) comprise the so-called imide Owing to the high water absorption, the di-
group. They can be temporarily stressed up to mensional stability of the molded components
300 °C and are suitable for continuous use is adversely affected by swelling.
temperatures of 250 °C. Polyimide films are
used in highly thermally loaded capacitor di- The melting temperatures lie between 220 °C
-3
electrics (Hr = 3.5 tan G = 3·10 ). Polyamide (PA 6) and 178 °C (PA 12). Owing to the be-
imides (PAI), which comprises additional ginning softening, the continuous temperature
amide groups, have a continuous use temper- resistance is restricted to values between 75°C
ature of 220 °C and additionally exhibit a high (PA 6) and 65°C (PA 12). Mechanical and
ultimate tensile strength. thermal properties can be improved through
fiber reinforcement.
Polysulfones (PSU), and the Polyethersul-
fones (PES) derived from it, can be used for Polyamides are not used for the highest elec-
up to 150 °C and 200 °C respectively. trical stresses owing to their high water ab-
sorption, high losses and the relatively high
-10 -11
conductivity (10 S/m for PA 6 to 10 S/m
5.3.2.5 Polyamides (PA) and Aramides for PA 12).

Polyamides are formed by polycondensation For aramides, R must be replaced by benzene

of dicarboxylic acids and diamines with the rings in the above reaction equation. Aramide
separation of water: fibers attain high tensile strengths and they are
stable up to about 300 °C.
HOOC - R - COOH + H2N - R - NH2 o
Aramides are used for the manufacture of pulp
moldings ("Nomex®-Board" [82]) and ara-
...... - OC - R - CO - NH - R - NH - .....
mide papers. In the case of high thermal loads,
+ H2O they can fulfill the function of cellulose con-
taining insulations, e.g. in transformers. The
This pertains to a group of different thermo- electrical properties of oil-impregnated materi-
plastic substances that are characterized by als are comparable with paper or pressboard.
316 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

5.3.2.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) quency engineering for connectors, bushings

and capacitor dielectrics.
Extremely temperature resistant polytetrafluo-
roethylene (PTFE) is obtained by the po- PTFE exhibits creepage resistance and arc
lymerization of tetrafluoroethylene, Figure resistance, but owing to its porosity it is very
5.3-8. The trade name is, for example, “Tef- sensitive to partial discharges. Therefore, the
lon®” (Du Pont). continuous dielectric strength amounts to only
2 to 6 kV/mm.
This is a thermoplastic material that does not
melt in the conventional manner on attaining The use of PTFE in high voltage engineering
the crystal melting temperature. At 380 °C, the is restricted to special applications in which a
viscosity of the melt is still so high that the high operating temperature (up to 260 °C) or
standard processing methods for thermoplas- noninflammable substances are necessary.
tics cannot be applied. Thermal decomposition Other options for application are available
starts at a temperature above 400 °C. owing to the resistance of PTFE to chemicals
and weather influences.
For manufacturing the molded parts, the PTFE in pow-
der form must be sintered at about 380 °C in a gel-like
condition. Cavities can be reduced by simultaneous
Note: There are still more fluorine-based pol-
pressurization, but they cannot be totally eliminated. ymers that can be more easily processed but
The production of extruded parts (profiles, conductor their properties do not entirely correspond to
insulations) is possible with a paste of PTFE-powder the properties of PTFE [16], [88], [89]. Sig-
and lubricating agent, generally benzene (paste extru- nificantly different dielectric properties are
sion). After the extrusion the lubricating agent is evapo-
rated and the PTFE is sintered. PTFE products are very
seen in polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) with a
expensive owing to poor processability and complex permittivity Hr = 8 and a dissipation factor tan
production methods. G = 0.1 (at 1 MHz). PVDF has a high me-
chanical strength and toughness. It melts at
Because of low intermolecular forces, the ma- 175 °C and can be thermoplastically proc-
terial flows even under low mechanical loads. essed. It is used for wire sheathings and cable
PTFE is therefore suitable as a lubricating sheathings as well as for films.
agent and as a sealant in threaded joints
("Teflon-tape"). Mechanically loaded parts
must be fiber reinforced.
5.3.2.7 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA),
The regular structure of the molecule leads to Acrylic Glass
very low permittivity of solids and liquids at
The thermoplastic polymethylmethacrylate
comparable density (Hr = 2.05). The dissipa-
-4
(PMMA) or the acrylic glass is obtained by
tion factor is very low (tan G = 10 ). Both the the polymerization of methacrylic acid methyl
properties remain constant over a wide range ester (methyl methacrylate)
of frequencies since there is no orientation
polarization. Hence, PTFE is used in high fre- H CH3
| |
C = C
| |
H CO - O - CH3
F F F F F F
C C C C C C and this is known by the commercial name
F F F F F F “Plexiglas®”. Despite moderate dielectric
properties (Hr = 3.8 and tan G = 6 % at 50 Hz),
Tetrafluoroethylene Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE
owing to excellent light transmitting capacity
Figure 5.3-8: Polymerization of Tetrafluoroethylene. it finds some uses, even in electrically stressed
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 317

environments, for example for viewing ous mechanical stress (sealants, cable entrance
glasses, transparent appliances, optically high fittings, cable joints, shrinkable sleevings).
quality components or as light conductors.
During the processing of more rigid thermo-
setting materials below the glass transition
temperature, there are considerable restric-
5.3.3 Thermosetting Materials and tions, such as a subsequent change in form is
Elastomers no longer possible or is possible only by me-
chanical finishing. On the other hand, there are
Thermosetting substances and elastomers are also other processing options which open up
obtained by a cross-linking reaction between extensive areas of application for the thermo-
the molecule chains. That is, a firm spatial sets as cast resins and as adhesives:
network is formed in which the molecules are
chemically linked to each other, and this can x The user can change the processability and
no longer be broken down by heating as in the molding material properties by the formu-
case of thermoplastics, therefore melting or lation of the reaction components. This is
liquefaction is no longer possible. done, for example, by the addition of fill-
ers, dyes or accelerators.
The cross-linking can take place directly in
the course of the chemical hardening reaction x Molding material can be cured at compara-
(such as for resins or silicone elastomers) or tively low temperatures, sometimes even at
subsequently in the case of thermoplastic sub- room temperature. Thus, all types of cast-
stances which are cross-linked by adding ing are possible, e.g. for structural compo-
chemicals or through electron bombardment nents, cable joints or transformer windings.
(such as for cross-linking of thermoplastic PE Moreover, there are many applications
to XLPE). In this case, the thermosetting or such as coatings, sheathings and finishing
elastomeric condition results generally during (varnishing). Epoxy resins are also espe-
the manufacturing process of the insulation cially suitable for adhesive bonding.
components. x Composite materials can be made directly
by the manufacturer of a device. Examples
Below the glass transition temperature the are the production of fiber reinforced parts
molecule chains, in addition to the cross-link- (e.g. GRP), production of resin-impreg-
ing, are strongly bonded by intermolecular nated insulations based on paper or other
forces; to an extent they are “frozen” and in fibrous materials, as well as application of
the so-called thermosetting (duroplastic) con- silicone shields to other insulation bodies.
dition; the material is hard and brittle. On
heating way above the glass transition tem- Epoxy resins have a special position among
perature, the intermolecular forces are over- the thermosetting insulating materials. Further,
come, causing the thermoplastics to attain the polyurethanes and silicone resins as well as
liquid state. However, in the case of thermo- various elastomers and shrinkable sleevings
setting materials the chemical cross linkages are also of importance.
continue to be intact so that only a softened
elastomeric state is obtained. On cooling
down, the molecules return to their original 5.3.3.1 Epoxy Resins (EP)
position, the substance exhibits the property of
contour accuracy or of shape memory. The Epoxy resins are polymer compounds which
well-known flow of thermoplastic substances consist of the so-called epoxy groups with a
under mechanical stress is prevented by the braced three ring system, Figure 5.3-9. Owing
cross- linking. Therefore, elastomers are espe- to their instability, these groups can be used
cially well suited to applications with continu- for building up macromolecules and for spatial
318 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

cross-linking. By breaking up the three ring

system and transposing H-atoms, links are Viscosity
mPa·s T1 > T2 > T3
formed to adjacent molecules without the
lower molecular reaction products being Limiting viscosity
formed (polyaddition). Epoxy resins are thus 1500 (EP unfilled)
especially suitable as casting resins for the 15000 (EP filled)
manufacture of high quality insulation parts.
Owing to the reactivity of epoxy groups, ep-
oxy resin is also applicable as an adhesive. Pot lives
a) Resin and hardener t T1 t T2 t T3 t
Reaction resin that is not yet cross-linked
("resin component") is produced by stepwise Figure 5.3-10: Isothermal rise in viscosity till the
synthesis of macromolecules from monomers limiting viscosity within the pot life (schematic).
and the formation of new epoxy groups. De-
pending on the chain length, the reaction resin by reacting with the reactive epoxy groups according to
Figure 5.3-9. Aliphatic amine hardeners can be used
is liquid ("liquid resin") or solid ("solid resin") even at room temperatures, but they give rise to low
at room temperature and must first be melted glass transition temperatures of only about 50 °C. Cy-
for further processing. cloaliphatic and aromatic amines react at increased
temperature and give rise to glass transition tempera-
The resin well-established in electrical engineering is tures of up to 100 °C and 160°C respectively.
based on a monomer compound of 2 moles phenol with
1 mole acetone and is therefore, named as bisphenol A. A popular anhydride hardener is phthalic anhydride,
Cycloaliphatic resins free from aromatic compounds which must first be melted. Therefore it is particularly
have a high resistance to creepage currents (tracking used for solid resins. Other anhydride hardeners can be
resistance) and are considered for outdoor insulators. processed already at moderately increased temperature.
However, they have not gained acceptance in preference
to the classic porcelain and to hydrophobic silicone b) Reaction process
composite insulators. Further, there is a series of special
resins for higher thermal stresses, for flame resistant After mixing the resin and hardener, the hard-
molding materials or for flexible materials.
ening process begins and this leads to an in-
The reaction resin reacts after mixing it with crease in the viscosity, and this in turn restricts
the hardener ("hardener component") with the the processing time. For a comparison of reac-
formation of spatial cross links to a thermoset- tion resin masses, the isothermal viscosity rise
ting molding material. Generally amines and (that is, for constant temperature) until attain-
anhydrides are used as hardening agents. ing the limiting viscosity index is observed.
The time required for this is termed as "pot
For amine-cured systems, for example, diamines with life", Figure 5.3-10. The higher the tempera-
two NH2 groups form bonds between resin molecules ture of the resin mass, the thinner is the resin
liquid at the beginning of the hardening proc-
ess and the shorter is the pot life. That is, the
O available processing time is shortened by in-
R C C H + H X creasing the temperature.
H H Curing of the reaction resin mass is associated
Bonding of two with a chemical reaction shrinkage that is
OH H molecules by caused by closer packing of chemically linked
R C C X breaking the molecules. Figure 5.3-11 represents the in-
three ring system
H H of the epoxy group
crease in volume of liquid reaction resin mass
and the cured material against temperature.
Figure 5.3-9: Reaction of the epoxy group. The gelling line lies between the liquid state
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 319

and the cured state. At first the shrinkage oc- effective method for reducing the shrinkage is the use of
curs in the liquid phase (A-B) and can be bal- mineral fillers (e.g. quartz powder).
anced by the resin mass flowing in. After gel- Mechanical stresses can occur if free shrinkage in the
ling this is no longer possible; the rigid body gelled state is obstructed in the mold. De-molding in the
shrinks further owing to ongoing cross-linking gelled, but not yet cured condition may help in this
processes which are not yet completed (B-C). respect. A complete curing must be achieved by a sub-
Thus, mechanical stresses are built up. After sequent tempering.
successful chemical curing, further physical Curing is an exothermic reaction, that is, heat
cooling shrinkage occurs owing to a fall in is released and this causes the reaction to pro-
temperature to the service temperature (C-D). ceed more rapidly within a larger volume than
From Figure 5.3-11 it is clear that a tempera- at the cooled surface. Therefore, effective heat
ture increase during curing owing to reaction removal must be provided.
heat (A-B'-C') leads to a reduction in the pro-
Note: The generation of heat depends on the number of
portionate shrinkage in the free flowing phase.
reacting epoxy groups. Their number can be signifi-
This increases the mechanical stresses owing cantly reduced by using fillers and by using long chain
to the greater shrinkage in the solid phase. For solid resins.
large castings, isothermal curing (A-B-C) at
the lowest possible temperature must be the c) Fillers
aim.
Mineral fillers can be included up to a degree
Design and production technology must take of filling of 55 to 65 percent by weight. Higher
the characteristics of shrinkage into considera- degrees of filling are not possible, since then
tion to avoid stress cracks. For unfilled resins, the complete embedding and wetting of filler
the reaction shrinkage can amount to up to 3%. particles in the resin matrix is not guaranteed.
Note: The reaction shrinkage for liquid resins is larger Fillers are used less for a reduction in the cost
than that of solid resins, since a considerably larger of the molding material but they can help in
number of smaller molecules must be cross-linked. The improving a number of properties:
cooling shrinkage, on the other hand, is greater for solid
resins owing to higher processing temperatures. An Fillers reduce the reaction shrinkage and the
generation of heat during the curing reaction.
Thus actually makes the production even of
Volume large castings possible.
Liquid
mass Crystalline quartz powder is the standard
Gelling filler, and this helps in increasing the mechani-
Curing shrinkage A line
in the liquid cal strength and thermal conductivity. Adsorp-
phase B' tion of moisture at the grain surfaces is a
Curing shrinkage B problem and this can be overcome by silani-
in the solid
C'
zation of quartz powder. Quartz powder can-
phase
not be used in SF6-installations owing to the
C
Cooling Hardened
formation of conductive Si-F compounds un-
shrinkage
material der the effect of decomposition products of
D SF6 (hydrofluoric acid).

Dolomite (Ca-Mg carbonate) and aluminum

20 °C Tg Temperature oxide are suitable for SF6 installations; how-
ever, they lead to reduced mechanical strength.
Figure 5.3-11: Components of shrinkage during the
curing and hardening of reaction resin mass and A number of other fillers can be used to
during cooling down of the hardened material [90]. achieve special properties, such as aluminum
320 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

hydroxide Al(OH)3 for high tracking resis-

Vacuum Conveyor sprial
tance and flame retardance (by separation of pump drive
water of crystallization), amorphous quartz
powder or glass beads for low thermal expan-
sion, aluminum oxide Al2O3 for high thermal
conductivity, fibrous fillers (short glass fibers,
End cone
Wollastonite) for better crack resistance, as
well as aluminum hydroxide or chalk for good
mechanical machinability.

Note: Specially improved properties must often be

bought with other disadvantages, such as with poorer
mechanical properties or with poorer flow of the reac-
tion mixture (for fibrous fillers). Mixing tube
(heated) with Stirrer
d) Technology conveyor spiral
and mixing screw
Accurately weighed components (resin, hard-
Valve
ener, accelerator, fillers, dye and additives)
must be mixed under vacuum to ensure ade- Figure 5.3-12: Mixing and degassing of reaction
quate degassing and to obtain void free prod- resin mass through thin film degassing.
ucts, Figure 5.3-12. For thin-film degassing, a
spiral conveyor feeds the reaction resin mass
Mixer Vacuum pump
into a mixer tube to an end cone on which the (pressurized)
mass can be degassed in a thin layer of large
area. In the case of solid resins, for anhydride
hardeners, as well as for highly filled and
highly viscous preparations, a heating process
must be carried out to attain a satisfactorily
low viscosity for processing.
Riser
For classical vacuum casting, the degassed Two part mold
mixture is sucked out in the absence of air into
a mold that is evacuated and treated with
parting agent, Figure 5.3-13. A resin reserve A
remains in the inlet connections and in the
Heating plate
riser to compensate the volume shrinkage in
the liquid phase. With the help of specific Figure 5.3-13: Example of the encapsulation of a
temperature gradients, a reaction is controlled high voltage resistance with a filled reaction resin
in such a way that the gelling starts as far away compound under vacuum.
as possible from the connecting sleeves (point
A) so that the liquid resin mixture can flow as Note: The function of the riser in an evacuated mold can
long as possible. be fulfilled by a free resin surface. Through a given
temperature gradient, the gelling process progresses
After gelation, the reaction shrinkage in the from bottom to top. The cured component, e.g. an insu-
lator, must then be mechanically reworked to the speci-
solid phase leads to detachment from the mold fied dimension.
walls and leads to shrink coating of molded
components. Generally, filled resins are used A typical application of vacuum casting is the
for avoiding stress cracks. casting of larger components in small numbers
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 321

of units, such as the encapsulation of windings

for dry-type transformers.

Under the pressure gelation process, the re- Impregnating bath

action resin mass is gelled in a comparatively
hot mold at a pressure of 2 to 5 bars. Thus, the
gelation begins very quickly and extensively at
the mold wall. Owing to high pressure, the
resin mass is pushed out of the mixer while
still in the semi-liquid condition. Short mold-
ing cycles are possible even for larger castings Figure 5.3-14: Vacuum impregnation of a stator
winding in an inert impregnating bath.
owing to rapid gelation at higher temperatures.
The effort for the pressure-resistant design of
molds and mixers is especially worthwhile for Resin
Vacuum
the automatic production of components in preparation
larger numbers of units.

Unfilled cast resin must be used for vacuum

impregnation since fillers would lead to rapid Resin surface
blockages in narrow impregnating channels
such as in filters. Moderate mechanical prop-
erties, large shrinkage and intense exothermic
reaction of unfilled resin are only put up with Crepe paper
for electrically highly stressed parts, e.g. for winding
windings of larger electrical machines and
generators, for spools and dry (oil free) bush-
ings, Figures 5.3-14, -15.

Large machine parts are impregnated in an

autoclave under vacuum in an impregnating
bath. The liquid reaction resin mass with an-
hydride hardeners is set up to be so inert that
Mold
the impregnating bath continues to be usable
for a few years. Curing is done by heat supply Conductor tube or mandrel
and by the action of an accelerator within the
Figure 5.3-15: Vacuum impregnation of large crepe
material to be impregnated, Figure 5.3-14. paper windings for RIP bushing insulation core.

Bushings made of resin-impregnated paper controllable limits. During shrinkage in the

(RIP) are manufactured as cylindrical crepe liquid phase, the resin is replenished in the
paper windings that are several meters long axial direction through the channels in the
and contain metallic foils. The crepe paper is crepe paper. After the gelation, the winding is
dried and impregnated in the axial direction detached from the external mold and it shrinks
under vacuum, Figure 5.3-15. This involves on the conductor tube in the radial direction.
several extreme conditions and they necessi-
tate perfect process control: The pot life of the e) Fiber reinforced epoxy resins
reaction resin mass must be long enough to
enable complete filling of the mold and im- Fiber reinforced components for high voltage
pregnation of the paper winding. During the engineering, such as tubes, composite insula-
exothermic curing reaction, the heat generated tors or switch rods must form a void free,
by the unfilled masses must remain within moisture resistant, stress resistant and durable
322 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

bond between the fibers and the resin matrix. The electric strength of epoxy resin in general
Silanization acting as a size is necessary for is dealt with in Section 3.5 (Figure 3.5-5, Ta-
this. The components can be manufactured ble 3.5-2). A description of dielectric prop-
using a vacuum impregnation process for ex- erties is given in Chapter 4 (Figures 4.2-2, -5, -
ample. High quality tubes can also be manu- 9, -11).
factured using the filament winding (FW) pro-
cedure. Using this method, glass fiber rovings Guide values for permittivity at room temper-
soaked with reaction resin mass are coiled on a ature and power frequency are Hr = 3.5... 4 for
mandrel such that the mechanical stress on the unfilled materials and Hr = 5.8 for filled mate-
fibers under load produces tension. The resin rials (approx. 40 weigth percent Al2O3). De-
is cured subsequently. pending on the filler substance, other (gen-
erally lower) values are obtained.
f) Adhesives
Dissipation factors for unfilled materials are
Single-component adhesives based on epoxy -2
less than 10 and slightly higher for filled
resin are used in the form of an already mixed
materials. They increase sharply with temper-
powder which is melted and cured under the
ature (rise in conductivity, as well as polariza-
effect of heat.
tion losses near the glass transition tempera-
Note: Heat cured powder reaction resin mixtures can ture) and can lead to thermal instability in the
also be used for powder coating of electrode surfaces. case of thick, electrically and thermally heav-
Thus, the hot components are dipped in an atmosphere ily stressed insulations.
of powder for a specific duration.
Moisture adsorption on non-silanized surfaces
Two-component adhesives are obtained in pre-
of fillers or glass fibers causes a sharp increase
fabricated containers in the correct mixture
in losses and results in a sharp fall in electric
ratio. Large-scale application is in two compo-
strength in the case of fiber reinforced materi-
nent mixers with static mixer tubes, Figure
als.
5.3-16. Important applications are, for exam-
ple, the attachment of porcelains to large
housing insulators for bushings and instrument
5.3.3.2 Polyurethanes (PU)
transformers, or the attachment of insulators
with metallic armatures. Linear urethanes with thermoplastic properties
While designing the adhesive joints, it must be are obtained by polyaddition of di-isocyanates
noted that these may only be provided for
pressure load, tensile stress or combined ten-
sile and shear stress. Peeling stresses and non-
uniform tensile loads must be avoided.

The long-term stability and hydrolysis resis-

tance of important adhesives must be deter- Component "A" Component "B"
mined through proper endurance tests at in-
Mechanically
creased mechanical stress, similar to that while coupled
determining electrical service life time lines. dosing pumps
(reciprocating
pumps)
g) Electrical properties Static
Mixing block mixing tube
The electrical and dielectric properties of ep-
oxy resins depend strongly on the type of re- Outlet
action resin mixture and on many production Figure 5.3-16: Principle of a two-component
parameters. mixer (simplified).
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 323

and diols (dihydric alcohols): and for a

PU elastomer Hr = 7 (1 MHz),
O=C=N- R -N=C=O + HO- X -OH o -2
tan G > 5·10 (1 MHz),
O=C=N- R -(NH)-(CO)-O- X -OH N
-10 -12
= 10 ..10 S/m.
Under this, the bonding urethane group -(NH)-
(CO)-O- results from the transposition of an H Positive properties of polyurethanes are high
atom without the elimination of lower molec- tracking resisitance, high toughness and high
ular reaction products. Cross links are possible elasticity. Foamed elastic polyurethanes ex-
via NH groups as well as by using isocyanates hibit the property of compressibility. They are
with three O=C=N groups. Polyols (polyhy- used as fine-pored foam for subsidiary insula-
dric alcohols) such as ricinus oil (castor oil) tions, for example, between epoxy resin core
are used as a reaction agent. and housing insulator in a bushing for com-
pensating thermal expansions. Electric field
Polyurethanes are substances with thermoset- strength, pore size and type of gas must be
ting or elastic properties. Although they offer matched to each other so that no discharges are
a very wide range of materials and they can be ignited in accordance with Paschen’s law.
formulated for specific properties, their use in
the high voltage engineering field has re- Typical applications of polyurethanes are in
mained comparatively low until now. The rea- the low voltage range, e.g. for castings of as-
sons for this are as follows: sembly components, insulation parts for moist
interior rooms or for foams. Moreover, wires
Isocyanates react with moisture with the for- are insulated with PU varnishs. In the medium
mation of CO2 gas which can lead to cavity voltage range, elastic PU casting compounds
formation. This problem can be overcome by for cable fittings are used as standard.
the addition of zeolites that absorb water or by
processing without air contact in a two-com-
ponent mixer. 5.3.3.3 Phenolic Resin and Resin-bonded
After the preparation of the reaction resin Paper (RBP)
mass, the reaction takes place relatively rap-
idly even at low temperatures, hence the avail- Phenolic resins are obtained by polycondensa-
able processing period is short. Polyurethanes tion with the elimination of water, Figure 5.3-
are, thus well suited to castings at room tem- 2. Phenolic resins are a classic, but obsolete
perature. However, using a mixing plant is substance of high voltage engineering that was
recommended owing to short pot lives. used up to the voltage level 220kV.

The thermal resistance is comparable with the By impregnating paper with liquid resin, pro-
thermal resistance of cold-curing epoxy resins. cessing into plates, rolled laminated tubes or
Generally, maximum operating temperatures bushings and subsequent curing at increased
of 50 °C to 120 °C are attained. However, spe- temperature, oil-free insulation parts could be
cial polyurethanes have even much higher manufactured for the first time from so-called
glass transition temperatures. resin-bonded paper RBP (commercial name
e.g. "Pertinax"). However, to avoid stress
The electrical properties are slightly poorer cracks in large scale insulations, the papers
than those of epoxy resins. Guide values at were not completely impregnated so that me-
room temperature [88] are for a chanical stresses could be reduced by the de-
lamination of paper layers. In such insulations,
thermosetting PU Hr = 4 (1 MHz),
since they are not completely free from air,
-2
tan G = 2·10 (1 MHz), partial discharges must be taken into consid-
-11
N = 10 S/m eration. However, they last a relatively long
324 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

time owing to the relatively high partial dis- through material flow processes. Along with
charge resistance of the phenolic resin. the usual technical applications, such as for
sealing, this is especially important for cable
Resin-bonded paper has a relatively high per- joints and cable entrance fittings, which
-11
mittivity (Hr | 5), high conductivity (H | 10 must contact the cable insulation with ade-
S/m) and high losses (tan G | 0.1). The given quate surface pressure to guarantee the high
values relate to T = 20 °C and f = 1 MHz. The voltage strength of the joints, Section 7.1.4.4.
short-duration electric strength is comparable
Note: Such joints generally contain a lubricating agent
with the strength of other high polymer insu- to compensate for unevenness and to fill voids.
lating materials.
Cable insulations are manufactured from ex-
Insulating components made of resin-bonded truded thermoplastic polyethylene by subse-
paper are not always gas-tight and oil-tight quent spatial cross-linking, Section 5.3.2.1
parallel to the paper layers. Infiltrating oil can Thus, a thermosetting cross-linked polyethyl-
re-impregnate the available cavities and ene (XLPE) is obtained, which does not melt
thereby lead to a rise in the capacitance of the at increased temperatures but changes to an
insulation. Owing to the effect of partial dis- elastomeric condition. Hence, even at in-
charges, yellow "X-wax" is thus formed by creased operating temperatures of up to 90 °C,
decomposition and cross-linking of oil mole- the flow of the material is inhibited.
cules.
A special form of elastomers is shrinkable
While dissecting electrically highly stressed sleevings. They are elastic only at increased
resin-bonded paper insulations, often interest- temperature, that is, above the glass transition
ing, widely branched discharge traces are seen temperature. They are stretched in that state by
between the paper layers. compressed gas and subsequently cooled down
below the glass transition temperature. In this
Today, void free resin-impregnated paper RIP way, the stretched condition is frozen since the
insulation is state of the art. However, resin- intermolecular forces no longer allow any
bonded paper RBP bushings are still in use. change in the position of the molecules. Only
when heated, these bonds are released and the
sleeving shrinks to the original dimensions,
5.3.3.4 Elastomers and Shrinkable Sleevings which are predetermined by the spatial cross-
linking of macromolecules (contour accuracy,
Elastomers are spatially cross-linked macro- shape memory).
molecules which return to their initial position
without experiencing any permanent change in While manufacturing shrinkable sleeving, at
shape, even after a mechanical extension, ow- first a tube is extruded from thermoplastic
ing to their contour accuracy and their shape material (for example, from polyethylene PE).
memory. Popular substances are, for example, Subsequently spatial cross-linking takes place,
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) or silicone e.g. by bombardment with electrons. Owing to
elastomers. Elastomers, when compared to this, the bonds of hydrogen atoms are broken,
thermoplastics, have a very wide elastic range giving rise to free valences and this enables the
in which the extension is reversible, since the polymer molecules to cross-link with one an-
cross-linking of molecules does not allow other. At room temperature, such a cross-
mutual relative displacement. Insulation sys- linked sleeving still has thermosetting proper-
tems with high mechanical flexibility are thus ties owing to intermolecular forces. By heating
possible, e.g. flexible cables that are not laid above the glass transition temperature, the
in a fixed position. Furthermore, elastomers sleeving becomes elastic and can be stretched
can be compressed or extended for long peri- to the desired dimension by compressed gas.
ods without losing their restoring forces After cooling down in the stretched condition,
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 325

it is again frozen into the thermosetting condi- By spatial cross-linking (vulcanization), ther-
tion. mosetting silicone resins and also silicone
elastomers (SIR, silicone rubber) are obtained.
The user can change the stretched sleeving Silicone elastomers are exceptionally elastic,
into the elastic state again by heating, in which extensible and have a very high contour accu-
the sleeving tries to shrink to its original di- racy. Their properties are greatly influenced by
mensions. During this so-called heat-shrink- the degree of cross-linking and by mineral
ing technique, the sleeving largely adapts fillers that are added to resins and elastomers,
itself to form fit the body to be shrink- generally with percentages ranging from 30 to
wrapped, but no permanent force is exercised 70 %. In high voltage engineering, the fol-
on the substrate after cooling down. lowing groups of materials are especially im-
portant:
In contrast, there is a so-called cold-shrinking
technique, whereby the sleeving is made of 1. Silicone resins are spatially heavily cross-
permanent elastic material (e.g. of silicone linked thermosetting materials whose glass
elastomer). It is mechanically widened on a transition temperature lies above the working
supporting base (e.g. a plastic spiral or man- temperature. They are used as temperature
drel) and is applied to the body to be shrink- resistant substances.
wrapped by removing the supporting base. A
certain amount of residual extension of the 2. Silicone elastomers (so-called "silicone
sleeving remains, which leads to a permanent rubbers") are spatially less strongly cross-
surface pressure on the substrate and which, linked so that the glass transition temperature
along with the lubricating agent, allows joints lies below the working temperature and an
of very high voltage strength. elastomeric (extensible) condition exists. Ar-
eas of application are hydrophobic insulators
(Section 5.3.4.2), contour accurate and perma-
nently elastic insulation bodies (Section
5.3.4 Silicones 5.3.4.3) as well as insulations and sheathing
for flexible cables.
5.3.4.1 Properties of Silicones
3. Silicone gels are spatially cross-linked only
The chemical relationship of the silicon atom to a very small extent and have a higher pro-
with the carbon atom allows the formation of
analogous compounds with exceptional prop-
erties. The simplest monomer compounds are H H CH 3
the methane-related silane and the long chain
silanes derived from it, Figure 5.3-17. H C H H Si H HO Si OH

H H CH 3
Polymer silicone compounds, for example, are
Silane
obtained from methyl silanols by polyconden- Methane (silicomethane, Methyl silanol
sation. That is, two OH groups are attached to hydrosilicon)
form an oxygen bridge -O- with the elimina-
tion of H2O, Figure 5.3-17. Silicones are mac- R R R R
romolecules made of a very stable inorganic O Si O Si O Si O Si
skeleton with Si- and O-atoms that is sur-
rounded by organic groups R, Figure 5.3-17. R R R R
The monomer structural unit R2SiO formally
Silico ketone or "silikone" respectively
corresponds to a ketone R2CO, and hence the
Figure 5.3-17: Monomer and polymer silicon
macromolecule is referred to as "silico-ketone" compounds as well as alalogies between carbon
or as "silicone" [49]. chemistry and silicon chemistry.
326 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

portion of silicone fluid. This results in a ample, oil impermeability can be attained with
sticky state with greater spreading power and fluorinated silicone elastomers. In the case of
higher breakdown strength, and hence they are silicone gels, this property has a positive ef-
well suited to electrically highly stressed joints fect, since the trapped gas in seams can escape
or interfaces (Section 5.3.4.3). by diffusion. [472].
4. Silicone pastes (so-called “silicone grease”) The permittivity of unfilled silicones is Hr = 2.8
are spatially no longer cross-linked; however, to 3, with fillers between 3 and 6, in special
the chain length of the molecule is so large cases it is even at 15 to 20. The dissipation
that a paste-like condition exists. They can be factor tan G amounts to about 0.5 to 1 % and
used, for example, in filling electrically -13 -11
stressed joints or for applying to porcelain in- the conductivities are between 10 and 10
sulator surfaces for (temporarily) increasing S/m for unfilled and filled materials. Owing to
the hydrophobicity. the non-polar properties of molecules, the di-
electric properties vary significantly less with
5. Silicone liquids (so called “silicone oils”) temperature than for other elastomers. Sili-
are no longer cross-linked for short chain cones are generally tracking resistant and have
lengths and hence a liquid state exists. They high breakdown strength that is comparable
can be generally used as a substitute for min- with other polymers.
eral oil, Section 5.4.3.2. For cost reasons,
Note: By filling with carbon black, conductive mixtures
however, this happens only when it is neces- are obtained and these can be used in cable fittings for
sary owing to technical requirements (tem- potential grading electrode contours.
perature resistance, fire protection).

Silicones that are cross-linked can be differen-

5.3.4.2 Hydrophobic Insulators
tiated as RTV silicone, i.e. room temperature
vulcanization silicone, and HTV silicone, i.e. Surface hydrophobicity must be mentioned
high-temperature vulcanization silicone or as an excellent property, Figure 5.3-18. Sili-
heat-curing silicone respectively. HTV sili- cones are thus the ideal material for outdoor
cone has been preferred in the past owing to its insulations under conditions of severe pollu-
better mechanical properties. RTV silicones tion. Precipitation forms isolated water drop-
have improved so much in their properties in lets, which are held together on polluted sur-
the meantime that they are increasingly used at faces by the surface tension of water, Figure
low temperatures owing to their simpler proc- 5.3-18 (top right and middle). Comparable
essability (LSR liquid silicone rubber). It is porcelain surfaces, on the other hand, are hy-
common practice to use a two-component drophilic, water flows to form a large area of
mixer system for the components A and B moist film, Figure 5.3-18 (top left). The con-
which react by polyaddition, Figure 5.3-16. tact angle 4 [92] is suitable for the quantifica-
Silicones are not inflammable and can be used tion of hydrophoby: a large contact angle is
over a wide range of temperature (-60 °C to obtained for hydrophobic surfaces, whereas
180°C) without any significant change in easily wettable surfaces lead to small contact
properties. Silicones are highly resistant to angles and the drops run to form a film. When
chemicals, weather influences and ageing. a drop runs on to the insulator surface, the
contact angle can be differentiated as the ad-
The wide-meshed cross-linking of silicone vancing angle 4a and the receding angle 4r.
elastomers allows a comparatively high diffu- The latter determines whether the flowing drop
sion of gases, water vapor or oil molecules. leaves behind a moist film. Moist films can
Hence, the suitability of silicones as sealing bridge over large stretches of the insulator and
material must be tested in each case. For ex- initiate a pollution flashover.
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 327

Note: An additional option for qualitative estimation of Note: Dew on the silicone surfaces can be a reason for
hydrophobicity is a simple flashover test: a plate like corona discharge. A so-called dewdrop corona occurs
3
material sample (125 x 125 x 5 mm ), which has been at the dew drops which are distorted to form peaks due
wetted earlier in an aqueous saline solution (N = 100 to the field forces. The dewdrop corona can be avoided
μS/cm) is placed between two plate electrodes (D = 70 by limiting the field strengths to 0.3 to 0.5 kV/mm
mm) following a defined dripping period (1 min) and
stressed several times with AC voltage until flashover
occurs [9], [57]. The results can be useful in identifying
significant differences depending on the surface condi-
tion. The flashover test is thus even suitable for com-
parative evaluation of different pre-stresses and differ-
ent methods of surface treatment.

Silicone sheds have the ability to prevent the

formation of continuous films, even under in-
tense rain, and to facilitate isolated drops
rolling off, Figure 5.3-19. The surface resis-
tance is maintained at a high level, a continu-
ous moist film does not form. Porcelain insu-
lators that are coated with silicone paste (“sili-
cone grease”) exhibit a similar characteristic.
On the other hand, the surface resistance of
clean porcelain surfaces collapses by many
orders of magnitude at relatively low rain in-
tensities and the individual drops flow together
to form a tight water film [7], [9], [10].

Experiments have shown that several weeks of

pollution on porcelain surfaces under outdoor
conditions leads to the breakdown of hydro-
phobicity even for much lower rain intensities.
The performance of silicone surfaces has not
changed [57].

Long term experience has proved that silicone Receding

4a 4r angle
sheds, even after many decades, retain their
hydrophobic character even under the condi-
tions of industrial pollution [9], [93]. The hy-
drophobicity extends even to the deposited dirt Advancing
layer. The low-molecular components of sili- angle
cone which diffuse out and which are formed
within the shed material are held responsible
for this.

The hydrophobicity on the stressed areas can

be temporarily reduced by flashovers, corona
discharges or treatment with aggressive solu-
tions. However, low-molecular components Figure 5.3-18: Drop formation on the surface of a
that diffuse out lead to an automatic regenera- hydrophobic silicone-shed insulator (top right, middle
tion. With the help of silicone liquid (“silicone and bottom) in comparison to the formation of a moist
oil”), the hydrophobicity can be immediately film on the hydrophilic surface of a comparable
restored [9], [57]. porcelain (top left) [9], [57]. Photo insulators: HSP
Hochspannungsgeräte GmbH, Troisdorf.
328 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

[471], Section 3.2.6.4.

The excellent surface properties of silicone R/ : D

give rise to the question of whether the usual
creepage distance of 2.5 to 5 cm/kV for por- l l
13 R
celain (related to the r.m.s. value of the applied 10
operating voltage, see Section 3.2.6.4) can be 12
10
shortened. Long term investigations with sili-
11
cone sheds on bushing insulators for more than 10
HTV silicone
a decade have shown that even in severely 10
10 elastomer
polluted, humid and salty atmospheres, with- Porcelain with
out intermediate cleaning, reliable operation 9 silicone paste
10
with creepage distances between 1.7 and 2
cm/kV is possible [57], [93]. Despite this, 8
10 Porcelain
creepage distances are often designed accord- 7 (cleaned)
ing to the guidelines approved for porcelain. It 10 Rain
must also be noted that corona discharges can 6 intensity
occur for local field strengths that are too high 10
mm/min
when there is dew on the surface [471] (see 0 10 20 30 40
above). Figure 5.3-19: Resistance of cylindrical surfaces
(D = 70 mm, l = 188 mm) for vertical rain (con-
Note: In the case of HVDC bushings above 500 kV, the ductivity 100 μS/cm).
application of bushings with silicone sheds is often
considered as the only secure way to avoid flashovers
under non-uniform rain [8], [93], see Figure 2.4-29. rial (HTV silicone or RTV silicone) owing to
lower molding costs.
Important applications of silicone elastomers
are as insulators fit for outdoors (insulator The sheds can also be directly cast in a top
rods, housing insulators for instrument trans- opening mold with RTV silicone on a pre-
formers and bushings), push-on cable fittings treated insulator tube, Figure 5.3-20b. After
with potential grading and thermally resistant gelation, the mold migrates downward into the
flexible cable insulations. position for casting the next shed. Great flexi-
bility with respect to spatial dimensions is ob-
Different methods can be applied for manu- tained by using very simple molds.
facturing composite insulators, Figure 5.3-20.
In each case, the surface of the fiber –rein- The cast of the complete insulator on the pre-
forced tube or rod must be treated with a treated substrate needs expensive, longitudi-
bonding agent (primer), and this guarantees a nally divided molds, Figure 5.3-20c. The
permanent and hydrolysis resistant chemical flexibility is thus severely restricted, but it
bonding between the substrate and the sheds. results in very short cycle times that enable
batch production of larger numbers of units.
Note: The vulcanization and bonding of silicones can be For longer insulation lengths, many successive
hampered by chemicals (e.g. by amines for adhesives castings are conducted. The parting seam of
and epoxy resins) and by their vapors.
the mold running longitudinally must be sub-
Individual prefabricated sheds are vulcanized sequently smoothened if possible to avoid the
with a RTV silicone (cross-linking at room accumulation of dirt.
temperature) on the pre-treated surface of the
Note: Composite insulators are impressive not only
insulator tube and on the already applied owing to their excellent surface properties. They also
sheds, Figure 5.3-20a. Using individual sheds have a much lower weight compared to porcelain.
allows a high degree of flexibility with respect Moreover, greater safety is also provided, e.g. in the
to spatial dimensions and the choice of mate- case of an internal short circuit or for devices filled with
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 329

SIR A + B SIR A
SIR B

Figure 5.3-20: Manufac-

ture silicone-shed compo-
site insulators on a glass-
fiber reinforced insulating
tube or insulating rod:

a) Application of pre-
fabricated HTV- or RTV-
sheds.
b) Casting of individual
sheds with a RTV casting
compound in a mold
migrating downwards.
c) Casting of a complete
insulator in a single split
a) b) c)
mold.

compressed gas: there are no sharp-edged porcelain quality joint over a long period of time is only
pieces if the housing insulator bursts [57], [93], Figure made possible by the permanent elasticity of
7.1.2-4.
the SIR.
Note: The contacting of the deflector with the outer
5.3.4.3 Other Applications of Silicones semi-conductive layer (insulation screen) of the cable
insulation and the quality of the joint, which is highly
In cable entrance fittings and in cable joints, stressed in the normal and tangential directions, are of
particular significance.
conductive silicone is used for a potential
grading ground electrode (deflector), which is Other applications of permanently elastic
cast in insulating silicone, Figure 5.3-21. The elastomers have been described under Section
flexibility of the silicone enables close and 5.3.3.4.
permanent contact to the surface of the uncov-
ered cable insulation while pushing-on the The properties of silicone gel for electrically
“grading cone”. The permanent elastic proper- highly stressed interfaces and joints are also of
ties of the silicone elastomer enable the con- interest: owing to its high degree of stickiness,
tinuance of a permanent mechanical stress, adhesion is good on many substrates. Owing to
which takes care of the necessary contact pres- the low degree of cross-linking in the gel,
sure on the uncovered cable insulation. A high cross-linking with the substrate is often even

E t1 Figure 5.3-21: Potential

grading in a cable en-
trance fitting through a
Cable
(1) (2) ground electrode (so-
sheath E t2 called "deflector") made
Cable insulation of conductive silicone (1)
Conductor and a "grading cone"
made of insulating
silicone (2).
330 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

possible. The voids formed by the surface two-dimensional (rods, tubes) or one-dimensional
roughness can be completely filled for force-fit (plates).
connections under pressure, owing to the high
Surprisingly, this achieved exceptional
proportion of silicone liquid in the gel. Fur-
changes in properties that are completely un-
thermore, the trapped gas can easily diffuse
known for fillers in the μm range. At first,
out under sufficient contact pressure so that a
there was greater interest in the resultant high
high quality interface is obtained.
mechanical strength or high thermal resistance.
As early as 1994, Lewis had described the
Breakdown tests for two-component systems
consequences of nanostructuring for dielectrics
of basic material (silicone elastomer, polyeth-
by a drastic enlargement of the microscopic
ylene, epoxy resin and porcelain) with a sili-
interfaces and had used the term “nanometric
cone gel have shown that the longitudinally
dielectrics” [448].
stressed interface with the polymeric basis
materials has an electric strength that can cor- Inorganic nanoparticles, as fillers in polymers,
respond to (at least) the strength of the pure have the ability to cause a so-called nano-
gel [472]. Only the interface with the porcelain structuring of the surrounding polymer mole-
corresponds to standard high voltage engi- cules and effect large improvements of the
neering expectations and is of lower strength, electrical and dielectric properties [416] [487].
since apparently the roughness here is greater The interfaces between the nanoparticles and
and the adhesion is lower [472]. the polymers and the reduced distances to the
neighboring particles play a special role in
this. Properties that were not attainable until
now for dielectrics are thus attained, e.g. hy-
5.3.5 Nano-dielectrics drophobicity and self-cleaning surfaces, re-
duced build-up of space charge, better resis-
5.3.5.1 Introduction tance against treeing and erosion or higher
resistance to partial discharges. Nanocompo-
Substances with special properties determined
sites, therefore, possess a special innovation
by nanosized fillers have been in use for a long
potential also in high voltage engineering.
time without the relationship between the
properties and nanofillers being known. His- Well-known inorganic materials are used as
torical examples are Roman glasses, whose fillers, such as aluminum oxide Al2O3, silicon
fascinating optical properties were created by dioxide SiO2, titanium dioxide TiO2, magne-
nanoparticles of gold, or oriental sword blades sium oxide MgO or so-called layered silicates
whose carbon content in the form of nanotubes LS. Popular polymer materials such as poly-
gave rise to excellent mechanical strengths. It amide PA, polypropylene PP, cross-linked
th
only became known towards the end of 20 polyethylene XLPE, epoxy resin EP or sili-
century that the properties of a basic material cone elastomers SIR are considered as basic
can be drastically changed by relatively low materials (matrix). Therefore, the special
quantities of nanostructured fillers. properties of nanodielectrics arise primarily
from the small diameter of the filler particles
Since then, efforts have been made specifically and not necessarily from special materials.
to develop so called “nanocomposites” with
improved properties. For this, particles with Manufacturing procedure requires the mixing
dimensions of a few 10s of nm are mixed with of particles with diameters in the nm range
a proportion of very few weight percents of up into organic polymers in the liquid phase, such
to about 10 %. as resin components or thermoplastics. For
this, a few percentages by weight must be ho-
Note: The nanostructuring of nanoparticles can be mogeneously and completely dispersed. This
three-dimensional (particles in the form of powder), is technologically very complex and expen-
5.3 Highly Polymerized Plastics 331

ure 5.3-24 (top). With nanoparticles, on the

Polymer other hand, even the distance of the particles is
R R in the order of magnitude of 100 nm, so that
Si Si
the structured layers in the environment of the
particle comprise a large part of the total vol-
O O ume, Figure 5.3-24 (bottom). Thus, the mate-
H H H H Silane rial on the whole acquires completely new
O O linkages properties.
H
H Note: An interactive zone with multiple charge double
O layers is formed at the surface of a nanoparticle with a
M M diameter of about 10 to 50 nm (Tanaka model [416]):
comparatively large bonding forces act on a first layer
Filler that is a few nm thick. Deep traps are formed in the
second layer of about 10nm thickness. Local micro-
Figure 5.3-22: Silane linkages between filler par- scopic volumes in a third layer of several 10s of nm
ticles and polymer molecules. thickness act as traps for charge carriers and ions.

The interactive zones at the particle surfaces not only

sive, but very important since the desired lead to structuring of the surrounding polymer matrix,
property improvements can only be attained by but also influence the injection of charge carriers at high
optimal distribution of the nanoparticles. local field strengths at the electrodes (Schottky emis-
sion).
Note: The use of nanoparticles is still at a very early
stage and many physical and chemical interdependen- The structuring imparted by the particles re-
cies are not yet completely known. The probable risks sults, for example, in a firm and regular struc-
of handling nanoparticles, therefore, should not be sim-
ply ignored. Still, high chemical activity exists in many ture of the base material. Polymer chains are
cases owing to extremely large particle surfaces and the immobilized and the glass transition tempera-
small particles can penetrate deep into the biological tures are shifted. This can manifest itself in
systems down to the level of individual cells [449]. The higher mechanical strength, in higher thermal
medical and pharmaceutical sciences want to use these resistance, in larger resistance against erosion
properties, specifically for new therapy approaches.
and in changed electrical properties.

5.3.5.2 Principle of Nanostructuring

5.3.5.3 Dielectric Properties
Nanoparticles, like other fillers, can form a
The typical electrical and dielectric proper-
compound with the polymer matrix, e.g.
ties of nanocomposites are substantially
through silanes, Figure 5.3-22. The special
feature here is the large particle surface area,
which leads to comparatively wide-ranging
and comprehensive structuring or self-or-
ganization of the surrounding polymer mole-
cule chains parallel or perpendicular to the
surface, Figure 5.3-23.

The range of the structuring imparted by the

particle surface area can amount to a few 100
nm. For the common filler particles in the μm
range, this has no effect on the actual basis
material (matrix material), since the distances
Figure 5.3-23: Alignment of polymer chain mol-
also lie in the μm range and thus are much ecules parallel or perpendicular to the surface of
greater than the range of the structuring, Fig- nanoparticles (self-organization, schematic).
332 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

changed in comparison with amorphous poly- 3.) Improved or unchanged breakdown

mers without structuring [487]. For the appli- strength.
cation as dielectrics, the following effects are
significant: 4.) Partly slight reduction of permittivity ow-
ing to reduced interfacial polarization and be-
1.) Increasing the resistance against partial cause of immobilization of polymer chains.
discharges, treeing and erosion as well as the
tracking resistance. 5.) Changes in the dissipation factor with tem-
perature and frequency caused by the complex
Owing to the forces in the interactive zones, segmented
structures occur from nanoparticles (nanosegmentation)
structure of the interfaces and owing to shifts
and quite strong bonding forces exist between these in glass transition temperatures.
(first and second layer). The eroding effect of electrical
discharges takes place at first in the spatially limited 6.) Increase or decrease in conductivity.
areas with weaker bonds (third layer).
Depending on whether the nanoparticles used act as ion
traps or contribute to ionic impurities, charge carrier
2.) Reducing the space charge build-up. densities are decreased or increased.
The negative extensions of the charge double layers of
the structured arrangement of nanoparticles increase the
potential thresholds at the electrodes for charge carrier 5.3.5.4 Applications
injection. The microscopic field stress enhancements
caused by space charges are distinctly reduced because
of this.
For most of the applications in high voltage
engineering, the high costs of nanocomposites
are not yet in reasonable proportions to the
attainable improvements. However, there is
1st layer, ~ nm potential for numerous applications and this
2nd layer, ~ 10 nm will increasingly lead to practical applications.
3rd layer, ~ 100 nm

Table 5.3.5-1: Possible applications for nanocompo-

sites [416], [460]
Unstructured base material Application Material Advantages
(matrix) Motor windings Polyimides PD resistance
High voltage Epoxides PD resistance
Micro- machine windings
meter Cast resin Epoxides PD resistance,
particle transformers thermal resistance
AC cables XLPE Resistance against
treeing
Capacitors PP Voltage strength
DC cables PE, XLPE Reduction of
space charges
External Insula- SIR Tracking re-
tion sistance,
hydrophobicity
Switchtgears PE, Space saving
Epoxides

Example: A possible application example is enameled

Nanometer particles wires in converter-fed motors, which are subjected to
quickly rising repetitive impulses. Partial discharges in
Figure 5.3-24: Incomplete structuring of base ma- the air filled cavities can lead to a progressive erosion of
terial by micrometer particles (top) and extensive insulation for conventional wires. Wires in which the
tructuring by nanometer particles (bottom), sche- partial discharge resistance of 15μm thick polyester-
matic representation. minide insulation was significantly increased by nano-
5.4 Insulating Liquids 333

Figure 5.4-1: Compensation

of thermal expansion of in-
sulating liquids:
a) Hermetically sealed
housing (tank) with rec-
tangular cross section.
b) Hermetically sealed
housing with metallic
expansion cell or bellow.
c) Hermetically sealed
housing with gas cushion.
d) Open housing with ex-
pansion tank (compen- a) b) c) d)
sator) and dryer.

particles based on layered silicates (phyllosilicates) have The structural design of a device must take the
been reported in literature [459]. Even with filling ratios thermal expansion of the insulating liquid
between 1 and 5 %, service life extensions of several
orders of magnitude were attained. and of other materials present in the device
into consideration. The volume expansion co-
efficient of insulating liquids amounts to ap-
-4
proximately 7 to 10·10 /K. That is, for a tem-
5.4 Insulating Liquids perature enhancement of 100 K, the volume
increases by 7 % or even by 10 %.
The main task of insulating liquids is the im-
Rectangular housing cross sections or cooling
pregnation of cavities of all types with a me-
ribs with walls that can be arched are often
dium that has an electric strength as high as
used in oil-filled, hermetically sealed capaci-
possible. Compared to gases, liquids have the
tors and medium voltage distribution trans-
advantage of significantly higher electric
formers, Figure 5.4-1a. In hermetically sealed
strength even under normal pressure. Even the
devices with cylindrical cross sections such as
field displacement in the liquid is less owing to
in bushings, the volume is compensated by
higher permittivity. Additionally, in trans-
compressible expansion cells or expansion
formers insulating liquids must remove the
bellows, Figure 5.4-1b. The same purpose is
occuring ohmic heat losses convectively.
fulfilled by a compressible gas cushion, e.g. of
Note: Earlier, insulating liquids were also used as extin- nitrogen, which has a lower volume, Figure
guishing media in circuit-breakers (“switchgear oils”). 5.4-1c. However, the electric strength in this
This application, however, has been pushed to the back- case is reduced owing to the gas dissolving in
ground since the introduction of compressed gas-blast oil; see Figure 3.4.2-6 (curves 2 and 4). But
circuit-breakes and vacuum circuit-breakers. Only on-
load tap changers in transformers operate in oil.
the exsolution of gas bubbles from mineral oil
with temperature variations under standard
conditions is not to be expected [94].

5.4.1 Technology of Insulating Note: Devices with gas cushions (bushings, capacitors,
and instrument transformers) shall not be inclined or
Liquids may only be inclined to the extent that the gas cannot
reach the impregnated insulations ("active parts") and
The application of insulating liquids requires cannot settle there. This is generally applicable even
proper handling with respect to structural de- during transportation.
sign, processing, impregnation and condition Large transformers compensate the thermal
monitoring during operation: expansion via an expansion tank, which is in
334 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

contact with the atmosphere via a dryer, Figure esses. The parameters to be observed depend
5.4-1d. on the type and the application of insulating
liquid.
Before filling a device, the insulating liquid
must be subjected to drying and degassing.
For this, the liquid is led into a degassing col-
umn under vacuum at increased temperature 5.4.2 Mineral Oil
through a pack of Raschig rings, on which the
liquid in thin layers can be degassed over a Mineral oils are the most frequently used in-
long period of time (thin-film degassing) [47], sulating oils. As low viscosity oils, they are
Figure 5.4-2. The conditions must be chosen in useful in the filling of transformers (trans-
such a way that highly volatile fractions are former oils), impregnation of oil cables (cable
not distilled off. Mineral oil can be dried at 50
-2
to 60 C and 10 mbar to a residual water Vacuum pumps
content of 0.5 to 5 ppm. Degassing
Note: Along with the degassing of oil, it must also be column
Viewing
ensured that insulation to be impregnated is dried. Cel- glass
lulose-based insulations can hold large quantities of
water (depending on the drying state from less than 0.5
to 6 %).

Impregnation process is generally started

with a vacuum phase, so that there is no
trapped gas any more, Figure 5.4-2. Then, the
insulating liquid is led in. The actual “impreg- Tank
nation” is achieved by a subsequent pressuri-
zation. Therefore, the wording “vacuum im- Capac-
pregnation” is not quite correct; it should bet- itor
ter be replaced by “vacuum-pressure impreg-
nation”.
Figure 5.4-2: Processing of insulating oil and
If the housing cannot be completely evacuated impregnation of a capacitor (schematic).
(e.g. for mechanical reasons), impregnation
based on the capillary effect can still be con-
sidered in the case of fibrous insulations. H2 H2
C C
However, the liquid level may only be in- H H H H
H2C C H2
creased so slowly that there is no occlusion of C C C C
larger volumes of gas. Even after the impreg- C C
H H H H H2 C H2
nation, small gas bubbles can be dissolved in H2
the liquid by diffusion if the bubbles are in
Paraffins Naphthenes
contact with a sufficiently large volume of liq-
uid. Void-free impregnation can be proven by H
a sensitive partial discharge measurement. C H
Owing to slow diffusion and dissolution proc- HC CH H H C H
esses, this can sometimes only be successfully HC CH C C =C C
tested after a waiting time of several days. C
H H H H H
Insulating liquids in large devices must be
Aromatics (benzene ring) Olefines
subject to a diagnosis on a regular basis to
enable the documentation of parameters such Figure 5.4-3: Basic constituents of insulating
as moisture, ageing and any discharge proc- mineral oil (transformer oil).
5.4 Insulating Liquids 335

oils), capacitors, instrument transformers and edges of metallic foils). Special ageing resis-
bushings, as well embedding compact high tant oils are preferred in transformers owing to
voltage equipment (e.g. impulse generators, the influx of air, to higher temperatures and to
power supplies for lasers and X-ray machines). the catalytic effect of conductor materials.
Ageing stability is achieved by naphthene-
Note: The depletion of reliable crude-oil based oils and chemical inhibitors.
reservoirs led to the development of gas-to-
liquid oil (GTL) made of natural gas by Note: After refining at 180 to 200 °C, the mineral oil
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. It guarantees comprises, depending on the origin of the oil, especially
paraffins and naphtenes as well as a larger proportion of
constant properties, high ageing stability and
monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic compounds (ap-
very low electric conductivity. prox.. 20 %). By hydrogenation, the double bonds of
aromatic compounds can be saturated by the addition of
Classic mineral oils are obtained from crude hydrogen and are thus converted into considerably more
oil by refining, hydrogenation and if neces- stable naphthenes. A steam pressure of 50 to above 100
sary, by the addition of inhibitors. They com- bars is built up at increased temperature for this and the
prise the following as basic components (Fig- reaction must be catalytically accelerated. For produc-
ure 5.4-3): ing special gas absorbing oils, monocyclic aromatic
compounds can again be added which are slightly more
x paraffins (chain molecules without double ageing resistant than the originally available aromatic
bonds) and isoparaffins (with branching), mixture. The reduced ageing stability of gas absorbing
oils can be improved again by the addition of inhibitors,
x naphthenes (circular hydrocarbons without but this is used up through oxidation during the course
double bonds), of time, especially under the effect of oxygen. Since in-
sulating oil is obtained from natural mineral oil, even
x aromatic compounds (hydrocarbons with small quantities of sulfur are present in it at first. The
benzene rings), as well as so-called corrosive sulfur can attack the conductor
materials. Therefore it is now common practice to
x olefins (chain-like or circular molecules eliminate the corrosive sulfur from the oil.
with double bonds).
Long chain paraffins obstruct the flow of oil at The ageing of mineral oil largely takes place
low temperatures. Insulating oils that must through different oxidation mechanisms that
also be suitable for low temperatures, therefore require the presence of oxygen and the effect
contain a higher proportion of naphthenes. of heat, radiation or partial discharges, Figure
Olefins are chemically vulnerable owing to 5.4-4. Copper catalytically accelerates the re-
unsaturated double bonds and greatly reduce action; therefore, it should not be laid as a bare
the ageing stability of the oil. Olefins should conductor in the oil.
not be present in substantial quantities in in-
sulating oil. The dissipation factor increases irreversibly
owing to the integration of polar OH-groups.
Also Aromatic compounds lead to accelerated Acids and insoluble oil sludge are formed. The
ageing on exposure to oxygen and light. They oil resinifies owing to cross links over oxygen
can oxidize to polar molecules, can add ions or bridges. Water is produced as a condensation
other molecules, can also chemically bond product and reduces the electric strength.
once the double bonds are broken or can cross
link with one another. Aromatic compounds A particularly dangerous reduction in electric
also even have the advantageous property of strength is caused by the formation of so-
gas absorbing behavior, i.e. the molecules ad- called X-wax: under the effect of partial dis-
sorb hydrogen under the effect of partial dis- charges or of very high alternating electric
charges (see Section 3.4.3). Gas absorbing field strengths, any available oxygen oxidizes
aromatic oils are therefore often used in her- the oil molecules. These are then cross-linked
metically sealed insulations that are electri- under prolonged stress. An insoluble wax as
cally highly stressed (e.g. for capacitors and well as hydrogen gas are formed; the gaseous
bushings with very high field strengths at the form can be separated and destroys the electric
336 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

strength. X-wax is observed, for example, in values occur only in extreme cases.
older oil cables, at the metallic foil edges in
AC capacitors and impulse capacitors, in de- Ageing (Oxidation) of oil can also be recog-
laminated resin-bonded paper bushings with nized from enhanced values of the dissipation
infiltrated oil as well as in incompletely im- factor tan G, Figure .5.4-5.
pregnated insulations.
Moreover, the ageing condition can also be
The following methods can be used for the determined from neutralization of free acids
analysis of oil condition: (neutralization number) or free and bonded
acids (saponification number) by potassium
Breakdown measurements can only identify hydroxide. An oil change is generally recom-
heavy wetting of oil. The direct determination mended when the neutralization value for 1 g
of moisture through titration (Karl Fischer ti- of oil exceeds the value of 0.5 mg of KOH.
tration) is more significant. However, the cel-
lulose-based insulation frequently extracts the Note: Gas-in-oil analysis, i.e. the analysis of
moisture from oil and hence high moisture gases dissolved in oil, does not give any direct

Mechanism Consequences Measures *)

a) Breaking double bonds and Dissipation factor irreversibly in- Use of oils with low
addition of polar groups creases due to polarization losses. percentage of unsatu-
(oxidation): Cross-linking and gumming.
rated hydrocarbons
OH (olefines).
C =C + ½ O2 C C
*) see below
b) Oxidation of oil molecules Dissipation factor increases due to Regeneration through
(effect of PD, UV or light): polarization losses. fuller's earth treatment
is only possible to a
Decomposition products, acids,
C H + ½ O2 C OH limited extend.
oil sludge.
*) see below
c) Oxidation and polycondensation The breakdow strength reduces due to By drying of oil,
(effect of PD, UV or light): the synthesis of water, conductivity and breakdown strength,
dissipation factor increase, see Figures conductivity and
C H + O2 + H C 3.3-4, 4.2-5 und 4.2-10. dissipation factor can
(partially) be regen-
Cross-linking leads to formation of
erated.
C O C + H 2O oil sludge and gumming.
*) see below
d) X-wax formation (high alternating Paritial discharge free
field strengths, effect of PD): design.
1.) Bonding of oxygen through oxi- Irreversible increase in polarization Void-free
dation of oil molecules, see b). losses due to oxidation. impregnation.
2.) Subsequent cross-linking: Gumming, formation of X-wax, de- Use of gas-absorbing
crease in volume and gas formation oils.
C OH + H C (hydrogen) through cross-linking.

C O C + H2 *) see below

*) General measures: Closure against influx of air or access to oxygen and moisture, as well
as measures against the effects of PD, UV, light and catalysts (copper).
Application of inhibitors which break the oxidation chain.
Figure 5.4-4: Ageing of mineral oil by oxidation processes.
5.4 Insulating Liquids 337

-1 are at lower risk of ageing and hence even the

10 use of gas-absorbing oils with a high content
of aromatic compounds is possible.
-2 The electric strength and dielectric prop-
10
Aged oil erties of mineral oil have already been de-
tan G scribed in Section 3.4 and Chapter 4. In par-
-3
ticular, see Figures 3.3-1, 3.4.1-2, 3.4.2-1, -2, -
10 4, -5 and -6, Table 3.4.2-1 and 3.4.3-1 and
Figures 4.2-2, -5, -6, -7, -9 and -11.
New oil
-4
10
-30 0 30 60
5.4.3 Synthetic Insulating Liquids
T /°C
Figure 5.4-5: Dissipation factors of aged trans- Synthetic insulating liquids are generally ap-
former oil and of new transformer oil [23]. plied owing to special properties that are not
provided by mineral oils.
information about the condition of the oil, but
it indicates the defects in the device. For ex-
ample, it can distinguish between electric arcs, 5.4.3.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)
partial discharges, overheating in different
temperature ranges and decomposition of cel- Polychlorinated biphenyls were used as fire
lulose [95]… [100]. This and other methods of resistant insulating liquids and cooling liquids
analytical and electrical diagnostics are de- in transformers and as impregnating agents of
scribed in Section 6.4. higher permittivity (Hr = 4 .... 6 at 20 °C and 50
Hz) in capacitors. They can be bio-accumu-
The regeneration of aged mineral oils is pos- lated and are difficult to biodegrade. More-
sible to a limited extent. Dissolved gases and over, under the effect of great heat, highly
moisture can be completely eliminated by toxic decomposition products (dioxins) are
drying or degassing. Polar components which formed. Hence, the production of PCB was
increase losses can be partially absorbed by a stopped in the Federal Republic of Germany in
specially prepared bleaching clay (fuller’s 1983 for example. Existing devices had to be
earth, aluminum silicate). Gumming (resinifi- replaced or filled with non-hazardous liquids
cation) and X-wax formation can no longer be while observing limiting concentrations. Dis-
reversed. posal is carried out by high temperature incin-
eration.
Ageing of insulating oils is a major problem in
highly thermally stressed transformers in
which the oil is in contact with the atmos-
5.4.3.2 Silicone Liquids ("Silicone Oils")
pheric oxygen through the expansion tank.
Preventive measures against ageing are the Silicone liquids consist of linear polymers of
encasement of copper based conductors, the limited length without spatial cross-linkages.
utilization of oils with ageing stability having The macromolecule consists of an inorganic
low content of aromatic compounds as well as skeleton with Si and O atoms that is enclosed
the use of inhibitors, which break the oxida- by methyl groups, for example, Figures 5.3-17
tion chain and get attached to the oil molecule. and 5.4-6. Often silicone liquids are also called
Inhibitors are consumed over time and must be “silicone oils”.
replenished. Oils in hermetically sealed de-
vices (bushings, capacitors, converters, her- Silicone liquids are characterized by a high
metically sealed transformers and apparatus) flash point (> 300 °C according to ASTM D
338 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

92) and a high fire point (> 335 °C). These faces. However, the effectiveness is limited in
values are twice as high as for mineral oils. time. Instead of regular renewal, using a SIR
Moreover, silicone liquids are chemically sta- composite insulator is often preferred, see
ble and thus ageing resistant. Even in the Section 5.3.4.
presence of air, at 150°C silicone liquids have
practically unlimited stability [88]. Compared
to mineral oil, thermal transmission properties 5.4.3.3 Other Organic Liquids
are not so favorable; the volumetric thermal
-3
expansion coefficient is higher (10 /K). Synthetic insulating liquids for transformers
are preferred over mineral oil, especially when
Physiologically, toxicologically and ecologi- thermally resistant, flame-retardant or envi-
cally, polydimethylsiloxane (n = 35) is consid- ronmentally compliant substances that are not
ered as non-hazardous; it decomposes in the hazardous to water are required.
environment into non-hazardous decomposi-
tion products of water, carbon dioxide and Along with silicone liquids, ester liquids
silicic acid [101]. Similar to mineral oils, the [102] which have already been tried and tested
classification is according to the German water in distributing transformers are especially con-
polluting category WGK 1 (mild water pollut- sidered. Pentaerythritol tetraester
ant) for example.
C(CH2 - O - CO - R)4
At Hr = 2.7 (20 °C)... 2.3 (200 °C), the permit-
tivity is slightly higher than that for mineral (e.g. "Midel 7131" [101], [103]) is produced
oil. The dissipation factor varies only slightly by esterification of the tetra-alcohol pentae-
over a wide frequency and temperature range rythritol and mono-carboxilic acids [488]. As
(up to 10 MHz and up to 200 °C respectively) compared to mineral oil, higher permittivity Hr
-4
and is very low at tan G = 1 ... 2·10 . = 3.3 and a slightly higher dissipation factor
-3
tan G > 10 are observed. Owing to thermal
Silicone liquids have a slightly lower electric ageing at 150 °C, tan G increases within 2000 h
strength than mineral oils. Moisture has a sim- by about a factor of 10. The electric strength is
ilar strength reducing influence. Lower electric at comparable values. However, owing to a
strength for larger oil gaps is a disadvantage high water absorption capacity (2700 ppm at
for their application in high voltage transform- 20 °C), it is only dependent on water content
ers. to a very small extent up to 500 ppm. This also
applies to the dissipation factor. It must be
Owing to its high pricing, silicone liquid is
only used as an insulating liquid when it is noted that there are a low pour point of -50 °C
necessary on the basis of thermal stress or as and high values of flash point (257 °C) and
fire point (310 °C) which are almost double
fire protection. Furthermore, silicone pastes
the values of typical mineral oils.
made of silicone liquid with silicic acid are
useful for hydrophobizing of porcelain sur-
Insulating liquids for capacitors are today less
used in the impregnation of paper, but are in-
creasingly used for the impregnation of very
CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 low-loss film dielectrics (all-film dielectrics)
with lower permittivity. The high permittivi-
O Si O Si O Si O Si ties of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are
therefore no longer necessary. Frequently de-
CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 manded properties are a low viscosity for the
impregnation of films placed one upon an-
Figure 5.4-6: Polydimethyl siloxane. other, a high electric strength for withstanding
5.4 Insulating Liquids 339

strengths up to 100 kV/mm (1 Minute, 50 Hz-

r.m.s. value, in the area of the uniform field at
d = 50 μm). This implies that electric strengths
that are about twice as high as those in mineral
oil-impregnated paper can be attained.

Note: The dielectric strength in capacitors is not deter-

mined by the field strengths in the homogeneous area of
the dielectric, but by the sharply increased field
Winding on Stacking in Re-pressing strengths at the edges of the conductive foils, see Figure
mandrel (cir- insulation
cular winding) frame 2.4-20.
Loose flat Drying and Owing to a compact method of construction,
pressing vacuum im-
(flat winding) pregnation employing expensive insulating materials is
useful even for other applications, such as for
Figure 5.4-7: Production of all-film capacitors
with synthetic liquids (schematic). grading capacitors, impulse capacitors or
measuring capacitors. By choosing suitable
the high edge field strengths at the metallic foil insulating materials, the temperature depend-
edges and a high gas-absorbing capability. ence of precision capacitors can be partly
compensated.
For a long time, polyisobutylene
The impregnation of all-film capacitors re-
.... - CH2 - C(CH3)2 - .... quires a raw or punched film surface and a
loose assembly of the capacitor winding to
has been used as a chemically resistant im- ensure an adequate “space factor” for a surface
pregnating agent for cables, capacitors and covering penetration of the impregnating
metal paper (MP) capacitors. It has similar agent, Figure 5.4-7. Circular windings that
properties to mineral oil (Hr = 2.2). The vis- were wound on a mandrel are pressed into
cosity depends on the chain length [88]. loose flat windings with adequate space factor
after the removal of the mandrel. Several flat
Thermally stable, low viscosity insulating liq- windings are stacked in an insulating frame,
uids with a high gas absorption capacity com- electrically connected via inserted metal strips
prise benzene rings, i.e. they have an aromatic (reed contacts), dried under vacuum and im-
character. Examples of this are mentioned as pregnated under vacuum, see Figure 5.4-2.
dodecyl benzene from the series of alkyl ben- The capacitor pile is pressed in the impreg-
zenes, phenyl-xylyl-ethane (PXE), mono-iso- nated condition. A paper insulated capacitor
propyl-biphenyl (MIPB), benzyl neocaprate can be pressed already after drying since the
(BNC), ditolylether (DTE, "Baylectrol 4900", fibrous structure of the dielectric ensures the
from Bayer) as well as mixtures of mono ben- absorption of the liquid, see Figure 5.3-6 and
zyl toluene and dibenzyl toluene (M/DBT, Section 5.3.2.3.
"Ugilec", "Jarilec", from Prodelec) [16], [104]
to [107]. Furthermore, there are also fluori-
nated and chlorinated insulating liquids.
5.4.4 Vegetable Oils and “Natural
Capacitors with all-film dielectrics are mainly Ester Liquids”
used as compensation capacitors owing to
their low losses for AC voltage. They are con- In the initial stages of high voltage engineer-
siderably less sensitive to increased power loss ing, resin oils were used as voltage resistant
for distortions than paper insulated capacitors. impregnating agents for transformers [81]. But
All-film dielectrics with synthetic insulating owing to their low ageing stability and their
liquids can be stressed partially with field inclination to gumming, they were very soon
340 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

replaced by mineral oils. Nevertheless, there voltage stresses as well as for insulation in
are still a few applications of vegetable oils physical devices and in laboratories [22].
for insulation, Section 5.4.4.1.
Ricinus oil must be dried, filtered and treated
Note: Nowadays, vegetable oils are mainly used as raw with fuller’s earth and activated carbon. Ow-
materials for the manufacture of wire enamels and im- ing to high viscosity, impregnation is possible
pregnating resins, based on polyester resins and poly- only at increased temperatures. The advantage
urethane resins. Linseed oil, wood oil, soya oil, ricinus
oil and turpentine oil are used for this [88].
is that the high viscosity prevents the leakage
of an impregnated winding at room tempera-
Meanwhile, there is a strongly increasing in- ture. Ricinus oil solidifies at -10 to -18 °C and
terest in so-called natural ester liquids which therefore cannot be used at low temperatures.
are made of renewable raw materials (seed
oils) and which provide a number of very fa- Meanwhile, even rapeseed oil is also consid-
vorable properties such as biodegradability, ered as insulating liquid for high voltage de-
non-inflammability, no hazard to water, low vices owing to the growing interest in renew-
viscosity and sufficient electric and dielectric able and biodegradable raw materials. The
properties as well as sufficient ageing stability, electric strength corresponds to approximately
Section 5.4.4.2. that of mineral oil at the same relative mois-
ture, whereby the water absorption capacity of
rapeseed oil is more than a factor of 10 greater
5.4.4.1 Vegetable Oils than that of mineral oil. The requirements for
the breakdown strength of new oils are ful-
Ricinus oil has until now been an important filled. The dissipation factor is about a factor
electrical insulating material for DC voltage of 10 greater than that of mineral oil. Thus, the
capacitors and impulse capacitor. High permit- dissipation factors at 90°C are far above the
tivity at Hr = 4.5 is advantageous for capacitive (for mineral oil!) stipulated value of 0.5%
[399]. Experiments with a 20kV/250 kVA
energy storage of high energy density for this.
distributing transformer have in principle
Moreover, impulse capacitors with ricinus oil-
shown the suitability of rapeseed oil as a
paper insulation have an about ten times
cooling medium and insulating medium [400].
longer service life than capacitors with mineral
oil-paper insulation. Note: In the comparative ageing tests on the transform-
erboard that was impregnated with mineral oil or with
The field strength reduction at the sharp foil edges for ageing stabilized rapeseed oil, the boards impregnated
impulse stresses owing to the higher permittivity is with rapeseed oil and the associated oil unexpectedly
considered responsible for this. Moreover, it is assumed aged slower than the conventional comparative samples
that the viscous ricinus oil cannot be as easily elimi- [401]. However, based on the structure of rapeseed oil, a
nated as the viscous mineral oil owing to electrostatic comparatively lower ageing stability was expected.
alternating forces on the metallic foils, and hence the
formation of partial vacuums and gas bubbles is hin-
dered. Furthermore, ricinus oil could have higher resis-
tance to partial discharges occurring during the impulse 5.4.4.2 Natural Ester Liquids
discharges at the foil edges. However, the erosion of
insulation for impulse discharges is also greatly deter- Pure vegetable oils (seed oils) are biodegrad-
mined by the resistance of the paper or the film to par- able, difficult to inflame and not hazardous to
tial discharges. water. Unfortunately, viscosity is compara-
tively high and ageing stability is insufficient
The dissipation factor of ricinus oil is about 5
for many applications. These drawbacks can
times higher than the dissipation factor of
be overcome by the so-called “natural ester
mineral oil. The dielectric properties are also
fluids”.
strongly temperature dependent. Hence, rici-
nus oil is not used for AC voltage stresses but The denomination as “natural ester fluid”
more for DC voltage stresses and impulse might be misunderstood, the final product is
5.4 Insulating Liquids 341

not natural, it is a result of chemical process- x Natural esters dissolve much more water
ing, but the raw materials are natural seed oils. than mineral oil (approximately 200 to
1000 ppm at 20 °C), therefore, new equi-
Easily available seed oils (e.g. rapeseed, soya, librium diagrams for liquid and solid insu-
sunflower) are used as renewable raw materi- lations have to be established [492].
als. From these, a tri-ester is produced by es-
terification of tri-alcohols and fatty acids. A x The viscosity is higher, therefore natural
further processing allows the generation of ester fluids are less efficient for the con-
mono-esters by a transesterification reaction. vective heat transfer in transformers.
The final product consists of mono-esters, of
x The pour point is higher, therefore the low-
tri-esters or of mixtures from mono-esters, tri-
temperature limit has to be chosen ac-
esters, seed oils and inhibitors [488], [489],
cordingly.
[490].
x The flash point is higher.
Depending on the raw materials and process
technology, properties of natural ester fluids x The biodegradability is much better,
can vary in a wide range. Low viscosity and i.e.degradation is faster.
good low-temperature behavior can be
achieved by a high percentage of unsaturated In any case, the limits of the individual (natu-
fatty acids. Improved oxidation stability is ral) ester formulation have to be considered
possible by a high percentage of saturated fats. carefully.
An optimized balance of different seed oils
and additives provides insulating liquids that
have a high environmental safety, high fire
5.4.5 Water
safety, compatability with transformer materi-
als, sufficient oxidation stability, low viscos-
Water has a high electric strength for voltage
ity, low pour point and good electrical proper-
stresses of very short duration, and it complies
ties [489].
with the impulse voltage-time characteristics
Therefore, natural esters are already widely of other liquid insulating materials. Êbd50
used in distribution transformers, especially amounts to about 40kV/mm for a breakdown
for environmentally sensitive applications. The time of 1 μs and falls to about 20 kV/mm for a
usage for high voltage transformers as well as breakdown time of 10 μs. For stresses of long
for retrofitting of aged transformers is possible duration, water is heated and vaporized even
and is tested. at low field strengths owing to its high con-
ductivity, and this initiates the breakdown
However, natural ester fluids are not com- [22].
pletely equivalent to mineral oils; there are the
following basic similarities and differences Water has a high permittivity at Hr = 81 owing
[489] [290] [491] [292]: to its highly polar molecule. Under completely
de-ionized conditions, the conductivity due to
x The breakdown strength is comparable, but
the dissociation of water molecules amounts to
a higher sensitivity to electrode surface -7
area is reported (area effect). about N = 10 S/m, and this corresponds to a
self-discharge time constant W = HN = 7 ms. In
x Dissipation factor (a few percent at 90 °C) contact with air, the conductivity increases
and acidity are higher and increase signifi- owing to the dissolution of CO2 and the for-
cantly during ageing. mation of dissociated carbonic acid up to
-4
x Natural esters are less stable with respect about N = 10 S/m, and this corresponds to a
to oxidation, protection against the access self-discharge time constant W = HN = 7 μs.
of oxygen might eventually be necessary. Therefore, energy can only be stored in water
342 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

insulated capacitors for a very short period of ing to the corrosion hazard at the electrodes
time. and to the probable separation of gas, the use
of transparent pipes or tubes is recommended.
Note: Breakdown strength and specific resistance can be The conductivity should be adjusted in a de-
distinctly increased by mixing with ethylene glycol
[475]. The bivalent alcohol C2H4(OH)2, known as an
fined manner by the release of small quantities
antifreeze compound and a solvent, is highly polarizable of salt (for copper electrodes, for example,
like water but does not form ions. For a proportion of with copper sulfate CuSO4). During the design
approx. 70 %, the breakdown strength increases by stage, the adequate removal of resultant heat
-6
about 39 %, conductivity decreases from 8 10 ·S/m to must be ensured.
-6
2.5·10 S/m and permittivity falls from about 80 to 68.5
[475]. As per Eq. (2.1-13), an increase in the energy
Water is also used for potential grading for
density by approx. 48 % is associated with it. An in-
crease in the self-discharge time constants through re- cable tests in cable test terminations, Figure
duced conductivity and lowering of the freezing point is 5.4-8. Under this, the resistance must be ad-
also of advantage. The toxicity of ethylene glycol must justed in such a way that there is no overload-
be considered. ing of the voltage source and the heat losses
can be dissipated.
An important application is the high-power
impulse technology (pulsed power technology)
described in Sections 2.6.3.3, 6.2.3.7 and
7.4.2. Under this, very compact water insu- 5.4.6 Liquefied Gases
lated lines are charged within about a few μs
from conventional capacitor batteries by os- For the utilization of superconductivity in
cillation. At a voltage maximum, the lines are power engineering (see Section 7.5), an im-
discharged within a few 10 ns as a travelling pregnating agent suitable for low temperatures
wave. This results in an extreme space and is necessary [111]. All the technically applied
time compression of the stored energy that is insulating liquids today can only be used for
required for basic physical research and for temperatures above approx. -60 °C. For use at
ignition impulses in nuclear fusion experi- lower temperatures, liquefied insulating gases
ments [14], [15], [40], [42], [43], [108]. such as sulfur hexafluoride (LSF6, liquid SF6),
nitrogen (LN2, liquid N2) and helium (LHe,
Water is also used as a switching medium in
spark gaps. By discharging an energy storage liquid He) are available for example. For LN2
capacitor, the electrically stored energy can be and LHe, strengths that can be compared with
quickly transformed into the energy of an other liquid insulating materials are specified
acoustic shock wave in a water insulated spark [109], Tab. 5.4-1.
gap. In medical technology, this is useful for
destroying renal stones, in production technol- Table 5.4-1: Breakdown strengths of liquid gases at
normal pressure given as 63% value (peak value).
ogy for material transformation and in recy- Breakdown probabilities under 1% must be expected
cling for separating material fractions. More- to occur at about half of the specified values [109].
over, the pulse power technology described
above is also used for water insulated point-to- Arrangement Êbd63 (LHe) Êbd63 (LN2)
point spark gaps (made of rods). The break- Sphere-to-plane (D = 50 mm, d = 1 mm)
down time depends on the distance of the
electrodes and on the magnitude and profile of AC (60 Hz) 39.0 68.5 kV/mm
DC positive 54.5 72.4 kV/mm
the applied voltage. DC negative 50.9 74.4 kV/mm

Furthermore, in high voltage engineering, wa- Coaxial cylinders (L = 100 mm. d = 2.3 mm)
ter resistors are used for current limitation and AC (60 Hz) 19.7 23.1 kV/mm
as filter elements in high voltage circuits or as DC positive 20.4 23.9 kV/mm
load resistors in impulse voltage circuits. Ow- DC negative 19.2 24.0 kV/mm
5.4 Insulating Liquids 343

LN2 LSF6

d= 05 mm Êbd = 80 kV/mm 90 kV/mm

Guarding toroid 1 mm 55 kV/mm 90 kV/mm
on the high voltage side
2 mm 40 kV/mm 90 kV/mm
Water resistor 5 mm 30 kV/mm 90 kV/mm
10 mm 25 kV/mm -
XLPE cable insulation 20 mm 19 kV/mm -

Conductor The strength of liquefied insulating gases is

heavily dependent upon pressure. Strengths
are specified for LSF6, which approximately
correspond to that of gaseous SF6 with the
same density as that which occurs for the re-
Outer semi-conductive
spective pressure above the liquid [22].
layer

Guarding toroid The use of high-temperature superconductivity

at the ground side enables insulation with LN2, whose boiling
point is 77K under normal pressure. This en-
ables the heat removal capacity to be reduced
approximately by a factor of 100 in compari-
son with LHe with a boiling point of 4.2 K.

For the volume effect and area effect, expo-

Cable
nents (-0.148 and -0.172 according to [109])
were determined that are smaller than the ex-
ponents assumed for the distance effect in in-
sulating oil (approx. -0.37), Figure 3.4.2-6. For
LN2, the following is given as the empirically
determined distance effect 331], [332].
Figure 5.4-8: Cable test termination (schematic).
-0.2
Ebd(DC) = (29 kV/mm) · (d/mm) (5.4.6-1)

Breakdown is initiated by thermal gas bubbles The breakdown is initiated by thermal gas
[110]. This leads to a pronounced volume ef- bubbles at the electrode surfaces and in the
fect and area effect, as well as to a large dis- volume. In contrast to insulating oil, bubble
persion of breakdown field strengths. There- formation in LN2 is unavoidable: While oper-
fore, low breakdown probabilities of < 1 % ating close to the boiling point, it is not only
must only be expected at much lower field the heating at quenching (loss of supercon-
strengths (about half of the above mentioned ductivity), but probably even the AC losses in
values) [109]. operation (which cannot be totally avoided
even for superconductivity, see Section 7.5)
For a larger range of flashover distances, the that leads to bubble formation at the conductor
following breakdown field strengths Êbd (peak surface. The design of the insulation, there-
values) are given in a sphere-to-plane ar- fore, must also take into consideration the
rangement (D=50mm), for LN2 under normal presence of bubbles that can be noticed from a
pressure and for LSF6 at 22 bars [22]: distinct reduction in the breakdown voltage,
344 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

The effect of bubbles in LN2 is less hazardous

V / kV (DC) than in insulating oil: however, owing to a low
60 Breakdown voltage permittivity of Hr = 1.44 in spherical bubbles,
d D the field stress enhancement amounts to only
about 11 % (for AC and impulse voltages).
40 Natural Furthermore, the gas density of bubbles in the
convection low temperature range at about 77 K is approx.
of LN2 3.8 times higher than at the room temperature
Bubble motion determined
by the field forces of 293 K. According to Paschen’s law, this
20
leads to a significantly higher electric strength
owing to correspondingly reduced free path
Start of Bubble motion determined
boiling by buoyant forces lengths, Section 3.2.2.4. Measurements have
been reported, according to which even the
Heating power
AC-strength in LN2 in the range of 0.5 to 1
Figure 5.4-9: Influence of thermal gas bubbles on the mm, approximately follows Paschen’s law for
breakdown behavior of LN2 in a cylinder-to-plane ar-
rangement with d=2mm and D=10mm. The grounded,
GN2 at 77 K (Êbd = 12.5 kV/mm for d = 1 mm
horizontally placed cylinder was heated [332]. [333]). Other sources also recommend the
strength of nitrogen gas at 77 K to be chosen
Figure 5.4-9. The bubbles deform under the as the limiting value [334] (AC r.m.s. value:
effect of the electric field and form chains 6.4 kV/mm, LI peak value: 15 kV/mm, for d =
[332]. Thus, the electric strength approximates 10 mm in each case).
to the value of gaseous nitrogen (GN2), very Measures for increasing the electric strength
rapidly for small gaps (< 0.5 mm) and slightly would include preventing the formation of
slower for larger gaps (> 1 mm) with intensi- bubbles by having operating temperatures far
fied heating and intensified bubble formation below the boiling point (the lower limit is the
[333]. melting point of nitrogen at 63 K) as well as
by increasing the pressure, which delays
Approximately comparable profiles were de- boiling and increases the strength [335].
termined for the strength for AC, DC positive
and DC negative (for peak values, see also
[333]).
Û
Vbd50% / kV (Peak values)
In the case of impulse voltage, a fundamen- 60 Horizontal cylinder
tally different characteristic is seen: during the LI 1.2/50 μs (grounded and heated)
liquid phase - similar to insulating oil - the vertical plane
pos./neg.
impulse strength is far above the AC strength 40
(a factor of 1.5 relative to the AC peak value AC
and 2.2 relative to the AC r.m.s. value [333]), DC
but the strength reduces in the gas bubble pos./neg.
phase to the value of the gas strength, so that 20
there is no significant difference between im-
pulse strength and AC-strength, Figure 5.4-10. Initial boiling
point
There is no distortion of the gas bubbles for
impulse voltage stress, and hence the decease Heating power
is slower, i.e. only for higher heating power. Figure 5.4-10: Reduction of AC voltage strength and
But basically it is ascertained that thermal gas loss of impulse voltage strength under the effect of
bubbles especially lead to loss of high impulse thermal gas bubbles in LN2 in a cylinder-to-plane ar-
voltage strength! rangement with d=1 mm, D = 10 mm and l= 20 mm
[333].
5.5 Fibrous Materials 345

5.5 Fibrous Materials features of OIP dielectrics must be taken into

consideration during manufacturing and proc-
essing, Section 5.5.1.4.
Impregnated paper and impregnated press-
board consisting of fibrous materials are used
as dielectrics and dielectric barriers in capaci-
5.5.1.1 Electric Strength
tors, cables, bushings, instrument transformers
and transformers. Plates, tubes and other The high electric strength of impregnated fi-
molded components are largely used in trans- brous materials depends on the barrier effect
former construction as dielectric barriers. Fi- of fibers, which subdivide the volume into a
brous materials are one of the most important large number of very closely placed oil gaps or
insulating materials of high voltage engineer- pores with high electric strength, Figure 3.4.2-
ing. The properties must always be considered 6.
with regard to an impregnating agent, Figure
5.5-1. In combination with mineral oils or For a theoretical assessment of partial dis-
other insulating liquids, high electric strengths charge inception field strengths in oil-filled
can be attained by impregnation of cavities pores of impregnated paper or pressboard, see
and pores between the fibers. Without impreg- Eq. (3.4.2-1), case (1) and (2), Table 5.5-1.
nation, fibrous materials possess unacceptably
low strengths.
Table 5.5-1: Theoretically estimated partial dis-
Note: Although the strength of papers can also be in- charge inception field strengths (r.m.s. values) in the
creased by compressed gases, it is less common. The oil filled pores of impregnated paper or pressboard.
high impregnability of gases allows the use of electri-
cally resistant foils with lower permittivity and accord- Oil condition degassed gas-saturated
ingly less field displacement into the gas-filled gaps. EPDI EPDI
Pore width kV/mm kV/mm
The main component of paper and pressboard
is cellulose (Section 5.5.1), for which short- 1 μm 270 220
term temperatures up to 120 °C can be al- 3 μm 180 148
lowed, but this ages unacceptably fast for op- 10 μm 115 95
erating temperatures above 90 °C. Higher
30 μm 76 64
temperatures are possible with synthetic fi-
brous materials (Section 5.5.2).
Under this, pore widths in the range of 1 ... 3
μm are associated with thin, highly com-
pressed insulating papers, and pore widths of
5.5.1 Paper and Pressboard 10 … 30 μm are associated with less strongly
compressed, thicker materials.
Paper and pressboard acquire their electric
strength only by impregnation with insulating These inception field strengths in the pores are
oil, Section 5.5.1.1. The actual insulating ma- attained owing to field displacement even for
terials are therefore not paper and pressboard, lower mean field strengths. In the ideal case, a
but oil-impregnated paper OIP and impreg- spherical oil filled pore, according to Figure
nated pressboard. Dielectric properties are 2.4-22 and Eq. (2.4-38), increases the field
dependent on a series of different parameters, strength in oil by about 25% relative to the
Section 5.5.1.2. Significant reductions in surrounding cellulose. This implies that the
strength are possible as a result of ageing and following is valid:
absorption of water (or moisture resp.), there-
fore condition assessment is of great signifi- Efiber < 0.8 EOil . (5.5-1)
cance for OIP, Section 5.5.1.3. The special
346 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

For this it was assumed that for mineral oil Hr = density of the material because the resistance
2.2 and for the cellulose fiber Hr = 5.1 [82] to to partial discharge erosion increases.
Hr = 6.1 [103]. In the worst case, a parallel For the strength at lightning impulse voltage,
level layering or de-lamination of individual in accordance with Table 3.4.2-1, values are
layers is applicable with Eq. (2.4-17): applicable that are two to three times higher
than the r.m.s. values of partial discharge in-
Efiber < 0.4 EOil . (5.5-2) ception field strengths. Values measured be-
tween spheres (D = 25 mm) of 60 kV/mm (d =
For highly compressed material (density G = 10 mm) to 135 kV/mm (d = 0.2 kV/mm) are
3
1.25 g/cm ), oil absorption amounts only to specified for pressboard [27]. The strengths of
about 8 %. The relative permittivity of the thinner capacitor dielectrics are slightly higher.
mixed dielectric is about Hr = 4.5 and for aver-
age field strength it is approximately Operating field strengths are much below the
mentioned values to rule out a breakdown
Emean | 1.1 ... 1.3 Efiber . (5.5-3) even for many years of operation. Common
r.m.s. values are for
In weakly compressed material (density G =
3 capacitors (d | 50 μm) 20 ... 30 kV/mm,
0.8 g/cm ) oil absorption amounts to almost 50 low-pressure oil cable 10 ... 16 kV/mm,
%. The relative permittivity of the mixed di- hermetically sealed devices
electric is about Hr = 3.7 and for average field (instrument transformers, bushings) 3 ... 5 kV/mm
and transformers with air admission 2 kV/mm.
strength it is approximately
Tangential stresses on a paper surface or on a
Emean | 1.4 ... 1.6 Efiber . (5.5-4) pressboard surface under oil can be applied
almost up to the values of a comparatively
The theoretically determined values can be long oil gap, because the fibrous surface
verified with difficulty from measurements, structure exhibits a barrier effect for the tan-
because in a test set up of two electrodes and a gential stress. Microscopically, there exists a
material sample between them, the weakest steady transition from the oil medium into the
point lies in the oil filled interstice at the elec- fibrous material. Incomplete wetting of the
trode edge, Figures 2.4-18 and -19. This im- surface is not possible. In practice, however,
plies that outside the material, normal and at the tangential stresses are often restricted to
higher voltages even tangential discharges are about 70% of the oil gap values.
ignited and these erode the cellulose and lead
to breakdown (edge breakdown). The incep-
tion of partial discharges in homogeneously
5.5.1.2 Dielectric Properties, Moisture and
stressed areas of the material is therefore not
Ageing
achieved.

Depending on the radius of curvature at the a) Permittivity

foil edges, measured apparent r.m.s. partial The permittivity of impregnated paper and that
discharge inception field strengths EPDI = of pressboard depends on the density of the
VPDI/d, (d | 50 μm) lie between 55 and 70 material and on the impregnating agent, Figure
kV/mm for capacitor dielectrics and between 5.5-1.
60 kV/mm (d = 0.2 mm) and 20 kV/mm (d = 4
mm) [27], [82] for pressboard. They reduce b) Dissipation factor (loss factor)
with the density of the material because the The dissipation factor of mineral-oil-impreg-
field displacement in the oil-filled interstice nated paper has a polarization maximum in the
increases. The apparent breakdown field range of -80 to - 60 °C at 50 Hz, Figure 5.5-2.
strengths are higher; they increase with the Thus, the usual operating temperatures are
5.5 Fibrous Materials 347

between the polarization maximum and the rise exponentially.

conductivity rise in a loss minimum of about
-3 x Up to a water content of 1 to 2%, the
tan G = 3·10 ("bath-tub curve"). For used oil- breakdown strength is practically not in-
impregnated paper, the minimum disappears, fluenced, but beyond that it reduces to very
Figure 3.5-7. An ageing-induced or moisture- small values. The dissipation factor
induced rise in dissipation factor can lead to -2
amounts to about tan G = 10 .
thermal breakdown in the case of unfavorable
heat transmission, for example, in thick-walled x For a water content of about 10%, there is
insulations. practically no more electric strength. The
dissipation factor is about tan G = 1.
c) Moisture influences
Hence, paper and pressboard must be ex-
The performance of oil-impregnated paper and tremely well dried, generally down to a water
pressboard is heavily determined by the water content of a maximum of 0.5 to 0.3%.
content or water content of the cellulose:
More extensive drying by increasing the tem-
x For a water content of more than 0.1%, peratures could cause appreciable ageing of
conductivity and dissipation factor begin to the cellulose. Considering short-duration
electric strength at room temperature, water
contents of up to 2% can be accepted. How-
7 ever, at high operating temperatures, de-po-
lymerization of cellulose molecules would
6 Ricinus oil (castor oil)
therefore be accelerated by more than a factor
5 of 10, Figure 3.5-6. From the perspective of
Hr ageing stability, this is unacceptable. Moreo-
4 ver, moist cellulose would release dangerous
Mineral oil steam bubbles at high temperatures. Residual
3 moisture of 0.3 to 0.5 % is thus a compromise
Gas that enables good dielectric properties, high
2
breakdown strength and a long service life.
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.53 d) Conductivity
Paper density G / g/cm³ The conductivity of oil-impregnated paper OIP
Figure 5.5-1: Permittivity of ipmregnated paper or and pressboard is increasingly gaining impor-
pressboard for different impregnating agents as a tance since it directly determines the perform-
function of paper density (volumic mass) [16], [82]. ance of DC voltage insulations, Section 7.2,
and furthermore since it is used as a diagnostic
tan G
moist
Polarization Polarization Polarization Polarization
dry 100 n
current / A 100 n
current / A 100 n
current / A 100 n
current / A
Rise in
w=4%
conductivity 10 n 10 n 10 n
w=3%
10 n

1n 1n w=2% 1n 1n

w=1%
100 p 100 p 100 p 100 p
Polarization
10 p 10 p 10 p 10 p
Depolarization Depolarization Depolarization Depolarization
current / A current / A current / A current / A
- 60 °C 0 °C + 60 °C T 1
1p
10 100 1000 1
1p
10 100 1000 1
1p
10 100 1000 1
1p
10 100 1000
Time / s Time / s Time / s Time / s

Figure 5.5-2: Dissipation factor or loss factor for Figure 5.5-3: Determination of dielectric properties of
oil-impregnated paper or pressboard ("bath-tub oil-impregnated transformerboard T IV by PDC-meas-
curve"), see also Fig. 3.5-7. urements for different water contents.
348 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

The structural differences between homoge-

10
-11 neous pressboard and OIP made of thin indi-
N S/m Measured at 90 °C vidual layers have an effect on the conductivi-
ties, Figure 5.5-5: paper layers impregnated
End
with high-resistive oil exhibit comparably low
Measured at 50 °C values conductivities for high water contents, proba-
bly because high-impedance oil gaps between
Measured at RT
-14
the moist and conductive paper layers act as
10 resistance-enhancing layers. Paper layers im-
Calculated for RT
from 90 °C and pregnated with low-resistive oil do not exhibit
-15
50 °C (dotted line). 10 this phenomenon, but increased oil conductiv-
ity also causes an increase in the conductivity
-16
10 of the impregnated material for low water
0% 1% 2% 3% w 5% contents.
Figure 5.5-4: Conductivities of OIP at E = 0.1 kV/mm Note: Eq. (4.2-9) and Figure 5.5-5 were determined
for different water contents w and three temperatures, with different oils and with different wetting
determined by the charge difference method CDM procedures. Hence the values differ from each other.
[429]. Verification of the Arrhenius relation by back
calculation of room temperature RT values from meas- The conductivity distribution in paper and
urements at 50 °C and 90 °C, Eq. (4.2-9), Figure 4.2.9. pressboard is not completely uniform; it is
assumed that higher conductivity is present at
indicator for OIP insulations, Section 6.4. The the surface zones in which the conductivity of
conductivity is determined by ion conduction oil is of importance [429], [436]. The oil con-
in the oil-filled capillaries as well as by charge ductivity has a significant influence on the
carrier transport along cellulose fibers which conductivity of the impregnated material when
are wetted to a greater or lesser extent. For a it has a high value and if the cellulose is not
polarization and de-polarization current meas- heavily wetted [429], [436].
urement (PDC measurement), the conduction
current overlays the polarization processes; it Conductivity shows only a very low field
increases sharply with the water content, strength dependence, which is probably caused
Figure 5.5-3. From the de-polarization current by the non-linearity of the oil conductivity.
it can be seen that even the polarization proc-
esses (to a lesser extent) are influenced by the -11
water content. 10
N S/m
Pressboard
Conductivity depends not only on the water (Board)
content, but also on several other parameters, Paper layers with
especially on the temperature, Figure 5.5-4. low-resitive oil
The temperature dependence results from in-
creases in the number of charge carriers and 10
-14
from increases of charge carrier mobility; it Paper layers with
follows the Arrhenius relationship according high resistive oil
10
-15
to Eq. (4.2-9). This can be verified from Fig-
ure .5.5-4, since the values reverse calculated -16
10
from 90 °C and 50 °C to room temperature 0% 1% 2% 3% w 5%
agree with directly measured values.
Figure 5.5-5: Conductivities of oil-impregnated paper
OIP (light grey curves) and pressboard (Transformer-
The conductivity increases exponentially with board, dark grey curve) for different water contents w
increasing water content, both for OIP as well for high and low resistive insulating oils. Schematic
as for pressboard, Figure 5.5-5, Eq. (4.2-7). representation for room temperature [429], [436].
5.5 Fibrous Materials 349

Also ageing has at least an indirect influence The determination of the water content in oil
on the conductivity. Ageing is generally un- and the application of equilibrium curves
derstood as de-polymerization of long chain allow only very inaccurate conclusions about
cellulose molecules, which can weaken the the water content in the cellulose, Figure 5.5-
mechanical strength. Whether and how this 6. The highly hygroscopic cellulose extracts
can be identified in dielectric measurements is the moisture from the oil, so that even for un-
subject of discussion. However, in the course acceptably wet paper or pressboard (e.g. w = 3
of ageing, especially also the oil is damaged %), in the equilibrium condition a very dry oil
and this is noticed from an increase in conduc- condition is measured (i.e. w < 5 ppm at 20
tivity and polarization processes in the oil- °C). Only at very high temperatures, it is pos-
cellulose mixed dielectric, Figure 6.4.7-9. sible to prove low paper moistures (e.g. 0.5%)
by appreciable moisture in oil (e.g. 15 ppm at
100 °C). A comparison between moisture in
5.5.1.3 Condition Assessment oil and moisture in paper is allowed only on
setting an equilibrium condition. This can take
An assessment of the ageing condition of
a long time.
cellulose-based insulation can be carried out
on material samples by determining the aver- Note: In transformers, in which mostly locally and
age degree of polymerization (DP value) ac- temporally varying temperatures are present, it is gener-
cording to IEC 450. New cellulose molecules ally not possible to assume an equilibrium condition:
consist of 1300 to 1400 glucose molecules. determination of moisture in paper using equilibrium
curves in accordance with Figure5.5-6 is therefore not
Cellulose chains are shortened by the ageing possible, see also Section 6.4.7.
processes. The limit for operational reliability
is seen for a DP-value of 150 to 200, at which Meanwhile, also methods of dielectric diag-
the cellulose is brittle and fragile. For the de- nostics are employed. I.e. a diagnosis voltage
termination, cellulose is dissolved in copper is applied to the insulation system. The re-
ethyldiamine; the viscosity of the solution is a sponse of the dielectric system in the form of
measure of the average chain length [84]. A currents or voltages can be assessed in the time
disadvantage of the process is that it is neces- domain or frequency domain, Section 6.4.
sary to extract the material samples. The
method allows only local evidence. For a detailed presentation of diagnosis pro-
cedures, see Sections 6.4.7 and 7.1.3.6.
The analysis of cellulose-decomposition prod-
ucts that are dissolved in oil enables an inte-
gral statement about the ageing condition of a 5.5.1.4 Manufacture and Processing
device. Furfuran derivates (furfurals, furfu-
rols) are determined by liquid chromatogra- Paper and pressboard are manufactured from
phy, according to IEC 61198 (VDE 0380- 6) so-called wood pulp, which largely consists of
[84], [112], [493]. On the basis of experience cellulose fibers. Cellulose is a natural macro-
to date, definite quantification of cellulose de- molecule, which can be considered as a con-
composition has not been possible. It must be densation polymer of glucose (dextrose),
noted that an oil exchange flushes out the Figure 5.5-7. By cross-linkages via the polar
available decomposition products. In Gas-in- hydroxyl groups, crystalline areas are created
oil analysis, the presence of CO and CO2 give which gives rise to a fibrous structure with
an indication of the decomposition of cellulose capillaries and a large surface area. This ex-
owing to thermal overheating or electrical dis- plains the hygroscopic character of cellulose,
charges. The type of defect can be determined which in equilibrium with air binds 5 to 10 %
based on the other fault gases arising from the of its weight in the form of water. High quality
decomposition of mineral oil, see Section cellulose is obtained from alpha-cellulose with
6.4.3.2. a degree of polymerization of about 2000 and
350 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

0 °C 20 °C 40 °C Reference [369]:
(max. 20 ppm) (max. 50 ppm) (max. 120 ppm) Griffin
5
Oommen

Water
content 4
in the
cellulose 60 °C (max. 260 ppm)
3
%

2
80 °C (max. 500 ppm)

1
100 °C (max. 880 ppm)
Well dried cellulose
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Water content in the oil / ppm

Figure 5.5-6: Water content in mineral oil and cellulose in equilibrium for different temperatures.
Saturation concentration of water in oil for the respective temperatures is given in the brackets.
The curves specified in the literature do not always concur with each other [369].

a low proportion of so-called hemicellulose added.

with a degree of polymerization under 200.
Hemicellulose facilitates the formation of hy- For obtaining wood pulp, the raw material
drogen bridges and thereby increases the must be chopped down and also chemically
strength of the fibers if their proportion is less and thermally processed to remove interfering
than 10% [27]. components (lignin and resins). Wood pulp
used for electrotechnical applications is largely
The best and strongest fibers are provided by obtained by alkaline decomposition by boiling
pine woods which are at the limit of their natu- with sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide
ral environment of growth, such as northern (sulfate pulping). Finally, it is necessary to
spruce and pines. In particular, they contain wash it out with care in clean and non-con-
slowly and thickly grown fibers. However, ductive water.
wood pulp from other sources, such as birch,
poplar, wheat straw or from cotton scrapings, For the manufacture of paper and press-
linen scrapings and waste hemp are often also board, the (sulfate) wood pulp is dissolved in

H 2 C OH H OH H 2 C OH
C O C C C O
H O H H O
H OH H H
C C C C C C
OH H H OH H
O H H O H
C C C O C C
Figure 5.5-7:
H OH H 2 C OH H OH
Macromolecule of
cellulose.
5.5 Fibrous Materials 351

water, broken down to individual fibers and attaining the respective diameter, metallic foils
finely ground to obtain a dense material with of graduated lengths are inserted for capacitive
many contact points between the fibers. grading, Figure 5.5-9. Capacitor dielectrics
are manufactured by simultaneous winding of
Note: Wood pulp for insulating paper and insulating
pressboard is not bleached. Binding agents and fillers
metallic capacitor foils with several thin “ca-
are not added either. pacitor papers” (10 to 30 μm) and/or poly-
meric films, Figure 5.5-10.
At the paper machine, the aqueous suspension
(99 % Water) is cast continuously by passing Note: While connecting the metallic foils via contact
strips, the inductance of the capacitor is greatly deter-
through a sieve in which approx. 10 to 20% of
mined by the position of the contact strips. An espe-
water drips off. After a few 10s of meters, the cially low inductance set up results without contact
moist paper web is lifted off and dehumidified strips, when both the metallic foils are shifted against
between press rollers and woven felts until a
water content of about 65 to 70% is achieved.
It is further dried by intense heating for a re-
sultant water content of 4 to 8%. This is fol-
lowed by cooling down on cooling rollers,
smoothing between rollers, cutting to specific
widths and winding [88].
For manufacturing thinner capacitor papers,
the machine-smooth paper is calendered, i.e.
additionally pressed under high pressure be-
tween the rollers of a so-called calender. This
gives high compression and a smooth surface.
The manufacture of pressboard is similar to
that of paper. However, the moist web lifted
off the sieve is immediately wound on a roller
until the desired plate thickness of several mm
is attained. Owing to the high proportion of
water, individual paper layers are still deeply Figure 5.5-8: Winding a conductor with overlap-
interconnected. By cutting open in the axial ping paper tapes (Cable or tape winding).
direction, a moist panel is formed and this,
similarly to paper, passes through a press sec-
tion and dryer section and is subsequently
stacked.
Grading cone
Molded components made of pressboard, e.g.
flange rings and caps for transformer insula- Wound bushing core
tions, can be manufactured by thermoforming
from wetted pressboard panels or by manual Capacitive grading foil
couching of wet paper layers on molds.

Paper is processed by winding. Conductors Cutter Paper web

are wound with paper tapes in an overlapping
manner, Figure 5.5-8. For example, high volt-
age cables require insulations of several cm
thickness made of “cable paper” (80 to 130 Figure 5.5-9: Winding of a bushing with running
μm). Bushing cores are obtained by continu- through paper web and inserted capacitive grading
ous winding of broad paper webs, in which, on foils.
352 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

Metal foil 2

Dielectric
(4 layers)

Contact
Contact
strip 2
strip 1

Figure 5.5-11: Coverage of defective spots or

Dielectric
abutting edges in a multilayered dielectric.
(4 layers)

Metal foil 1 For this, the pressure in the degassing tank

must be selected to be at least one order of
magnitude lower than the desired partial water
Figure 5.5-10: Winding of a four-layered capacitor vapor pressure to ensure a pressure difference
dielectric with contact strips.
for rapid moisture diffusion from the inner
parts of the insulation to the surface.
each other towards left and right and are contacted
across the whole area at the front side of the capacitor Example: For drying to a residual water content of
winding [113]. 0.1%, according to Figure 5.5-12, a temperature of 120
°C at a partial water vapor pressure < 3 mbar is neces-
While processing the paper, the assembly of a sary. For ensuring an adequate pressure difference, a
multilayer dielectric must always be guaran- pressure in the degassing tank of around 0.1 mbar is
teed. Owing to technologically unavoidable generally necessary.
defective spots and holes, a single paper does
not have an insulation effect, i.e. The following phases are passed through dur-
ing drying and impregnation, Figure 5.5-13:
“one paper is no paper!”
a) Dielectric is mainly heated up by convec-
Individual defective spots are only covered by tion, for example by heating kerosene vapor
stacking several layers. Adequate coverage is (vapor-phase), which condenses on the still
necessary also for abutting edges between cold insulation [114]. In the case of trans-
strips and webs, Figure 5.5-11. Practical insu-
lations are therefore made out of 4 to 5 layers.
Analogously, this is also applicable to insula- 10
tions of polymeric films. 50 °C
80 °C
Note: Frequently, oil-filled cavities, which are consider-
1 100 °C
ably larger than the pores within the paper, form defects Water
in the assembly of dielectrics. These must be taken into content 120 °C
account during the estimation of electric strength, see (wt %)
Table 5.5-1 and Figure 3.4.2-6. 0.1

The insulation body manufactured by winding

as well as other cellulose-based parts must be 0.001
0,1 1 10 100
dried and impregnated under vacuum in
order to obtain an ageing-stable, void-free in- Partial water vapor pressure / mbar
sulation that is also free of partial discharges.
Figure 5.5-12: Water content of cable paper (wt %
Negligible residual moisture of about 0.1% with regard to the dry weight of the paper) as a
can be attained only at high temperatures (up function of partial water vapor pressure at differ-
to 120 °C) and under vacuum, Figure 5.5-12. ent temperatures [16].
5.5 Fibrous Materials 353

former windings, the heating can be acceler- sure is therefore often not attained immedi-
ated by the ohmic losses of current (Joule ef- ately and the insulation temperature falls
fect) in the conductors. Here, owing to the again, Figure 5.5-13.
inductive reactive impedances, heating is car-
Note: Temporary reductions in pressure (reduction in
ried out at low frequencies so that low voltages intermediate pressure) already in the heating up phase
that can be handled under vacuum conditions can lead to an acceleration of water transport to the
are adequate (LFH: low-frequency heating) surface. They are therefore used in modern plants for
[70]. The rise in temperature should not be the optimization of process control [114].
more than 10 °C/hour for the protection of the
paper or pressboard [27]. Owing to the high c) Temperature and pressure must be main-
temperatures, an atmosphere that contains ox- tained at the desired values by radiation heat-
ygen (air) shall not be used to avoid rapid ing and evacuation until the drying is com-
ageing through oxidation. Heat transmission pleted. The drying procedure is at first super-
by radiation heating under vacuum is gener- vised by the quantity of water deposited in a
ally not enough, since heavily evaporating condensation trap. In the medium vacuum
water in the initial stages leads to significant phase, the dissipation factor is observed for
evaporative cooling. the insulation with the longest diffusion paths.
Information about the drying state is also
b) Water also evaporates significantly during given by the pressure rise that is measured
subsequent evacuation. The desired end pres- within a specific period after the vacuum

Example of a heated
Pressure p Pressure rise
vacuum tank with for a leakage
immersion bath and
paper windings

Pressure rise due

Assessment of water to evaporation
content by measuring of water
the pressure rise after
switching off the Time t
vacuum pump

Impregnation
Heating up phase
Pressure reduction phase Medium vacuum phase Waiting time

Insulation material temperature

Dissipation factor
measured at the
Pressure most critical object

Pressure rise
within a specific Time t
period of time (see above)

Figure 5.5-13: Monitoring the drying progress of cellulose-based insulations by observing the temperature
parameters: pressure, pressure rise (within a specific period after switching off the vacuum pump) and
dissipation factor (for the object with the least rate of drying).
354 5 INSULATING MATERIALS

pump is switched off. In a hermetically sealed oil-filled transformer, temperature equilibrium

tank, partial water vapor pressure equilibrium is created by the circulation of oil. After emp-
occurs after a long time, and this, in accord- tying the oil, fine drying is carried out under
ance with Figure 5.5-12, gives information vacuum with simultaneous low-frequency
about the (average) residual moisture. heating of windings by a frequency converter.
Subsequently, the transformer is filled with
All the procedures mentioned provide integral new oil or with the used oil that has been con-
information which does not allow any direct ditioned in parallel under vacuum [70]. During
conclusion on the local water content. If the this, it must be noted that the impregnation of
measurable parameters are no longer changing, insulation already containing oil is more diffi-
an additional waiting period is allowed, Figure cult, so that larger gas bubbles might be
5.5-13. Objects with large surfaces and small trapped and could dissolve in oil only after a
thicknesses can be dried within a few days, but longer period.
under unfavorable diffusion conditions it can
even take several weeks. For example, the
moisture for big bushing cores must diffuse
over several meters in the axial direction to the 5.5.2 Synthetic Fibrous Materials
front side areas, since the metallic grading
layers obstruct diffusion in the radial direction. Synthetic fibrous materials in the form of pa-
pers or pressboard type panels and molded
During drying, a shrinkage that cannot be ex- components for high temperatures are pre-
actly defined before must be taken into con- pared from aramide fibers, see Section 5.3.2.5.
sideration and it makes prior determination of
the final dimensions of the finished product Since stiff and smooth extruded fibers of
difficult. crystalline aramide have no bonding with one
another and do not become felted, manufac-
d) After drying, the insulation is flooded under turing products with satisfactory mechanical
vacuum with dry and degassed oil to prevent properties was not possible for a long time.
the entry of air and moisture. The necessary bonds with the crystalline fibers
could only be formed by flocculation or by
e) Thereafter, the vessel with the paper wind- moist fibrillated fibers of amorphous amides.
ings immersed in oil can be pressurized. Im-
pregnation is finally completed by compres- The further manufacture of aramide-papers
®
sion and dissolution of residual gas bubbles. and Nomex board (Du Pont) is similar to the
manufacturing process of paper and press-
f) Oil-impregnated cellulose-based insulations board from cellulose.
should only be in contact with atmosphere for
a short while since the oil only delays absorp- Aramide products are characterized by a high
tion of moisture and does not prevent it. At- long-term heat resistance of 220 °C. Cellulose
mospheric moisture absorbed by oil, in accor- is thermally decomposed even at temperatures
dance with Figure 5.5-6, is again absorbed by above 120 °C with the elimination of gases.
cellulose fibers. I.e. only a limited temporary
storage under oil is possible after the impreg- During drying, geometrical data are largely
nation. Assembly must then be carried out in constant. The mechanical strength is distinctly
an air-tight housing or in a transformer pro- reduced when compared to cellulose-based
tected by a dryer, Figure 5.4-1. products. Owing to their impregnability, ara-
mide products have similarly good electrical
Note: Subsequent drying of wetted trans- properties as cellulose products. They exhibit
former insulations at the installation site, for an increasingly greater resistance to partial
instance, is possible with the help of low-fre- discharges and practically negligible ageing
quency heating (LFH): while heating up the [82], [101]. The high cost is a disadvantage.
 there are still a large number of other standards institu-
6 TESTING, tions, especially at the national level of individual states.

MEASURING AND
DIAGNOSIS
6.1 Quality Assurance
The objective of quality assurance is to guar-
High voltage engineering production is espe- antee the properties of a product or the proper-
cially vulnerable to small defects, which can ties of a service provision agreed upon be-
develop into serious consequences. tween the client and the contractor.

Even long before the idea of comprehensive In this context, it is not attaining the "highest
quality assurance for common industrial prop- possible quality", but rather reliable repro-
erty with ISO 9000 ff was thought of, high ducibility of agreed properties or properties
voltage engineering was dependent on reliable specified in the standards that are most signifi-
quality control (Section 6.1). Under this, test- cant.
ing in the high voltage test laboratory with the
generation and measurement of extreme test
parameters is especially significant (Sections
6.2 and 6.3) [141], [498]. In addition, diagno- 6.1.1 Quality Assurance Systems
sis and monitoring of the condition of devices
(Section 6.4) are of greater significance today, For attaining this objective, manufacturers and
since owing to high costs, unnecessary prem- service providers install their own quality as-
ature re-investments should be avoided. On the surance systems that are respectively de-
other hand, the risk of damage with greater scribed in a Quality Management Handbook.
consequences must also be kept to a minimum. Important quality assurance elements are de-
scribed in ISO 9001. The quality assurance
Note: Tests, measurements, and diagnoses are con- system is checked at regular intervals through
ducted based on standards and specifications. The internal audits. Further, the option to allow
involved parties (e.g. manufacturers, customers, testing external institutions to audit and certify the
institutes) agree upon their application or the customers
quality assurance systems is also available. In
request their application. Standards generally do not
describe any binding physical, technical or legal rules; many cases, customers also conduct their own
they are rather made up of recommendations and com- audits of important subcontractors.
promises that are formulated in committees to describe
the state of the art and to handle varied interests. The quality management handbook is a col-
lection of in-house specifications that are to be
At the national level, important standards are the Ger-
continuously updated. It contains information
man VDE Vorschriften (Verband der Elektrotechnik
Elektronik Informationstechnik, i.e. Association for about the responsibilities of the highest-level
Electrical, Electronic and Information Technology, management and officers. By determining the
Frankfurt a. M.) often being identical with DIN stan- qualification features of employees and train-
dards and the European EN standards. At the European ing methods, quality should become independ-
level, IEC (CEI) standards (International Electrotechni-
ent of individual persons. The full contract
cal Commission) are prevalent; they are increasingly
adopted in EN, DIN, and VDE specifications so that the cycle is described including contract review,
actual content-based standardization activity is largely design, purchasing, production, testing, dis-
shifted to the international committees of the IEC. At patch, customer service, documentation and
the US-American level, IEEE standards (The Institute handling of complaints.
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York) are
of greater significance. Finally, CIGRÉ recommenda-
tions (Conseil International des Grands Réseaux Élec- Important components of a quality manage-
triques, Paris) should also be mentioned. Moreover, ment handbook are the quality specifications,

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_6
356 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

such as production specifications, specifica- the execution of the specified tests or types of
tions for materials and parts or test specifica- tests. A prerequisite for accreditation is the
tions. Specifications that include manufactur- independence of the testing institution, which
ing expertise are not always published. is greater than that expected for certification
[115], [116].
Note: Like many other institutions in economics, re-
6.1.2 Certification and Accreditation search and teaching, also test laboratories, high voltage
laboratories and calibration labboratories can be accred-
Integration of high voltage test facilities into ited for specific activities by accrediting agencies. For
this, the agencies are integrated in a network of national
quality assurance systems is dependent on and international accreditation hierarchies, Figure 6.1-1
whether they have to be operated as indepen- (left). In the course of an accreditation process, the
dent institutions or as a section of a high volt- accredited institution (after considerable bureaucratic
age production plant. In addition to certifica- groundwork, on payment of charges and with limited
tion within a quality assurance system in ac- validity period) is certified that it follows the guidelines
(minimum requirements) of the agency. The influence,
cordance with EN 29001 (and also ISO 9001), supervision tasks and competence of national institu-
high voltage test facilities can also obtain an tions are thus passed on in many areas to the network of
accreditation through an national accreditation accrediting agencies.
agency, for example, through the German ac-
creditation body DAkkS (Deutsche Akkredi-
tierungsstelle GmbH, which includes Deutsche 6.1.3 Calibration
Akkreditierungsstelle Technik DATech since
2009), based on the principle of ISO/IEC The focus of quality assurance in high voltage
17025, Figure 6.1-1 (left). This is a formal laboratories is the calibration of measuring
approval that a testing facility is competent for equipment, since incorrect high voltage me-

Accreditation User Principles for

calibration and Measurement uncertainty
hierarchy National (Germany) International
measurement
CIPM Comité International
ILAC International
des Poids Measures
Laboratory Accreditation
(BIMP Bureau International
Cooperation
des Poids Measures, Paris)
Intercomparison tests
EA European Cooperation
EURAMET (round-robin tests)
for Accreditation
Physikalisch- National Legal order for presenting
DAkkS German
Accreditation Body
Technische Metrology ... the SI-units and for securing National
standards
Bundesanstalt PTB Institutes international comparability

(DAR) Techn. Committees of PTB Subordi- Reference s.,

Calibration certificate of
(DATech)
(former TC of DKD) nated ... the national metrology
control s.
Accreditation Calibration calibration and transfer
institute (e.g. of PTB)
authority laboratories services standards

Accreditation Working standards

Calibration Calibration Calibration Calibration certificate
of high voltage or company standards
laboratory laboratory laboratory of calibration service
laboratories or ...
test laboratories Any user Any user Any user Test equipment
Proprietary cal. cert.

Figure 6.1-1: Hierarchy and bureaucracy for traceability of measuring system calibration with respect
to the national metrology standards (Note: DAR, DATech and DKD are now parts of DAkkS and PTB).
6.1 Quality Assurance 357

asurements can lead to increased overloads or ted for the measuring parameter. The higher
underloads of the devices during the tests. This level calibration standards must have a lower
results in increased risks both with regard to measurement uncertainty, which again may be
test damage and with regard to the non-identi- no greater than 1/3rd of the measurement un-
fication of faultive insulations during the tests. certainty of the lower level standard or test
device. The requirements for the total meas-
The calibration intervals and the calibration urement uncertainties for high voltage meas-
specifications to be applied must be referred uring systems are given in Table 6.1-1.
form a directory for measuring and test
equipment. The result of the calibrations must The specification of a measurement uncer-
be documented in a calibration report. tainty u is based on estimated values for the
measured variable X and for the standard de-
The basic principle of calibration is the com- viation V of individual measured values xi.
plete traceability of the measuring devices This relates to the specification of confidence
used to the national and internationally recon- intervals, which can be determined for random
ciled standards [120], [389]. This gives rise to errors from a knowledge of the distribution
a hierarchy of calibration standards, whose function. Frequently, however, not all system-
measurement uncertainty increases from the atic errors can be detected; they are therefore
top towards the bottom, Figure 6.1-1 (right). treated as random errors and are taken into
The national standards are provided by a na- account in the measurement uncertainty u
tional metrology institute in most of the in- through estimated confidence limits [117].
dustrial countries, and in Germany it is pro-
vided by the Physikalisch-Technischen Bun-
Table 6.1-1: Requirements for the total
desanstalt PTB (Federal Institute for Physics
measurement uncertainty for measuring systems
and Technology) in Braunschweig, Figure 6.1- according to EN 60060-2 (IEC 60060-2) [116].
1 (center). Uniformity of standards of metrol-
ogy institutes in different countries is devel- Measuring Working Reference National
system standard standard standard
oped by international cooperation, for exam-
ple, in the form of intercomparison tests DC voltage
(round-robin tests). Mean value 3% 1% 0.3% 0.1%
Ripple 10% 3% 1% 0.3%
Subordinate to the above are calibration ser- AC voltage
vices (such as the former German calibration Peak value 3% 1% 0.3% 0.1%
service DKD, whose technical committees are Switching impulse and lightning impulse voltage
now taken over by the PTB), often consiting of Peak value 3% 1% 0.5% 0.3%
a large number of calibrating laboratories. Time 10% 5% 1.5% 1.2%
They get their own standards to be calibrated
by the higher-level metrology institute and
they carry out a large number of calibrations of For a large number of n individual measured
the calibrating devices or test devices of the values xi, such as, for example, for voltage
users. The calibration certificate of the re- measurements with a sphere gap, the arithme-
spective higher level is the basis for calibration tic mean value xm, in accordance with Eq. (3.1-
or measurement on the lower level. The cer- 2), is used as an estimate for the expectation
tificate records the measurement uncertainty value μ of the measured variable X. The em-
of the measuring device used that is found in pirical standard deviation s of the individual
the calibration. measured values xi are obtained in accordance
with Eq. (3.1-5). For a finite number of meas-
The measurement uncertainty of the meas- ured values, the mean value xm deviates from
uring or test device at the lowest level may be the expectation value μ of random variable X.
no greater than 1/3rd of the tolerance permit- While assuming a Gaussian normal distribu-
358 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tion, the standard deviation of the mean value While assuming a Gaussian normal distribu-
is estimated as [119] tion, a measurement uncertainty of

sm = s/n
1/2
. (6.1-1) u 2 ˜ s ym (6.1-5)

If only one individual measured value xi is corresponds to a confidence interval of 97.7 %

available, this can then be considered as the for the mean value ym, see Section 3.1.2.2.
estimated value xm, but the standard deviation
Example: Measurement uncertainty of divider ratio
is unknown. The specification of a standard of a voltage divider
deviation requires the estimation of an upper
and lower limit xU and xL based on possible The following variables are measured with an oscillo-
scope:
influencing variables, e.g. based on the accu-
racy class of the measuring device used. The V1 = 111 V,
mean value between the limits can be used as measurement uncertainty u1 = 1 % · 160 V = 1.6 V
the estimated value for the measured variable:
V2 = 0.3 V,
xm = (xU + xL) / 2 (6.1-2) measurement uncertainty u2 = 1 % · 0.4 V = 4 mV

The standard deviations are estimated with Eq. (6.1-3):

For the standard deviation of the mean value,
the estimated value s1 = (3.2 V)/ 12
1/2
= 0.924 V
1/2 and
sm = (xU – xL) / 12 (6.1-3) 1/2
s2 = (8 mV)/ 12 = 2.309 mV

is given [118]. With the mean value of the voltage ratio

r= V1/V2 = 370 (*)

Often, an output quantity Y is a function of
several variables X1, X2... Xn that contain the square of the estimated standard deviation from Eq.
measurement uncertainties. The deviation dy (6.1-4) and Eq. (*) results:
of measurement result y = f(x1, x2, ..., xn) can sr
2 2 2 2
= s1 ·(1/V2) + s2 ·(-V1/V2 )
2 2
be determined as the total differential from the = 17.6
individual deviations weighted with the re-
spective partial derivatives [119]: The measurement uncertainty of the divider ratio with
Eq. (6.1-5) is approximately
dy = dx1·wy/wx1 + dx2·wy/wx2 + ... dxn·wy/wxn ur = 2·sr = 8.39.

The result of the measurement corresponds to the confi-

By squaring, quadratic and mixed terms are
dence interval for the divider ratio of r + ur = 378.4 to
obtained and these are mutually cancelled
r – ur = 361.6. With respect to the mean value of the
owing to equally probable positive and nega- divider ratio r = 370, this gives a measurement uncer-
tive deviations. Only the quadratic terms that tainty of ur/r = + 8.39/370 = + 2.3 %.
are interpreted as squares of empirical stan-
dard deviations of the mean values remain:

n 6.1.4 Insulation Coordination

s ym 2 ¦ ( s xim ˜ wy / wxi )2 (6.1-4)
i 1 6.1.4.1 Principle of Insulation Coordination
For this, small empirical standard deviations sx The operational safety of high voltage devices,
<< xm and a Gaussian normal distribution are installations and systems as well as the quality
presumed. of insulation must be proven by high voltage
6.1 Quality Assurance 359

tests. Necessary tests and test voltage levels 6.1-2:

for this are specified in the context of so-called
insulation coordination. Insulation coordina- The starting point is the analysis of all classes
tion includes and types of operating voltages and overvolt-
ages in the network.
x the analysis of operating voltages and
overvoltages, Note: This analysis is carried out with the objective
(initially independent of the level of highest voltage for
x the selection of the dielectric strength of equipment Vm) of covering the real operating stresses by
operational equipment that is provided for a number of standardized withstand voltages. Only in
the last step is the insulation level defined this way
a specific voltage level and assigned to the standardized values of Vm.
x the selection of protection levels for the
surge arresters. 1.) From the analysis of real operating stresses
in the network, so-called representative volt-
The procedure is first basically described in ages Vrp are determined in different categories
the standards, [121], [122] and subsequently in in the first step. These categories are related to
detail in an application guideline [123], Figure the type and duration of the stresses, see Fig-

Vrp Representative voltages: Determining representative (over) voltages in

specific categories and with standardized shape.
Analysis of operational
and overvoltages Power frequency Transient Combined
in the network considered Temporary
Continuous over- Slow Fast Very fast
voltage
voltage
Electrical stresses
alternative Coordination factors

Vcw Coordination withstand voltages: Determination of lowest withstand

voltage value of the insulation for which the expected dielectic strength is
Simulation of given when the insulation is exposed to the representative overvoltages
overvoltage events under operational conditions.
plus error risk Electric strength
Conversion factors / Safety factors

Vrw Required withstand voltages: Conversion of coordinated withstand voltages

to standardized test conditions. Consideration of differences between test and
and operation (e.g. arrangement, quality, ageing)

Vw Rated voltages: Selection of most economic combination of rated voltages

from a list with standardized values, so that all required withstand voltages
are covered.
Standardized insulation level (preferred combinations):
Range I: Vm < 245 kV Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage
Standardized
Rated short-duration AC withstand voltage
withstand voltage tests
according to Range II: Vm > 245 kV
Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage
IEC 60060-1
Rated switching impulse withstand voltag

Figure 6.1-2: Procedure for insulation coordination in a network according to IEC 60071-1 [121], [122], [123].
360 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

ure 6.1-2 (top) and Figure 2.2-4. While deter- overvoltages. Thus, they have a decisive influ-
mining the representative voltages, the method ence on the magnitude of the representative
must also take account of the performance of voltages, see Section 6.1.4.3.
the available surge arresters, which generally
lead to the limiting but not the elimination of 2.) In the second step, the electric strength of
the insulation in the form of coordination
Table 6.1-2: Standardized insulation levels withstand voltages Vcw is specified such that
in range I: (1 kV < V m < 245 kV) error rates that are still acceptable in the net-
Highest voltage for Short- Lightning work are obtained. For this, the representative
equipment duration AC impulse voltages and their frequency distribution as
Reference withstand withstand well as the properties of insulation (break-
value voltage voltage down probability) must be known through
Vm Vm — 2 previous analyses. This is a technical and eco-
—3 nomic optimization of the insulation. The ac-
Peak value ceptable error rate assumed here is not a tech-
R.m.s. value Peak value Peak value
—2 nical variable; it is more a result of economic
kV kV kV kV and social considerations.
Phase-to-phase Phase-to-earth Phase-to-earth Phase-to-earth
Note: Since the variables mentioned are generally only
3.6 2.9 10 20 inaccurately determined, in practice the coordination
40 withstand voltages are recommended to be set a little
higher in order to obtain additional safety through over-
7.2 5.9 20 40 sizing.
60
12 9.8 28 60 The relationship between representative volt-
75 ages (that is, stress in the network) and the
95 coordination withstand voltage (that is, the
24 19.6 50 95 electric strength of the insulation) is estab-
125 lished through coordination factors that can
145 result from deterministic considerations or
36 29.4 70 145 from statistical analyses [123].
170
72.5 59 140 325 The coordination-withstand voltages Vcw are
the lowest withstand voltage values for which
123 100 185 450 the expected dielectric strength in the respec-
230 550
tive (over) voltage category is just achieved.
145 118 185 450
230 550 3.) In the third step, through aditional conver-
275 650
sion with a safety factor, the differences be-
170 139 230 550 tween operating conditions and test conditions
275 650 must be considered, such as different atmos-
325 750
pheric conditions (for air insulations), different
245 200 275 650 arrangements of devices, variation of the
325 750 product quality, installation quality or ageing
360 850 influences. This gives the required withstand
395 950
460 1,050 voltages Vrw for testing.
Note: Usually, the phase-to-earth withstand voltages are also applied to
the phase-to-phase insulation. If the values given in italics seem not to be
4.) Instead of the required withstand voltages,
adequate, to prove that the reqired phase-to-phase withstand voltages are standardized test voltage values must be
fulfilled, additional phase-to-phase withstand voltage tests are necessary. chosen in the fourth step, Table 6.1-2 and -3.
6.1 Quality Assurance 361

However, they must not all be tested individu- 5.) In the fifth step, with the help of test con-
ally, since a specified strength in one category version factors, individual rated voltages Vw
(e.g. short-duration AC voltages) can also im- are selected from the standardized values, in
ply a specified strength in another category which it must be ensured that all required
(e.g. switching impulse voltage). withstand voltages are covered by this, Tables
6.1-2 and -3.
Note: Corresponding relationships are not generally
applicable, but they vary according to the type of insu- A combination of rated voltages is described
lation. as a standardized insulation level, which can

Table 6.1-3: Standardized insulation levels in range II ( Vm > 245 kV)

Highest voltage Reference value Switching-impulse withstand voltage Lightning-

for equipment impulse
Um — 2
Longitudinal withstand
Um Phase-to-earth Phase-to-phase
—3 insulation voltage
(a) (b) (c)
R.m.s. value Peak value Peak value Peak value Peak value Peak value
kV kV kV kV kV kV

300 245 750 750 1,125 850

750 850 1,275 950
1,050
362 296 850 850 1,275 950
850 950 1,425 1,050
1,175

420 343 850 850 1,360 1,050

950 950 1,425 1,175
950 1.050 1,575 1,300
1,425

550 429 950 950 1,615 1,175

950 1,050 1,680 1,300
950 1,175 1,763 1,425
1,050 1,175 1,763 1,550
800 625 1,175 1,300 2,210 1,675
1,175 1,425 2,423 1,800
1,175 1,550 2,480 1,950
1,300 1,550 2,480 2,100

1,200 980 1,425 1,550 2,635 2,100

1,550 1,675 2,764 2,250
1,675 1,800 2,880 2,400
2,550
Notes: (a) "Longitudinal insulation" between different parts of a grid, e.g. between the open contacts of a disconnector. Tests are performed as combined tests
with AC voltage (peak value is equal to the reference value) and with SI voltage of opposite polarity (peak value is the given SI voltage).
(b) Peak value for the according relevant test with combined AC voltage and SI voltage.
(c) The lightning impulse voltages apply to both phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth insulation. For longitudinal insulation, tests are performed
analogously with (a) as combined tests with AC voltage (peak value is equal to the reference value) and with LI voltage of opposite polarity
(peak value ist the given LI voltage).
(d) If applicable, AC voltage tests are described in the standards for equipment.
(e) Tests with chopped lightning impulses are especially important for transformers, and they are performed with higher voltages.
362 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

be assigned to the highest voltage for equip- Generally, high voltage equipment is characte-
ment Vm. The rated lightning impulse voltage rized by a so-called nominal voltage Vn, e.g.
and the rated short-duration AC voltage are by Vn = 380 kV or 400 kV. Due to the requi-
recommended as the preferred combination rements of insulation coordination, the rating
for the lower voltage levels (range I, Vm ” 245 of the insulation is determined by the highest
kV) and the rated lightning impulse voltage voltage for equipment Vm within the conside-
and rated switching impulse voltage are rec-
red group of similar nominal voltages, that is
ommended for higher voltage levels (range II,
Vm = 420 kV for the example mentioned above
Vm > 245 kV), Tables 6.1-2 and -3.
[498]. The standardized withstand voltages
Note: Other or extended specifications can be made for for high voltage tests according to Tables 6.1-2
specific operating equipment for the respective condi- and 6.1-3 are related to this value, and the tests
tions to be covered, e.g. see Section 7.1.3.5 (Trans- should show the compliance of the insulation
former Tests).
with the rated voltage Vr. The general stan-
In special cases even tests with DC voltages, with non- dard IEC 60071-1 gives the following possi-
power-frequency AC voltages or with special impulse bilities,
voltage shapes are necessary, such as for example for
HVDC transmission components, DC-voltage operated x short-duration AC voltage tests,
devices, cables or impulse capacitors, see Figure 2.2.-4. x switching impulse voltage tests,
x lightning impulse voltage tests and
6.1.4.2 High Voltage Tests x combined voltage tests.
Tests for steep-front impulse voltages should
Depending on the function of the insulation, be specified in the standards for special de-
high voltage tests for the proof of dielectric vices.
strength require the application of test voltages
between phase and earth (phase-to-earth or For the insulation levels specified in the stan-
line-to-ground insulation), between energized dards, in the case of non self-restoring insula-
conductors (phase-to-phase or line-to-line in- tions, it is a so-called assumed conventional
sulation) or between different points of the withstand voltage, for which no breakdowns
grid (longitudinal insulation), Figure 6.1-3. In are permitted. In the case of self-restoring in-
three-phase AC systems, the line-to-line insu- sulations (e.g. pure gas gaps), a statistical
lation is the insulation between the phases in withstand voltage with a specific number of
most of the cases. In the follwing, test voltages breakdowns can be allowed. Verification is
are described for three-phase AC systems. achieved by high voltage tests in the form of
type tests, routine tests or special tests based
on test programs given in the standards or
L3 agreements. Lower test voltages are often stip-
ulated for repeat tests, e.g. after long lasting
operation.
L2
Phase-to-phase For a reference voltage, different test voltage
(line-to-line) levels that correspond to different degrees of
insulation L1 safety are mentioned. The selection of the test
Phase-to-earth voltage level is based on the amplitude of the
(line-to-ground) overvoltages to be expected, which can vary,
insulation Longitudinal insulation e.g. based on the neutral point treatment.
Moreover, different rated withstand voltages
Figure 6.1-3: Insulations in a three-phase AC
apply depending on the operating equipment.
system that have to be tested, phase L1 is chosen For example, higher values are stipulated for
as an example. isolating distances than for high voltage de-
6.1 Quality Assurance 363

vices (insulators, bushings, power transform- lightning overvoltages or high switching over-
ers, instrument transformers, cables, …). Re- voltages are to be expected. The protection
quirements for neutral point insulations and parameters of arresters must be coordinated
insulations in rotating machines are lower. with the electric strength of the insulation
[124], Figure 6.1-4.
In many cases, a higher withstand voltage
must be proven for the internal insulation of The protection levels Vpl and Vps for lightning
an equipment than for the external insulation impulse voltages and switching impulse volt-
which often can flash over without causing ages must be much below the rated withstand
irreversible damage. voltages of the insulation to be protected, so
that overvoltages are definitely limited to val-
Details are obtained from the specialist litera- ues for which there is only a negligibly small
ture [498] and from the applicable standards probability of an electrical breakdown of in-
and specifications agreed between the manu- sulation in the network. Here we refer to pro-
facturer and customer. tective ratio.
Note: Besides, the protection level must be significantly
higher than the permanent operating voltages, in order
6.1.4.3 Surge Arresters to avoid a faulty response or overheating owing to leak-
age currents. The selection of a surge arrester thus re-
a) Application of surge arresters presents an optimization task; some usable data are
presented as an extract in Table 6.1-4 [124].
Using surge arresters for the protection of
operational resources is especially required, if A protection level is defined by the maximum

1.) Protective 2.) Valve-type, non-linear- 3.) Metal-oxide arrester

spark gap resitor-type or spark- ZnO
gap arrester
SiC

v v v
Rated withstand voltage Rated withstand voltage Rated withstand voltage
(insulation level) (insulation level) (insulation level)
Vpl Vres Vres
Vso Sparkover voltage Vso
Vr Rated voltage
Vex Extinction voltage
Vm Short- V Vex= Vr 8/20 Vm 8/20
Impulse circuit m μs μs
current current Operating voltage Impulse Operating voltage Impulse
(kA) current Leakage current current
v,i - (kA) (μA ... mA) (kA)
response
characteristics i i i
Vso Sparkover voltage
Protection
Vso Sparkover voltage or Vres Residual voltage
level Vres residual voltage
Extin- Vex Extinction voltage Vr
Network protection Rated voltage
guishing
Permanent
No No Leakage current
current
Figure 6.1-4: Functional principles of different overvoltage protection elements.
364 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

voltage occurring at the arrester. This is either b) Types of surge arresters

the sparkover voltage Vso of spark gaps or the
The task of surge arresters is to limit transient
maximum residual voltage Vres occurring dur-
lightning overvoltages and switching overvolt-
ing the leakage impulse current, which results
ages, Figure 6.1-4.
as a voltage drop at the non-linear resistors,
Figure 6.1-4. 1.) A coarse protection can be attained through
protective spark gaps, Figure 6.1-4 (left).
Note: In the context of insulation coordination, the
They are often found in the form of metal
values Vso and Vres respectively can be considered as
representative over voltages at the location of the ar-
parts (so-called arcing horns) on both sides of
rester. Thus, they are always significantly below the outdoor insulators, in which the critical task is
rated switching impulse withstand voltages and rated to keep the arc away from the insulator sur-
lightning impulse withstand voltages which are applied faces in the event of an insulator flashover. For
to verify the insulation level of the insulation to be pro- very fast transient overvoltages the sparkover
tected, as in Figure 6.1-2.
voltage results from the impulse voltage-time
Note: Generally, arresters are installed between the
characteristic of the highly non-uniform elec-
conductor and ground. The protection levels Vpl and Vps trode arrangement, with possibly greater spark
thus correspond to the representative line-to-ground formation time in accordance with Figure 3.2-
overvoltages. 22.

Note: In the case of overvoltages that increase rapidly, It is also disadvantageous that the subsequent
arresters have only a protection zone that is limited in current and the arc driven by the line voltage,
terms of line length, Section 2.6.3.2. For this, according are generally not self-quenching, but must be
to Figure 2.6-17 and Eq. (2.6-22), higher representative
detected by the power system protection as
overvoltages Vrp can occur depending on the transit
current to ground and must be disconnected
time W between the arrester and the object to be pro-
tected and depending on the rate of rise in the overvolt- by power circuit-breakers.
age wv/wt. These overvoltages can be above the spark-
over voltage or the residual voltage and above the light- Note: For this type of overvoltage protection, it must be
ning impulse voltage level Vpl of the arrester [123]: noted that rapid voltage breakdowns can become a risk
to operating equipment. Hence, spark gaps are not rec-
ommended as surge arresters in IEC 60099-5 [124].
Vrp Vmax Vpl  2 ˜ 'v
wv (6.1-6) 2.) Better protection is offered by a valve-type
Vpl  2 ˜ W ˜
wt arrester (non-linear-resistor-type arrester
or a spark-gap arrester), in which a non-lin-
Therefore, a short, low-inductance connection of the ear resistor made of silicon carbide SiC is con-
surge arrester is required. Data about the coordination nected in series with a spark gap, Figure 6.1-4
withstand lightning impulse voltage Vcw resulting
(center). The sparkover voltage Vso is deter-
from Vpl and about a protection zone Lp derived from a
lightning strike rate and an acceptable error rate are
mined by the spark gap. After the breakdown
specified in the standards, [124]. and during the leakage impulse current, the
non-linear -resistance of the SiC restricts the
Overvoltage impulses give rise to large pulsed voltage to a residual voltage of Vres. During
leakage currents. The current-carrying ca- the subsequently arising permanent power fre-
pacity or the energy consumption capacity of quency voltage, the current decreases so much
an arrester is thus classified by a nominal dis- owing to the non-linear SiC resistance charac-
charge current (8 μs /20 μs for front and teristic that the arc in the spark gap extin-
back). 5 or 10 kA are recommended for range I guishes below the extinction voltage Vex.
(Vm over 1 to 245 kV) and 10 or 20 kA are Normal operating voltage can then be applied
recommended for range II (Vm over 245 kV) over the extinguished spark gap. The extinc-
[124]. tion spark gap is necessary because exces-
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 365

sively large currents and thermal stresses Note: The rated voltage Ur is the r.m.s. value of a
would occur in the SiC at a permanently ap- power frequency voltage, to which the arrester can
plied operating voltage. be exposed for 10s. This value is close to the bend in
the v,i-characteristic, and hence can be compared with
the extinction voltage of non-linear-resistor-type arrest-
Table 6.1-4: Parameters of metal-oxide arresters for ers with spark gap.
networks with grounded neutral point, used in Ger-
many [124] Note: For long columns of arresters (for high voltages),
Nominal Continuous Rated Residual voltage Vres parasitic currents through stray capacitances must be
voltage voltage voltage for considered: similar to capacitive voltage dividers, they
Vr lead to an unequal voltage distribution along the longi-
Nominal Switching
VN Vc min. kV leakage impulse tudinal capacitances of the arrester column. Thus, the
kV min. kV impulse current tablets of ZnO stacked on one another act in different
current regions of the non-linear v,i-characteristic and can pos-
max. kV max. kV sibly be thermally overloaded. Corrective measure is
10 8 12 35 - possible through field grading in the vicinity of the
20 16 24 70 - arrester (external grading) or through grading capaci-
tors (internal grading).
30 24 36 105 -
110 75 126 310 260
220 160 216 530 440
220* 160 240 600 500
380 260 360 900 750
6.2 Generation of High Voltages
380* 260 396 1000 830
* For generator transformers In the following sections, the generation of
high AC voltages, DC voltages and impulse
Note: In the case of non-linear-resistor-type arresters, voltages for test purposes is described. The
the extinction voltage Vex is used as rated voltage Vr to methods discussed for the generation of high
which the other characteristic values are related to test voltages are applicable in other technical
[309].
fields too.
3.) Metal-oxide arresters comprise non-linear
High voltage test fields and high voltage test
resistors of zinc oxide ZnO which can be per-
laboratories are generally an electromagneti-
manently subjected to a continuous voltage Vc
cally shielded room and/or a hall to maintain
without a spark gap and without the arrester the background noise level at a minimum
being thermally overloaded by resistive (leak- during partial discharge measurements; they
age) currents, see Figure 6.1-4 (right) and Ta- also include high voltage sources for three
ble 6.1-4. The non-linear performance is very basic test voltages, namely AC voltages, DC
much more pronounced than for SiC, and voltages and impulse voltages. Owing to the
hence only currents below 1 mA flow at nor- large flashover distances necessary for air,
mal operating voltages. A response voltage is high test voltages also require large hall di-
not defined, since if an overvoltage occurs the mensions, Figure 6.2-1.
non-linear characteristic is followed according
to the leakage current amplitude up to a resid- Note: Test voltage sources up to 3200 kV for lightning
ual voltage Vres, which defines the protection impulse voltages and 1500 kV for DC voltages and
level at which the voltage is limited by the 1200 kV for AC voltages are necessary for the new
voltage levels 1000 kV AC (UHVAC Ultra High AC
arrester. The magnitude of the residual voltage Voltage) and 800 kV DC (UHVDC Ultra High DC
is, however, dependent on the gradient of the Voltage).
voltage rise. With the disappearance of the
overvoltage, the current also falls to the lower In any case, i.e. regardless of the size of the
initial value in accordance with the v,i-char- test facility, working with high voltages re-
acteristic and an extinction spark gap is not quires special safety measures that are to be
necessary. found in the respective updated and applica-
366 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Figure 6.2-1: Shielded UHV ultra high voltage test laboratory with 1200 kV AC voltage cascade, 1500 kV DC voltage
generator and 3200 kV impulse voltage generator, hall dimensions 35 x 50 x 30 m3 (b x l x h), photo HSP
Hochspannungsgeräte, Troisdorf/Highvolt, Dresden, year of construction 2007.

ble standards and they also require special Automatic grounding switches can further
qualifications and training for the personnel. enhance safety.
Depending on the purpose of the high voltage
equipment, there are different specifications, Before entering the high voltage room, the
such as for test fields, for switchplants or for high voltage source must be visibly switched
high voltage supplies in devices. off in two stages with the help of the power
circuit-breaker and the disconnector. Then the
Important safety elements in a high voltage installation parts on the high voltage side must
test laboratory are the barricading of the high be manually grounded with the help of an
voltage room with protection against contact earthing stick. The earthin stick must subse-
and adequate safety clearances between parts quently be connected to the high voltage gen-
that conduct high voltage and ground potential erator to make a permanent and visible
as well as marking the areas through warning grounding connection before starting work on
labels and warning lights indicating the the plant.
switching status. Barricades and other
grounded parts of the installation must be con- Instrument leads or control wires which lead
nected to the grounding system of the labora- into the high voltage room and which could
tory in a reliable and visible manner. For this, displace the high voltage potential outwards
a radial grounding arrangement of unsheathed must have a grounded sheath and are to be
ground wires in which a broken wire could be protected by surge arresters.
identified anywhere is established. The entries
of the high-voltage room must be included in a Capacitors and other capacitances can still
safety circuit, whose opening leads to immedi- carry charge, even after disconnecting the high
ate deactivation of the high voltage source. voltage source, or can be recharged by recov-
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 367

ery voltages even after a temporary short-cir- since peak values are decisive for breakdown
cuit. Especially with regard to DC voltage [133]. In the case of sinusoidal voltages, divi-
generators, capacitances form one of the larg- sion by 2 allows a comparison with the
est safety risks. It is therefore recommended r.m.s. values of the operating voltage.
(but not sufficient) to provide a rapid dis-
charge through discharge resistances or auto- Different principles are provided for genera-
matic grounding switches. Furthermore, ca- tion of high AC test voltages, Figures 6.2.1-1
pacitances must always be reliably and con- and 6.2.1-2.
tinuously short-circuited. In the case of a se-
ries connection of capacitors, this is applicable Single-phase test objects of low capacitance
even to the individual partial capacitances. (e.g. insulators, bushings, grading capacitors,
Establishing a grounding connection is not components of single-phased encased switch-
sufficient if a direct short circuit of all partial gear, instrument transformers, voltage divid-
capacitances is not simultaneously guaranteed. ers, surge arresters) are tested with single-
phase test transformers; the supply is gener-
Note: Risks due to charged capacitors exist especially ally from the low voltage network at power
for improper handling of electrical devices, which in- frequency, Section 6.2.1.2, Figure 6.2.1-1 and
clude high voltage direct current supplies.
Figure 6.2.1-2 (left). Special designs allow the
testing of ground-free test objects or the gen-
6.2.1 Generation of AC Voltages eration of voltages balanced to ground. Very
high test voltages can be attained by the cas-
6.2.1.1 Principles of Generation caded arrangement of comparatively small,
insulated test transformers, Section 6.2.1.3.
Test voltage values are always specified as Appreciable voltage rises sometimes occur in
the case of capacitive loads and in no-load
operation, Section 6.2.1.4.
peak values divided by 2
For test objects with high capacitances (e.g.
cables, large enclosed switchgear and capaci-
tors with large capacitances), the common test
transformers and test voltage sources are often
too weak owing to high capacitive reactive
power, and they are very heavy to transport or
not even available. For on-site tests, high
voltage generation by transportable series res-
onance test systems with high voltage reactor
coil is possible, whereby either the frequency
of the supply voltage or the inductance of the
reactor coil (adjustable-gap inductor) must be
tuned to resonance. The resonance should be
in a range, which must still be considered as
“close to operating frequency”, Section
6.1.2.5, Figure 6.2.1-2 (center).
Note: Generally, the compensation of capacitive reac-
tive power is also possible through parallel compensa-
tion (parallel resonance test systems). However, a high
voltage test transformer is also necessary for this, along
Figure 6.2.1-1: 500 kV/ 125 kVA test transformer with with the high voltage compensation reactor. The appli-
oil-filled tank and with porcelain bushing in the HV test cation of a series resonance system is thus generally the
laboratory of Hochschule Würzburg-Schweinfurt. more economical solution.
368 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Single-phase test Single-phase series resonance test system for test Three-phase testing of a power
transformer for test objects of higher capacitance with excitation transformer with induced AC volt-
objects of lower ca- transformer (left), high voltage inductor (center) age in the high voltage winding
pacitance (generally and cable with termination (right). The circuit is through excitation of the low volt-
for power frequency tuned to resonance via the frequency or the ad- age winding with increased fre-
f = 50 or 60 Hz). justable-gap inductance. quency (generally 100 or 120 Hz).

Figure 6.2.1-2: Generation of high AC test voltages with test transformers (left), series resonance systems
(center) and through the AC voltage induced in the test object (right).

The reduction of capacitive reactive power can voltage side insulation is then tested with the
also be achieved by applying voltages of very induced AC voltage, Figure 6.2.1-2 (right)
low frequency (VLF, f = 0.1 Hz) [128], [129], [131]. Testing with the induced AC voltage of
[130]. The voltages are, for example, sinusoi- increased frequency can in principle be ap-
dal or they exhibit a square-wave voltage with plied to all types of power transformers, test
a half-wave oscillation for charge reversal (the transformers and instrument transformers,
so-called cosine-square voltage), Section Section 7.1.3.5.
6.2.1.6. The VLF test can be carried out on-
site with light, mobile systems. They are there-
fore set up for laid medium voltage cables as 6.2.1.2 Test Transformers
an alternative to the DC voltage test that is no
longer considered relevant. Test transformers generate high and (to the
extent possible) distortion free test voltages at
Three-phase and single-phase power trans- comparatively small powers. Test transformers
formers cannot be tested at power frequency and power transformes are very different,
(50 or 60 Hz) because owing to the saturation based on design and construction, Table.
of the iron core, the voltages cannot be in- 6.2.1-1.
creased significantly above the voltages occur-
ring during operation. As per the law of induc- Test transformers are generally designed to be
tion, significantly higher induced test voltages single-phase. They have a relatively large
transformation ratio. Owing to the high volt-
vind = w)wt and Vind = Z) (6.2.1-1) ages to be insulated, comparatively large in-
sulation gaps, and therefore even large mag-
are only possible with increased frequency, netic leakage fluxes or large relative short-
since the magnetic flux ) must be restricted circuit voltages vsc occur. The iron-core is de-
owing to iron saturation. It is a standard prac- signed in such a way that the flux density re-
tice to feed the transformer on the low-voltage mains in an approximately linear region of the
side with doubled frequency, and the high magnetization characteristic.
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 369

Table 6.2.1-1: Characteristic features of power transformers and test transformers

Power transformers Test transformers
Voltage transformation during Voltage transformation for gener-
Task
transmission of (large) power ating higher test voltages
Generally, three-phase Generally single-phase
Structure
(Figure 6.2-1, right) (see Figure 6.2-1 left)
Large Nominal power Comparatively low
Lower, Larger,
e.g. 123 kV/20 kV = 6.15 Transmission ratio e.g. 500 kV/0.4 kV = 1250
e.g. 20 kV/ 0.4 kV = 50 e.g. 100 kV/0.23 kV = 434.8
Design for high durability under Design for withstanding high
operating conditions with high Insulation voltages with low thermal stress and
thermal stress and ageing slower ageing
Comparatively high, owing to
Lesser, due to lower voltages to be
thicker insulation between primary
insulated
Stray inductance voltage winding and secondary
voltage winding
vsc = 5%.....15%
vsc = 15%.....25%
Low saturation degree of mag-
Maximum saturation degree of
netization characteristic in linear
magnetization characteristic for Iron core
region in order to achieve distortion-
weight reduction
free and linear transformation
Permanent operation, Short test intervals (overload is
mostly below the nominal apparent Operation possible), partial permanent
power operation

Single-phase test transformers can be manu- lators, Figure 6.2.1-3 a), b) and e), that can be
factured with different insulation systems. In absent for insulating housings (insulating
Figure 6.2.1-3, the respective arrangements of housing construction), Figure 6.2.1-3 c) and
the low-voltage winding (narrow) and high- d). However, insulating enclosures have
voltage winding (broad) on the limb of the iron poorer heat dissipation to the surroundings.
core are illustrated. In order to avoid unneces-
sary insulation gaps, the windings are inter- Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) can be tested
laced in such a way that minimum possible with directly flange-mounted and encased
potential difference is obtained between them transformers [132]. The low weight of SF6-
and relative to the core. impregnated transformers is advantageous for
on-site tests, Figure 6.2.1-3 e). The stray ca-
For oil-filled transformers, the winding insu- pacitance of the high voltage electrode (across
lation consists of oil-impregnated paper and the winding) to the housing and core can be
pressboard, Figures 6.2.1-3 a), b) and d). Gas- used along with a low-voltage measuring
impregnated windings or windings cast with electrode for voltage measurements and par-
resin can be insulated with polymeric films, tial discharge measurements [125].
Figure 6.2.1-3 e) and c).
Note: In the case of windings cast with resin (encapsu- If the iron core is laid at ground potential,
lated-winding dry-type transformer), a completely cavity then the entire high voltage must be insulated
free insualtion can hardly be attained, and thus they can within the high voltage winding and against
generally only be employed free of partial discharges the core. These stesses can be halved if the
for voltages up to about 100 kV, and therefore are only high voltage winding is divided and the core is
suitable for the medium voltage range.
laid at half-potential, Figures 6.2.1-3 b) and
Conductive housings (tank construction) re- c). For one-sided grounding of the high volt-
quire high voltage bushings or partition insu- age winding, the core and housing are at half
370 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

a) b) c)

Oil
Cast
Oil resin

Test transformer in steel Test transformer in steel tank (left) and with resin-encapsulated windings
tank, core at ground (right), both with divided high voltage winding and core at half potential
potential

d) e)
Oil SF 6
SF 6
GIS - test trans-
Test transformer former in pres-
in insulating tube, sure-proof steel
core at ground tank, core at
potential ground potential

Figure 6.2.1-3: Connection and assembly of test transformers with oil insulation, cast resin insulation and
compressed-gas insulation.

the potential of the high voltage and must be The whole transformers are insulated against
insulated against ground. Connections for low ground according to their housing potential.
voltage windings, which are at the potential of High voltage windings (H) are connected in
the respective high voltage connections, are series. The radii of curvature of shields and
fed out through the bushings within the (hol- electrodes must increase stage-by-stage owing
low) high voltage winding termination. For to increasing voltage.
one-sided grounding of the high voltage
In the first stage, the low voltage excitation
winding, see Figures 6.2.1-3 b) and c), this can
takes place with an excitation winding (E) ly-
be used for a low voltage side excitation of the
ing inside the HV winding and being con-
transformer.
nected to the core potential. An coupling
Note: The symmetrically constructed transformer even winding (C) lying outside the HV winding and
facilitates the generation of a voltage balanced to being connected to high voltage potential sup-
ground if the core is laid at ground potential. Thus, a plies the current for the excitation winding in
low voltage winding at core potential is necessary for the second stage. The lines between coupling
excitation. However, this is not illustrated in Figure
6.2.1-3.
winding 1 and excitation winding 2 are led
within the inner conductor of the bushing at
high voltage potential. The excitation winding
6.2.1.3 Cascade Arrangement of the third stage is supplied with power from
the coupling winding of the second stage.
Voltages of individual transformers are con-
The relative short-circuit voltage of the cas-
nected in series by the cascaded arrangement
cade rises sharply with an increase in the num-
of test transformers, Figures 6.2.1-4a and -4b.
ber of stages.
Thus, highest AC test voltages of up to several
MV can be generated with comparatively Higher thermal stress on the lower stages is
compact test transformers. also a disadvantage. Hence, the number of
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 371

P V

EHC

V
2P

Figure 6.2.1-4a: EHC

Generation of very high
AC test voltages in a
three-stage cascade
assembly.
3P V
E: Excitation windings
H: High voltage
windings
C: Coupling windings EHC

stages is restricted to three in practice for most tial capacitive voltage rises (resonant over-
of the cases. voltages) can result, Figure 6.2.1-5.
Note: Cascade connections can even be set up from test
transformers with two connections that are symmetrical For a large capacitive load current I, the mag-
to the core, Figures 6.2.1-3 b) and c). Both the low volt- netization current through the main induct-
age windings that lie on the outer side of the HV wind- ance, the core losses and thus the magnetizing
ing are at the potential of the associated high voltage impedance can be neglected. The capacitive
connection, and they can therefore be used as excitation
voltage rise thus results from a simplified
winding and as coupling winding.
transformer equivalent circuit diagram which
consists of the leakage impedance ZL = RW +
6.2.1.4 Capacitive Voltage Rise in jXL only and which is related to the high volt-
Transformers age side. ZL can be determined in a short-cir-
cuit test. RW is the sum of the winding resis-
Test transformers are largely capacitively tances converted with the voltage transforma-
loaded by the capacitances of the insulation tion ratio a = VN2/VN1:
arrangements to be tested, by capacitive volt-
age dividers and by coupling capacitors for 2
partial discharge measurements. Owing to RW = RW1·a + RW2 (6.2.1-2)
winding capacitances, even in no-load opera-
tion, there exists a certain amount of capacitive LL and XL respectively is the sum of the con-
load. Thereby, along with the relatively large verted stray inductances and leakage reac-
stray inductance of test transformers, substan- tances respectively:
372 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Figure 6.2.1-4b: Two-stage AC voltage cascade for

1200kV with coupling capacitor and telescope
electrode (from right to left), see Figure 6.2-1.
Figure from HSP Hochspannungsgeräte,
Troisdorf/Highvolt, Dresden

2 2 2
2 impedance ZL = 288 k:. From ZL = RW + XL , the
LL = LV1·a + LV2 (6.2.1-3) elements XL = 260 k: and LL = 827 H are determined.
2
XL = XV1·a + XV2 (6.2.1-4) 2.) Maximum possible load capacitances for full high
voltage V2 = 100 kV shall be calculated for continuous
Due to the capacitive load C2, the complex operation (I = IN) and transient overload (I = 2·IN).

resonance voltage ratio K is The capacitances are calculated from V2max/I2max =

-1 -1 1/(ZCmax):
V2/V1' = (jZC2) /[RW + jZLL + (jZC) ]
Cmax = 1.6 nF for I = 50 mA (permanent operation)
and the magnitude is (6.2.1-5)
and
2 2 2 -1/2
K = V2/V1' = [(1-Z LLC2) + (ZRWC2) ] . Cmax = 3.2 nF for I = 100 mA (transient overload).

Owing to the capacitive voltage rise, the mag- 3.) For the range of C = 0 to 3 nF, the capacitive voltage
rise K and the maximum permissible primary voltages
nitude of the generated secondary voltage can- V1 are specified.
not generally be concluded from the magni-
tude of the preset primary voltage, i.e. an inde- With Eq. (6.2.1-5), the following values are obtained for
pendent measurement of secondary voltage is different load capacitances:
always necessary.

Example: Test transformer with capacitive load Simplified transformer

R WI
equivalent circuit diagram
The following test transformer is considered: V2
(leakage impedance only)
jXLI
a = V2N/V1N = 100 kV/220 V = 454.5 for a test transformer with
capacitive load
a = I1N/I2N = 22.7 A/50 mA jXLI R WI V 1'
I
RW1 = 0.5 :, RW2 = 20.66 k:, vsc = 14.4 %

1.) At first, the elements of the transformer equivalent LL RW

circuit diagram related to the high voltage side must be
determined: C2
V 1' V2
I 90°
With Eq. (6.2.1-2), RW is = 124 k:. In the short-circuit
test, the current I2N = 50 mA is driven by the voltage
Figure 6.2.1-5: Voltage rise caused by capacitive
V´sc1 = vsc ·100 kV = 14.4 kV. This corresponds to an load of a test transformer.
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 373

C/nF 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 tance is not possible owing to the power sup-
K 1 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.19 1.25 1.31 1.37 ply required.
V2 /kV 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
V´1/kV 100 96 92 88 84 80 76 73 Example: For a cable with a length of l = 10 km and
V1 /V 220 211 202 193 185 176 168 161 with a capacitance of C’ = 250 nF/km, at a test voltage
of V = 400 kV (r.m.s. value) and f = 50 Hz, a capacitive
2
4) For a load capacitance C = 6 nF, the maximum possi- reactive testing power of S = (2Sf) (C’l) V = 126 MVA
ble high voltage and the related primary voltage shall be is obtained. Such a power is not available at the medium
determined. voltage level and the low voltage level.

The voltage rise factor K = 1.78 for C = 6 nF. In con- This problem can be technically and economi-
tinuous operation (I = IN), the following is valid
cally solved with a series resonance test sys-
V2 = I2N/(ZC) = 26.5 kV
tem. In a series resonance circuit of a reactor
and inductance and a test object capacitance, a
V1 = v2/(a·K) = 32.8 V. high test voltage results from a resonant over-
voltage, Figure 6.2.1-2 (center) and -6. For
For transient overload (I = 2·IN), the maximum values tuning to resonance, either the inductance of
are twice as large: the high voltage reactor (via an adjustable gap
in the magnetic circuit) or the frequency of
V2 = 56 kV and V1 = 65.6 V the supply voltage (via a frequency converter)
Note: Generation of high frequency high voltage with
is tuned, [125], [126], [127], [355].
iron-free Tesla transformer is likewise based on a res-
onant overvoltage. A capacitance C1 is discharged The resonance circuit can be supplied with a
across a spark gap and across the low voltage winding low voltage VE and a low power by an excita-
in an oscillating manner. C1, the stray capacitance C2 at tion transformer: in the case of resonance, the
the high voltage side and the stray inductance of the reactor inductance supplies the capacitive re-
transformer determine the resonance frequency. Each
discharge event is followed by a high-frequency oscil-
active power required by the test object ca-
lation package in the range of about 10 to 100 kHz. The pacitance, the voltage source only has to cover
oscillation decays owing to the damping of the resonant the very low power loss of the resonance cir-
circuit. cuit, which is produced in an equivalent series

6.2.1.5 Series Resonance Test Systems Variable

inductance RSI
Series resonance test systems are especially j X RI RSI
used for single phase on-site tests on the test V2
objects with high capacitance, such as for in- I
stalled cable runs, Section 7.1.15, for on-site
assembled gas-insulated switchgear and for LR RS
C2
gas-insulated transmission lines (GIL), Section Damping
7.1.1.3. The quality control of the installation
VE V2
and the assembly respectively or the assess-
ment of the insulation condition and the verifi- Test object
cation of availability are carried out by with- Variable
stand voltage tests and partial discharge tests. frequency j X RI
90°
Thus, the on-site testing concept follows the I
VE
basic concepts of insulation coordination, i.e.
the test stresses shall be representative of the
Figure 6.2.1-6: Generation of high AC voltages in
operating stresses [121], [122], [123], [133], series resonance with variable inductance (reactor)
and [375]. However, the direct usage of test or variable frequency (30 to 300 Hz) for test objects
transformers for test objects with high capaci- with high capacitive reactive current.
374 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

resistance RS, Figure 6.2.1-6: A great advantage of resonance test systems is

that in the event of a breakdown in the test
2
PS = RS I = VE I (6.2.1-6) object, the resonance circuit is detuned, the
high voltage immediately disappears and the
The series resonance system can thus manage short circuit current remains very low since it
with a very low power input. However, the is driven only by the weak excitation trans-
excitation transformer and the reactor coil former and is also limited by the reactor.
must be designed for the high capacitive reac-
tive current (charging current) I. Furthermore, a) Variable inductance
the high voltage reactor is generally lighter
than a comparable transformer. Moreover, it Adjustable reactors can be built in, for exam-
can be modularly transported and can be con- ple, insulating housing design: the two-leg
nected in series (or parallel) on-site, in order to core is divided and comprises an oil gap that
attain the maximum possible test voltages (or can be adjusted by an insulated spindle, Figure
currents). Figures 6.2.1-7 and -9 show the cor- 6.2.1-2 (center). The winding is divided be-
responding cascading. tween the upper and lower legs; the core is at
half potential and is externally shielded by
In the case of resonance, the following is ap- ring-shaped electrodes. The reactors can be
plicable: assembled in series in self-supporting manner
because of their modular design, Figure 6.2.1-
1 7. Thus, modular resonance test systems are
Z0 2 ʌf 0 (6.2.1-7) possible for very high voltages [126], [127]. In
LR C2
the case of a constant test voltage frequency
Z0, the ratio of maximum to minimum test
According to Eq. (6.2.1-5) and (6.2.1-7), the
resonance ratio V2/VE is object capacitance is obtained in accordance
with Eq. (6.2.1-7) from the adjustable ratio of
V2 1 inductances, which amounts to about 20:
K . (6.2.1-8)
VE Z0C2 RS C2max/C2min = LRmin/LRmax (6.2.1-10)

It corresponds by Eqs. (6.2.1-6) and (-8) to the Note: A variable inductance can be implemented in the
quality factor q of the resonance circuit and to form of a variable low voltage inductance that can be
the ratio of the capacitive reactive power S2 to looped into the high voltage circuit through a test trans-
former. However, it is a disadvantage that an additional
the power loss of the resonance circuit respec- transformer is required.
tively:
Note: Cable test illustrated in Figure 6.2.1-7 is con-
1 ducted with a cable test termintionl in which the space
˜I2 between the uncovered bare cable insulation and the
S2 Z0C2 V2 housing insulator is filled with slightly conductive water
q 2
K (6.2.1-9)
PS RS ˜ I VE for resistive potential grading, Sections 5.4.5 and
7.1.1.5, Figure 5.4-8.

The quality factor or the resonance ratio that

can be attained are determined by the losses of b) Variable frequency
the test circuit, which especially result from An innovation in high voltage test techniques
the winding resistances and from the iron are series resonance circuits that are tuned via
losses of the reactor, because the test objects the variation in frequency with the help of
generally have very low losses. For reactors frequency converters for fixed inductance.
with variable inductance, the values are about Fixed inductances are highly reliable and have
q = 50, whilst for reactors with fixed induct- low losses, so that a very high quality factor or
ances, q = 100 to 200 is specified [379]. a very advantageous ratio of input power to
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 375

testing power of approximately 1:100 to 1:200 but can be extended further by series and par-
is obtained. allel connection of reactors.
By changing the frequency, there is a devia- Note: The weight of a test system plays a major role
tion to some extent from the power frequency for the mobile application. For systems with fixed in-
ductance and with variable frequency, particularly low
of 50 or 60 Hz. However, today a larger range values of approx. 1 kg/kVA with regard to the 50 Hz
of frequencies from a few 10s of Hz to a few testing power result. The optimization of the overall
100 Hz is considered as “close to the operat- system is the reason for this: the design of reactor core
ing frequency” [355]. IEC 60060-3 provides a for a lower frequency (e.g. 30 instead of 50 Hz), indeed
frequency range of 10 to 500 Hz [390], while leads to an increased weight in iron, but it can also be
compensated by a lower test reactive power. The fixed
IEC 62067 restricts the frequency range for reactor has no movable parts and can therefore be made
tests on cables with a nominal voltage above lighter and more compact than a variable reactor. Fur-
150 kV to fmin = 20 Hz to fmax = 300 Hz [356]. thermore in a fixed reactor the magnetic circuit can be
In the case of a fixed inductance LR , the ratio designed to be optimal and with lower leakage flux by
subdividing into many sub-gaps. Ultimately, a regulat-
of maximum to minimum test object capaci- ing transformer can be dispensed with owing to the
tance, in accordance with Eq. (6.2.1-7), is ob- supply of power through a frequency converter.
tained from the ratio of adjustable frequencies:
Figure 6.2.1-8 shows the example of a mobile
2 2
1/LR = Zmin C2max = Zmax C2min test system with a high voltage reactor in a
tank construction [355]. With this, similarly
2
C2max/ C2min = (fmax/ fmin) (6.2.1-11) to oil transformers with steel tanks, effective
cooling and permanent operation at high
That is, a frequency ratio of 300 Hz/ 20 Hz = power over a long period are possible.
15 results in a capacitance range of C2max/ A filter circuit against supply-side interfer-
2
C2min = 15 = 225 that can be used for tests. ences, a coupling capacitor for partial dis-
This range is adequate in many practical cases, charge measurements and the test object are

LR

C2

VE V2
f

Figure 6.2.1-7: Generation of high AC voltages in a

series resonance system with adjustable inductances
or adjustable frequencies, high voltage reactors in
series connection, schematic (left) and a 1700 kV -
3 A - 50 Hz series resonance system with reactors,
compressed-gas capacitor and coupling capacitor,
photo Haefely Test AG/ Hipotronics Inc. (right).
376 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Oil-outdoor bushing,
Reactor
entry fitting or
Excitation oil-gas bushing
transformer
connetion to
Operating chamber
Control unit filter
Frequency converter
coupling
capacitor
test object

Figure 6.2.1-8: Mobile resonance test system with variable frequency for 90 A and 150 kV [355] (schematic).

6.2.1.6 Requirements for Test Voltages in

Laboratories and On-site

During on-site tests, even with the above men-

Figure 6.2.1-9: Mobile resonance test system with tioned test voltage sources, the requirements
series connection of reactors [357] (schematic). of IEC 60 060-1 for AC test voltages often
cannot be fulfilled. Owing to this, in practice,
connected to the bushing, see Section 6.4.2. considerable variations have been developed
The advantage is that the series resonance test with respect to type of voltage, voltage wave-
circuit already forms a filter. However, the form, frequency, tolerances and test proce-
circuit is excited by the frequency converter dures. The new standard IEC 60 060-3 shall,
with rectangular voltages whose broad fre- therefore formulate (general) requirements
quency spectrum cannot be completely filtered that can be economically implemented on-site
out. Since the four switching impulses of the [375], [390], Table 6.2.1-2 and Figure 6.2.1-
source are known, they can be considered for 10. Device-specific standards can thus com-
the evaluation of a partial discharge measure- prise additional refinements or limitations. On-
ment in the time domain. [379]. site tests on cables are described in Section
7.1.1.5 with Table 7.1.1-1.
Instead of oil-outdoor bushings, even oil-gas
bushings or entry fittings can be used, resulting A test in accordance with operating condi-
in hermetically sealed on-site test systems. tions should be conducted, as far as possible,
For the extension of the range of test voltages, close to the operating frequency (AC). For all
similar reactors can be positioned on post the test stresses varying from the operating
insulators and connected in series [357], Fig- conditions, it must be asked whether the test
ure 6.2.1-9. For a cascading of reactors, how- provides representative results.
ever, the insulating housing construction is A strong dependence of the short-duration
preferred, which allows the direct stacking of withstand voltage with frequency was shown
reactors. Moreover, the weight can be reduced for VPE cable samples [377], Figure 6.2.1-10.
by replacing the oil insulation by SF6 Therefore, for VLF tests and DC voltage tests,
considerably higher withstand voltages must
Note: The many advantages of frequency-variable reso-
be expected. Owing to this, the magnitude and
nance test systems can be expected to lead to an in-
creasing expansion of on-site use, and in special cases duration of the test voltage stress are graded
even for stationary use. according to the frequency, see Section
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 377

7.1.1.5, table 7.1.1-1. However, since the fre-

V / kV Em / kV/mm
quency dependence apparently corresponds to
a change of breakdown mechanism, fixed re- 400
DC VLF AC
lations of test voltage values for significantly
different frequencies unfortunately cannot be 300 200
specified. Investigations on artificially dam-
aged cable test objects made of cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE), however, have shown a 200
high selectivity of breakdown voltage at f = 100
0.1 Hz for mechanical damage and for “water
100
trees” [376]. Moreover, ample experience
with VLF tests for medium voltage cables is
available which enables a condition estimation 0 0
1 1
of the aged cable. 1000 100
0,1 1 10 100 1000
f / Hz
The decision about the type of test voltage that
must be applied is therefore greatly dependent Figure 6.2.1-10: Withstand voltages determined for
on the query to be answered: a proof of with- XLPE cable samples as a function of test voltage
stand voltage in accordance with operation frequency [377].
conditions requires a frequency close to the
operating frequency. Diagnostic statements are a) DC voltage tests
also possible in other frequency ranges. In the past, DC voltage tests with high test
levels (for cables 4 V0) were common for oil-
Different types of test voltages are discussed
in the following sections: filled cables and paper-insulated mass-impreg-

Table 6.2.1-2: Requirements for laboratory tests and on-site tests for AC voltage equipments [375], [390].
Note:
Test voltage levels see Table 7.1.1-5. Tests in laboratory (test field) On-site tests

Note: IEC 60 060-3

IEC 60 060-1
Impulse voltage tests see Section 6.2.3. *) device-specific variations
a) DC voltage Frequency f DC voltage DC voltage
DC ( no longer
common for AC Ripple-factor <3% <3%
voltage operating Tolerance for test voltage + 1 % (< 1 min), + 3 % (> 1 min) + 3 % (< 1 min), + 5 % (> 1 min)
equipment) Measurement uncertainty +3% +5%

Frequency f 0.01 – 1 Hz
b) Very low fre- Sine to rectangle, test voltage is peak
Voltage wave form
quency voltage value (sometimes r.m.s. value*)
VLF Tolerance for test voltage +5%
Measurement uncertainty +5%
Not common
Frequency f 20 – 1000 Hz
c) Damped AC volt- Damping < 40 % for each period
age DAC (Oscil- Tolerance for test voltage +5%
lating voltage)
Measurement uncertainty +5%
Frequency f 45 – 65 Hz 10 – 500 Hz (cable 20 – 300 Hz*)
d) AC voltage close 2 + 5 % (or 2 + 15 %
to operating fre- Sinusoidal Vˆ / V r.m.s. 2 +5% and 0.98  Vˆpos Vˆneg  1.02 )
quency (power fre-
quency) Tolerance for test voltage + 1 % (< 1 min), + 3 % (> 1 min) + 3 % (< 1 min), + 5 % (> 1 min)
Measurement uncertainty +3% +5%
378 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

nated cables, as well as for electrical ma- VLF withstand voltage testing for the very
chines, since even large capacitances could be low frequency f = 0.1 Hz is developed for on-
tested with transportable equipment at low site testing the laid medium voltage cables,
input power and meaningful conclusions about which generally takes place at three times the
the insulation condition could be made, Table nominal voltage (phase to ground voltage) 3
6.2.1-2 a), Figure 6.2.1-11 a). V0 with a test duration of 1 h, Section 7.1.1.5
with Table. 7.1.1-1. All voltage waveforms
However, it was shown for XLPE cables that between sine wave and rectangular wave are
the DC voltage test is not sensitive even at allowed and the test voltage is the peak value
high test levels for many of the very serious [375], [390], Table 6.2.1-2b). In practice, a
errors. This is because eroding partial dis- sinusoidal AC voltage and the so-called co-
charges can occur with a high repetition rate sine-rectangular voltage are mainly used, Fig-
for operational AC voltages but not for DC ure 6.2.1-11 b).
voltages. On the other hand, DC voltages
could be hazardous for the test object owing to Note: At 0.1 Hz, the capacitive charging power (reactive
space charge built up, Section 7.1.1.5. These power) is smaller by a factor of 500 than at 50 Hz, so
that the test equipment is very compact and can be
differences can also be explained by the fact
transported in very compact cable measuring coaches.
that the field distributions in the insulation are These generally include the equipment for voltage tests
determined by permittivities for operational with 0.1 Hz and with DC voltages as well as extensive
AC voltages and by conductivities and transi- measurement equipment for the acoustic and electrical
tion processes for DC voltages. Consequently, runtime location of cable defects, for cable diagnosis as
completely different stresses can occur during well as for dielectric measurements (dissipation factor
measurements and partial discharge measurements).
testing and during operation, see Section 2.4.4.
Note: The sinusoidal 0.1 Hz test voltage can, for ex-
Note: Tests with DC voltages for HVDC applications
ample, be generated by slowly increasing and decreas-
are described separately, Section 6.2.2 and 7.2.
ing of voltages from two different sources with positive
and negative polarity. The cosine-rectangular voltage
b) Very Low frequency (VLF) voltages is generated by charging the cable capacitance from a
DC voltage source. After about 5 s, a reactor is con-
For voltages with very low frequencies, space nected in parallel so that an oscillation process is initi-
charge build up should be avoided by the peri- ated, this approximately corresponds in duration to the
odic changes in polarity, Table 6.2.1-2 b), power frequency. At the negative voltage peak, a switch
disconnects the oscillating circuit and the cable retains
Figure 6.2.1-11 b). In addition, eventual de- the charge state with opposite polarity. The loss-related
fects can be identified by partial discharges voltage reduction is balanced by a DC voltage source.
with low repetition rates. However, it is not After another 5 s, the next oscillating charge reversal of
always clear whether the capacitive field dis- the cable is performed.
tributions for the power frequency also occur
during testing in the very low frequency range c) Damped AC voltage
between 0.01 Hz and 1 Hz. This depends on
the selected frequency, on the conductivities of Damped AC voltages can be generated on-site
the materials and on the geometrical structure by charging the test object capacitance from a
of the insulation, Section 2.1.4.3. DC voltage source with subsequent discharge
via an inductance, Table 6.2.1-2 c), Figure
Note: In addition to the voltage test, it is recommended 6.2.1-11 c). A decaying, damped oscillation, a
to evaluate the global ageing condition of cable insula- so-called “oscillating voltage” occurs and its
tions by comparative or voltage dependent dissipation ( frequency, likewise, can be set in the range of f
or loss) factor measurements at 0.1 Hz [378]. The = 20 to 1000 Hz “close to the operating fre-
significance of dissipation factor measurements is de-
batable, and hence, so-called isothermal relaxation
quency”. This results in field distributions of
current analysis (IRC-analysis) is recommended as an the test object that correspond to the fields at
alternative [223], [224], Section 6.4.7.4. operating frequency; however, the stress is not
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 379

continuous and has only a transient, pulsed can be employed [375], [390], Table 6.2.1-2
character. Ignition delay for inception of par- d), Figure 6.2.1-11 d). The test voltage is the
tial discharge, or the change in partial dis- peak value divided by 2 .
charge intensities with the stress duration,
therefore cannot be observed. In addition, the Continuous AC voltage tests close to the oper-
prior DC charging of the test object does not ating frequency are most comparable with the
correspond to the operating stress. Test voltage test stresses in the laboratory and with the
is the peak value Vp and it is identical with the operating stresses.
charging voltage.

d) AC voltage 6.2.2 Generation of DC Voltages

With the help of series resonance testing sys- High DC voltages serve as test voltages for
tems, it is possible to test even test objects HVDC components and cables as well as sup-
with large capacitance with continuous AC ply voltages for various technical applications,
voltages close to the operating frequency, such as video terminals, X-ray equipment,
Section 6.2.1-5. For this, it is assumed that electron microscopes, capacitor chargers, dust
capacitive field distributions present in opera- precipitators (electrostatic precipitators), paint-
tion are also present within the permitted fre- spraying devices and surface coating devices.
quency range of 10 to 500 Hz (for cables 20 to
300 Hz, see Section 7.1.1.5, Table 7.1.1-1) and High DC voltages are obtained from AC volt-
that no changes occur in the breakdown proc- ages by rectification (Section 6.2.2.1), mostly
esses [377], Figure 6.2.1-10. Therefore, test in connection with a voltage multiplier circuit
systems with corresponding variable frequency (Section 6.2.2.2). In the case of lower voltages,

a) Direct voltage (DC voltage)

t
VLF sine 0.1 Hz
VLF cosine rectangular 0.1 Hz
5s 10 s
0s t
b) VLF voltage 0.01 bis 1 Hz

A few ms

V1
V2

20 to 1000 Hz
Vp c) Damped AC voltage (DAC) d) AC voltage 10 to 500 Hz t

Figure 6.2.1-11: Test voltage waveshapes for on-site tests.

380 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

supply is often via a switched-mode power

supply (Section 6.2.2.3). Using electrostatic
generators is restricted to special applications Stray capacitances
at very high voltages (Section 6.2.2.4). to AC voltage side

Direct voltages are often superimposed by

periodic functions. Therefore, IEC 60060-1
[133] defines the arithmetic mean value as the
DC test voltage.
Transformer
____
connection Stray capacitances to ground
V v(t ) (6.2.2-1)

The ripple Gv = 0.5(vmax - vmin) is described by Figure 6.2.2-2: Linearization of potential distribu-
the ripple factor (“ripple factor”) tion in the reverse blocking state by grading capa-
citors parallel to the high-voltage rectifiers.
Gv/V= = 0.5(vmax - vmin)/V= . (6.2.2-2)
For spatially extended rectifiers that are used
It should not be more than 3% for DC voltage
for very high voltages of many 100 kV, a non-
tests.
linear voltage distribution along the series
connection of the individual rectifiers occurs,
owing to undefined stray capacitances to the
6.2.2.1 High-voltage Rectifier
groundside and to the AC voltage side, Figure
High-voltage rectifiers always consist of a 6.2.2-2. Voltage distribution can be lineraized
series connection of several semiconductor by parallel grading capacitors. For this, suffi-
diodes whose reverse voltage is restricted to a ciently large longitudinal currents must be
few kV. This is a problem for potential distri- present, relative to which the transverse cur-
bution in the reverse blocking state, since an rents over the stray capacitances are negligi-
unequal voltage distribution would lead to ble.
overstress and destruction of individual diodes.
Voltage distribution determined largely by
undefined junction capacitances and blocking- 6.2.2.2 Rectifier Circuits
state currents can be made more uniform by
AC voltage sources available in high voltage
parallel grading capacitors and grading re-
laboratories are often supplemented with a
sistors for the grading of time-varying voltages
capacitively graded rectifier and a smoothing
and steady-state DC voltages respectively,
capacitor to form a half-wave rectifier cir-
Figure 6.2.2-1. In forward direction, i.e. in the
cuit, Figure 6.2.2-2 and -3 (top): After con-
coducting state, the diodes are protected by
necting the AC voltage, the capacitor is
series resistors.
charged to the peak value v̂ during the posi-
tive half wave. The charging current must be
restricted to the permissible value by a series
resistor. Full charging within a quarter period
Symbol presumes a small charging time constant RC
<< T/4. After the voltage peak, the rectifier
blocks and a connected load RL is supplied
during a period t < T from the charged
smoothing capacitor. By exponentially dis-
charging with the time constant RLC, the volt-
Figure 6.2.2-1: Capacitively and resitively graded
high-voltage rectifier. age vC drops until the transformer voltage vT is
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 381

increased to an extent that recharging occurs. phases. C1 is recharged in the negative half-
The voltage stress of the rectifier in the wave and C2 in the positive half-wave.
blocking state results from vR = vT - vC and
can amount to a maximum of vRmax = 2· v̂ . Note: A symmetrical doubling circuit that was con-
nected asymmetrically to the ground potential on the
DC side was described. Thus, there is a need for a spe-
For a symmetrical voltage doubling circuit, cial symmetrical transformer whose high voltage wind-
only half as large a rectifier and half as large ing is at half of the DC voltage potential and therefore
an AC voltage vT are necessary for generating may not be connected to ground potential. The insula-
tion must be rated for the mixed voltage vC1 + vT.
a comparable DC voltage vC, Figure 6.2.2-3
(bottom). After connecting the AC voltage, the For independent DC voltage sources with their
lower partial capacitance C1 is charged to vC1 own individual AC voltage supply, the Grein-
= + v̂ during the negative half-wave via recti- acher multiplier (Greinacher cascade) has
fier 1. been accepted and this is characterized by two
important advantages, Figure 6.2.2-4: The first
Thereafter, the right transformer connection is one is that the power can be supplied with a
present at half DC voltage potential vC1 = + v̂ . transformer winding grounded on one side.
In the positive half-wave, the partial capaci- Another is that very high voltages can be gen-
tance C2 is also charged to vC2 = + v̂ via recti- erated by a series connection of many rectifier
fier 2. The total voltage is vC = vC1 + vC2 = stages with proportionally low partial voltages.
+2 v̂ . Moreover, the charging current can be limited
by dimensioning the capacitors.
A series resistor limits the current during
charging. Under load, the smoothing capaci- The Greinacher-cascade consists of an booster
tances are discharged between the recharging column with booster capacitors CB, a rectifier

Without load
ûv
vC
vT vR
With load
vR
t
vC

vT

R2
R1 Without load
C2 2 ûv vC
v T + v C1
vT vC
ûv v C1
C1 v C1
t

vT

Figure 6.2.2-3: Half-wave rectifier circuit (top) and symmetrical voltage doubling circuit (bottom).
382 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Booster Rectifier Smoothing column Voltage profiles for the single-stage doubling circuit
column column
2 ûv
'v T
2 1.25· ûv
vT
R4 ûv
v C1 v B1+ v T
C S2 v C2
R3 t

C B2 = R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
v B2
C B1 /2
' v T = 1.5· ûv
R2
C S1 v C1 2 ûv v C1
R1
v B1+ v T
v B1 vT
C B1
ûv

t
vT

Figure 6.2.2-4:
Principle of Greinacher cascade as two-
stage doubling circuit (top left).
Voltage profiles for a single-stage doubling
circuit (top right) after connecting the AC
voltage and in the stationary unloaded
condition respectively (below). For multi-
stage multiplier circuits, charging processes
are slower due to re-charging processes
between the smoothing column and the
booster column.
1500 kV UHVDC-cascade for a HVDC test
laboratory (right), figure HSP Hochspan-
nungsgeräte, Troisdorf / Highvolt, Dresden.

column, a smoothing column with smoothing is rectified by R2 and charges the smoothing
capacitors CS and often even a divider column capacitor CS1 to vC1 = 2· v̂ .
with a resistive voltage divider that is not il-
lustrated in the figure. The charging procedure takes place in steps,
the voltage vC1, for a single-stage doubling
The voltage profiles are illustrated in Figure circuit, asymptotically approaches the end
6.2.2-4 for a single stage doubling circuit. That value vC1 = 2· v̂ , Figure 6.2.2-4 (top right).
is, the associated circuit comprises only the
circuit part drawn in bold in Figure 6.2.2-4 After connecting the transformer, R2 is conducting in
the positive half-wave and vC1 (bold curve line) follows
(left). In the stationary, unloaded condition,
the transformer voltage vT in accordance with the ca-
the booster capacitor CB1 is charged via R1 to
pacitive divider ratio of CB1 and CS1. As long as R2 is
vB1 = + v̂ . The oscillating total voltage vS1 + vT conducting, the voltage vC1 is always equal to the total
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 383

voltage vT + vB1. The profiles shown in Figure 6.2.2-4 Since a permanent discharge of the smoothing
are applicable for equal capacitances CB1 = CS1 and vC1 column is caused by the load current, an in-
= vT/2 as long as R2 is conducting. crease in the number of stages does not always
R2 blocks at the positive voltage peak. The capacitor lead to an increase in the attainable DC volt-
voltages remain the same at the attained values vC1 = age (output voltage mean value in accordance
v̂ /2 and vB1 = - v̂ /2. The voltage vT + vB1 (dotted curve with Eq. (6.2.2-1)). Ripple increases signifi-
line) again decreases with vT. At vT + vB1 = 0, R1 is cantly in accordance with Eq. (6.2.2-2). The
conducting and CB1 is subsequently recharged to vT. As analysis shows that the stationary DC voltage
long as R1 is conducting, the total voltage vT + vB1 is decreases linearly with the load current I [16]:
always equal to zero.
I ˜ f ( n)
At the negative voltage peak, vB1 = + v̂ is attained and V vS 2˜n˜v  (6.2.2-4)
R1 closes. Thereafter, vT + vS1 increases following the f ˜C
profile of vT. As soon as the instantaneous value of the
capacitor voltage vC1 is attained, R2 is conducting again Larger load currents require a small number
and CS1 is charged again. Thus, the residual voltage of stages n, large capacitance values C or an
rise for the transformer voltage 'vT = 1.5· v̂ only leads increased frequency f.
to a voltage step by 'vC1 = 'vT/2 = 0.75· v̂ at CS1 owing
to capacitive voltage division over CB1 and CS1. DC voltage sources with greater load capac-
ity up to the MV range and up to the 100 mA
At the positive voltage peak, R2 blocks and the capaci- range can be implemented with Greinacher
tor voltages remain the same at the attained values vC1 =
cascades in which several booster columns
1.25· v̂ and vB1 = +0.25· v̂ . Analogous continuation of
the described processes leads to the illustrated voltage
operate on a single smoothing column. For
profiles, whereby the voltage steps 'vT and 'vC1 = this, transformers balanced to ground (two
'vT/2 become progressively smaller from period to booster columns) or three-phase transformers
period. (three booster columns) are considered for AC
voltage sources [22]. Furthermore, the indi-
Theoretically, the voltage can be increased as vidual stages of a rectifier cascade can each be
high as desired by connecting many doubling supplied by a transformer cascade (transfor-
stages in series (cascading). For example, the matory support).
booster capacitor CB2 = CB1/2 of the second
doubling stage is charged up to 2· v̂ in the
negative AC voltage half-wave from the 6.2.2.3 Switched-mode Power Supplies
charged smoothing capacitor CS1 of the first
stage via R1 and R3. In the positive half-wave The extensive use of high DC voltages as sup-
the transformer voltage vT thus “shifts” the ply voltages in devices (for example, for lasers,
voltage of the booster column up to vT + vB1 + capacitor charging devices, ozone producers,
electrostatic precipitators, x-ray devices, spray
vB2 = v̂ + v̂ + 2· v̂ = 4· v̂ (at the positive
paint equipment, coating devices, copiers) and
peak). This allows the voltage of the second
for mobile test equipment (e.g. cable testing
smoothing capacitor to also increase up to vS2
vehicles) has led to the development of
= 2· v̂ . In the unloaded steady state, the
switched-mode power supplies up to several
following is generally applicable for n dou- 10s of kV. They are considerably lighter and
bling stages: more compact than comparable 50 Hz power
V vS 2 ˜ n ˜ vˆ (6.2.2-3) supply units because, owing to high clock fre-
quencies in the 10 kHz range, a comparatively
Owing to the recharging processes between the light HF transformer with ferrite core can be
booster column and the smoothing column, the used: in accordance with the law of induction
asymptomatic charging of the Greinacher cas- vind = -w)/wt, low magnetic fluxes are essen-
cade to the end value takes ever-increasing tially adequate for transformation for high fre-
times with increasing numbers of stages n. quency flux changes.
384 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Another advantage of switched-mode power

Converter HF trans- Rectifier
former
supplies is the easy adaptability to different
supply voltages. Switched-mode power sup-
DC plies are, therefore, especially suitable for mo-
bile systems with on-board power supply op-
eration or battery operation.
-i feedback
i set
Con- 6.2.2.4 Electrostatic Generators
Pulse duty
troller
factor Electrostatic generators generate high DC
- v feedback
v set
voltages practically without any ripple. More-
over, very high voltages can be attained with
Figure 6.2.2-5: Capacitor charging device with relatively little technical complexity. However,
constant-current charging (schematic). generally only low load currents in the μA to
mA range are possible. For nuclear physics
accelerators, compressed gas insulated devices
An electronic power converter, e.g. a DC step- up to 25 MV have been built [16].
down converter, generates periodic rectangular
impulses with the help of switched power In the past 300 years, electrostatic generators,
semiconductors. These impulses can be trans- at first based on frictional electricity, have
formed with a high-frequency-compatible fer- contributed significantly to the physical under-
rite core transformer. After rectification and standing of electricity. However, electromag-
smoothing, the output DC voltage results. The netic generators have replaced them for large-
high clock frequency leads to very short dis- scale generation of electrical energy owing to
charge periods between the recharge phases. the comparatively low energy density of the
This allows a higher current load capacity or electric field.
smaller smoothing capacitors. Switched-mode
power supplies can cause strong power system The principle of electrostatic generators is
perturbations owing to non-sinusoidal currents based on the separation of charge carriers by
and hence appropriate filters must be provided. friction, by electric influence in electric fields
or by corona discharges in non-uniform fields,
With switched-mode power supplies, pulse- Figure 6.2.2-6. Charge separation by friction is
width-modulated capacitor charging devices caused by breaking an intimate in-
with constant-current charging can also be terconnection of two charge-carrying inter-
implemented, Figure 6.2.2-5. For this, the faces. For this, at least one of the two materials
controller develops the command variable must be a good electrical insulator. Charge
(reference variable) in the form of the pulse
duty factor Ton/T from the difference between
setpoint (target) value and (actual) feedback
value of the charge current. On attaining the
target voltage, the changeover to floating op-
eration takes place.

Through constant-current charging, signifi-

cantly higher efficiencies and lower charging E
times are possible than for conventional RC
charging with a maximum efficiency of K = 50 Figure 6.2.2-6: Charge separation through friction
%. This is very positive for battery-operated (left), through electrostatic induction (centre) and
devices or for limited power input. through a corona electrode (right).
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 385

High-
V
voltage V max
electrode
I load I leakage
I load

V I
I leakage
I belt
I belt E, J
Figure 6.2.2-8: Load characteristic of a van de
Graaff generator (belt generator).
Circulating belt
made of insula-
contact to the high-voltage electrode. The
Corona device ting material
transported charges are accumulated on the
outer side of the electrode, whereby the volt-
V=
age increases in accordance with

V = Q/C . (6.2.2-5)
Figure 6.2.2-7: Van de Graaff generator or belt
generator Charges and voltages can increase until a
steady-state condition is reached, i.e. equilib-
separation by electric influence (i.e. electro- rium between the leakage current plus load
static induction) is possible when two con- current and the charge transport of the band:
ductors are separated within the electric field
and transversely to the direction of the field. Ileakage + Iload = Ibelt (6.2.2-6)

For generating higher voltages, the separated An unrestricted voltage rise is practically not
charges are fed to the collector electrodes possible, since a disproportionate rise of the
against the forces of the electric field. Insu- leakage current occurs at the latest on exceed-
lating discs, belts or drums are used for this ing the corona inception voltage. Under load,
purpose. the voltage falls down, Figure 6.2.2-8. The
charge transport of the belt is restricted by the
Note: The principle of generating higher voltages can
surface charge density V, the belt velocity u
be explained on a plate capacitor with constant plate
charges +Q and –Q: The distance of the plates is in- and the width of the belt b:
creased by means of mechanical work. The voltage
increases with decreasing capacitance according to V = Ibelt = Vͼ·u·b (6.2.2-7)
Q/C proportionally to the plate distance. The applied
mechanical work is stored as electric field energy. The surface charge density is restricted by the
breakdown field strength of the surrounding
The belt generator (Van de Graaff genera- gas. For a thin belt with a uniform field on
tor) has been extensively used, and it is theo- both sides, the following is applicable if the
retically suitable for the generation of any edge fields are ignored:
desired high DC voltages, Figure 6.2.2-7. With
a corona device, charge carriers are sprayed on Vmax < 2·Dmax = 2·H0·Emax (6.2.2-8)
the surface of a circulating belt of insulating
material and transported on the band against The belt generator must therefore be under-
the force of the electric field. In the field-free stood as a constant-current source with the
internal space of a hollow high-voltage elec- source current given by Eq. (6.2.2-7). An in-
trode, the charges are passed over a metallic crease in current can be attained with broader
386 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

belts, higher band velocity and higher electric peak value and the decay in the wave tail
strength (i.e. through compressed-gas insula- within specific tolerances are specified, Fig-
tion). ures 6.2.3-1a and 6.2.3-1b and Table 6.2.3-1.
An exact specification of the profiles is not
The magnitude of the attainable voltage is de- obtained, since in practice, superimposed in-
termined by the magnitude of the insulation terferences and oscillations cannot be avoided.
resistance, the corona inception voltage and This is especially so for very high voltages,
the magnitude of the belt current. spatially extended impulse circuits and non-
capacitive test objects.
Van de Graaff generators with large insula-
tion distances, high quality support insulators Note: Other transient test parameters are chopped-wave
and compressed-gas insulation can be de- lightning impulse voltages, impulse currents for testing
signed for maximum voltages up to 25 MV. switches and arresters, “synthetic” test stresses of im-
pulse currents and impulse voltages for switching tests
Devices for large currents of multiple mA (for as well as extremely rapidly varying impulses in the ns
lower voltages in the MV range) are designed range.
as drum generators with higher peripheral
speed, larger drum width and multiple corona For tests in a laboratory or test facility, aperi-
units and receiver units distributed over the odic voltage profiles are specified, Table
circumference. 6.2.3-1 (left). In the case of on-site tests, the
idealized voltage waveforms often cannot be
Note: The formation of a charged thundercloud (cu- adhered to. Therefore, even strongly oscillat-
mulonimbus) can be compared with the charge accu-
mulation in a Van de Graaff generator. The charge
ing impulse voltages are used that are defined
transport thus takes place by upwinds, see Section in IEC 60060-3 by their envelope curves with
3.2.7.3. time parameters that are considerably widened,
[375], [390], Figure 6.2.3-2, Table 6.2.3-1
(right).
6.2.3 Generation of Impulse Voltages Note: Allowing oscillating voltages has the advantage
that higher peak values can be attained than would be
Impulse voltage tests simulate overvoltages in possible for non-periodic discharge of the impulse gen-
electrical power systems such as three-phase erator, see Eq. (6.2.3-1).
networks. The classic differentiation into “ex-
ternal overvoltages” (lightning impulse over- a) Lightning impulse voltages
voltages) that are caused by atmospheric dis- Based on real lightning current-time charac-
charges and “internal overvoltages” (switch- teristics (see Section 3.2.7.2 with Figure 3.2-
ing impulse overvoltages) that occur owing to 44) or the over-voltages caused by them,
switching processes in the network must be lightning impulse voltages are defined by the
supplemented by rapidly varying transient ef-
peak value V̂ , the front time T1 or Tf and the
fects (“fast transients”) occurring along with
flashovers and switching processes. time to half-value (on wave tail) T2 or Th
which is also called tail time Tt. In the case of
chopped lightning impulse voltages, which
6.2.3.1 Impulse Voltage Waveforms are intended to simulate the action of very
rapid voltage changes, the chopping time Tc is
In order to achieve international comparability, used as an additional parameter, Figure 6.2.3-
the multitude of overvoltage phenomena is 1a.
reduced to standardized lightning impulse
voltages and switching impulse voltages for Strong distortions are frequently superimposed
test purposes [133], [134]. For these test volt- during the rise of impulse voltages. Real
ages, parameters that describe the voltage rise, waveshapes, therefore, can often only be inter-
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 387

V
v (t) /Û V
v (t) /Û
1 1
0.9

0.5

0.3
T
t t
50 μs 1.2 μs
T1= Tf = 1.67 T
T2 = Th Compressed Enlarged
time scale time scale
Virtual
origin
Tc
Figure 6.2.3-1a: Definition of characteristics of an aperiodic lightning impulse voltage (LI) 1,2/50 μs.

V
v (t) /Û V
v (t) /Û
1 1
0.9 0.9
Td
Envelope

0.5 T2 = Th = 0.5
2500 μs
0.3 0.3

T t t
250 μs T

Virt. Tp
orig. T2
Actual origin Virt. origin

Figure 6.2.3-1b: Definition of characteristics of an Figure 6.2.3-2: Oscillating lightning or switching

aperiodic switching impulse voltage (SI) 250/2500 μs. impulse voltage for on-site tests (OLI or OSI).

preted inaccurately with the common defini- ble deviation + 30 %) and a time to half-value
tion of a rise time from 10 to 90 %. Determin- of 50 μs (permissible tolerance + 20 %) are
ing the front time T1 or Tf from 0 to 100 % on specified. Chopping times are generally in the
a substitute line that is drawn through the 30 % range of 2 to 5 μs. These and other character-
and 90 % points of the waveshape curve is istic values are presented in Table 6.2.3-1
more practical, Figure 6.2.3-1a. The virtual against the less restrictive parameters for on-
origin (zero reference point) for determining site tests with oscillating impulse voltages
the time to half-value on wave tail and the [390].
chopping time are also defined using the sub-
Note: Often, even for tests with standardized aperiodic
stitute line. The time T between 30% and 90% lightning impulse voltage in the laboratory, oscillations
values is related to the front time by a simple are superimposed to the impulse voltage waveshape in
geometrical equation, Figure 6.2.3-1a (right): the front area and in the area of voltage maximum.
While determining the peak value, the amplitude of the
T1 = Tf = 1.67·T (6.2.3-1) overshoot must not be more than 5%.

Superimposed oscillations are especially important

For the standardized lightning impulse volt- when testing transformers. The evaluation of the im-
age “1.2/ 50”, a front time of 1.2 μs (permissi- pulse voltage curve is therefore explained in detail in
388 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Section 6.2.3.4 with Figure 6.2.3-9: The current un-

steady evaluation procedure is replaced by a steady, For the standardized switching impulse volt-
frequency dependent evaluation method using a fre- age “250/2500”, a time to crest of 250 μs
quency-dependent weighting of the superimposed os-
cillation by means of a filter function , cf. IEC 60060-1
(permissible deviation + 20 %) and a time to
[133], [498]. half-value (tail time) of 2500 μs (permissible
deviation + 60 %) are specified. These and
b) Switching impulse voltages other characteristic values are presented in
Table 6.2.3-1 against the less restrictive pa-
Switching impulse voltages are characterized rameters for on-site tests with oscillating im-
by the time to crest Tcr or time to peak Tp and pulse voltages [390].
by the time to half-value (on wave tail) T2 =
Note: The large tolerances of the time parameters men-
Th. or tail time Tt respectively. tioned are necessary in practical test operation, since the
connected test objects are elements of the respective
Note: If the test object causes a back-swing, then instead impulse circuits and they can greatly influence the im-
of the time to half-value on wave tail, the crest duration pulse voltage waveform.
Td, during which the voltage exceeds 90 % of the peak
value, can be specified along with the time to zero The definition of the time to crest value Tcr or
crossing T0. time to peak Tp between the actual zero refer-

Table 6.2.3-1: Requirements for laboratory tests and on-site tests with impulse voltages [375], [390].

Note: Tests in laboratory (test facility) On-site tests

Tests for AC voltages
see Section 6.2.1.6 IEC 60 060-1 IEC 60 060-3
see Figure 6.2.3-1a and -1b See Figure 6.2.3-2
Aperiodic lightning impulse voltage Oscillating lightning impulse
a) Lightning impulse voltage
LI (Lightning impulse) voltage OLI (Oscillating LI)
Front time 1.2 μs +30 % or 0.84 to 1.56 μs 0.8 to 20 μs
Time to half-value on wave tail, Time parameter
50 μs +20 % or 40 to 60 μs 40 to 100 μs
tail time from envelope
curve
Measurement uncertainty of time
+ 10 % + 10 %
parameters
Tolerance of peak value +3% +5%
Peak value of
Measurement uncertainty of oscillation
+3% +5%
peak value
Superimposed oscillations + 5 % (averaging depending on freq.) allowed, 15 to 400 kHz
Aperiodic switching impulse voltage Oscillating switching impulse
b) Switching impulse voltage
SI (Switching impulse) voltage OSI (Oscillating SI)
Time to crest (time to peak) 250 μs + 20 % or 200 to 300 μs 20 to 400 μs
Time to half-value on wave tail, Time parameter
2500 μs + 60 % or 1 to 4 ms 1 to 4 ms
tail time from envelope
curve
Measurement uncertainty of time
+ 10 % + 10 %
parameters
Tolerance of peak value +3% +5%
Peak value of
Measurement uncertainty of oscillation
+3% +5%
peak value
Superimposed oscillations allowed, 1 to 15 kHz
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 389

ence point of the voltage curve and the mo- 6.2.3.2 Single-stage Impulse Voltage
ment at which the peak value is attained in- Generators
cludes some uncertainty in determining both
these times. In practice, this leads to difficul- Standardized lightning impulse voltages and
ties, especially for automatic determination by switching impulse voltages are generally gen-
transient recorders. It is therefore proposed erated in capacitive impulse circuits by
that the approved method of determining the charging a load capacitance CL from an en-
time parameters for lightning impulse voltages ergy storage capacitance CD (discharge ca-
should be adopted: the rise would then be pacitance or impulse capacitance), Figure
characterized by the time T between the 30 % 6.2.3-3. Here the total load capacitance in-
and 90 % values. To allow a comparison with cludes the capacitance of the test object, the
the previously common parameters, a conver- capacitance of the impulse voltage divider and
sion between the time parameter T and the possibly an additional load capacitance.
time to crest Tcr or Tp with the help of factors
is currently under discussion, for example, Following the ignition of the switching spark
gap G1, the load capacitance CL is charged via
! the damping resistance RF (“front resistance”,
Tp 2.4 ˜ T . (6.2.3-2) which determines the front time) from the di-
charge capacitance CD (that is charged to V0).
Moreover, it is recommended to exactly define Here, an exponential voltage rise occurs and
the time parameter with the help of a virtual its time constant W1 is determined largely by RF
origin. Although IEC 60060-1 (general test
conditions) [133] is not yet “harmonized” in and the series connection of capacitances CL
this regard, an appropriate modification is al- and CD, Figure 6.2.3-3 with Eq. (6.2.3-3b).
ready taken into consideration in the new IEC Simultaneously, a slower exponential dis-
60060-3 (on-site tests) for oscillating switch- charge of the capacitances CL and CD occurs
ing impulse voltages [375], [390]. via the discharging resistance RT (“tail resis-

RC G1 RF G2 RC G1 RF G2

V0 v (t) V0 v (t)
(t = 0) CD RT CL (t = 0) CD RT CL

Basic circuit 1 Basic circuit 2

V
Û CD (6.2.3-3a) Û
V RT CD
K = = Voltage efficiency K = =
V0 CD + C L V0 RT + RF CD + C L

CD CL (6.2.3-3b) RT RF CD CL
W1 = RF Front time costant W1 =
CD + C L RT + RF CD + C L

(6.2.3-3c)
W2 = R T ( CD + CL ) Wave tail W2 = ( R + R ) ( CD + C L )
T F
time constant

Figure 6.2.3-3: Basic single-stage circuits for the generation of double exponential impulse voltages in capaci-
tive impulse circuits with approximation equations for the characteristic values of the impulse voltage profile.
390 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tance”, which determines the time to half- Table 6.2.3-2: Constants for the determination of
value on wave tail or tail time resp.) with the front time and time to half-value on wave tail.
time constant W2, Figure 6.2.3-3 with Eq. Impulse voltage wave form
(6.2.3-3c). CL and CD are thus also connected 1.2/5 1.2/50 1.2/200 250/2500
in parallel by the spark gap G1. The peak
value of the resultant impulse voltage v(t) does K1 1.49 2.96 3.15 2.41
not reach the value of the charging voltage V0, K2 1.44 0.73 0.70 0.87
since after ignition of the spark gap, the charge
stored in CD is distributed to CD and CL. The
Lightning impulse voltage impulses can be
voltage efficiencyK = V̂ /V0 is therefore less generated with the standardized parameters by
than one, Eq. (6.2.3-3a). Solving the differen- appropriate dimensioning of the circuit ele-
tial equation describing the network results in ments. Equations that are only slightly differ-
a double exponential voltage-time character- ent are applicable for the two basic circuits,
istic, Figure 6.2.3-4: which differ in the position of the discharge
resistance, Figure 6.2.3-3 with Eq. (6.2.3-
t t
W2   3a,b,c).
v(t ) V0 ˜ K ˜ (e W  e W2 1
) (6.2.3-4)
W 2 W 1 The maximum amount of charging voltage V0
is restricted by the sparkover voltage of the
The approximation equations (6.2.3-3a, b, c)
switching spark gap G1. Generally, the elec-
for time constants and voltage efficiency are
trode distance is set so wide that the gap does
valid under the assumption RTCD | W2 >> W1 | not break down spontaneously. Thus, it is pur-
RFCL. posefully ignited by a trigger impulse that
generates an ignition spark at a trigger elec-
The parameters front time T1 and time to half- trode and thereby triggers the main discharge,
value T2, which are defined for lightning im- Figure 6.2.3-5. The trigger generator must be
pulse voltages, are proportional to the time at the potential of an electrode or an additional
constants W1 and W2: coupling capacitor must be used.
Note: Below the breakdown voltage of a spark gap, a
T1 = Tf = K1·W1 (6.2.3-5) limited voltage range exists in which the field strengths

T2 = Th = K2·W2 (6.2.3-6)

Constants K1 and K2 are dependent on the im-

Main discharge
pulse voltage wave form, Table 6.2.3-2. Ignition spark
Trigger electrode

v(t) Charging
V0 circuit
-t / W 1
~ (-e )
V
Û
Storage
v(t) -t / W 2 capacitance
~e
Trigger Switch Trigger
impulse (thyratron) impulse
W1 W2 t
Figure 6.2.3-5: Triggering of the main discharge in
Figure 6.2.3-4: Double exponential impulse voltage. a spark gap by an ignition impulse.
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 391

are still adequate for triggering by an ignition impulse According to Eq. (6.2.3-3a), the voltage efficiency is K =
[108]. It is best to determine the triggering range for a CD/ (CD + CL) = 91 %. Therefore, at V0 = 140 kV, an
given arrangement empirically. The voltage at the spark
impulse voltage peak value V̂ = K ·V0 = 127 kV is ob-
gap should be chosen at the center of the triggering
range to maintain the minimum possible probabilities of tained. A higher voltage efficiency K| 1 is obviously
a spontaneous breakdown on the one hand and of an obtained only under the condition
ignition failure on the other hand.
CD >> CL . (6.2.3-9)
Note: Instead of triggering by an ignition spark, it is The energy stored capacitively in CD is described as so-
also possible to shift the potential of an intermediate
called “impulse energy”, and it amounts to about W =
electrode to such an extent that the main discharge is
triggered [108]. 100 J for V0 = 140 kV. The impulse energy is largely
transformed into ohmic heat losses in the elements RF
Chopped impulse voltages are generated by a and RT, and to a smaller extent also into losses in the
spark resistance of the switching spark gap G1 as well
chopping spark gap G2. The chopping time Tc
as in the capacitors and in the test object.
is adjusted either by the electrode distance or
is also determined by triggering. Often, the properties of the test object
change the form of the impulse voltage to such
Even the parameters of switching impulse an extent that the permissible tolerances are no
voltages result from the time constants W1 and longer maintained: large test object capacitan-
W2. For time to crest (time to peak) and time to ces increase the rise time constant W1, but the
half-value (tail time), the following is ap- influence on the wave tail time constant W2 is
proximately applicable, weak for comparatively large discharge ca-
pacitances. The front time is adjusted by
W1W 2 W changing the damping resistor RF. In a modu-
Tcr ln 2 (6.2.3-7)
W 2  W1 W1 lar system, for example, the given resistances
and can be used in series connections and parallel
2 connections. When using a tape-type resistor
T2 W 2 ˜ ln (6.2.3-8) web, there is generally the option to make ad-
K
justments by bridging sections.
under the assumption T2 = Th > 10·Tcr [135]. Note: Resistor webs are made woven of insulating fabric
tapes with meander-shaped continuous resistance wires
of large length. High voltage resistors consist of series
Example: Dimensioning of an impulse circuit connections of many low-inductance partial resistors
that can be immersed in oil or embedded in cast resin to
A discharge capacitor CD = 10 nF (V0 = 140 kV) and a
increase the voltage strength.
capacitive voltage divider with a high-voltage capaci-
tance CV = 200 pF are provided for an impulse circuit
setup. The impulse circuit elements shall be dimen-
sioned according to basic circuit 1 in such a way that a 6.2.3.3 Multi-stage Impulse Voltage
lightning impulse voltage 1.2/50 is generated at a test Generators
object capacitance CT = 800 pF.
The voltage of a single-stage impulse circuit is
The time constants W1 = 405 ns and W2 = 68.5 μs result mainly restricted to approximately 100 to 300
from T1 = 1.2 μs and T2 = 50 μs with Eq. (6.2.3-5) and - kV by the voltage rating of the components.
6 as well as Table 6.2.3-2. Multi-stage generators according to Erwin
Marx, so-called Marx generators, are used
The total load capacitance is CL = CV + CT = 1 nF. for higher impulse voltages. By parallel
Thus the discharging resistance (tail resistance) RT is charging of stages, short-duration series con-
obtained from Eq. (6.2.3-3c) as RT = W2/ (CD + CL) = nection of the discharge capacitors and series
6.2 k:. The damping resistance (front resistance) is RF discharging, a temporary multiplication of
= W1(1/CD + 1/CL) = 450 : according to Eq. (6.2.3-3b). voltage occurs, Figures 6.2.3-6 and 6.2.3-7.
392 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Impulse generator Test object Chopping Voltage

with spark-gap column spark gap divider

R Fe

RV
v (t) CV

Charging
R'C R'T
R'Fi
device

CT Storage
C'D oscillo-
Triggering scope

Figure 6.2.3-6: Multi-stage impulse generator or "Marx generator" with related impulse circuit, see Fig. 6.2.3-7.

Charging of discharge capacitances CD' takes Note: Voltage divider capacitance CV is often
place in a parallel connection on two bus bars chosen to be large compared to the test object
via charging and discharging resistors RC' and capacitances, which therefore have only a
RT'. Therefore, the charging device needs only weak influence on the front time.
be dimensioned for the single-stage voltage V0.
The load capacitance CL | CV is charged via
All discharge capacitances CD' are connected the resultant (front-time) damping resistance
in series by igniting the switching spark gaps. RF, which is the sum of the internally distrib-
For n stages, the summated charging voltage uted damping resistances RFi', the concentrated
external damping resistance RFe and the resul-
V06 = n·V0 (6.2.3-10) tant damping resistance of the voltage divider
RV:
is available at the generator head in a resulting
discharge capacitance RF = n·RFi' + RFa + RV (6.2.3-13)

CD = (1/n)·CD' (6.2.3-11) The discharge capacitances are discharged via

the resistances R'T and R'C with the switching
The resultant load capacitance consists of the spark gaps ignited. If RC' >> RT' is selected,
sum of the test object capacitance and voltage
the resultant discharging resistance (tail re-
divider capacitance:
sistance) is given by
CL = CT + CV (6.2.3-12)
RT = n·RT'. (6.2.3-14)
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 393

Figure 6.2.3-7:
Top:Ten-stage impulse generator
(summated charging voltage 1000kV)
with direct voltage supply (left) and
damped capacitive impulse voltage
divider (right) in the high voltage test
laboratory of Hochschule Würzburg-
Schweinfurt.
Right: UHV impulse generator (sum-
mated charging voltage 3200 kV) with
impulse voltage divider (left) and
chopping spark gap (right), Picture
HSP Hochspannungsgeräte, Trois-
dorf/ Highvolt, Dresden.

For the calculation, Eqs. (6.2.3-1) to (-3) can stray capacitances to ground temporarily
be applied with the resultant parameters (CD, maintain the upper electrode of the second
CL, RF, RT) or with the parameters of the indi- spark gap approximately at ground potential.
vidual stages (CD', CL' = n·CL, RF' = RF/n and The other spark gaps are progressively ignited
from bottom to top by ever-increasing over-
RT'). Multiplication circuits are possible for
voltages.
both basic circuits 1 and 2.
The arrangement of discharge gaps one above
Note: Modern impulse generators are frequently de-
signed to be modular, i.e. the stages can be connected in the other in a spark gap column should ensure
different combinations, in series or parallel. This results that the UV-radiation emitted by the first dis-
in greater flexibility for adaptation of the generator to charge generates start electrons at the electrode
different test objects as well as for on-site-tests. surfaces of the higher spark gaps and thereby
minimizes the ignition delay time and statisti-
All spark gaps must be adjusted in such a way cal dispersion (“jitter”).
that they do not automatically ignite for an
applied direct voltage V0. Fireing of the gen- Note: Complete ignition of impulse generators can be
erator is caused by triggering the lowest spark improved by additional capacitors to ground in the
gap that connects the two first discharge ca- lower stages if the stray capacitances are not adequate
for reliable ignition. For large generators, simultaneous
pacitors in series. Thereafter, the doubled triggering of multiple successive stages is often useful
loading voltage occurs at the second spark gap to achieve reproducible ignition with less dispersion.
and owing to high overvoltage, it results in a Finally, for extreme requirements regarding jitter, po-
rapid breakdown. Here it is assumed that the tential-free laser triggering is possible.
394 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Note: Dirt on the electrode surfaces frequently causes a) Overshoot

non-triggered spontaneous ignitions. It is therefore rec-
ommended to burn away any dirt by multiple test trig- In the case of spatially extended impulse cir-
gers and to check for reliable operation. cuits, i.e. especially for multi-stage generators,
appreciable circuit inductances and oscilla-
Arrangement of impulse circuit elements is
tions occur. They can be ignored in to a first
carried out in accordance with Figure 6.2.3-6
approximation if there is at least a critical
in such a way that the impulse generator is
damping of the circuit. By the damping resis-
connected directly to the test object. The volt-
tance (front resistance) RF. For a simple RLC
age divider must be connected in a separate
circuit starting from the test object to record series resonant circuit, this results in a damp-
the voltage at the test object as accurately as ing condition in accordance with Figure 6.2.3-
possible. To avoid oscillations and inductive 8:

—
coupling impedances, the high voltage con- L Circuit
RF > 2 · (6.2.3-15)
nections and ground connections must be CCircuit
made while keeping insulation distances at the
shortest paths possible. Reference conductors The series connection of the discharge capaci-
are arranged radially to a central reference tance and the load capacitance must be consid-
point and are grounded centrally, Figure 6.2.3- ered as the circuit capacitance. The circuit
6, Section 6.3.8. inductance can be roughly estimated from the
length of the electric circuit of the oscillating
Note: High-voltage conductors must not be provided
with large radii of curvature as for DC voltages and AC circuit with 1 μH/m, see Figure 6.2.3-6 with a
voltages. Owing to very short-duration transient voltage boldly drawn discharge circuit. The damping
stress, the dielectric strength can be ensured by adequate resistance (front resistance) includes the inter-
distances. nal and external damping resistances as well as
the voltage divider resistance RV, if the divider
capacitance represents the major proportion of
6.2.3.4 Overshoot and Back Swing the load capacitance.
Owing to parasitic properties of the test circuit
Example: Spatial extension of an impulse circuit
or the test object that is connected, the impulse
voltage waveform can considerably be dis- The maximum possible spatial extension of the impulse
torted and it can be deviate from the double- circuit shall be estimated for the example (CD = 10 nF,
exponential function according to Eq. (6.2.3- CL = 1 nF, RF = 450 :) calculated in Section 6.2.3.2.
4). Mainly the overshoot in the front of the
voltage curve (a), the definition of a test volt- The effective capacitance results from the series con-
age amplitude (b) and the back swing in the nection of CD and CL to CCircuit = 0.909 nF. For RF, a
possible damping by a divider resistance is not consid-
tail of the voltage curve (c) is a matter of con-
ered, since the load capacitance is concentrated largely
cern. in the test object capacitance (CT = 0.8 nF). LCircuit <
46 μH is obtained with RF = 450 : from Eq. (6.2.3-15).
This corresponds approximately to a maximum circuit
length of l < 46 m.
L Circuit RF
For large impulse generators or high load ca-
1 μH/m pacitances (with accordingly small damping
CD CL
resistances), compliance with the damping
CCircuit condition according to Eq. (6.2.3-15) can lead
to difficulties.

Figure 6.2.3-8: Damping of an impulse circuit by Note: Following the response of the chopping spark
the resultant damping resistance. gap, a high frequency oscillation occurs at first in the
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 395

circuit of the test object and the chopping spark gap, and obsolete) procedure that the test voltage
it is only very poorly damped.
amplitude V̂t below 500 kHz must be inferred
b) Test voltage amplitude from the extreme value Vˆ of the oscillating
e

The exact performance of an impulse circuit voltage and above that from the peak value Vˆb
can only be determined by network analysis. of an averaged curve (base curve), Figure
However, the knowledge of all relevant equiv- 6.2.3-9 (below, grey curve), does not corre-
alent netework elements is generally not given spond to the continuous breakdown behavior
for that. of insulations in dependence on stress dura-
tion.
Therefore, it is a practical difficulty to deter-
mine the test voltage amplitude from a meas- Therefore, IEC 60060-1 describes the follow-
ured impulse voltage curve which contains ing evaluation procedure based on a continu-
superimposed oszillations to a greater or lesser ous curve [133], [489], Figure 6.2.3-9: The
extent, Figure 6.2.3-9 (top left). Thus, signifi- recorded oscillating impulse voltage vrec(t) is
cant differences 'v between the extreme value approximated by a double-exponential base
curve vb(t) according to Eq. (6.2.3-4). The dif-
Vˆe of the measured curve and the peak value
ference between recorded curve and base
Vˆ of the double-exponential base curve ac-
b curve is the residual curve vr(t), it represents
cording to Eq. (6.2.3-4) can occur. the superimposed oscillating content, Figure
6.2.3-9 (top left). This oscillating content is
The previously used discrete (and meanwhile filtered according to the so-called k-factor

Recorded impulse voltage curve Test voltage curve acc. to IEC 60060-1
(with oscillations) (with oscillating content after damping)

v rec
v rec 'v vb vb
vt
Base curve Base curve

Calculation of the difference Ûe U

V
U V
Ût U
V
Ûb Superposition
in the time domain in the time domain
vr v rf
t t

Residual curve v r Filtered residual curve v rf

(oscillating content) (oscillating content after damping)

Transformation into Transformation into

Filtering in the frequency domain
the frequency domain the time domain
Vr 1 V rf
V rf Old method
k (f) = (discrete)
Vr
0.5 500 k
Improved method
(continuous)
f / Hz
0
10 k 100 k 1M 10 M

Figure 6.2.3-9: Method for the determination of the test voltage curve from a measured impulse voltage with
superimposed oscillations. Damping of the ocillating content according to Eq. (6.2.3-16) and IEC 60060-1.
396 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

curve Note: The test voltage curve that is calculated according

to the describe procedure is also used for the determina-
k(f) = 1 / (1 + 2.2·(f / MHz)2) (6.2.3-16) tion of the time parameters (front time Tf = T1 and
time to half-value Th = T2 or tail time Tt resp.).
in the frequency domain, and this results in a
frequncy-dependent damping. Note: A simplified manual calculation of the test volt-
age amplitude can be based on the fundamental oscilla-
Note: This filter characteristic represents the charac- tion of the oscillation spectrum: depending on the fre-
teristic of breakdown voltage as a function of stress quency of the fundamental oscillation, it is weightened
duration which was empirically determined for many with the appropriate k-factor and then it is superimposed
insulating materials. Corresponding investigations have to the base curve. However, components of higher fre-
been performed, for example, with the basic high volt- quencies are not regarded in this case.
age materials such as air, SF6, popyethylene and oil
[293]. c) Back swing
Accordingly, for a slow overshoot with correspondingly During the impulse voltage testing of trans-
long stress duration (f << 500 kHz), the amplitude is not
damped at all (k = 1); and for a high-frequency over-
formers, particularly large changes in the wave
shoot with correspondingly short stress duration (f >> tail of the impulse voltage occur, since the low
500 kHz), the oscillating contents are completely short circuit impedance of the transformer is
damped (k = 0). parallel to the discharging resistor if the low
voltage winding of the transformer is short-
The test voltage curve vt(t) with the amplitude circuited, Figure 6.2.3-10 (top). In particular,
V̂t is calculated by superposition of the base the leakage inductance LV' = LL' of the trans-
curve vb(t) and the filterd residual curve vrf(t) former leads to “back-swings” that must be
in the time domain, Figure 6.2.3-9 (top right). restricted to 50 % [52]. The winding resistance
of the transformer RW' is not enough for this in
G1 RF L'L R'W most of the cases. The impulse voltage wave-
form must be given a profile conforming to the
standards by connecting a resistance R2 to the
V0 RH v (t) R'2 = low-voltage winding, whose value is multi-
CD CL a² R 2 plied with the square of the transformation
ratio a for a transformation to R2' on the high-
Impulse circuit Test object (transformer) voltage side, Figure 6.2.3-10 (bottom).
Note: The complex structure of transformer windings, in
a conjunction with the impulse circuit, leads to resonances
that manifest themselves as intense superimposed os-
R2 cillations in the impulse voltage waveform v(t), cf. to
v (t) Section b).
40 μs 60 μs
Û
V

0.5 Û
V 6.2.3.5 Impulse-current Generators
(b) t
Impulse currents are frequently used in asso-
T2(a) T2(b) ciation with impulse voltages for test purposes
R2 > 0
- 0.5 Û
V and they are generated similarly to impulse
(a) R2 = 0 voltages by discharging capacitive energy
storage capacitors. They should therefore be
discussed briefly in this context.
Figure 6.2.3-10: Lightning impulse voltage test of a
single-phase transformer (a) with a damping of
back-swing by a resistive termination of the low-
For double exponential impulse currents, the
voltage winding (b). front time T1 and the time to half-value (tail
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 397

time) T2 are standardized. The tolerance range Rectangular or long-duration impulse cur-
is +10 %. However, the front line must be de- rents shall represent discharge currents,
fined through the 90% and the 10% point of which, after the response of the overvoltage
the curve profile for the definition of front protection devices, are fed from long cables
time! Back swing may not exceed 20% of the charged to operating voltage. The duration Td
peak value; the amplitude of oscillations at for which the current is larger than 0.9·Î is
peak current must remain under 5%. standardized. Td is largely in the range from
500 to 3200 μs [16].
Standardized exponential impulse currents are,
for example, 8/20 and 4/10, the numbers re- Rectangular impulse currents and long-dura-
spectively specify the front time and time to tion impulse currents are generated by dis-
half-value (tail time) in μs. Overvoltage pro- charging LC lattice networks, whose capaci-
tection devices (spark gaps, arresters) must be tances have been charged in advance. Thus, an
tested with exponential impulse currents with electrically long line is simulated by concen-
regard to their current carrying capacity fol- trated components, Figure 6.2.3-12. The rec-
lowing to their response. Moreover, tests for tangular impulse current simulates the travel-
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of com- ing wave process to be emulated.
plex systems such as aircraft require the sim-
ulation of lightning strikes by impulse cur- Note: Strictly speaking, power frequency short-circuit
rents. currents up to the 100 kA range with current-flow dura-
tions in the seconds range are not impulse currents.
Exponential impulse currents are generated They are fed from the rotating mass of high-perform-
from capacitor banks, in which discharge ca- ance motor-generator sets or from high-capacity high-
pacitors are connected in parallel and charged current transformers.
up to voltages of approximately 100 kV. Dis-
charging takes place in parallel via minimal
length paths of equal length via a switching 6.2.3.6 Combined Test Circuits
spark gap and the test object (load), Figure
6.2.3-11. Many electrical power engineering equipments
are stressed both by high voltages as well as
Owing to the circuit inductance, the current by high currents. Corresponding high-power
does not follow an ideal exponential function. test sources are impossible to implement with
It is rather a damped oscillation of a series reasonable technical effort. Instead of this, one
resonance circuit. For the relationship between applies combined test circuits to generate high
the current parameters T1, T2 and Î and the currents and high voltages in separate low-
network elements of the impulse current cir- power circuits. With the help of a control unit,
cuit, refer to the relevant literature [16]. the time sequence of current stress and voltage
stress is aligned in such a way that the stresses
correspond to the conditions in service or ac-
Triggering cording to the test requirements, Figure 6.2-13
L R and -14.

The response behavior of overvoltage protec-

G RS RL tion devices is checked with impulse voltages.
The discharge capacity is tested by the imme-
CD
Current diately subsequent feed-in of an impulse cur-
measuring
shunt rent, Figure 6.2.3-13.

Figure 6.2.3-11: Generation of exponential impulse Switching devices must be capable of inter-
currents from a capacitor bank (schematic). rupting a specific power frequency current and
398 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

of insulating the recurrent voltage across the 6.2.3.7 Special Impulse Generators
switching contacts that open.
Many technical applications require impulses
The current-breaking capacity is tested with that do not correspond to the impulse voltages
so-called “synthetic test circuits”, in which a that are standardized for insulation tests. A few
motor-generator set supplies the power fre- examples are given in the following sections:
quency current which is to be interrupted. In-
terrupting the current through the test object is a) Rectangular impulse voltages help in de-
followed by triggering of the impulse voltage termining system properties or transmission
circuit, which simulates the recurrent voltage properties of measuring systems by step-re-
by an oscillating voltage in a RLC-circuit, Fig- sponse measurements. Generally, voltages are
ure 6.2.3-14. relatively low, since it is not important to test
the insulation but only to achieve a sufficiently
high signal level. High voltages are only nec-
L Triggering G essary for testing non-linearities.

In the case of lower voltages, it is possible to

CD RL use electronic function generators. Higher
RS
rectangular voltages of up to a few 100 V are
Current generated by the parallel connection of
measuring charged capacitances to the test object. A low
shunt inductivity assembly and adequate damping of
Figure 6.2.3-12: Generation of rectangular impulse oscillations must be ensured for this.
currents by discharging lattice networks (schematic).
Rectangular voltages in the kV range can be
generated with line generators (cable genera-
Impulse current Impulse voltage circuit tors), see Section 2.6.3.3 and Figure 2.6-18.
circuit Test object For this, a charged line is connected to the load
through a low-inductive switch. Discharging
Triggering G the line by traveling waves ideally leads to a
rectangular voltage impulse. According to the
equivalent transmission-line circuit in Figure
2.6-8, the rise-time constant for a resistive load
R is practically exclusively determined by the
inductance L of the switch and the characteris-
tic (line) impedance Z, i.e. the following is
Figure 6.2.3-13: Testing an overvoltage arrester with
impulse voltage and impulse current (schematic). applicable: W = L/(R + Z). For a capacitive load
C, such as for a capacitive voltage divider, C is
exponentially charged with the time constants
Impulse current circuit Impulse voltage circuit W = ZC if the inductance can be neglected. De-
Test object pending on the voltage, electronic switches,
relays with mercury contacts, switching tubes
(thyratrons) or switching spark gaps are used
as switches.
M G
b) Very rapidly rising impulses in the ns
range are used for the simulation of electro-
"Current off": triggering magnetic wave fields for testing of the elec-
Figure 6.2.3-14: "Synthetic test circuit" for testing
tromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of devices
the breaking capacity of switches (schematic). and systems.
6.2 Generation of High Voltages 399

For example, the immunity to the so-called Generally, the impulse is generated by the dis-
nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP, HEMP charge of a capacitive energy storage device
high altitude electromagnetic pulse), that is consisting of pulse-resistant capacitors in a
expected for a nuclear explosion outside the low inductance discharging circuit. For repeti-
earth’s atmosphere, is tested with a double tive operation, a short charging time and a
exponential impulse whose rise time Tr is = 4 high efficiency (i.e. low losses) are necessary.
ns and whose time to half-value on wave tail Owing to this, the simple mains-operated
T2 is = 200 ns [41]. charging equipment is increasingly being re-
placed by switched-mode power supply units
The test object is exposed to the transient with constant-current charging, see Section
electromagnetic wave field in a parallel-plate 6.2.2.3. Switched-mode power supply units are
line, Figure 6.2.3-15. The supply is from a particularly also suitable for mobile systems
charged capacitor bank that in principle be- owing to their lower weight.
longs to an impulse voltage circuit (discharge
Important applications are compiled in Section
capacitance CD). The unavoidable inductance
7.4.2, such as the generation of acoustic shock
of the discharge circuit LD prolongs the attain- waves under water for medical purposes, for
able rise time too much. A so-called secondary production or for recycling. Other applications
circuit is therefore necessary, which can be arise for pulsed light sources, i.e. for pulsed
designed to be of considerably low inductance, lasers, flash devices and UV sources for
since significantly smaller insulation distances chemical processing technology (e.g. harden-
and overall dimensions are possible owing to
the only short-duration voltage stress. That is,
LT << LD is applicable. The transfer capaci-
tance CT is charged in oscillating manner from
R
the discharge capacitance CD via G1 and LD.
At the maximum capacitor voltage vT(t), G2 E
ignites and leads to a rapid voltage rise vR(t) at v
Z
the load with the time constant LT/R. The de- H
crease in the tail of the impulse is determined
by the discharge of CT through R.

In the so-called “transfer operation”, CT | CD LD G1 LT G2

is chosen. Under this, the oscillation ideally
transfers the total charge from CD to CT, Fig-
ure 6.2.3-15. In the so-called “peaking opera- R=Z
CD vD CT vT vR
tion”, CT << CD is chosen. This results in still
smaller inductances and rise times in the sec- Impulse circuit Secondary circuit
ondary circuit. v D (t) v T (t)
c) High-power impulse technology: In many
technical applications, high-voltage impulses
are necessary for the power supply of devices, v R (t) t
Section 7.4.2. The determining parameters for
this are always a specific pulse energy or pulse G1 G2
power and the pulse frequency or the repeti-
tion rate. The standard voltage range extends Figure 6.2.3-15: Impulse circuit with secondary
up to several 10 kV. circuit for generating quickly rising impulses for
the supply of a NEMP-simulator.
400 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

ing of photosensitive enamels and resins). the half-width values are a few 10ns [15], [42],
[43], [137].
Electrostatic precipitators can be operated
with impulse voltages to improve the separat- Although the impulse energies for this are only
ing performance for high resistive dusts. Back in the range of a few 100 kJ, such impulses
corona caused by charged dusts and the asso- cannot be generated directly from conven-
ciated partial breakdowns and precipitator tional energy storage capacitors since, even
breakdowns are avoided by pulse operation. with compact oil insulated constructions, the
[136]. circuit inductances are too large. Therefore,
the energy must be transferred by oszillation to
Moreover, different test procedures are based ever more compact and lower inductive cir-
on the application of high voltage impulses, cuits, Figures 6.2.3-15 and -16. The electric
e.g. acoustic-electrical cable fault location strength of ever-decreasing insulation dis-
(localization of discharge noises), simulation tances is ensured by the ever-decreasing stress
of overvoltages (hybrid generator for impulse duration.
voltages and impulse currents, burst generator,
network disturbance simulator [41]), and the That is, a spatial and temporal “compres-
simulation of electrostatic discharges (“ESD sion” of energy takes place towards the output.
pistol”).
Many circularly arranged and synchronously
d) Pulsed power: The term “pulsed power” is triggered modules energize pulsed lasers or
coined for extreme impulses as used in funda- particle emitting diodes that are focused on a
mental physical research, material research “target”. Extreme power densities thus occur at
and as ignition impulses for nuclear fusion the center of the arrangement, see Figure 2.6-
experiments [138]. 20. The final impulse generation takes place
according to the principle of line generators
In extreme cases, pulsed powers in the TW by discharging a traveling wave transmission
range, voltages in the MV range and currents line, see Figures 2.6-18 and -19.
in the MA range are required for load imped-
ances of a few Ohms. The rise times are typi- Figure 6.2.3-16 shows a sketch of an imple-
cally approximately in the order of 10 ns and mented module that must be understood as

Water insulation

Figure 6.2.3-16: Pulse power

generator for terawatt impulses PFL 1 PFL 2
with voltages and currents in
CT
the MV range and MA range,
consisting of conventional ca-
pacitive energy storage (im-
pulse circuit), water-insulated
transfer capacitance (second- Impulse circuit Secondary circuit Pulse-forming lines
ary circuit), pulse-forming
traveling wave line (PFL 1) G1 L1 L2 G2 PFL 1 G3 PFL 2
and output line (PFL 2) in a
schematic representation [15], Oil
[137]. Parallel modules are insu-
la-
synchronized by triggering the tion Water insulation
CD CT
spark gaps 1 (impulse circuit)
and 2 (secondary circuit).
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 401

part of an installation of 36 circularly arranged The output impulse propagates as a traveling

synchronous modules [15], [137]. wave on an output line (PFL 2) towards the
load. Here, different modifications are possi-
From a multi-stage impulse voltage circuit ble, such as conversion from plate geometry to
with conventional discharge capacitors CD, coaxial geometry, impedance variation, polar-
after ignition of the generator spark gaps (G1), ity change or voltage increase and power in-
a transfer capacitance CT is charged in an os- crease owing to reflections and the delayed
cillating manner via the relatively large circuit response of further spark gaps [43].
inductance L1 within a few μs. Complete en-
Further concepts include complete filling of
ergy transfer ideally takes place in the case of
the space with plate line geometries, the
equal capacitances. CT can be insulated with
stacking of several generator levels and flexi-
de-ionized water owing to the short stress ble line connections for adapting to different
duration. The high relative permittivity Hr = 81 load impedances [14].
and the high electrical short-term strength al-
low a very compact and low-inductiv struc-
ture, e.g. in coaxial form, Figure 6.2.3-16
(top). From the transfer capacitance, an even 6.3 High Voltage Measurement
more compact pulse-forming parallel-plate Techniques
line (PFL 1) is charged in oscillating mode via
a comparatively low inductance L2 in less than
The measurement of high field strengths, high
1 μs.
voltages, and high currents places special re-
The final output impulse results from the igni- quirements on the measuring systems used for
tion of the spark gap 3 in accordance with the it. The most important principles and their
line generator principle, see Figure 2.6-18. The suitability for the measuring of different quan-
water insulation, owing to the high permittiv- tities are discussed in the following sections.
ity or the low wave propagation velocity uWater, Additional information is given in the special-
ist literature [141].
allows a very short overall length l1 of the
pulse-forming line PFL 1. For a half-value
width TH = 50 ns, a single propagation time
WPFL1 = TH/2 = 25 ns is necessary, see Figure 6.3.1 Measuring Spark Gaps
2.6-18. With uWater = 3.3 cm/ns, l1 = 83 cm is
6.3.1.1 Sphere-to-sphere Spark Gap
obtained (in comparison, uVacuum = 30 cm/ns).
An extremely low inductance of spark gap G3 The sphere-to-sphere spark gap (sphere gap) is
is necessary for a short impulse rise time. It the classic high-voltage measuring equipment
therefore consists of parallel water-insulated for direct measurements of voltages. In break-
rod spark gaps that are decoupled by the prop-
down tests, the peak value of the voltage Vˆ
agation time according to the rod lengths. The
before the breakdown is concluded from the
gaps can therefore ignite in parallel.
flashover distance d, Figure 6.3.1-1. Tables
Note: Synchronous ignition and triggering of parallel give breakdown mean values under standard
discharge channels is an important prerequisite for atmospheric conditions for the specified di-
generating rapidly rising impulses and for synchronizing ameters D = 2/ 5/ 6.25/ 10/ 12.5/ 15/ 25/ 50/
of multiple modules. Laser triggering of gas insulated 75/ 100/ 200 mm and for different distances;
spark gaps of parallel rods (“rail-gap spark gaps”), in
which the initial electrons are released from metallic Table 6.3.1-1 comprises an extract [142],
aerosols (suspended matter) by laser induced photo [143]. The tabulated relationships apply for a
emission in the entire field volume, is an interesting weakly non-uniform field here, i.e. the sphere
innovation [139], [140]. diameter D must be considerably larger than
402 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

the flashover distance d. As a rule-of-thumb for DC voltages. For higher frequencies and for impulse
formula, the peak value of the voltage to be voltages, smaller resistances must be chosen. For the
damping of oscillations in impulse circuits, a few 100
measured is :are generally adequate; 500 : (and 30 μH) should not
be exceeded.
Vˆ / kV < D / mm . (6.3.1-1)
The particular advantage of the sphere gap is
In the case of greater non-uniformity of the its simple and universal applicability. It is
field, the dispersion increases, and also the suitable for determining peak values for DC
field between the spheres is increasingly influ- voltages, AC voltages as well as switching
enced by the structures in the surroundings. impulse voltages and lightning impulse volt-
Therefore, the surroundings of the sphere gap ages (T2 > 50 μs), since the impulse voltage-
must be kept free of field-distorting structures time characteristics remain flat down to the μs
within a protection zone. range. For a sphere gap grounded on one side,
a polarity effect for impulse voltages results
Note: The spherical protection zone is generally deter-
mined with a radius B > 2·D around the breakdown from field distortions at larger flashover dis-
point P. The minimum radii must also be between B = tances only, because the field strength at the
14·d for small sphere diameters and B = 6·d for large grounded electrode is reduced owing to the
sphere diameters. The height A of the breakdown point surrounding grounded structures and is in-
P above the grounded floor shall lie between 7·D and creased at the voltage electrode (asymmetry
9·D for small sphere diameters and between 3·D and
4·D for large sphere diameters. The exact gradation can relative to ground).
be obtained from the standards [142], [143].
Note: According to Section 3.2.5.2, it might be assumed
that the breakdown voltage for a positive voltage elec-
The current limiting series resistor RS also acts trode (or “point”) should be lower than for a negative
as protection against transient overvoltages, electrode. However, the opposite is observed in reality,
e.g. resulting from discharges at other points Table 6.3.1-1. For this, better starting conditions for
of the test circuit. It must be dimensioned in electron avalanches at the negative point are important
since the first avalanche leads to a breakdown in a
such a way that the voltage across the capaci- weakly non-uniform field (streamer mechanism). For
tance of the sphere gap is not appreciably de- impulse voltages, no field-distorting space-charge cloud
creased. Its capacitance can amount to several can be formed.
10 pF.
Some disadvantages of the sphere gap are the
Note: The series-resistance values shall be between 0.1 collapse of the measured voltage during
M: and 1 M: for AC power frequency voltages and breakdown and the dispersion of the individual
breakdown values, which necessitates pre-
ionization (with UV light or laser light) and
forming a mean value of many breakdown
values. Before a measurement, any deposited
RS dirt must be burnt away by cleaning break-
downs until reproducible, less dispersed values
B are obtained. Additionally, there is neither a
P
direct nor a continuous voltage display.
d Protection
zone The sphere gap mainly helps in check meas-
D
urements, i.e. if another measuring system
A has to be checked. Under this, the voltage is
repeatedly increased until breakdown for an
exactly known distance d. Owing to de-ioni-
zation of the gap, the interval between the
breakdowns must be at least 30 s. An average
Figure 6.3.1-1: Sphere gap with series resistor. breakdown value is obtained from the readings
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 403

of the measurement system to be checked. It impulse voltage and of 1.5 % for a switching impulse
can be compared to the voltage value that is voltage. Alternatively, the breakdown mean value can
be determined according to the up-and-down method
associated with the distance d and the prevail- with at least 20 impulse voltage stresses in 1 % steps,
ing atmospheric conditions. Figure 3.1.1-b).

Note: For measuring an AC voltage, the voltage is Measurements for direct voltages are problematic
increased slowly ten times until breakdown. The result- since dust deposits can lead to large dispersions. There-
ing standard deviation of the displayed values must not fore, using a rod-to-rod spark gap provides better re-
exceed 1%. sults, Section 6.3.1.2. For measurements with a sphere
gap, a constant air flow of 3 m/s is recommended if
For the measurement of an impulse voltage, the am- necessary, as well as a very large number of break-
plitudes of successive impulses are increased in steps of downs until a stable value is achieved.
approx. 1 % of the expected breakdown value until
breakdown. The trials repeated for ten times should The table value (standard value) Vˆbd50(0) is
result in a standard deviation of 1 % for a lightning valid under the standard atmospheric condi-

Tabelle 6.3.1-1: Peak values of 50 % breakdown voltage on uni-polar grounded sphere gap in kV for different
sphere diameters D and flashover distances d for DC voltage, AC voltage and negative impulse voltage (left
columns) as well as positive impulse voltage (right columns) under standard atmospheric conditions (T = 20 °C,
p = 1013 mbar = 1013 hPa = 760 Torr).
The impulse voltages are valid for times to half-value on wave tail longer than or equal to 50 μs; the polarity
effect for positive impulse voltages is marked by numbers in italics (see the note in the text). Numbers presented
in bold correspond to the values of the uniform field and are valid also for larger sphere diameters D. Measure-
ment uncertainties are assumed for AC voltage and impulse voltage for d < D/2 at ±3 % and for DC voltage for
d < 0.8·D/2 at ±5 %, the values presented in brackets rerfer to larger, unexplained dispersions.

d D== 5 cm D = = 10 cm D =
= 15 cm D== 25 cm D== 50 cm D== 75 cm D== 100 cm d
cm = ~ = ~ = ~ = ~ = ~ = ~ = ~ cm
- + - + - + - + - + - + - +
0,5 17,4 17,4 16,8 16,8 0,5
1 32,0 32,0 31,7 31,7 1
Area with almost uniform field
1,5 45,5 46,2 45,5 45,5 1,5
2 57,5 59,5 59,0 59,0 2
2,4 65,5 69,0 69,5 70,0 70,0 70,0 V
Û 2,4
3 (75,5) (81,0) 84,0 85,5 85,5 85,5 86,0 86,0 bd50(0) 3
kV
4 (88,5) (97,5) 105 109 110 111 112 112 4
5 123 130 133 136 137 138 138 138 5
6 (138) (148) 152 158 161 163 164 164 6
7 (150) (163) 169 178 184 187 189 189 190 190 7
8 (185) (196) 206 211 214 214 215 215 8
9 (198) (212) 226 233 239 239 240 240 241 241 9
10 (209) (226) 244 254 263 263 265 265 266 266 10
12 (229) (249) 275 291 309 311 315 315 318 318 12
14 (302) (323) 353 357 363 363 366 366 14
16 Area with (326) (350) 392 402 410 411 414 414 16
18 increased dispersion and (347) (374) 429 442 453 458 462 462 18
20 externally influenced field (366) (395) 460 480 492 505 510 510 20
24 515 540 565 585 595 600 24
30 (585) (620) 665 695 710 725 30
40 (670) (715) (800) (835) 875 900 40
50 (895) (940) 1010 1040 50
Detailed tables are given in the
60 (970) (1020) (1110) (1150) 60
relevant standards [142], [143]
70 (1200) (1240) 70
404 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tions ages, predominantly for check measure-

ments, is possible if a standard deviation of
temperature T0 = 20 °C, 1% is attained for AC voltages and lightning
impulse voltages and a deviation of 1.5% is
atmospheric pressure p0 = 1013 mbar
attained for switching impulse voltages. The
and measurement uncertainty can be reduced a
3 little more by an individual calibration of a
absolute humidity h0 = 8.5 g/m , sphere gap with an accordingly suitable refer-
ence measuring system.
and it must be converted to the applicable peak
value Vˆbd50 under the given atmospheric condi- A breakdown provides a very clear and direct
tions (T, p, h). Changes in the air density and proof of voltage stress. Therefore, sphere gaps
the humidity are corrected. The dependence of still have great practical value for quick and
the breakdown on pressure and temperature indicative check measurements.
results directly from Paschen’s law, Section
Note: Sphere gaps can also be used as protective gaps,
3.2.2.4. An increased air humidity leads to an as chopping spark gaps and as modifiable capacitances
increased electron affinity and thus to an in- in high voltage laboratories. There are vertical and
crease in the breakdown voltage. A simplified horizontal sphere gaps.
conversion, which ignores the slight curvature
of the Paschen curve, assumes proportionality
between breakdown voltage and relative air 6.3.1.2 Rod-to-rod Spark Gap
density GThe absolute humidity h is consid-
ered by applying a correction factor k: Since the accuracy of the sphere gap for DC
voltages is distinctly poorer than for AC volt-
Vˆbd50 | Vˆbd50(0) · G · k ages and impulse voltages, the vertical or hori-
zontal rod-to-rod spark gap is recommended
(6.3.1-2) for relatively high DC voltages, [142], [143],
p 273 K  T0
G · Figure 6.3.1-2.
p0 273 K  T
-3
The rods must have a rectangular and sharp-
h/gm edged cross section (side length 15 to 25 mm)
k 1  0.002 ·( - 8.85)
G so that corona discharges and an exactly re-
producible breakdown behavior occur. For
Note: Owing to long years of painful experience in flashover distances between 250 and 2500
practical training, it shall be mentioned that measured
values are given on the left and standard (table) values
mm, there is a largely linear relationship that is
are given on the right hand side of Eq. (6.3.1-2)! explained by the growth of the streamer dis-
charges:
Note: Conversion to standard conditions in non-uniform
field is described in Section 3.2.5.5 Vˆbd50(0) = 2 kV + d·0.534 kV/mm· (6.3.1-3a)
The sphere gap was formerly often used as a
Note: Under 120 kV, this relationship is no longer valid
simple and clear calibration tool for other since the streamer discharges are initiated only above
measurement systems. However, the meas- 120 kV.
urement uncertainty of 3 % (for a confidence
interval of 95 %) that can be attained for AC With respect to the air density, correction of
voltages and impulse voltages or 5 % for DC the standard value is carried out in accordance
voltages is no longer adequate for a reference with Eq. (6.3.1-2). Similar to Eq. (3.2-70b), a
system according to the standards, see Table considerably larger influence of humidity is
6.1-1. However, the application as a measur- observed here than in the uniform field of a
ing system for AC voltages and impulse volt- sphere gap:
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 405

-3
h/gm
k 1  0,014 ·( - 11) (6.3.1-3b)
G
> 1000 < 5000
Eq. (6.3.1) is valid in the humidity range from
3
1 to 13 g/m and allows a voltage determina-
tion with an estimated uncertainty of 3 % for a
250 < d < 2500
confidence interval of not less than 95 %
[142], [143].
Figure 6.3.1-2: Rod-
Note: There are tests that have detected even smaller to-rod spark gap for > 2000
standard deviations (< 1 %) and measurement uncer- the measurement of
tainties (±2 %) [144]. For round rods (D = 20 mm) and high DC voltages, in mm
rounded off rod ends, the following is applicable: rectangular rod
cross-section.
Vˆbd50 = G·[V0 + d·5.1 kV/cm]·

3 0.25 i.e. in a uniform field for example, an eccentri-

[0.051·(8.65 + h/g/m )] (6.3.1-4) cally supported small plate is deflected so far
Here, V0 is 20 kV for positive DC voltages, V0 is 15 kV by the force of the field until the field force
for negative DC voltages and h lies between 4 and 20 corresponds to the force of a return spring.
g/m³. Using a mirror, the deflection x is displayed by
projection of a pointer image on a scale di-
vided into voltage values. With equilibrium of
forces
6.3.2 Electrostatic Voltmeter
2 2
Fel = 0.5 H0 A V /d = FSpring = D·x ,
Electrostatic voltmeters provide an absolute
voltage measurement, that is, voltage meas- the deflection is proportional to the square of
urement can be traced back to measurement of the voltage and inversely proportional to the
other physical quantities (force and distance), square of the electrode distance:
Figure 6.3.2-1. In a computable electric field, 2 2
x ~ V /d (6.3.2-1)

The reading for DC voltages is independent of

Light source the polarity. In the case of AC voltages, the
Return spring system cannot follow the pulsating force ow-
(Spring const. D) ing to its mass inertia, and hence the mean
Mirror value of the square of the voltage is displayed.
Fel This is therefore a true r.m.s. measurement
Small field plate that is independent of the voltage waveform.
(Area A)
Displaying impulse voltages is not possible.
E High accuracy (up to 0.1%) is only achieved
V in the upper section of the voltage measuring
scale owing to the square-law dependence of
the reading on the voltage; the accuracy falls
d
steeply for lower voltages. A selection of the
Rogowski electrodes measuring range is possible in accordance
Projection plane of with Eq. (6.3.2-1) by changing the electrode
light pointer with distance d.
scale graduation

Figure 6.3.2-1: Electrostatic voltmeter (voltmeter The exceptional property of electrostatic volt-
according to Starke and Schröder). meters lies in their extremely low feedback to
406 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

the voltage source via the very high insulation Note: The sensitivity of the capacitive and magnetic
resistance and via the comparatively low ca- sensors to unwanted magnetic and capacitive coupling
is reduced with the help of a symmetrical structure,
pacitance between the electrodes. Electrostatic Figure 6.3.3-1.
voltmeters can therefore be used for the meas-
urement of DC potentials, even in the case of Since the signals are proportional to the time
high-resistive arrangements and high internal derivatives of field quantities, generally they
impedances of the voltage source. must be integrated. Integration can be per-
formed actively by broadband integration am-
A compact construction with a closed housing
plifiers or by numerical integration of the dig-
is designed for up to a few 10 kV. Above 100
itized signals. However, in the case of ex-
kV, rounding off the electrode edges gives rise
tremely rapidly varying processes for a capac-
to such large dimensions that compressed-gas-
itive sensor, direct passive integration by a
insulated designs are used. Electrostatic volt-
defined sensor capacitance CS that shall be
meters are precision instruments with sensitive
adjustment mechanics and projection optics. only loaded with a high impedance RS is rec-
Generally, they are used only under the con- ommended. For a magnetic sensor, the self-
trolled conditions of a laboratory. inductance LS of the magnetic sensor loop
along with a low-impedance load RS can be
used for passive integration, Figure 6.3.3-1
6.3.3 Field Sensors (bottom).

Note: The capacitive sensor with a capacitive load CS

6.3.3.1 Electrically Short Sensors
can also be interpreted as a capacitive voltage divider, if
the coupling of the displacement current is described by
Classic field sensors record time-varying a high-voltage stray capacitance CHV, Figure 6.3.3-1
electric and magnetic field strengths by a (bottom center).
displacement current coupled in a sensor sur-
face or by a rotational voltage induced in a
sensor loop, Figure 6.3.3-1 (top, left and
right). Here, the sensors are assumed to be D (t) B (t)
spatially concentrated or “electrically short”,
so that lumped circuits with lumped equivalent
network elements can be specified, Figure
6.3.3-1 (bottom). Broadband measurement of
extremely rapidly varying processes is possi- Load Load
ble through appropriate small sensor dimen- D·A
sions. For a known field geometry, such as in
uniform or coaxially symmetric fields, conclu-
C HV
sions about the voltage, the current or the
B·A
electromagnetic wave processes can be drawn
D·A D·A LS
from the measured variables.
u (t)
Important applications are, for example, the
broadband measurement of fast transients and CS R S CS R S RS
partial discharge impulses in gas insulated Capacitive Capacitive high- Magnetic
switchgear, the directional coupler technique sensor voltage divider sensor
for directionally selective measurement of
partial discharge impulses and interference Figure 6.3.3-1: Coupling of displacement current
in a capacitive sensor surface and induction of a
impulses [215] or the measurement of pulse
rotational voltage in a magnetic sensor loop (top,
forming processes of pulse power technology left and right) with equivalent network representa-
[5], [145], [146], [147], [148]. tions (bottom).
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 407

6.3.3.2 Electrically Long Sensors tions. The spatial field distribution along the sensor
contour in the x-direction can then be determined for a
In the case of extremely rapidly changing field known time function by numerical deconvolution [5].
variables or spatially extended sensors, such as
Rogowski coils, the runtime events in the sen-
sor must also be considered [145], [146]. That 6.3.3.3 Potential-free Probes
is, the sensor itself must be understood as a
The spatial measurement of electric and mag-
system with distributed parameters or as an
netic fields can be done with the sensor princi-
“electrically long” traveling wave line with the
ples described in Figure 6.3.3-1 and with po-
characteristic impedance Z, Figure 6.3.3-2,
tential-free probes that are positioned to be
also see Section 2.6.
potential-free in the respective measurement
location. Signal transmission takes place
It could be proven that even electrically long
wireless via radio transmission or in an optical
sensors are suitable for measuring extremely
path, for example, via optical waveguides.
rapidly varying processes if they are operated
either with a very high-impedance load (R >>
Z for capacitive sensors) or with a very low-
impedance load (R << Z for magnetic sensors Figure 6.3.3-3: Potential-
respectively) and if the distributed coupling in free capacitive probe for
the sensor is synchronous and with equal am- measurement of displace-
plitude at each position. That is, the sensor ment currents in the three
spatial directions with
understood as a traveling wave line in the x-
six measuring surfaces.
direction, must be arranged perpendicular to
the direction of propagation in the phase plane For capacitive sensors, two measuring surfaces
of the electromagnetic (TEM) wave [5], [149], are necessary for each field strength compo-
[150], Figure 6.3.3-2. nent. For three-dimensional measurements,
spherical probes with six measuring surfaces
For spatially non-uniform coupling, the sensor signal
includes information both about the location depend-
are used [151], Figure 6.3.3-3. Owing to local
ence and time dependence of the field quantity in the distortion of the electric field by conductive
form of convoluted location functions and time func- spheres, spatial resolution is limited, see Fig-
ure 2.3-17.

u B (t) Another option for potential-free measure-

ments is the use of electrooptical sensors, Sec-
D (t) tion 6.3.3.5.
Z
R >> Z x
6.3.3.4 Generator-mode Sensors (“Field
Mills”)
u
Static, stationary and very slowly changing
Screen D (t) fields neither couple with appreciable dis-
B (t)
Z placement currents in static surfaces, nor do
they induce appreciable voltages in static
R << Z x loops. However, in so-called electro-mechani-
cal “field mills” or “generator-mode sensors”,
mechanical movement of the sensor causes a
Figure 6.3.3-2: Spatially extended (electrically long)
capaxitive and magnetic sensors (top and bottom) time-variation of the dielectric displacement at
as systems with distributed parameters and distrib- the sensor surface or of the magnetic flux in
uted coupling in the phase plane of a TEM wave [5]. the sensor loop; and this results respectively in
408 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

displacement currents or induced voltages that geous. Thus, generator-mode sensors are suit-
are proportional to the electric or magnetic able for high-impedance measurements of
field strength, see Figure 6.3.3-1. constant or very slowly changing variables,
such as for recovery voltages or DC potentials.
As an example of the measurement of static
electric fields, a fieldmill voltmeter is con-
sidered, Figure 6.3.3-4. Sector-pattern meas- 6.3.3.5 Electro-optical and Magneto-optical
uring surface rotates in the field shadow of a Field Sensors
grounded aperture. Thereby, the effective area
A(t) varies sinusoidally. For a static displace- Electric or magnetic fields can influence the
ment density D, a sinusoidal current D·wA/wt optical properties of different materials, and
can be tapped at the axle, since the charge that hence the polarization state can be modulated
is bound to the measuring surface (or induced by light. Thus, there are very attractive options
by the electric field) changes with the size of for potential measurements and reaction-free
the effective area A(t). field strength measurements in high voltage
engineering. At the same time, high band-
Note: It is also possible to use a fixed measuring surface widths can be attained. In particular, induced
in the field shadows of a rotating, grounded aperture.
double refraction (Kerr effect and Pockels ef-
Note: Another generator-mode principle is realized in fect) as well as induced optical activity are
an oscillatory voltmeter: vibration of the measuring used (Faraday effect), Figure 6.3.3-5.
surface causes distance changes and changes in capaci-
tance between high-voltage and ground side.
a) Induced birefringence (double refraction)
Generator-mode sensors are field strength A birefringent material has two different re-
measuring devices, which can also be used for fractive indices and phase velocities for light
measuring voltage, i.e. as “voltmeters” for a that oscillates parallel to and perpendicular to
known field geometry or based on calibration. the so-called optical axis. This anisotropy can
Compared with electrostatic voltage measuring be predetermined by the molecular or crystal-
devices, this has also practically no effect on line structure or can be caused or influenced
the voltage source and draws no energy from (induced double refraction) by external influ-
the source. Furthermore, the linear relation- ences (mechanical strains, electric fields).
ship between field strength and current as well
as significantly higher sensitivity are advanta- Note: Generally, optically effective microscopic struc-
tures are orientated very rapidly by electric fields (the
so-called relaxation time for the standard insulating
liquids is in the sub-nanoseconds range); in solids, how-
D = constant ever, the usable bandwidths can be restricted by piezo-
electric effects.

Under the effect of an electric field, even in

isotropic substances, an optical axis that is
Aperture parallel to the field is induced, Figure 6.3.3-5.
Linearly polarized light whose polarization
A (t) D· wA/ w t direction is set, for example, at 450 to the opti-
Measuring R cal axis, is thus split into two rays of equal
surface intensity that oscillate perpendicularly to each
other. The two rays propagate with different
Drive
phase velocities and thereby experience a
Figure 6.3.3-4: Measurement of static and steady- phase shifting 'M.
state electric fields by variation of measuring sur-
face area A(t) with time in the field shadow of a Under the so-called Kerr effect 'M is propor-
grounded aperture (fieldmill voltmeter). tional to the square of the field strength:
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 409

2
'M = 2·S·K·l·E . (6.3.3-1) 3S/2 ... results in circular polarized light, for
'M = S, 2S... linear polarized light reappears.
Here, l is the effective length of the optical
path in the field. The Kerr constant K is de- In the arrangement according to Figure 6.3.3-
pendent on the material, the temperature and 5, a second polarizer is used as an analyzer to
the wavelength of the light. E is assumed to be transfer the modulation of the polarization
constant. state into an intensity modulation: in the case
-15 2 of crossed polarizers (+/- 45° with respect to
Example: Approximately, K = 3·10 m/V for insu-
the induced optical axis), the intensity after the
lating oil [366]. With a field strength E = 3 kV/mm and
effective length l = 10 cm, 'M = 1° is obtained. There- analyzer for 'M = 0 is equal to zero. Even for
fore, in many materials, high field strengths and long 'M = S, polarized light is again obtained, but
lengths are necessary to attain an appreciable phase with planes of polarization rotated by 90°, so
displacement. that the total intensity can pass through the
Note: If the field strength E is not constant along the
analyzer. For arbitrary phase displacements
optical path x, the phase shifting must be calculated by 'M the intensity ratio I2/I1 ~ EL22/EL12 (af-
integration: ter/before the analyzer) can be calculated from
the field components of the elliptically polar-
l 2
'M = 2·S·K·0 ³ E (x) dx (6.3.3-1a) ized light EL = EL¨¨+ELA('M) emerging from
the analyzer:
Few naturally birefringent crystals exhibit the
linear Pockels effect [141], [152]: I2/ I1 =
2
sin ('M/2) (6.3.3-3)
'M a l·E. (6.3.3-2)
Very strong non-linear characteristics for in-
Here, the direction of propagation of the light tensity modulation are obtained from Eq.
is along the natural optical axis so that the nat- (6.3.3-1) and also (-1a) and (-3). For small
ural double refraction is not effective. Double phase shifts or small field strengths, sensitivi-
refraction that is effective for the light is in- ties are very low. For very large angles 'M >
duced by an external field. 90°, characteristics are not unique since Eq.
(6.3.3-3) is a periodic function. For a meas-
Superimposition of phase shifted light compo- urement, it must therefore be tracked in which
nents results in elliptically polarized light, section of the characteristic the measurement
Figure 6.3.3-5. In the special cases, 'M = S/2, is made, Figure 6.3.3-6.

Laser Polarizer generates Induced birefringence causes different phase

linearly polarized light velocities for the components ocillating parallel
and perpendicular to the optical axis.
EL
I0 EL ¨¨ E Elliptically polarized light
E results from phase shifting.
EL EL ¨¨
EL A

I1 Polarizer
E EL A
(Analyzer)
Kerr effekt Electric field
E
x
Pockels effekt inducese an optical axis: I2
induced birefringence Intensity-modulated light

Figure 6.3.3-5: Elektro-optical field strength measurment through induced birefringence.

410 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

dependence of the angle of rotation D on the

1 magnetic flux density B:

D = V·l·B. (6.3.3-4)
I2
I max Here, V is the so-called Verdet constant (and
not a voltage). With two crossed polarizers,
the modulation of the polarization state can be
converted into an intensity modulation,
'M S
whereby minimal intensity is obtained at D = 0
E
and maximum intensity is obtained at D = S/2.
Figure 6.3.3-6: Characteristic of a simple Kerr cell. Also in this case, a quadratic relationship is
applicable:
Note: Intensity variations do not only arise from phase 2
shifts but also from intensity variations of the light I 2/ I1 = sin D (6.3.3-5)
source or from (slow) changes in the optical path.
Therefore, the intensity signal containing the field With Eq. (6.3.3-4), this forms a non-linear
strength information must be related to a reference sig- characteristic that is not unique. Figure 6.3.3-6
nal obtained, for example, by means of a beam splitter. is likewise applicable; however, the maxima
The characteristic illustrated for the quadratic and minima follow at equal intervals, because
Kerr effect in Figure 6.3.3-6 is analogously the angle increases linearly with magnetic flux
also applicable to the linear Pockels effect, but density B in accordance with Eq. (6.3.3-4).
the maxima and minima follow at equal inter-
vals, because the phase shift increases linearly c) Analysis of characteristic curves
with the field strength in accordance with Eq. Crossed polarizers according to Figures 6.3.3-
(6.3.3-2). 5 and -7 are suitable, for example, for cells for
intensity modulation in which the full range
b) Induced optical activity between maximum and minimum intensity is
For optically active materials, the plane of to be used. For measuring purposes, especially
polarization of traversing light is rotated. for small phase shifts or for small angles of
Here, there are material causing anti-clockwise rotation, non-linearity and low sensitivity are a
or clockwise rotation (direction of view disadvantage. Improved evaluation options are
against the direction of light). This natural described in the following sections.
optical activity can be used inter-alia for de-
Induced optical activity: If in Figure 6.3.3-7,
termining the concentration of solutions (e.g.
the analyzer is turned back by 45°, this acts as
sugar solutions).
Note: Optical activity can be described by different
phase velocities for two oppositely rotating circularly
polarized waves, which on superimposition always Laser Polarizer
result in linearly polarized light, but with rotated direc-
tion of polarization. Analogously to the double refrac- Rotation of the plane
tion (birefringence) of linearly polarized waves dicussed B
of polarization
above, this is described as circular double refraction
(circular birefringence). D
In some materials (e.g. in quartz or in light- B
conducting fiber optic glasses), optical activity
can be induced parallel to the direction of Faraday effect Analyzer
propagation by magnetic fields, Figure 6.3.3-7.
This so-called Faraday effect shows a linear Figure 6.3.3-7: Induced optical activity.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 411

an additional rotation of the plane of polariza- Note: Unfortunately, even for linearized optical charac-
tion by +45°. In accordance with Eq. (6.3.3-5), teristic, the Kerr effect is still non-linear, Eq 6.3.3-1.
Therefore, for slowly changing fields, it is recom-
the working point shifts into the area of half mended to superimpose on the field to be measured a
intensity known alternating field with the angular frequency Z
The fundamental component of the light intensity with
= sin (45°+D) | ½+D
2
I 2/ I 1 (6.3.3-6) Z is then directly proportional to the field strength
[366]:
and into the linear region of the characteristic
For the measurement of a DC field E0, the Kerr cell
with the highest sensitivity, Figure 6.3.3-8.
characteristic can be linerarized by modulation with a
Note: For magneto-optical current transformers very commparatively weak sinusoidal field E1= Ê1·sin(Zt)
long effective lengths in the field direction and large which is superimposed to the measured field [494],
angles of rotation D can be attained by winding optical [495]. The resulting field E = E0 + E1 gives the intensity
wave guides, so that multiple maxima and minima are
2 2
passed through. Signals must be numerically evaluated. I2 ~ E = (E0 + E1) =
Another option is that a reference current must be set by 2 2 2
a control circuit in such a way that the rotation of the E0 + 2 E0 Ê1·sin(Zt) + Ê1 ·sin (Zt) .
plane of polarization caused by the field to be measured
is reversed (compensated) in a second Faraday cell. (6.3.3-8)

Induced birefingence: A linearization that is The three components with the different frequencies Z
= 0, Z and 2Z can be separated by means of filters. The
comparable with Eq. (6.3.3-6) and an increase
second term is proportional to the measured quantity E0
in sensitivity of the optical characteristic are and the third term can be used as a reference signal.
possible, even for induced birefringence (Kerr
effect and Pockels effect), if the working point d) Applications
is adjusted for half the intensity and maximum
gradient according to Eq. (6.3.3-3) for one of While using electrooptical sensors it must be
the components by a phase shift by 'M = 90° : noted that the signals can also be superim-
posed by the mechanical elasto-optic effect
I2/I1 = sin (45°+'M/2) | ½+ 'M/2
2
(6.3.3-7) (birefringence induced by mechanical
stresses). Electro-optical sensors must, there-
The adjustment of this working point is not fore, be protected against mechanical stresses
made by rotation of the analyzer, but by a so- and vibrations. Further, it must be noted that
called O/4 plate, which effects a phase dis- the constants in Eqs. (6.3.3-1), (-2) and (-4) do
placement of orthogonal light components by a not only depend on the material but also on the
quarter of the wavelength, that is by the wavelength of the light used and on the tem-
above-mentioned 90°, and thus generates cir- perature, so that according corrective calcula-
cularly polarized light. tions may be necessary.

In optical systems, fluctuating intensities

I2 1 (caused by the light source) or changes in the
I max optical path (caused by contaminations or
ageing) must be monitored and compensated
(drift compensation). This is simpler to im-
0.5 plement for short periods in test-setups than in
instrument transformers for current and volt-
age, from which a very high long-term stabil-
ity (durability) is expected.
S S
4 2 D Note: Options for drift compensation are optical refer-
ence paths, modulation of light intensity, regulated
Figure 6.3.3-8: Linearization of the characteristic. compensating circuits as well as methods for determin-
412 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

ing phase shifts 'M and angles of rotation arity of the components used with respect to
Dindependently of intensity. the voltage. High voltage and low voltage sec-
tions of a divider may not change with tem-
Owing the to difficulties mentioned, applica- perature (or only in the same manner), so that
tion options of electro-optical effects are still the divider ratio is maintained even for tem-
restricted to a few special cases: perature fluctuations.
Magneto-optic measuring transformers were Note: Temperature-independent capacitances occur in
developed based on the Faraday effect in opti- compressed-gas capacitors. For other capacitor dielec-
cal fibers [368], see Section 6.3.5.2 with Fig- trics, a certain amount of compensation is attained by
ure 6.3.5.3 (c), the combination of materials with positive and negative
temperature coefficients. For special requirements, the
room temperature may have to be maintained constant.
Kerr cells with larger Kerr constants (e.g. in
nitro benzene) are used for the switching and The large extent of a high voltage divider leads
modulation of light flux. to distributed stray capacitances towards
ground and high voltage electrodes. Thereby,
Potential-free field strength measurements are
the dynamic system behavior changes in an
feasible with Pockels cells [152].
undefined manner and is also generally de-
The Kerr effect is often the only option for the pendent on frequency, see Section 6.3.4.3.
measurement of electric field distributions in
The dynamic response characteristic of volt-
transparent insulating liquids, such as in in-
age dividers is especially important for the
sulating oil or in water. Here, the application
proper transfer of fast impulse voltage signals.
spectrum extends from the measurement of
It is generally determined not by frequency
stationary or slowly changing fields in HVDC
response measurements but by step response
insulation and for electrostatic charges [366],
measurements, Figure 6.3.4-1.
[367], [494], [495] up to very rapidly changing
periodic or transient fields of pulsed power
technology in the ns range [153].

6.3.4 Voltage Dividers

Generally, high voltages are divided by many

orders of magnitude (e.g. from the MV range
into the 100 V range) by voltage dividers
down to a level which facilitates reading with
v 2 (t )/ V2
measuring instruments, oscilloscopes and tran-
sient recorders or further processing in elec- T3 T4
1 T2
tronic circuits and computers. A high-voltage 90 %
divider always consists of a high-voltage arm T1
(high-voltage section) and a low-voltage arm
(low-voltage section) in series. t
10 %
Tr

6.3.4.1 Response Characteristic Figure 6.3.4-1: Step-response measurements at a

voltage divider with concentrated and with dis-
The extrapolation of the divider ratio cali- tributed step generator (top left and right). Over-
brated at low voltage by many orders of mag- shooting and aperiodic profile of step-response
function with definition of a response time and a
nitude to the high voltage level requires line-
rise time (bottom).
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 413

The step-function fed into the head of the di- In Gaussian systems, for rise time and 3 dB
vider generates an aperiodic or slightly over- bandwidth B, the applicable relationship is
shooting step-response. For this, the over-
shooting must not exceed 5%. In high voltage Tr·B = 0.35. (6.3.4-4)
measurement techniques, sometimes the rate
of rise is characterized by the response time Note: For dividers with extremely low rise times, the
electromagnetic radiation emanating directly from the
Tresp and this is defined as the difference of the step function generator gives rise to distortions in the
areas under the ideal step function and under step-response. They can be suppressed if the divider is
the normalized step-response function g(t) = situated in the cylindrical phase plane of the TEM wave
v2(t)/V2: which is generated by spatially distributed and synchro-
nized step function generators [18], [19], Figure 6.3.4-1
f
(top right).
Tresp ³ >1  g (t )@ dt
0
T1  T2  T3  ...
6.3.4.2 Divider Designs
(6.3.4-1)
a) Resistive voltage divider
However, the response time is not sufficient
for the characterization of of dynamic system Resistive voltage dividers are exclusively
properties, as already shown by examples with suitable for DC voltage measurements, Figure
negative response times, e.g. if there is a high 6.3.4-2 (a). Owing to stray capacitance to
overshooting. ground, a RC lattice network occurs with a
distinct low-pass behavior. For resistances on
A better characterization is given by the rise the high-voltage side in the G: range and
time Tr between the 10 % and 90 % amplitude stray capacitances in the 10 pF range, the
values [141]. For multiple independent ele- magnitude of the divider ratio
ments of a measurement setup, (e.g. step func-
tion generator, divider, attenuator and oscillo- r = V2/V = R2/(R1 + R2) (6.3.4-5)
scope) individual rise times are added geomet-
rically: decreases considerably even for frequencies of
a few 10 Hz. The divider is no longer suitable
2 2 2 1/2
Tr = [Tr1 + Tr2 + ... + Trn ] (6.3.4-2) for network frequency AC voltages.
Note: For a more accurate conclusion, a quantitative
Note: Here a so-called Gaussian system is assumed, analytical estimation of the frequency response by com-
whose attenuation increases quadratically with the fre- plex calculation with a simplified equivalent circuit is
quency. This assumption is fulfilled with satisfactory possible, Section 6.3.4.3 includes an example.
precision for many cascade connections with low-pass
characteristics [141].
b) Resistive-capacitive voltage divider
Example: Step-response measurement
Resistive-capacitive voltage dividers (com-
Step-function generator, divider, attenuator and oscillo- pensated resisitve voltage dividers) according
scope each exhibit a rise time of 1 ns. According to Eq. to Figure 6.3.4-2 (b) are in principle suitable
(6.3.4-2), the rise time of the recorded signal is Tr = 2 for all types of voltages if they fulfill the com-
ns. pensation condition
For exponentially increasing voltage-time R1C1 = R1'C1' = R2C2 . (6.3.4-6)
characteristics, e.g. for RC elements and LR
elements, the rise time Tr corresponds to 2.2 The compensation condition implies that the
times the time constant W: resistive and capacitive divider ratios of the
two parallel divider columns must be equal,
Tr = 2.2·W (6.3.4-3) Figure 6.3.4-3 (curve 2). Ideally, a frequency
414 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

independent divider ratio r or a rectangular C 2 is too small

v (t)
step-response results. 2
Ohmic
1 divider
r = v2(t)/v(t) = R2/(R1 + R2) ratio
2
= C1/(C1 + C2) (6.3.4-7) 3
Capacitive
If the compensation condition is not fulfilled, a divider C 2 is too large t
ratio
frequency-dependent divider ratio or a step
response with exponential transition processes
Figure 6.3.4-3: Step responses of a compensated
results, Figure 6.3.4-3 (curves 1 and 3). resistive voltage divider for the cases of under-
compensation (1), compensation (2) and over-
Note: If C2 is too small, we have under-compensation, compensation (3).
since C1 is not adequately compensated. In the first
instant, the capacitive divider ratio is effective and it damped capacitive column along with the
results in a voltage step that is too high. If C2 is too measuring circuit inductance can lead to reso-
large, we have over-compensation, Figure 6.3.4-3 nances, which must be suppressed by addi-
(curve 3). The capacitive divider ratio gives a very low tional external damping resistances, see sec-
initial voltage.
tion d).
Note: During the design process of the divider, the
Despite good dynamic system behavior, high
parallel capacitances C1’ must be chosen to be so
large that the stray capacitances to ground are neg-
voltage dividers for very high voltages are not
ligible. designed as compensated ohmic dividers, be-
cause two high-voltage divider columns are
The divider is only conditionally suited for necessary for this. Often there is also no re-
impulse voltage measurements, since the un- quirement for such a divider since test devices

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Lp RS Lp R'1
Parasitic C'1
R'1 R'1 C'1 C'1
measuring
circuit
inductance
C'1
v v u R2
R2 v2 R2 C2 C2 C2 C2

Resistive- Capacitive Damped

Resistive Capacitive
capacitive divider with capacitive Field sensor
divider divider
divider series resistance divider
DC voltage

AC voltage

(Impulse voltage) Impulse voltage

Fast Transients

Figure 6.3.4-2: Designs of high-voltage dividers and their suitability for different types of voltages.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 415

for AC voltages, DC voltages and impulse vider. For critical damping, a damping resistor
voltages are generally already equipped with whose resistance depends on the measuring
special dividers. Besides, two separate dividers circuit inductance and the divider capacitance
can be used more flexibly. is necessary according to Figure 6.2.3-8 and
Eq. (6.2.3-15), see Figure 6.3.4-2 (d).
Compact high voltage probes of up to several
10 kV are designed as compensated voltage Example: For a divider with 500 pF and a circuit in-
dividers. Spatially separated high-voltage and ductance of 20 μH (that corresponds to a measuring
circuit length of about 20 m), a damping resistance of
low-voltage sections of C1/R1 and C2/R2 are
RD > 100 : is obtained.
connected via a matched coaxial line, which
includes a distributed resistance for attenuation It must be noted that a damping resistance RD
of traveling-wave oscillations. The probe is
and a divider capacitance C1 form a RC-ele-
balanced with a series-connected signal shap-
ing network [141]. The probe forms a mached ment whose rise time
unit with the actual head, the connecting line
and the termination network, lengthening of Tr = 2.2·RDC1 (6.3.4-9)
the connecting cable is generally not possible.
must be much shorter than the rise time of the
Note: Other areas of application of the compensated impulse voltage to be measured.
divider are compact structures in devices with low volt-
ages or secondary dividers of high bandwidth in the low Example: In the above-mentioned example, a rise time
voltage range. of the divider of Tr = 2.2·RDC1 = 110 ns results, and
this is still adequate for the measurement of a lightning
c) Capacitive dividers impulse voltage of 1.2/50 μs. Nevertheless, fast tran-
sients or traveling waves in the ns range can no longer
Capacitive voltage dividers, Figure 6.3.4-2 be measured.
(c), can not be used for DC voltage measure-
ments, since a completely undefined resistive e) Damped capacitive dividers
divider ratio results from undefined insulation
resistances and from the load impedance. Ca- Damped capacitive dividers (Series-damped
pacitive dividers are especially suitable for AC capacitive dividers, “Zaengl dividers”) are the
voltage measurements in a wide frequency typical impulse voltage dividers for high and
range, because although stray capacitances highest voltages. Damping resistors are inte-
bring about a change in the magnitude, there is grated into the divider column in a distributed
no frequency dependence of the divider ratio arrangement in series with the capacitors, Fig-
ure 6.3.4-2 (e), not only to damp the induc-
r = v2(t)/v(t) = C1/(C1 + C2) (6.3.4-8) tance of the low voltage circuit, but also to
suppress traveling waves that could be formed
In the case of impulse voltage measurements, on a long un-damped divider column. At high
similar to compensated dividers, sufficient frequencies, the ohmic divider ratio is effec-
external damping of the measuring circuit tive owing to low capacitive impedances, and
must be ensured, see section d). Owing to their the capacitive divider ratio is effective at low
simple construction, capacitive dividers are frequencies owing to high capacitive imped-
generally used in small, e.g. single-stage im- ances. If the compensation condition
pulse circuits up to the 100 kV range.
R1C1 = R1'C1' = R2C2 (6.3.4-10)
d) Capacitive divider with series resistor
is met, a divider ratio independent of frequency
Capacitive voltage dividers lead to relatively theoretically results. Damped capacitive divid-
weakly damped measuring circuits whose in- ers with distributed resistances therefore (if
ductances increase with the height of the di- they fulfill the compensation condition) have a
416 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

significantly higher upper cut-off frequency I/I0 = 0.79 is obtained. That is, the error already
than capacitive dividers with concentrated se- amounts to 21%.
ries resistors.
Only the purely capacitive divider remains
Damped capacitive dividers cannot be used for independent of frequency, even under the ef-
DC voltage measurements since no defined fect of stray capacitances, because the entire
parallel resistances exist, similarly to capaci-
tive dividers. The lower cut-off frequency is
determined by the discharging of C2 through Toroid
the coupling circuit. Z /2
Z 1 /n ~ CE·2/3 ~ 1
f) Field sensors C'G1 Z 1 /2
Z 1 /n ~ ~
Very fast traveling wave processes and fast C'G2
transients can be measured with field sensors Z 1 /n ~ ~ Z2
that are integrated into the ground electrode
and which take up the displacement current .... Z 1 /n ~
components of electromagnetic waves, Figure
6.3.4-2 (f). Field sensors are described in detail ....
Z 1 /n ~ Z1 ~ V
in Section 6.3.3.
C'Gn V2 V2
Z2 ~ Z2 ~
6.3.4.3 Stray Capacitances

The large extent of a high voltage divider leads Figure 6.3.4-4: High voltage divider with distributed
to distributed stray capacitances to ground, stray capacitances to ground (lattice network struc-
ture), as well as equivalent circuits with and without
through which currents are carried over to concentrated stray capacitances to ground.
ground, bypassing the low voltage section,
Figure 6.3.4-4. Thus, the transmission ratio
changes in an undefined manner and is also V
largely frequency dependent.
R/ 2
Example: Ohmic divider with stray capacitance to
ground High-
voltage
Instead of the divider ratio, the current I through the Stray ca- resitances
divider column is calculated taking into consideration a pacitance C R/ 2
stray capacitance to ground that is assumed to be con- to ground
centrated. Here the comparatively small low voltage I
resistance can be ignored, Figure 6.3.4-5 (top). The
Low-voltage
analysis of the network with the help of a complex cal- << R
resitance
culation leads to the following current magnitude:

V r / r 0 or I / I 0
I . (6.3.4-11) 1
Z CR
R˜ 1 ( )2
4

In the case of DC voltages, the undisturbed divider f, Z

50 Hz
current I0 = V/R results. For AC voltages, the divider
current and divider ratio are frequency dependent (low-
pass performance), Figure 6.3.4-5 (bottom). For exam- Figure 6.3.4-5: Resitive divider with stray capaci-
ple, for R = 1 G:, C = 10 pF and f = 50 Hz, a ratio of tances.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 417

equivalent network consists of capacitances. y By selecting larger divider capacitances in

Therefore, it is suitable for the measurement of the nF range, transverse stray capacitances
impulse voltages and AC voltages over a wide in the pF range can often be ignored.
range of frequencies. However, here too, the
magnitude of the divider ratio is changed by a y With large distances to the walls and with
constant absolute value. low overall height of the divider, the trans-
verse stray capacitances can be kept small.
Various corrective measures against the ef-
fect of stray capacitances are possible: y In some cases, calibration of the divider in
the original test circuit arrangement at the
y A field grading toroid of large size which application site is necessary.
is mounted at the top of the divider column
enforces a field direction parallel to the di-
vider in the area around the divider, so that 6.3.4.4 Low-voltage Arms
no displacement current flows in the trans-
verse direction. However, very large toroid For divider ratios of the order of magnitude of
3 4
diameters are necessary for this. r = 1:10 to 1:10 and for high-voltage capaci-
tances in the range of 100 pF to 1 nF, very
y Using a funnel-shaped top electrode and large capacitances result for the low-voltage
ground electrode is favorable since they arm.
considerably reduce the feedthrough be-
tween the environment and the divider col- With C2 = 1 μF and a parasitic self-inductance
umn, Figure 6.3.4-6. Furthermore, dis- L2 = 100 nH (corresponding to a line length of
placement currents, which are coupled via about 100 mm), for example, a series reso-
stray capacitances on the high-voltage side, nance with a frequency of f2 = 0.5 MHz or a
are de-coupled again on the ground side in
period of T2 = 2 μs occurs. The oscillation, for
a symmetrical structure so that there is
considerable compensation of the interfer- example, can be induced by the impulse volt-
ences in the measurement signal. age 1.2/50 μs to be measured and can lead to
considerable measurement errors.
y In the case of compressed-gas capacitors,
It is therefore necessary to design low-voltage
the high-voltage electrode can be designed
arms to be extremely low-inductive to shift the
in such a way that it shields the measuring
self-resonances into a frequency range in
capacitance against the surroundings, Fig-
which the measurement is no longer distorted.
ure 2.3-3 (center).
Very low-inductive capacitors, if possible with
frontal contact areas and without connecting
Top electrode wires, must be used first for this, Figure 6.3.4-
~ 7, Section 7.3.3.2. The capacitors must be
~ connected in parallel with lowest-possible in-
Stray capacitances with ductance. The best solution is a circular ar-
~
coupling and decoupling rangement between metallic circular discs and
~ of displacement currents with a measurement tap on the axis. By using
~ the coaxial arrangement of capacitors and
~
taps, magnetic field-filled loops are mini-
Ground electrode
mized.

~ Low voltage Note: If a smaller divider ratio is opted for, low-voltage

capacitances are also smaller and resonance frequencies
are higher. The higher output voltage of the divider
Figure 6.3.4-6: Measures against stray capacitances. must then be further divided with a secondary divider.
418 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

6.3.4.5 Coupling Circuits

Capacitive and damped capacitive dividers

must be loaded with special coupling circuits,
so that the divider ratio remains largely inde-
pendent of frequency. The use of measuring
cables of different lengths must be possible for
this, other than for high-voltage probes with
fixed cable lengths.
As an example, the coupling of a high-imped-
Connection of the
ance oscilloscope to a damped capacitive di- high-voltage section
vider is explained, Figure 6.3.4-8:
For very quickly changing signals, the imped-
ance of the low-voltage arm corresponds to the
resistance R2 << Z. This is loaded with high
resistance by the series connection of the se-
ries resistance Z-R2 and the cable impedance Low-inductive
To the coaxial cylindrical capacitor
Z, i.e. with (Z-R2)+Z | 2Z. A traveling voltage measuring tap or to elements with
wave with the amplitude v2(t)/2 at the cable the secondary divider frontal contact areas
input travels into the cable, it corresponds to
the low voltage v2(t) of the divider that is di- Figure 6.3.4-7: Low-inductive design of a capacitive
vided by a factor of 2. At the end of the cable, divider's low-voltage arm.
the high-resistance input impedance of the
oscilloscope R >> Z is similar to open-ended
line termination, at which the traveling voltage For slowly changing processes, the capacitive
wave is reflected with doubled value 2·v2(t)/2 divider ratio is effective. Thus, the cable ca-
pacitance CC lies parallel to C2 and this
= v2(t), so that the original amplitude occurs
slightly distorts the divider ratio. C2 is chosen
again. The returning wave is absorbed nearly to be so large in the μF range that standard
without reflection at the input side by (Z- cable lengths do not have any undue distortion.
R2)+R2 = Z, because C2 exhibits a very low A discharge with a time constant in the range
impedance. of seconds takes place via R | 1 M:, so that
even very slowly changing processes can be
Note: By charging the oscilloscope input capacitance
measured.
(approx. 15 pF) via the cable impedance (approx. 50 :),
the rise time of the measurement system is increased by
a proportion of approximately 1.7 ns that is to be added Other coupling circuits are given in the spe-
in accordance with Eq. (6.3.4-2). cialist literature [141].

High voltage hall Shielded

R'1 Z- R 2 measuring cabin
Figure 6.3.4-8: Coupling of a
high-impedance oscilloscope C'1 Oscilloscope
to the low-voltage arm of a Z Measuring cable
damped capacitive divider via R2 Bypass for cable-sheath currents R >> Z
a measuring cable with an ad- C2
ditional shield as a bypass for
the defined conduction of cable-
sheath currents.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 419

6.3.5 Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers serve as operating
equipment of the electrical supply network
primarily for recording the voltages and cur- Resin-encapsulated
rents at operating frequency. They must be m.v. voltage
transformer
measured in the normal operating condition of
the network with a precision defined by the
accuracy class. Moreover, disturbances in the
network (over-voltages/under-voltages, short-
circuit currents) must be detected.
SF6
Instrument transformers are designed to be Kern
single phase; three units are required for three
phase systems.

Instrument transformers are increasingly man- Oil-insulated h.v.

Voltage transformer
ufactured with silicone-shed composite isola- module in a GIS
voltage transformer with
tors and with oil-free dielectrics (cast resin or outdoor bushing
film insulation with SF6), since the explosion
Figure 6.3.5-1: Inductive voltage transformers.
of oil-filled equipment with porcelain insula-
tors can lead to considerable consequential
high-voltage transformers it decreases to a few
damages.
100 Hz.

Inductive voltage transformers are largely used

6.3.5.1 Voltage Transformers in the medium voltage range, frequently in dry
construction as resin-encapsulated transform-
a) Inductive voltage transformers
ers, Figure 6.3.5-1 (top left). There are also
Inductive voltage transformers are compara- voltage transformers for the high-voltage
ble with test transformers that are excited on range that are insulated with films and SF6 and
the high-voltage side and are loaded on the are used in gas-insulated switchgear, Figure
low-voltage side with a measurement imped- 6.3.5-1 (bottom left). Classic oil-insulated
ance, Figure 6.3.5-1. For adequate loading, the voltage transformers consist of a transformer
capacitive voltage rise (resonant overvoltage) insulated with oil and paper in a dead-tank
is negligible. Voltage transformers are oper- construction and an outdoor-oil bushing, Fig-
ated at operating voltage in the approximately ure 6.3.5-1 (right).
linear region of the magnetization characteris-
tic. From the transmission ratio, the high volt- b) Capacitor voltage transformer
age V1 is obtained:
At high voltages, iron cores and windings of
V1 = V2·n1/n2 (6.3.5-1) inductive voltage transformers are very large,
therefore it is more economical to use capaci-
Recording the r.m.s. value is of importance tior voltage transformers together with in-
here. It was previously implemented by a true ductive transformers in resonance circuits
r.m.s. responding instrument; today the r.m.s. (resonance capacitor transformers), Figure
value is determined by the evaluation of the 6.3.5-2 (left). The high voltage V1 is divided
digital signal. The upper cut-off frequency of by a capacitive divider down to a medium
the inductive voltage transformer amounts to a voltage V2 in the range of approx. 10 to 30 kV.
few kHz in the medium-voltage range and for The measurement devices with the load resis-
420 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tance R are connected as so-called burden via ply the older protective relays with higher
a reactor (inductance L) and an inductive volt- power consumption was of great advantage in
age transformer. The inductive transformer the days of analog power system management.
can thus be designed as a compact medium-
voltage transformer. Pure capacitive voltage transformers (divid-
ers) can supply only very high-impedance
The inductance L and the capacitance C1+C2 loads with lower power consumption. Hence,
form a resonance circuit at the fundamental the signal that has been capacitively divided
power frequency of the network f0. In the case must be further processed electronically. Thus,
of resonance a constant load for the divider, a higher band-
width for recording the signal as well as un-
f0 = 1/{2S [L(C1+C2)] },
1/2
(6.3.5-2) limited options for further processing of sig-
nals with respect to power system management
the voltage VR is independent of the magnitude and with respect to network protection are
of the burden (load) R so that the reading is achieved. An inductive voltage transformer is
basically independent of the number of meas- no longer required.
urement devices connected in parallel: Capacitive, resistive or compensated voltage
transformers (dividers) can be used even in
VR/V1 = C1/(C1 + C2) (6.3.5-3)
the medium voltage range, Figure 6.3.5-2 (top
Note: Eq. (6.3.5-3) can be derived from the equivalent right). For example, it is possible to encapsu-
circuit in Figure 6.3.5-2 (bottom right) by complex late a cylindrical capacitor or resistor elements
calculation with the condition Eq. (6.3.5-2). For illus- in an epoxy-resin support insulator [363],
tration purposes, no-load operation (R' o f) for which [364]. Thus, the transformer or divider does
a capacitive divider ratio results owing to the lack of a not take up its own space and can contribute to
load is considered. For the loaded divider (R' < f) a
voltage decrease is to be expected and it is directly
the simplification of medium-voltage switch-
balanced by a resonance overvoltage. ing systems. Along with an electronic evalua-
tion unit, the low-voltage elements are con-
The fact that the output signal was independ- nected to the lower side of the insulator.
ent of the load and the possibility to even sup-

6.3.5.2 Current Transformers

C1 a) Inductive current transformers
Inductive current transformers must carry
C2 the conductor(s) at high-voltage potential as
C1 Medium-voltage primary winding via a transformer-type cur-
support insulator rent transformation unit, Figure 6.3.5-3 (a),
with capacitance (b). If the conductor is directly fed through a
circular closed iron core, the primary winding
C1 consists of only one turn. The inductive cur-
L rent transformer is thus comparable to a
Rogowski coil (but with an iron core), see
C2 L R R' Figure 6.3.7-1. The secondary winding at low-
C2
voltage potential consists of many turns. It
VR V1 V2 V R' supplies the transformed current into the sec-
Capacitor voltage transformer with resonance circuit ondary circuit and this must not be interrupted
(!) to prevent overvoltages and therefore has to
Figure 6.3.5-2: Capacitor voltage transformer. be protected with overvoltage arresters.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 421

Note: Short circuit currents are often indicated to be too tively graded bushing, Figure 6.3.5-3 (a). The
low owing to saturation of the iron core and owing to bushing is thus thermally loaded by the dou-
the suppression of the direct current component.
bled primary current. Within the transformer,
the high voltage is to be insulated between
b) Current transformers
primary winding and the core, tank and sec-
with high-voltage insulation
ondary winding. The classic insulation system
In medium voltage applications, it is com- is oil-paper with a bushing insulator made of
mon to use compact and dry inductive current porcelain.
transformers that are embedded in cast resin
(resin-encapsulated current transformers). At the so-called top-assembly current trans-
Moreover, Rogowski coils and inductive mag- former, the tank with the inductive trans-
netic field sensors with electronic signal inte- former is at the high-voltage potential and
gration can be integrated in components of forms the head of the transformer, Figure
switchgear assemblies, for example in cable 6.3.5-3 (b). The core and secondary winding
connectors [365]. are at ground potential and must be insulated
against the tank and conductor (primary
In high voltage applications, the high voltage winding) at high-voltage potential. The supply
difference between the primary winding and wires for secondary windings are fed into the
the secondary winding at ground potential head with an inverse capacitively graded
places particularly high demands on the insu- bushing that is only loaded by secondary cur-
lation within the current transformer. rent. Films that have been impregnated with
SF6 and silicone-shed composite insulators are
In the case of classic crossed-ring-core trans- implemented as the insulation system. In this
former, the conductor is fed into the grounded way, exploding porcelain and burning oil are
tank and out again with the help of a capaci- prevented in the event of damage.

Inductive LV trans- former

Inductive Optical-fibre coil
transformer Shunt

electro-optical transducer

Optical LWL
Inverse
Bushing fibre digital
bushing
Optical
fibre

Inductive
transformer Receiver and
opto-electrical
Transmitter transducer
and analyzer
(a) Crossed-ring-core (b) Top-assembly cur- (c) Optical current (d) Hybrid-optical
transformer rent transformer transformer current transformer

Figure 6.3.5-3: Current transformers.

422 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

c) Transformers high bandwidth of the analog optical transmis-

without high-voltage insulation sion is an advantage. An auxiliary power sup-
ply at high-voltage potential is not necessary.
With respect to insulation technology, favor-
able conditions for the installation of current Hybrid-optical current transformers meas-
transformers are found in bushings and gas in- ure the current at the high-voltage potential
sulated switchgear. Here the conductor is fed with a conventional inductive current trans-
centrally through the circular iron core and the former (for alternating current) or with a cur-
secondary winding without interruption. The rent–sensing resistor or measuring shunt (for
current transformer is placed in an area that is direct current). Thus, the measurement signal
shielded from the electric field, such as above is provided with precision and reliability
the grounded grading layer of the bushing, known for conventional current transformers
Figure 6.4.8-3, or in an ring groove in the and without any problems with regard to in-
outer conductor of a coaxial arrangement, Fig- sulation. The electrical signal is transmitted in
ure 6.3.7-1. The transformer must have an ad- digitized form over the optical path to the re-
equate internal diameter to be able to accom- ceiver at ground potential. The need to supply
modate the bushing or the conductor insulated the electronics at high-voltage potential with
by the SF6 gas. auxiliary power is a disadvantage. For this
purpose, optical, capacitive or inductive
d) Current transformers transmission procedures are considered.
with potential separation
Modern options for potential free signal
transmission allow completely new current- 6.3.6 Measurements of R.m.s. Value,
transformer concepts. Current signals can be Peak Value and Harmonics
recorded directly on the conductor at the high-
voltage potential and, for example, can be The peak value that is significant for break-
transmitted via optical waveguides across any down is primarily to be recorded during meas-
potential differences to a receiving unit at any urements in the high voltage laboratory. The
position, Figure 6.3.5-3 (c), (d). measurement of r.m.s. values is important in
the power supply network. Various circuits are
A magneto-optical current transformer, for available for this along with series imped-
example, can be employed with a coil shaped ances, capacitances, transformers and dividers.
optic fiber wound around a conductor [368]. A few examples are given in the following
The magnetic field parallel to the fiber causes sections.
a rotation of the plane of polarization of the
polarized light. The angle is proportional to the Resistive and capacitive series impedances
length of the light path and the strength of the along with r.m.s.-responding current meas-
magnetic field (Faraday effect). This rotation urement instruments are used in measuring the
can be recorded by various methods; in the r.m.s. value of power frequency AC voltages.
simplest case, the modulation of the polariza- Ohmic series resistors are also suitable for
tion condition is converted with the aid of an measuring DC voltages. With capacitive series
optical polarizer and analyzer into an intensity impedances, it must be noted that in the case
modulation [141], see Section 6.3.3.5. While of voltages having harmonic distortions, incor-
designing the current transformer, compensa- rectly high values are shown since the har-
tion for intensity fluctuations in optical system monic contents of the voltage drive dispropor-
and for temperature influences on the optical tionately large currents owing to their higher
properties must be carried out. Moreover, it frequencies:
must be noted that even mechanical loads and
vibrations can influence optical properties. The Ik = k·Z0C·Vk (6.3.6-1)
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 423

While using voltage dividers, the peak value

can be measured by peak detection and peak
value storage. Here, charging a measurement
v (t) C capacitor CM via a diode prevents the decrease
in stored measurement voltage for a decreasing
i C (t) divider voltage, Figure 6.3.6-2. This principle
Figure 6.3.6-1: can generally be used for AC voltages and
Measurement of peak impulse voltages.
value of AC voltages I
according to Chubb- The described basic circuit according to Davis,
Fortescue. Bowdler, and Standring is subjected to sys-
tematic errors due to the discharging of CM,
For series impedances, hazardous contact volt- the parallel connection of C2 and CM in the re-
ages can occur on the low-voltage side if the
charging phase and the parallel connection of
current path is interrupted. An overvoltage
the discharging resistance RD and the low volt-
protective circuit must prevent this.
age capacitance C2. Therefore, a series of im-
The circuit according to Chubb-Fortescue proved circuits, such as a two-branch circuit
enables the measurement of the peak value v̂ (with an equalizing branch) for AC voltage
for periodic AC voltages, Figure 6.3.6-1. The measurements according to Rabus, circuits
current iC(t) that is impressed by the capacitive with no-current, controlled charging by active
series impedance is proportional to the deriva- components or sample and hold elements with
tive of the voltage with respect to time: operational amplifiers for the storage of non-
recurrent processes are available [141].
iC(t) = C·wv/wt (6.3.6-2)
Note: Reading electronic peak voltage measurement
devices is often sensitive to unwanted electromagnetic
The reading iM of a moving-coil instrument coupling by impulse voltages. Besides ensuring the
corresponds to the mean value of the rectified necessary electromagnetic compatibility, the displayed
current that is developed by integration of the peak value must also be definitely checked using the
oscillographic recording of the impulse voltage profile.
positive half-wave oscillation between t = 0
and t = T/2: The possibilities of digital signal processing
also include the calculation of r.m.s values and
C v
ˆ
1 T / 2 wv peak values from the signal-time characteris-
iM
T 0
³ C wt dt ³ dv (6.3.6-3)
T -vˆ tics recorded with high bandwidth. This can
also be used for examining the harmonic dis-
Here the instants t = 0 and t = T/2 correspond tortion spectrum in the supply network by
to the current zero and the negative and posi-
tive maxima of the voltage respectively. Pro-
portionality between the displayed mean value
of the rectified current and the voltage peak v (t) C1
value results from Eq. (6.3.6-3):

iM = C·f·2· v̂ (6.3.6-4)
RD RM v M | ûv2
v 2 (t)
Note: If the voltage profile shows intermediate maxima,
additional current zeros occur and result in a faulty C2 CM
reading.

Note: The diode that is anti-parallel to the measurement Figure 6.3.6-2: Basic circuit for peak detection and
branch obstructs the charging of capacitance C. peak value storage in a measurement capacitor.
424 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Fourier analysis, which is gaining importance ure 6.3.3-2, Section 6.3.3.2, [5], [145], [146],
since the increasing number of power elec- [149], [150]. This implies that a Rogowski coil
tronic consumers and operating equipments arranged concentric to the current conductor
lead to non-sinusoidal currents and voltage can measure current profiles, whose rise times
drops at the network impedances. Owing to are considerably shorter than the propagation
this, the recommended "voltage quality" is time along the coil, Figure 6.3.7-1. For the
possibly impaired [154]. Transition processes commonly undefined arrangement, the current
in the network to some extent lead to increased rise times must be considerably longer than
deviations from the stationary operating con- the propagation time along the coil, so that the
dition [155] and must be recorded by relevant signal is not superimposed by transient oscil-
broadband measurements with transient stor- lations based on spatially non-uniform signal
age. coupling.
Rapidly varying currents can also be measured
with current measuring resistors (shunts).
6.3.7 Current Measurement However, the problem here is that current path
and measuring circuit are often coupled not
Measurement of currents with inductive cur- only by the ohmic measuring resistance but are
rent transformers in the power supply network also magnetically coupled so that measuring
was described in Section 6.3.5.2. Current voltage is not proportional to the current.
probes, whose magnetic circuit can be opened
like tongs to enclose a conductor at low volt- It is therefore recommended to use coaxially
age, are based on the same principle. Depend- symmetric current measuring shunts, in which
ing on the type of the magnetic material used the measuring tapping is placed in the center
and the connected signal amplifier, even large of a cylindrical resistor tube in a space free of
bandwidths are possible. magnetic field, Figure 6.3.7-2. Current is re-
turned via a coaxially symmetric arrangement
So-called Rogowski coils are inductive current on a mounting flange. The rise time of the
transformers that can be used even for ex- shunt is restricted by the effect of the current
tremely rapidly changing currents. Here, ac- displacement. That is, a current step can be
cording to the theory of electrically long mag- noticed within the tube with a delayed rise in
netic sensors, it must be ensured that the coil voltage at the measuring tapping. Rise times
with the surrounding shield forms a traveling- can be achieved in the ns range for very thin
wave line with constant characteristic imped- tubes of resistance alloys.
ance, which is operated in short circuit mode
and for which the magnetic coupling is uni-
formly distributed over its circumference, Fig- Flange
' v (t)

Schielding tube
i (t)
B (t) Coaxial signal cable
B (t)
i (t)
Space, free of magnetic
field with central measu-
ring tapping
Tubular resistance
Figure 6.3.7-1: Toroidal Rogowski coil without
iron core, with slitted shield and with concentric Figure 6.3.7-2: Coaxial current measuring shunt
current conductor for the measurement of rapidly without electromagnetic induction in the measuring
varying currents i(t). circuit.
6.3 High Voltage Measurement Techniques 425

Note: For low resistive shunts, only a low signal level that will not be dealt with here [41], [141]. In
results in a possibly severely disturbed electromagnetic the following section, only a few important
environment. Therefore, it can be necessary to use an
additional cable shield (e.g. in the form of a flanged
EMC measures in high voltage laboratories
tube) as a bypass for cable sheath currents. are discussed, Figure 6.3.8-1.

Currents can also be measured with the help of High voltage testing fields are electromagneti-
magneto-optical methods (Faraday effect). In cally shielded in order to carry out sensitive
many crystals, such as in quartz, the optical partial discharge measurements at low
activity is induced by magnetic fields, which background noise level. Supply lines and con-
then leads to a rotation of the polarization trol lines are guided via lead-in filters. Before
plane of polarized light, Section 6.3.3.5 and measuring a partial discharge, the background
6.3.5.2. In particular, the option to implement noise level must be checked by measurement.
potential-free sensors is an advantage. An op- Values around 1 pC can be achieved with good
tical Rogowski coil can be formed with the aid shielding. Under the conditions of industrial
of optical waveguides that are wound around test fields as well as for onsite measurements,
the conductor that conducts the current, Sec- optimal shielding is not always achievable. In
tion 6.3.3.5 b). many cases, electromagnetic compatibility can
only be achieved through narrowband partial
discharge measurement in a slightly disturbed
frequency domain. Interference-free partial
6.3.8 Electromagnetic Compatibility discharge measurement is discussed in detail
(EMC) in Section 6.4.2.5.

High voltage measurement technology has For impulse voltage measurements, the
always meant the assurance of electromagnetic shielded room serves as a protective shield for
compatibility in an especially strongly dis- sources of interference from the environment.
turbed environment. Therefore, experiences Within the room, coupling through electro-
and knowledge of the high voltage measure- magnetic fields is reduced by separations of
ment techniques form an important foundation large dimensions. It is a rule of thumb that the
of modern, generally applicable EMC-philos- distance of the devices should be approxi-
ophy. The electromagnetic compatibility is by mately equal to their height. Coupling imped-
itself a large independent special discipline ances are prevented by a common mass point

Electromagnetically Decoupling by distance

shielded room
Divider Transformer

Control room Impulse

or shielded generator
cabin

Test object

Coaxial cable Bypass for

cable sheath currents

Central mass point Line filter

Figure 6.3.8-1: Ensuring electromagnetic compatibility for impulse voltage tests (schematic).
426 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

with very short connection lines. In particular, long aged equipment, which on the one hand
the connection of the divider parallel to the test must be taken out of the network in advance
object must be made so that no voltage drops before the occurrence of a crucial damage, and
occur at the supply lines on the ground side or which on the other hand, owing to its high
on the high voltage side. replacement value, should not be replaced be-
fore the expiry of its technically probable life-
Cables must be led from the hall on short time. Ultimately, also the investigation of
paths such that no looping occurs in which damages requires a suitable set of diagnostic
induced voltages can drive cable sheath cur- tools.
rents. I.e. cables must be bundled and must be
laid as directly as possible on the shielding The informative value of the diagnostic meth-
structures. ods still does not come up to the questions
posed in many cases. This especially pertains
Cable sheath currents cause voltage drops at to the question of the expected remaining ser-
the coupling impedances of the cable sheath, vice life of a device.
which can completely distort the measurement
signal especially at low signal levels. There- Important methods are the dielectric measure-
fore, if possible, a large signal level is chosen ments of classic parameters such as capaci-
within the room and the signal is once again tance and dissipation factor at power fre-
divided outside the shielded room, if neces- quency, conductivity and the dielectric system
sary. Cable sheath currents can also cause response (Section 6.4.1). Partial discharge
electromagnetic influences outside the shield- measurements (Section 6.4.2), chemical anal-
ing. Therefore, it is often necessary to lay an yses (Section 6.4.3), insulating material tests
additional cable shield as a bypass for the (Section 6.4.4) as well as optical and acoustic
cable sheath currents. On the input side, it is methods (Section 6.4.5) also come under this.
directly connected to the reference conductor New methods for determining system proper-
(i.e. to the common mass point). On the other ties (Section 6.4.6) and dielectric diagnoses
side, the bypass must have such a good cir- (Section 6.4.7) have now become increasingly
cumferential contact with the shielding of the valid and significant. Diagnostics are generally
room that the cable sheath currents pass to the carried out in the plant or in the high voltage
shielding practically completely. test field. Increasingly onsite diagnoses ("off-
The amount of interference coupling into a line diagnosis") are also being carried out.
cable can be ascertained by preliminary tests Moreover, the interest in “online diagnosis” is
with signal conductors that are short circuited also on the rise and even in permanent “online
(and possibly also interrupted) on the input monitoring” during operation (Section 6.4.8),
side. especially for valuable or strategically impor-
tant equipment, such as large transformers or
bushings [156].

6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring

6.4.1 Dielectric Measurements
Along with high voltage tests for verification
of withstand voltages, diagnostic methods are 6.4.1.1 Dissipation Factor and Capacitance
absolutely essential to obtain more differenti-
ated conclusions about the condition of a de- Dissipation factor and capacitance are mate-
vice and respectively, its insulation. This, at rial-specific and device-specific parameters.
first, pertains to ordinary type tests, routine Compliance with specified values is checked
tests and service tests. Reliable conclusions are by measurements. Trend analyses provide de-
particularly important, especially for decade- tails about changes. For example, increases in
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 427

Measuring arm Reference arm Measuring arm Reference arm

Cx Cx
CN CN
Rx Rx
High voltage
side HV side
Low voltage with only the LV side
side voltage internal
controller shields are
presented

Null indicator Null indicator

a b a b

R3 R4 C4 R3 R4 C4

Basic circuit Automatically regulated shield potential

Connections for Cx R x CN
Figure 6.4.1-1: Measuring bridge for capacitance and
dissipation factor (so-called Schering bridge):

Top left: Basic circuit. with C'3 C'4

earth Null indicator
Top right: Regulation of shield potential for the a b
stray
prevention of displacement currents
capaci-
to the ground side that could load the
tances
bridge (and compensation of the earth R3 R4 C4
stray capacitances respectively).
Bottom right: Arithmetic compensation for earth
Shield at earth potential
stray capacitances of given values
(such as cable capacitances).

bushing capacitance or capacitor capacitance Note: With a rise in voltage, the inception of intense
indicate breakdowns of partial capacitances. partial discharges becomes noticeable also through a
rise in dissipation factor. Determining partial discharge
For resin-bonded paper bushings, a rise in ca- inception via the “partial discharge kink” of the dissipa-
pacitance can even be caused by oil-impregna- tion factor graph is, however, very insensitive and was
tion of the not entirely voidless insulation in practice only during the initial stages of high voltage
body. Loss of impregnating agent or a discon- engineering.
nected contact can be indicated by a fall in
capacitance. Increased dissipation factors, for The classic basic circuit for determining ca-
example, occur owing to infiltrating moisture pacitance and dissipation factor is the C-tan G
and as a result of structural changes owing to measuring bridge according to Schering
ageing, see Section 4.2.3. ("Schering bridge”), Figure 6.4.1-1 (top left).
428 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

It is distinguished from common AC measur- internal shielding and the inner conductors
ing bridges by the fact that the test object (Cx, (bridge points a and b), displacement cur-
tan Gx) is realistically stressed with high volt- rents do not flow. Displacement currents
age, while all trimming elements are at low between internal and external shields are
voltage. CN is a very low loss, high voltage fed by the voltage controller and they do
not load the bridge.
capacitor, for example a gas-insulated high
voltage capacitor, with exactly known capaci- 2. Even without voltage controller, the shield-
tance (standard or reference capacitor). ing and bridge points a and b can be
brought to the same potential by manual
The balanced condition of the bridge, at trimming of a third bridge arm (“auxiliary
which the null indicator shows no voltage, is arm according to Wagner”), so that the
stray capacitances remain ineffective
Zx / Z3 = ZN / Z4 , (6.4.1-1) [141]. If an ungrounded high voltage
source is available, a single grounded
and it can be evaluated best with a series shielding can also be used.
equivalent circuit for Zx:
3. Further, there is the option to compensate
Zx / Z3 = ZN · Y4 the phase displacement angle caused by
ground stray capacitances with a RLC-net-
1 work in arm 3.
Rx 
jZCx 1 1 4. If the ground stray capacitances are de-
˜ (  jZ C 4 )
R3 jZCN R4 fined and known, what is mostly the case
for coaxial measuring cables, an arithmetic
The following results from the real part and correction of the result is made. From the
the imaginary part balancing condition (6.4.1-1), with 1/Z3 =
Y3 = 1/R3 +jZ C3’ and 1/Z4 = Y4 = 1/R4 +
Rx = R3·C4/CN ,
jZ (C4 + C4’) and in accordance with Fig-
Cx = CN·R4/R3 (6.4.1-2) ure 6.4.1-1 (bottom right) to a good ap-
proximation
and
tan G x = Z CxRx
tan G x = Z CxRx = Z C4R4 .
| Z C4+C4’) R4 - Z C3’R3
Under this, ground stray capacitances can
lead to inaccurate results. In particular, the is obtained.
cables between the bridge and the high voltage
components have capacitances C3’ and C4’. With the balanced value tan G x0 = ZC4R4
They are in parallel to the bridge impedances in accordance with Eq. (6.4.1-2), the fol-
lowing is obtained for the dissipation fac-
Z3 and Z4, Figure 6.4.1-1 (bottom right). How-
tor correction:
ever, the following remedial measures are
available: tan G x = Z CxRx
1. Double-shielded cables and housings are | tan G x0 + Z C4’R4 - Z C3’R3
used. External shields remain grounded,
internal shields are dynamically main- (6.4.1-3)
tained at the potential of the bridge points a
and b of the balanced bridge by an elec- The capacitance measurement value in ac-
tronic voltage controller. Thus, in the ab- cordance with Eq. (6.4.1-2) is hardly influ-
sence of a potential difference between the enced by the stray capacitances.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 429

Along with the basic circuit according to conversion and the capacity of the processor,
Schering, different variants were developed high precision and extremely short measuring
[141]. For example, there are special bridge durations can be achieved, which in practice
circuits for large capacitances, for large dissi- facilitates the automatic monitoring of dielec-
pation factors and for grounded test objects. tric parameters in real time. The ability to cal-
The universal C-tan G measuring bridge al- culate other parameters, such as capacitances,
lows simplified balancing with a complex series resistances or parallel resistances, dissi-
comparator, with which the balancing is per- pation factor, power factor, power loss, volt-
formed in dependence on the magnitude and age and frequency is an additional advantage.
phase angle of the diagonal bridge voltage Vab.
Moreover, there are bridges with current com- Capacitances and dissipation factors can also
parators. In addition to manually balanced be determined from resonance frequency and
bridges, there are also automatically balancing damping of oscillating circuits. For this, a
versions. charged capacitance, for instance, is dis-
charged in oscillation (“oscillating voltage”).
Computer-based measuring systems work It is an advantage that even very large capaci-
according to the principle of a vectorial im- tances, such as in cables, can be measured.
pedance measurement in the frequency do- The accuracy is, however, not comparable
main, Figure 6.4.1-2. The dissipation factor tan with a bridge measurement, since other imper-
įx that is sought is thus determined from the fect elements with losses (circuit inductance,
currents in the measurement arm and in the switching elements) are included in the meas-
reference arm, i.e. from the phase displace- urement result.
ment įx of the fundamental modes. For this
For determining permittivity, an accurately
purpose, for example, analog current signals defined field geometry is necessary, in which
recorded in both the arms are integrated, digi- the field distortions at the edges must be
talized, fiber-optically fed into a digital signal avoided by a guard-ring arrangement, Figure
processor (DSP) and processed further with a 6.4.1-3. Relative permittivity is obtained as the
discrete Fourier transform (DFT) [204]. De- quotient of the measured insulating material
pending on the speed and precision of the A/D capacitance and the calculated (or measured)
vacuum capacitance:
Measurement arm Reference arm
i (t) H r = Cx/C0 (6.4.1-4)
Measurement
Coaxial guard-ring arrangements are used in
signal
G compressed gas insulated reference capacitors
A A (so-called compressed-gas capacitors) and in
D D
Z t test vessels for liquid insulating materials.
Fiber optic Plane guard ring arrangements are used for
transmission testing flat insulating material samples.
Reference
DSP
signal
6.4.1.2 Insulation Resistance, Conductivity

PC Insulation resistance RIn between two elec-

trodes results from a resistance network which
emulates different materials and surfaces.
Figure 6.4.1-2: Computer-based measurement of
Usually, a parallel connection of the volume
the dissipation factor from the phase difference of
the currents in the measurement arm and reference resistance RV and the surface resistance RS,
arm (as in [204]). is considered:
430 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

RIn = RV + RS (6.4.1-5) high voltage electrode and the measurement

electrode, current flowing through RG is not
The values are determined by the conductivity measured and RS is parallel to the low imped-
of the material and by the surface condition. ance measuring device. Even while measuring
The volume resistance is accordingly depend- the surface resistance between the measuring
ent on stress duration, field strength, tempera- electrode and the guard ring electrode, the cur-
ture and water content (see Section. 4.2.2). rent over RG remains without any influence
Typical values can be referred from Figures
and RV is parallel to the low impedance mea-
4.2-5 to -9. Surface resistance is heavily de-
pendent on the type, quantity, distribution, and suring device.
wetting of pollution layers (see Section. Note: The surface resistance can also be measured be-
3.2.6.4 and 5.3.4). It is specified as resistance tween two 10 cm long parallel blade-shaped electrodes
between opposite edges of a square and typi- that are pressed against the surface at a distance of 1 cm
6 13 [157].
cally lies between 10 and 10 :.
First of all, the measurement of insulation re- Similar to the determination of permittivity, a
sistance for devices gives an indication of the well defined field geometry in which field
presence of isolating gaps. In the context of distortions at the edges and surface currents
trend analyses, ageing and wetting of cellu- are prevented by a guard ring arrangement is
lose-based insulations or contamination of oils also necessary for determining conductivities,
can be tracked, for example. Surface resis- Figure 6.4.1-4. The conductivity N and the
tances give information about the hydropho- resistivity U for plane arrangements
bicity of differently contaminated, aged or
treated surfaces for instance, Figure 5.3-19. 1 1 d
N ˜ . (6.4.1-6)
U RD A
With the help of guard ring arrangements, vol-
ume resistance and surface resistance of insu- are calculated from the volume resistance
lating material samples can be differentiated,
Figure 6.4.1-4 (top and bottom resp.). While 1 d
RD ˜ .
measuring the volume resistance between the N A

H: High voltage electrode

H
M: Measurement electrode
G: Guard ring electrode G RV RG

M V= RS
I
G

G G
M RV RG
H

G M H
RS
V= I

Figure 6.4.1-3: Plane insulation material sample

with plane guard ring arrangement (left) and co- Figure 6.4.1-4: Measurement of volume resistance
axial guard ring arrangements for testing liquids (top) and surface resistance (bottom) in a guard-
(center) and for a compressed-gas capacitor (right). ring electrode arrangement.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 431

Solid insulating materials are usually meas- This allows both the measurement of permit-
ured on flat plate-shaped samples in plane tivity and the measurement of the initial value
electrode arrangements. However, it is also of conductivity without charge carrier deple-
possible, to apply electrodes and guard rings as tion (i.e. the so-called AC conductivity) [270],
conductive coatings on differently shaped [385]. However, this value is different from
bodies. For liquid insulating materials, there the steady-state values obtained after pro-
are measuring cells of two concentric cup- longed DC field stresses.
shaped electrodes with a liquid-filled insula-
tion gap. Similar to a compressed-gas capaci-
tor, a guard ring is found in the upper area, 6.4.1.3 Dielectric System Response
Figure 6.4.1-3.
Capacitance, dissipation factor and conductiv-
In conductivity measurements, it must be ity are parameters which describe only a small
noted that the measured currents for solid in- section of the dielectric system properties. It is
sulating materials are influenced not only by more comprehensive to measure a complete
its own direct current conductivity but also by dielectric system response, which in the case
polarization processes for long periods, Sec- of a linear dielectric or insulation system, en-
tions 4.2.2 and 4.3. Therefore, measurement ables the establishment of a complete equiva-
must continue until the value of the direct cur- lent circuit, Figure 4.3-2, Section 4.3.2.1. The
rent conductivity can be identified from a con- above-mentioned classic parameters can be
stant steady-state end value of the current. In derived from it. These measurements are car-
practice, such an end value is often not at- ried out on material samples in a guard-ring
tained, therefore measurement values are arrangement, through which it is ensured that
specified for different periods of measurement only the current is measured which flows di-
such as 1, 2, 5, 10, 50 and 100 minutes [157], rectly through the material and that the surface
[386]. currents are made ineffective by discharging
them via the guard ring, Figure 6.4.1-4 (top).
Note: However, one should not come to the false con-
clusion that here it deals with real conductivity values or System responses can be measured in both the
resistance values; they also include polarization current time domain and the frequency domain, see
components. Therefore, it is better to use terms like
“apparent conductivity” and “apparent insulation re- Sections 6.4.7.6 and 6.4.7.7. Basically, both
sistance” respectively. the measurements are equal; a conversion is
possible in the case of a linear system. How-
Note: A new method, the charge difference method ever, this prerequisite is not always fulfilled,
(CDM), under which the conductivity end values can be
estimated by the calculation of charge differences from
e.g. for an oil-insulated or oil-impregnated
the polarization current measurements and depolariza- arrangement with non-linear insulating materi-
tion current measurements (PDC-measurements), is als.
described in Section 6.4.1.3 [427], [392], [428].
a) Measurements in the time domain
For liquids, the decrease in conductivity
caused by ion drift in an electrical DC field For measurements in the time domain, a sta-
plays an especially significant role, Section bilized direct voltage is applied as a step func-
4.2.2.2. Therefore, there is a special specifica- tion on the object to be measured. The polari-
tion for the measurement of insulating liquids zation current ip(t) flowing through the object
using trapezoidal AC voltages, with which the results from a capacitive charging current im-
charge carrier depletion, which would be pulse directly after connecting; it is subse-
caused by the ionic drift, is prevented. With quently determined by the polarization mecha-
the rise in voltage, capacitive displacement nisms that are effective in the material and that
current flows and conduction current flows subside with time, and it finally tends towards
during the stable phase at constant voltage. an end value that is determined by the conduc-
432 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tivity of the material. After a long period, the sis, Section 6.4.7.6.
high frequency capacitance is charged, and
Note: A common task is the measurement of so-called
moreover charge is stored at the interfaces and
direct current conductivity
in the aligned dipoles. In the equivalent circuit
according to Figure 4.3-2, these processes are 1 1 d I䌲 d
physically correctly described by a capaci- N · · , (6.4.1-7)
U RV A V A
tance, by RC elements for different polariza-
tion mechanisms and by a resistance for the which can be determined from the end value If of the
conductivity. decreasing polarization current ip(t), i.e. theoretically
only after an infinitely long time and in practice, often
After disconnecting the voltage and short cir- only after hours or days, Figure 6.4.1-5 (left), Section
cuiting the object, a depolarization current 6.4.1.2:
id(t) is flowing owing to the charge stored by
the preceding polarization. In the equivalent ip(t) o If (6.4.1-8)
circuit according to Figure 4.3-2, this corre-
Convergence occurs much faster when the difference in
sponds to the charge stored in the RC-ele- the magnitudes of the polarization current and the de-
ments. Even in the depolarization current, polarization current ip(t) and id(t) is developed, since in
complete system information is contained, both the currents redundant information about the
with the exception of information about the polarization effects cancel out with opposite signs and
insulation resistance that is short-circuited because the conductivity component is present only in
the polarization current, Figure 6.4.1-5 (left). For this
during depolarization.
comparison, the depolarization current must be shifted
Note: Depolarization current measurements are not in time by the polarization duration tp or charging time
influenced by surface resistances since they are short tC as polarization current and depolarization current are
circuited during the measurement. Owing to this, di- not flowing simultaneously and the measurements are
electric measurements are possible even for insulations performed with the time shift tp = tC:
on which no guard ring arrangement can be imple-
mented (e.g. on cables). However, the signal no longer ip(t) – id(t + tp) o If (6.4.1-9)
contains information about the conductivity.
A new method, the so-called charge difference method
The analysis of polarization currents and de- CDM, is based on the integration of ip(t), giving the
polarization currents is known as PDC analy- total charge qp(t) that has flowed, and on the integration

100 pA 100 nAs

i q

80 pA

60 pA
q (t) q ( t + tp)
p d
i (t) 40 pA
p

q p - qd
i -i i ( t + tp)
p d d
1000 s t 3000 s 1000 s t 3000 s
Figure 6.4.1-5: Polarization current measurement and depolarization current measurement on a material sample
of oil-impregnated paper with the difference in the magnitudes of currents ip and id (left) as well as evaluation of
current measurements by integration (right). qp is the total charge that has flowed, qd is the stored and released
charge. The gradient of the charge difference function qp - qd is approximately proportional to the conductivity
(charge difference method CDM [427]). Superimposed interferences (left) are averaged out by integration (right).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 433

of id(t+tp), giving the released charge qd(t+tp) that has which is, however, often adequate for diagnostic meas-
been stored before, Figure 6.4.1-5 (right), [427] to urements.
[429]. The difference of charge magnitudes qp(t) –
qd(t+tp) is approximately equivalent to the unstored 3. Processes in the time domain are often more directly
charge that has been discharged as conduction current accessible to the human imagination than processes in
via the insulation resistance. From the gradient of the the frequency domain, for which an additional measure
charge difference function, a good estimation for the of abstraction is necessary.
conductivity end value can be derived quite early. Here
it is particularly of advantage also that the interferences Note: The strong point of time domain measurement lies
present in the current signals can be averaged out by the in the measurement of slowly changing processes and in
integration. the use of higher voltages. Frequency domain measure-
ments are advantageous for very high frequencies, since
corresponding time domain measurements would re-
b) Measurements in the frequency domain quire extremely rapid voltage steps and very high sam-
pling rates.
For measurements in the frequency domain,
the object is subjected to a sinusoidal voltage Note: It is necessary to complete the measurement with
until a steady state is achieved (at least four a depolarization both in the time domain as well as in
periods). An impedance is determined from the frequency domain, in order to avoid influences on
the stationary current flowing through the ob- the subsequent measurements by the previous loading
(memory effect). That is, in the frequency domain, the
ject. By measurement at many different fre- same number of both positive and negative periods must
quencies, the frequency dependence of the be passed through from zero crossing to zero crossing.
impedance is determined point-by-point, and In the time domain, the depolarization can be attained
from this the frequency dependence of the by an equivalent stress with opposing polarity or by a
complex permittivity H = H’ - jH’’ as well as the long-term short circuit.
magnitudes of the capacitance C and the dissi-
pation factor tan G are calculated. Its analysis
is described as frequency domain spectroscopy 6.4.2 Partial Discharge (PD)
FDS, Section. 6.4.7.7. Measurement and Diagnosis
Note: A measurement in the time domain often appears
to be more advantageous than in the frequency domain: The formation and clear interpretation of par-
tial discharges from the viewpoint of gas-dis-
1. For measurements in the frequency domain, a large charge physics has already been discussed in
number of individual measurements are necessary to Section 3.6. Many practically relevant cases
measure C, tan G and H = H’ - jH’’ over a large frequency
can already be assessed with the phase-re-
range. Here, for each individual measurement point one
must wait for a steady state to be reached (i.e. at least solved diagrams (phase-resolved pattern) de-
four periods). Owing to this, very long measuring times scribed there, if the test voltage function corre-
are necessary, especially for very slowly changing proc- sponds to a distortion-free sinusoid, Figure
-3 -4
esses in the range of 10 to 10 Hz. Instead of this, the 3.6-8. Here, the methods for measured-value
measurement period in the time domain is only a frac- acquisation, signal processing, evaluation and
tion of this, since a single voltage step is sufficient for
recording the complete system information. further computer-aided diagnosis shall be de-
scribed.
2. For measurement in the time domain, it is simply
possible to apply voltages of any magnitudes. As a re- The partial discharge measuring technique
sult of this, there is great freedom with regard to the requires two different perspectives to be dis-
field strength load during the measurement and the
insulation can be stressed similarly to the actual opera- tinguished: according to one perspective, par-
tional conditions, for example, for DC voltage insula- tial discharge measurement is used in the con-
tion systems (HVDC) or for diagnostic purposes. Lower text of quality assurance during high voltage
voltages are adequate for diagnostic examinations. In testing in order to confim specific and speci-
the frequency domain, on the contrary, it is extremely fied partial discharge levels according to stan-
difficult to implement frequency variable voltage
sources with large amplitudes. Therefore, the voltages dardized procedures [476], [477], the so-called
must generally be restricted to the range of a few 100 V, IEC- partial discharge measurement. On the
434 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

L R
PD-free test set-up PD-free test set-up

Blocking impedance

Test Cc Cc CT
transformer
Coupling
capacitor
Test object Test
object

CT
CD PDM CD PDM

Figure 6.4.2-1: Parital discharge tests on grounded and earth-free test objects (left and right) with blocking
impedance, coupling capacitor, coupling device (CD), partial discharge measuring device (PDM) and PD-free
test set-up.

other hand, partial discharge measurement is connected to the test transformer via a block-
also an efficient instrument for diagnosis ing impedance [476]. In the case of a partial
and research, which allows considerably discharge, a pulsed compensating current
more thorough analyses of insulation faults, flows in the circuit of CC and CT. The partial
often even with new and non-standardized discharge current impulse can be measured as
procedures or with measurement circuits or voltage impulse using a coupling device (CD)
parameters that are not recommended accord- that is situated either in the arm of the test
ing to the standards. object or in the arm of the coupling capacitor.

With the common partial discharge measuring Note: Coupling out of partial discharge signals can
technique in the kHz-range (Sections 6.4.2.1 to also be performed at the measuring tap of a bushing; in
this case, the bushing capacitance adopts the function of
6.4.2.4), the questions of interference signal
the coupling capacitor. Non-conventional coupling out
suppression and partial discharge diagnosis using capacitive or magnetic sensors, Rogowski coils
must also be considered (Sections 6.4.2.5 and and antennae can also be considered if there is adequate
6.4.2.6). The separation of several overlapping sensitivity in the frequency domain under consideration
signal sources and sources of interference is and if calibration of the partial discharge measurement
circuit is possible, see Section 6.3.3. They are the pre-
also newly possible with synchronous mul-
requisite for newer approaches to partial discharge anal-
tichannel partial discharge measurement (Sec- ysis, e.g. for the analysis of impulse shape (time-re-
tion 6.4.2.7). In addition to the classic meas- solved analysis) or for the analysis of extremely high-
uring procedure, the ultra-high frequency UHF frequency components in the frequency spectrum of the
technique and a few non-electrical methods are signal, see Section 6.4.2.6. Further, field probes and
antennae can be used onsite for the localization of par-
also of importance (Sections 6.4.2.8 and
tial discharges in stationary electrical equipment.
6.4.2.9).
Note: Coupling devices are often networks with band-
pass or high-pass behavior, e.g. consisting of a parallel
connection of inductance and resistance. Owing to this,
6.4.2.1 Partial Discharge Measurement an overload of the sensitive partial discharge measuring
Circuit device by the power frequency voltage is avoided.

The measurement of partial discharge im- Often, decoupling of the entire partial dis-
pulses requires a special measuring technique, charge circuit from the network side through a
Figure 6.4.2-1. A coupling capacitor with blocking impedance acting as low-pass filter
capacitance CC.is connected in parallel to the (e.g. series connection of R and L) is helpful to
test object with capacitance CT which is also suppress conducted interferences. Also, the
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 435

parallel connection of transformer winding view of regular and repetitive partial discharge impulses
capacitances is prevented which would reduce or they are averaged out. In the case of direct voltage,
there is no comparable differentiating possibility and
the sensitivity of the measuring circuit, Figure greater effort must be applied to the suppression (of
6.4.2-1 (left). interference) and shielding. In Section 6.4.2.7 c), a new
method is described as to how interferences and partial
Note: Damping of external interferences is also possible discharge can be differentiated with synchronous multi-
using a so-called bridge circuit, in which the coupling channel measurement.
devices are present both in the arm of the test object as
well as the arm of the coupling capacitor (so-called
Kreuger bridge). External current impulses cause com-
mon-mode signals at both the coupling devices. Partial 6.4.2.2 Apparent Charge, Partial Discharge
discharges in the test object (or in the coupling capaci- Energy
tor) lead to differential-mode signals.
a) Apparent charge
The overall test set-up must be free of partial
discharges. That is, along with the use of ap- According to Figure 3.6-2, internal partial
propriate devices (transformer, coupling ca- charges are described by an equivalent circuit
pacitor), adequately rounded supply lines, tor- and by the discharging of a cavity capacitance
oids and fittings are necessary. Moreover, all CCav on exceeding the ignition voltage or
metallic parts must be maintained at defined breakdown voltage Vbd, Figure 6.4.2-2. The
potential through contacting. real charge turnover
Note: The partial discharge measurement cir- 'Q = CCav·'vcav = CCav·Vbd (6.4.2-1)
cuit described here can be used for both AC
voltage as well as DC voltage. Partial dis-
charge impulses for DC voltage, however, cannot be measured at the terminals of the test
occur essentially more rarely and irregularly object. The voltage drop at the cavity 'vCav is
than for AC voltage, since a discharged defect identical to the ignition voltage Vbd of the cav-
is recharged not by displacement currents but ity: 'vCav = Vbd. However, owing to the volt-
by much lower conduction currents. Therefore, age division at CS and C0, it only causes a
the partial discharge measuring device cannot negligible small voltage dip at the terminals of
provide a continuous charge reading, but the the test object
charge of individual impulses must be re-
corded over time. A criterion for the with- 'v = 'vCav·CS/(CS + C0) = Vbd·CS/CT
standing of a DC voltage test is therefore, for
example, charge and counting of individual (6.4.2-2)
impulses within a longer observation period.
assuming that the test object is inductively
Note: Partial discharge measurement for DC voltage decoupled from the rest of the measuring cir-
is to a large extent susceptible to external interferences cuit during several nanoseconds.
and to interferences in the measurement set-up. For AC
voltage, individual current impulses are conspicuous in
Note: In Figure 6.4.2-2 and in Eq. (6.4.2-2) it is as-
sumed with CT = CS + C0 that the cavity has a signifi-
cantly smaller thickness than the insulating material in
C T = C S+ C 0 C0 CS series. In consequence, it is also assumed that the cavity
capacitance CCav is significantly larger than the series
v (t) vCav(t) capacitance CS and that CCav can be neglected in the
C Cav
series connection with CS.

This voltage dip according to Eq. (6.4.2-2) is

so small that it cannot be measured directly.
Figure 6.4.2-2: Simplified equivalent circuit for de-
scribing internal partial discharges in a test object. Instead of this, the charge that flows out from
436 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

the coupling capacitor and recharges the test

1 2 1
object is measured. For this purpose, the WPD | ˜ CCav ˜ 'vCav ˜ 'Q ˜ 'vCav
coupling device is regarded as the current 2 2
measurement resistance and the signal is inte-
grated in the partial discharge measuring de- According to Eq. (6.4.2-3), ¨Q is related to the
vice in order to calculate the charge that is externally measurable apparent charge QA by
flowed. During this, it is not important the capacitive divider ratio CS/CCav . ¨vCav is
whether the current is measured in the arm of likewise obtained via the capacitive divider
the coupling capacitor or in the arm of the test ratio from the peak value of the externally
object, see Figure 6.4.2-1. This charge which measurable partial discharge inception voltage
can be measured, is described as the “appar- 2 VPDI or from the externally measurable
ent charge”
voltage difference of the AC voltage ¨Vn,n+1
between two successive partial discharge im-
QA = CT 'v = 'vCav·CS = 'Q CS/CCav
pulses n and n+1. Thus, an expression that
comprises only parameters that can be meas-
(6.4.2-3)
ured externally is obtained for the energy dis-
sipation in the cavity:
for which it is assumed that the voltage dip 'v
can be fully compensated by an constant-volt-
1 C C
age source. WPD ˷ · (QA Cav ) · ( 2 VPDI · S )
2 CS CCav
This apparent charge QA is much smaller than
the real charge turnover Q. Unfortunately, the 1
relationship according to Eq. 6.4.2-3 is com- WPD ˷ 2 · QA ·VPDI
2 (6.4.2-4)
pletely unknown, since the type, position and
1
size of the defect are not known, thus there is ˷ · QA ·'Vn, n 1
no information about the "transmission ratio" 2
CS/CCav. Despite this, the apparent charge QA
The unknown capacitive divider ratio falls out,
has proven in practice its value as a parame-
since charge parameters and voltage parame-
ter for the specification of partial discharge
ters are divided in inverse ratio.
intensity. This is also theoretically compre-
hensible, since the apparent charge is related to
The partial discharge inception voltages are
the energy dissipation in the defect and to the
often comparable for devices of the same volt-
size of internal cavities, cf. b) and c) [67]:
age level, so that the apparent charge can also
be considered as a relative guide to the energy
b) Partial discharge energy of the discharging impulse.
The energy dissipation WPD in the defect and
the discharge frequency are responsible for the c) Size of the cavity
eroding effect of partial discharges.. The par-
According to Eq. (6.4.2-3) and (-1), apparent
tial discharge energy can only be indirectly charge also increases with the breakdown
estimated from the parameters measured ex- voltage of the cavity and thus with the flash-
ternally at the test object terminals on the basis over distance d and the size of the cavity:
of the following consideration: the energy dis-
sipation is equal to the capacitive energy
stored in the cavity capacitance CCav before the CS CS
QA 'Q CCavVbd
partial discharge event. On the assumption of a CCav CCav (6.4.2-5)
complete discharge of the cavity by ¨vCav, the ~ Vbd ~d
following is approximately valid:
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 437

d) Determination of limit values ered generous and values are generally well
below them. It can be assumed that for an ap-
Eq. (6-4.2-4) suggests that for high voltage parent charge of 500 pC, there is a serious
levels (with high partial discharge inception problem in the transformer [206].
voltages), lower apparent charges are accept-
able than for lower voltage levels, if there is With regard to erosive ageing of insulating
the same acceptable energy dissipation in the materials, both the discharge intensity QA and
cavity [67]. This gradation is actually seen in the discharge frequency N are important. In
current test practice. However, this has not sensitive organic insulating materials, a charge
resulted from the presented theoretical consid- rate of
erations, but over many decades of test experi-
ence. N QA = 2 nC/min = 33 pC/s | 1 pC/ period

For the magnitude of acceptable partial dis- is considered safe. This value should be valid
charge intensities, there are neither general for both AC voltage and for DC voltage [207].
specifications nor theoretical justifications.
Generally, values from practical test experi-
ence are stated in the device specific standards. 6.4.2.3 Sensitivity and Calibration
Mostly, during testing, the test voltage is ap-
plied. On reducing the voltage, the partial dis- a) Sensitivity
charge intensity should not exceed the speci-
According to Eq. (6.4.2-2), the discharge of
fied charge value QA for a defined voltage
the defect leads to a voltage dip ¨v at the test
value (significantly above the operating volt-
object connections, which, in accordance with
age). During this, it must be ensured that in
Eq. (6.4.2-3), can be compensated completely
operation, partial discharges that could be ig-
by the outflow of apparent charge QS from a
nited by an overvoltage are in any case extin-
guished again at the operating voltage. constant-voltage source. But, since the cou-
pling capacitor does not form an ideal voltage
Generally, charge values that are accepted for source, a voltage dip of 'v* remains. This im-
a test for highly stressed insulations (operating plies that the entire apparent charge is not
field strength > 3 kV/mm) are between QA = 1 compensated, but only the measurable charge
and 10 pC, if a sensitive insulating material
QM = CC·'v*. (6.4.2-6)
such as polymeric films, epoxy resin or oil-
impregnated paper is involved. For the charge balance, the following applies:
Generator insulations with a high percentage 'v*(CC + CT) = QA = CT 'v . (6.4.2-7)
of partial discharge-resistant mica can exhibit
discharges in the range of 1000pC; 10000 pC For CC >> CT, 'v* approaches zero, i.e. it is a constant-
is considered to be hazardous [67]. Glass and voltage source. For CC << CT, ¨v* approaches ¨v, i.e.
porcelain exhibit an even higher resistance to no charge compensation takes place.
partial discharges. Corona discharges in air,
and even on ceramic surfaces, are considered From Eqs. (6.4.2-6) and (-7), the relationship
non-hazardous. between measurable charge and apparent
charge is obtained:
Partial discharge tests for transformers are
mandatory for voltages of Vm > 72.5 kV. The QM = QA CC/(CC + CT) (6.4.2-8)
levels are 100 pC for 1.2 Vm/ 3 and 250 pC
for the one hour PD measurement voltage of For CC >> CT, QM is equal to QA. For smaller
1.58 Vr/ 3 or 1.5 Vm/ 3 , see Section 7.1.3.5 values of CC, QM also decreases. Especially
with Figure 7.1.3-14. These levels are consid- for large test object capacitances (such as for
438 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

capacitors, cables or layer windings of trans- 2. The calibrator itself shall be made up of a
formers), a significantly reduced sensitivity of fast step-function generator connected in series
the partial discharge measurement circuit must with a capacitance C0 . With the step voltage
therefore be expected. V0, the charge Q0 = C0·V0 is coupled into the
Note: The relationship between QA and QM can be de- test object via C0. The calibrator thus simu-
termined by an indirect calibration. Under this, current lates the capacitive coupling of partial dis-
impulses of constant charge quantity are passed via the charge impulses from a defect. C0 must not be
parallel circuit consisting of CC and CT, so that the par-
tial discharge measurement device shows a signal corre- higher than 10 % of the test object capaci-
sponding to QM. If an equal current impulse is directly tance, in order not to influence the setup too
passed via the coupling device, the reading corresponds strongly.
to the apparent charge QA. The ratio of the readings
corresponds to the sought calibration factor 3. The connection of the calibrator capacitance
C0 should be done close to the high voltage
kc = QA/QM = (CC + CT)/CC . (6.4.2-9) terminal of the test object, so that the calibra-
tion charge is not partially lost via the stray
The apparent discharge QA is used as a meas- capacitance of a supply line.
urement parameter for quantification of partial
discharges. A conclusion from QA about the 4. Charge values that approximately corre-
actual charge turnover ¨Q in the defect would spond to the partial discharges to be measured
be desirable. Unfortunately, Eq. (6.4.2-3) pro- should be used for calibration. Here, however,
vides only a basic relationship that cannot be it must be ensured that the calibration impulses
practically evaluated, since the ratios of pa- are significantly larger than the background
rameters and capacitances cannot be specified noise level. The frequency of the calibration
for an unknown defect. However, in general impulses should be at least 2 for each period of
CS << CT, so that, generally, ¨Q >> QA can be the AC voltage.
assumed.
5. The rise time Tr of the step voltage V0 must
b) Calibration be so small that the calibration impulse exhib-
its a frequency spectrum whose limit fre-
In practice nowadays, a direct calibration is
quency is higher than the limit frequency of
carried out. That is, the current impulses of the
the partial discharge impulses to be measured.
calibration are fed with known charge quantity
With the common, rather low-frequency filter
Q0 via the terminals of the test object and settings of the partial discharge measuring
compared with the indicated charge value Qind. devices (see Section 6.4.2.4), it is ensured that
Generally, partial discharge measuring devices the partial discharge impulses and the calibra-
can be set in such a way that displayed charge tion impulses have spectral amplitude densities
values correspond to the supplied charge. that are comparable within the frequency band
During the measurement, the displayed charge f1< ¨f < f2 which is used for the measurement.
corresponds to the apparent charge QA.
Note: These requirements are generally fulfilled with Tr
While carrying out a calibration, a few im- < 60 ns. Tr < 0.03/f2 is applicable for broadband devices
portant points must be considered [476]: with f2 > 500 kHz.

1. Calibration must be carried out without high

voltage, but in the original and complete test 6.4.2.4 Signal Processing and
circuit including the test object, since all the Signal Evaluation
lumped capacitances and stray capacitances
are also included in the sensitivity of the test Owing to complex system properties of the
circuit. Each change, therefore, requires a new measurement circuit, current impulses that can
calibration. be measured with the coupling device are
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 439

mostly not of significance with regard to clas- Note: Following the radio interference meters, the so-
sic partial discharge diagnostics. Current called CISPR evaluation characteristic was in use in
the past, Figure 6.4.2-4. It was based on the idea
impulses must be integrated to form the adopted from acoustics that a few large impulses should
"charge" parameter. The “quasi-integration” be rated just as high as many smaller ones. The damag-
undertaken for this purpose can be carried out ing effect of partial discharges is, however, so complex
by broadband and narrowband partial dis- that the application of this simple idea is not justified.
charge measuring devices.
a) Broadband partial discharge measuring
Note: Interference voltage meters and radio interfer-
devices
ence meters (RIV-meters) were originally developed for
communications engineering and they were used at the
The performance of broadband partial dis-
early beginnings of partial discharge measurement tech-
nique. Although they do no longer fulfill the require- charge measuring devices will first be ex-
ments of IEC 60270, they can be used for orienting plained with the example of an analog RC-In-
measurements and with great care, even for quantitative tegration, Figure 6.4.2-3. For Rm << R, the
information.
partial current
Important parameters of classic diagnostics are
the apparent charge QA (partial discharge iC(t) = i(t)·Rm/R (6.4.2-10)
intensity PDI), phase position with reference charges the capacitance C to the voltage v(t),
to the power frequency fundamental mode, the which is proportional to the charge that has
discharge frequency N, as well as the partial- flowed until this time:
discharge inception voltage and the partial-
discharge extinction voltage (PDI and PDE), v( t ) = {³ iC(t)dt}/C ~ ³ i(t)dt (6.4.2-11)
see Section. 3.6.
The reading of a partial discharge measur- This charge value is ideally stored in C. Owing
ing device is proportional to the apparent to the finite time constant W = R·C, however, a
charge of the largest regularly recurring im- gradual discharge occurs. The maximum v̂ of
pulses. If the impulse frequency N falls below voltage v(t) is proportional to the charge Q, if
2 impulses per 50 Hz period (i.e. less than 100 the integration time constant W is sufficiently
per s), the amplitudes in accordance with Ta- long compared to the impulse duration W i:
ble 6.4.2-1 are weighted with less importance.
The inertia of earlier analogous pointer-type W = R·C >> Wi (6.4.2-12)
instruments is thus replicated.
The time constant W, however, should not be
Tab 6.4.2-1: Weighting of the reading of a partial dis- too large, so that successive impulses can be
charge measuring device with respect to impulse fre- distinguished Practical values are in the μs
quency N.
range.
Impulse frequency N/s 1 2 5 10 50 >100
The RC integration element can also be inter-
Reading in % + 5 % 40 60 81 90 99 100 preted as a low pass in the frequency domain.

CT CC
v ~ Q (i)
u
û i (t)

W = R·C Rm W = R·C v (t)

Figure 6.4.2-3: Broadband v (t)
integration of a compen-
i (t) PD Broadband
sating current i(t) in a t measuring integration circuit
PD measuring circuit by circuit (very much simplified)
a RC low pass.
440 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

The requirement for a large time constant W = b) Narrowband

R·C corresponds to the requirement for a low partial discharge measuring devices
upper cut-off frequency of the low pass. For
practical measuring devices, this lies in the Narrowband partial measuring devices have
100 kHz range. Systems with significantly very intensely oscillating impulse responses.
higher limit frequencies would no longer work That is, the impulse response is in the form of
as integrators, but would transfer the current a sine beat that rises and decays, whereby the
impulse more or less unchanged. frequency of the oscillation corresponds to the
center frequency (mid-frequency) fC of the
Note: Even for current impulses lasting for a longer filter. The duration of the oscillation is deter-
period, the condition (6.4.2-12) is probably no longer mined by the bandwidth ¨f. Information about
fulfilled and hence an integration error can result. the polarity of the impulse is thus completely
lost. It can be shown that the amplitude of the
Owing to the low signal amplitudes, active oscillation is proportional to the charge of the
integration amplifiers were used in the past. exciting impulse [141], if the spectral ampli-
Today, the input signal is immediately digi- tude density of the partial discharge impulses
talized in totally digitalized measuring de- is constant in the frequency domain covered
vices and then processed further in digital
by the filter [477]. This implies that for the
form. Thus, a high level of flexibility with selection of the centre frequency, a frequency
regard to the integration procedures and fur- range must be selected in which the reading
ther evaluations is obtained. does not vary with the frequency.
Practical partial discharge measuring devices
According to IEC 60270, the bandwidth 'f
have no low pass characteristic, but have a
should be between 9 kHz and 30 kHz and the
bandpass characteristic for blocking network
center frequency fC between 50 kHz and 1
frequency and other low frequency signal
MHz [476]. A common bandwidth is the value
components below approx. 10 kHz. According
adopted from the CISPR [158] for interference
to IEC 60270, the upper cut-off frequency f2
voltage receivers (or radio-interference meters)
should be at 500 kHz, the bandwidth ¨f be- ¨f = 9 kHz, which corresponds to an impulse
tween 100 kHz and 400 kHz and the lower resolution time of approx. 220 μs.
cut-off frequency f1 between 30 kHz and 100
kHz. [476]. Narrowband partial discharge measuring de-
vices with tunable filters have the advantage
When determining the filter characteristic of that in an electromagnetically disturbed envi-
the bandpass, the coupling device (with cir- ronment (such as in industrial production
cuiting), connecting line and partial discharge units), a frequency band with comparatively
measuring device must be regarded together as little disturbance can be selected. Poor resolu-
one unit, for which the resultant frequency tion of rapidly successive pulses and loss of
response must be considered. Mostly damped polarity information is a disadvantage.
oscillating impulse responses occur, and these
no longer have a similarity with the shape of
c) Interference voltage measuring devices
the original impulse. Only the amplitude is
proportional to the apparent charge (quasi- Historic precursors of partial discharge meas-
integration) and polarity can be identified uring devices are the interference voltage
from the largest half-wave. Occasionally, tun- measuring devices (radio-interference meters)
ing of the filters is inadequate and hence the of communications engineering. These are
information about the polarity of the impulse tunable measurement receivers with bandpass
can be lost. The resolution for successive im- characteristics, which are also suitable as nar-
pulses is determined by the damping of the rowband partial discharge measuring devices
oscillations and generally is in the μs range. for the quasi-integration of impulses. Their
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 441

reading is a voltage VRIV in μV and not a d) Digital partial discharge measuring devices
charge in pC, as in partial discharge measuring
Because very quick and efficient computers
devices. For calibrated interference voltage
are available, partial discharge measuring de-
measuring devices, the following relationship
vices have now been completely implemented
is applicable
in digital form. This means that the signal
measured at the coupling device is digitalized
VRIV QM ˜ Rm ˜ 'f ˜ a / 2 . (6.4.2-13)
immediately and in real-time. Only then, it is
digitally filtered, integrated and further proc-
Rm is the resistance of the coupling device, ¨f essed. This has resulted in completely new
the bandwidth and QM the (measurable) charge options for partial discharge measurement,
flowing through Rm. The factor a increases partial discharge analysis and the suppression
with the frequency N of the impulses in accor- of interference impulses, Section 6.4.2.7. For
dance with a weighting characteristic, Figure example, bandwidths, center frequencies and
6.4.2-4. The interference voltage for N = 100 cut-off frequencies are completely freely ad-
impulses per second (corresponding to one justable; the distinction between narrowband
impulse per AC half-cycle) is the reference and broadband devices and the restriction to a
value with the weighting factor a = 1. The few center frequencies defined in the standards
weighting characteristic results originally from becomes obsolete; and time-based correlations
a circuit with rectifier (for peak-value storage), between individual impulses can be deter-
a resistive-capacitive network and a pointer- mined. A wide electromagnetic interference
type instrument with mechanical inertia. signal spectrum can be monitored, so that fre-
quency ranges can be chosen with minimum
Example: For a bandwidth ¨f = 9 kHz, a cou- background noise levels. This is a great ad-
pling device Rm = 60 : a factor a = 1 (i.e. N = vantage for the onsite testing technique.
100/s) according to Eq. (6.4.2-13), an interfer-
ence voltage VRIV = 1 μV corresponds to a
measurable charge QM = 2.62 pC. 6.4.2.5 Interference-free measurement

Note: The relationship between QM and QA can be de- Partial discharge measurement circuits are
termined by calibration in accordance with Eq. (6.4.2- designed for the sensitive measurement of the
9). However, the calibration is overall made difficult smallest impulses in the pC range. Therefore,
owing to different weighting characteristics according to they are also particularly sensitive to all types
Figure 6.4.2-4 and Table 6.4.2-1, since the reading per- of interferences. Interference-free measure-
tains not only to the frequency of the partial discharge
impulses to be measured, but also to the frequency of
ment of partial discharges, therefore, is one of
the calibrator impulses. The calibration is applicable the major challenges of the practical applica-
only to the cases in which the frequencies coincide. In
other cases, the charge values must be converted to the
given frequencies. Interference voltage measurement 2,0
devices with weighting functionality that can be turned
off are therefore often more suitable. 1,0
0,5
Note: The weighting characteristic takes into account a (N)
the subjective perception that for radio reception, many 0,2
small impulses cause similar interference to a few large
impulses. Also for partial discharges, many small im- 0,1
pulses can be likewise considered to be similarly dam- 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000
1
aging to a few large impulses. However, the processes N/ s
of erosion breakdown are dependent on a number of
hardly ascertainable parameters, so that the above-men- Figure 6.4.2-4: CISPR weighting characteristic for
tioned qualitative dependence cannot be included in a interference voltage measuring devices. For high
weighting characteristic. impulse frequency N > 1000/s, it can lead to er-
roneous displays due to lack of impulse resolution.
442 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tion of high voltage measurement technology. side or the ground side. Only a good tidi-
Therefore, before a partial discharge meas- ness of the high voltage laboratory with
urement is performed with high voltage, it well defined contacting of all conductive
must first be checked without voltage whether parts helps here.
the so-called background noise level is lower
than the signal to be measured. Moreover, it 6. Poor, loose or undefined contacts can
must be verified that the the set-up without a cause the so-called “contact noise”that can
test object is free from partial discharges be avoided by well defined, e.g. by
under voltage. In the following section, the screwed or wedged conductor connections.
most important sources of interference and 7. Partial discharges in a test set up (at
appropriate countermeasures are listed: edges or points on the high voltage side or
the ground side) must be prevented by ad-
1. External electromagnetic radiation can
equately rounded shield caps. Directional
be damped over a broadband range by a
microphones and low-light amplifiers have
high voltage room shielded on all sides.
proved useful as aids for fault location.
Background noise levels lower than 1 pC
can be attained. Onsite partial discharge measurements in
2. External conducted interferences, e.g. by an electrical installation are especially diffi-
power electronic switching impulses on the cult, since large external interferences can be
low voltage side of the power supply, are eliminated neither by a hall nor by filters or
often damped by inductances and winding shield caps. There are a number of approaches,
capacitances of the test transformer as well but these do not allow the background noise
as by current limiting resistors on the high level of a laboratory measurement to be
voltage side. If necessary, filters connected achieved:
with low inductance to the hall shield must
1. Partial discharges are measured with a
be used on the low voltage side.
bridge measurement, both in the leg of
3. Narrowband interference sources (e.g. the test object and in a reference leg (in-
transmission equipment) can be blocked stead of the coupling capacitor) and they
with a narrowband partial discharge are synchronously recorded [67]. Common
measuring device by adjusting the center mode signals must be assigned to external
frequency in an undisturbed frequency interferences, push-pull signals to the test
range. This is a helpful solution for onsite object (or the coupling capacitor).
measurements, in which shielding is gen-
2. By the so-called directional coupler tech-
erally not possible. It is disadvantageous
nique, i.e. by partial discharge measure-
here that the information about polarity
ment at two different points (e.g. left or
and impulse shape is lost.
right of a cable joint), it can be distin-
4. Impulse interference sources with con- guished whether the impulse source is
stant phase relationship can be gated out between or beyond the measuring points.
by choosing an appropriate time window. In this way, both external interferences can
This option, available for many partial dis- be identified and localization or spatial
charge measuring devices, is helpful for demarcation of the partial discharge source
orienting measurements, but it is largely is possible. For that purpose, currents and
not accepted, since there is the risk that magnetic fields caused by the partial dis-
also the signals to be measured are charge impulses must be observed. Exter-
blocked. nal sources cause common-mode currents,
sources between the measuring points
5. Metal parts at floating potential can be cause push-pull currents. Broadband mag-
discharged periodically to the high voltage netic sensors or Rogowski coils can be
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 443

used for the measurement of partial dis- partial discharge sources. By this, selective
charge currents [215], Section 6.3-7. blocking of individual interference im-
pulses (so-called “gating”) is possible.
3. Many more methods are now available to
attenuate narrowband and broadband inter-
ference sources with the aid of digital fil- 6.4.2.6 Partial Discharge Diagnosis
ters:
Owing to the complexity of the discharge pro-
By transformation in the frequency domain
cesses, many partial discharge events evade
and adaptive filtering of interference
direct physical interpretation according to
lines, narrowband interference sources can
Section 3.6.3. Modern data techniques could
be gated out. External (corona) interfer-
thus make progress by signal analysis, by sta-
ence sources can be separated from inter-
tistical methods, by pattern recognition meth-
nal discharges by comparing two signals
ods and by the correlation of synchronous im-
(e.g. a current signal and a voltage signal),
pulses. The decisive breakthrough, namely the
in which one of the signals must be filtered
reply to the questions
in such a way that the transmission prop-
erties of both the channels correspond to x “Where is the defect?”
each other. Interference is similarly sup-
pressed as described in item no. 1, i.e. by x “What type of defect is it?”
calculating the difference. For current sig- x “How severe is its damaging effect?”
nals and voltage signals, the direction of
interference propagation can be determined x “How are multiple defects to be differenti-
by calculating the product [215]. ated?”
Another approach is the separation of ran- x “How does it impact durability?”
dom interference signals from the desired
has not yet yielded a full response in the gen-
partial discharge signals by neural net-
eral form. Partial discharge diagnosis is, there-
works. For this, a time-resolved signal
fore, apparently an everlasting challenge for
shape analysis is used. It requires a broad-
high voltage engineering research. A few ap-
band output signal coupling and signal
proaches will be described in the following
processing up to the VHF range, i.e. up to
sections. Particular progress is represented by
about 100 MHz, [249].
synchronous multi-channel partial discharge
4. New options for interference signal analysis, and the following Section 6.4.2.7 is
suppression are also offered by fully digi- dedicated to this.
tal partial discharge measuring devices,
in which the interference signal spectrum a) Classic interpretation
can be analyzed and the center frequency
and bandwidth can be adjusted so that the Classic parameters of partial discharge diag-
lowest possible background noise level oc- nostics are the partial discharge intensity or the
curs, Section 6.4.2.4d). apparent charge, the inception voltages and
extinction voltages and the phase position of
5. Greater progress in interference signal sup- partial discharge impulses.
pression is attained by the synchronous
multi-channel partial discharge meas- The partial discharge intensity refers to the so-
urement, Section 6.4.2.7. Synchronously called apparent charge QA that can be meas-
measured and related impulses can be ured externally on the test object terminals.
identified by their characteristic amplitude Actual maximum permissible values are de-
relationships or time relationships and as- rived on the basis of experiences. However it
signed to specific interference sources or is not possible to make a general statement
444 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

about the magnitude and hazard of partial dis- are considered [465]. This allows basic types
charges within the insulation and about the of defects to be distinguished, Section 3.6.3.2,
expected sevice life, since the specific stresses but for the development of partial discharge
on volumes or surfaces and the signal coupling interpretation methods that are illustrated in
paths in an (unknown) defect cannot be speci- the following section, this has had no further
fied. Moreover, the readings of partial dis- significance: they are practically exclusively
charge measuring devices depend more on the fixated upon AC voltage still. Only synchro-
amplitude of the strongest of the impulses and nous multi-channel partial discharge meas-
less on the frequency N which is also relevant urement offers a new option, including for DC
for the ageing processes. voltages, for associating the impulses with
different defects and different interference
The inception voltages and extinction voltages sources, Section 6.4.2.7.
VPDI and VPDE serve as indicators of produc-
tion defects and they shall show that, under b) Statistical approaches
operating conditions, no damaging discharges
can take place. The problem with this is that Modern data techniques have opened up new
the inception and extinction of a partial dis- options for processing large data quantities and
charge must be defined by a possibly less sig- for statistical partial discharge analyses. Sta-
nificant intensity threshold. Additionally, a tistical approaches for analysis systems are
considerable ignition delay can often be found based on maximum possible acquisition of
for closely localized defects [209]. impulse data, on data reduction by the storage
of some selected impulse parameters, on cal-
In the case of a sinusoidal AC voltage, with- culation of new parameters, on determination
out appreciable distortion by harmonic oscil- of distribution functions and on the compari-
lations, the phase position of the impulses son with reference databases. This allows
gives important indications of the physical probabilities for the presence of different types
environment of the discharge for simple defect of defects or “degree of correlation” with
situations (e.g. internal/external discharge, known defects to be specified [74], [78], [79].
contact to electrodes), Section 3.6.3, Figure No physical explanation is provided for this,
3.6-8. The phase-resolved partial discharge but only a statistically substantiated similarity
patterns are based on a deterministic physical is ascertained. Reference to discharge physics
approach which facilitates the understanding is often sought through phase-resolved pat-
of the patterns. But on the other hand, it no terns, in which so-called “cloud plots” are cre-
longer meets the complexity of the situation in ated by superposition of many periods. This
many cases. For example, by the superimposi- enables the frequency of the discharges to be
tion of events from different defects, the clear- visualized additionnally by using a three di-
ness of partial discharge patterns is lost. More- mensional image or by color gradation, [74] to
over, the interpretation often reflects subjective [80], [204], [212], [213].
experiences and feelings. A frequent source of
Note: There is also the possibility here of misinterpre-
error is that for non-sinusoidal voltages, false
tation through harmonic distortion influences and space
conclusions can be drawn from the phase po- charge influences associated with the phase-resolved
sition of the impulses; and the phase positions representation.
can additionally be shifted owing to the
buildup of space charges [214]. For digital evaluation, the partial discharge
impulses must at first be recorded with high
The possibilities for partial discharge inter- bandwidth and unaltered as far as possible,
pretation for DC voltages are far more limited, then digitalized, filtered and then must be
since phase relationships cannot be estab- stored in connection with other measurement
lished. Instead of this, it is recommended that values (voltage, time). This is restricted to a
time differences between successive impulses few impulse parameters to reduce the data
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 445

volume. By numerical signal processing, ure 6.4.2-5 center) or by three dimensional

along with the development of classic para- bars.
meters (charge, phase position, frequency),
other parameters (such as polarity, energy and Along with the subjective evaluation of partial
amplitude) and time constants are developed. discharge patterns, the aim is to ascertain the
Owing to this, during the increasing and de- concurrence of measured data records with
creasing of the test voltage, an extensive data reference measurements by means of expert
record is created, which is compressed by cre- systems, in order to achieve an allocation to
ating statistical distribution functions and type of defect and location of defect. For this
which can be further processed based on dif- purpose, parameters and distribution functions
ferent methods and approaches. This involves are compared, correlations are determined and
the important distributions impulse frequency the methods of pattern identification or “fuzzy
against the phase angle or the impulse ampli- logic” are applied. One can also attempt to
tude against the phase angle. It is, however, relate discharge parameters and types of defect
largely common to analyze a dozen different via a neural network using a neuronal ap-
distributions. The availability of an extensive proach [75], [76], [77]. This allows the inter-
database with explicitly identifiable defects is pretation of partial discharges to be raised
a decisive factor for the validity of statistical from the subjective level to the level of auto-
analyses. mated objective comparison. In many cases,
this is a great advantage for test practice [210].
Note: The reading of a classic partial discharge meas-
uring device can thus be numerically simulated based on Partial discharge analysis systems generally do
the recorded data. not give any absolute information about the
type of defect, but determine a degree of cor-
The visualization of data records is often car-
relation of the measured partial discharge data
ried out with multi-dimensional histograms, in
with previously measured references. An allo-
which, for example, parameters such as charge
cation to a defect category is possible for suf-
QA, frequency N and phase position M are rep-
ficiently large database with known defect
resented three dimensionally as a so-called instances. A statement about the hazard of the
"M,Q,N-pattern”. In the simplest form, these partial discharge or about the service life of the
are so-called "cloud plots”, in which partial insulation is thus at most possible only very
discharge events summed over several periods indirectly on the basis of operating experi-
are represented as charge points against the ences.
phase position. The frequency N is represented
in the third dimension either by the density of The interpretation of phase-resolved patterns
the cloud points, by a color gradation (see Fig- such as cloud plots or the M,q,n-patterns is

-2 û
uv -û
uv 0 uv
û 2u
ûv
v (M) , Q (M)
A
'v uv
û
uv
û
M 'v
0
'v n , n +1
-û
uv
-û
uv

Original data Phase-resolved histogram -2 û

uv
'v n -1, n
cloud plot, "phase-resolved pattern"

Figure 6.4.2-5: Partial discharge diagnosis for a model body (cylindrical cavity 1 x 1 mm in epoxy resin) with
original data (left), phase-resolved cumulative representation (center) and pulse sequence analysis (right).
446 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

associated with several fundamental prob- Figure 3.6-2 ignite in the area of the steepest
lems: voltage gradient wv/wt, always after passing
through the same voltage difference ¨v. If the
1. The deterministic relationship between voltage difference between the events n and
individual successive and related impulses n+1 is applied over the voltage difference
is lost during the summation of several pe- between the events n-1 and n, points occur on
riods, as is still clearly identifiable in the the diagonals of the pattern for related, equally
original data of the example, Figure 6.2.4- high voltage differences, Figure 6.4-2-5
5 (left). (right). The position of the points is deter-
2. Phase-resolved representations are not mined by the voltage difference ¨v. This volt-
clear if the test voltage is distorted, espe- age difference is characteristic of the defect
cially when intermediate maxima occur. and independent of the test voltage waveform.
Then several rising and falling flanks of In contrast to the phase-resolved pattern (cloud
the voltage can occur, in which discharges plots), here sharp patterns occur, since neither
of varying polarity result. The partial dis- the space charge induced phase displacements
charge pattern would be completely nor test voltage distortions play a role here.
changed.
A second defect would be indicated by another
3. Phase position can also be shifted owing to voltage difference. If unrelated impulses ap-
superimposition of space charging fields. pear successively, statistically dispersed volt-
age differences arise, similar to stochastic in-
4. Multiple defects are hardly kept apart with- terference impulses. Then it can be identified
out additional methods. Synchronous that the impulses do not have a deterministic
multi-channel partial discharge meas- relationship with each other.
urement has now been proven as an effi-
cient method for separation of multiple Also pulse sequence analysis shows charac-
partial discharge sources. This method is teristic patterns that can be physically substan-
able to assign the source of individual im- tiated. While internal discharges occur in the
pulses and to resolve overlapping partial pattern diagonals (see above), external dis-
discharge patterns into individual pattern charges have very small voltage differences,
and to analyze them separately, Section and they are concentrated at the origin.
6.4.2.7.
Thus, pulse sequence analysis promises to give
c) Pulse sequence analysis an additional contribution to defect detection.
However, here also, the question of the life
The above-mentioned difficulties do not occur time of insulation under the effect of partial
with the pulse sequence analysis method, or discharge erosion cannot be answered.
appear only to a lesser extent. With a pulse
sequence analysis, a deterministic relationship Note: With pulse sequence analysis it could be shown
that the sequence of partial discharge events is very
between successive impulses should be made
much more deterministic than that which can be identi-
noticeable by redefined discharge parameters, fied with statistical analysis. For example, the disper-
[211], [214]. The test voltage change ¨v be- sion of the phase position of the impulses that had been
tween two partial discharge events is observed. assumed until now as coincidental could be attributed to
a systematic cause i.e. could be attributed to superimpo-
Note: It is a so-called autocorrelation method, in sition of space charge fields. For the evaluation of volt-
which the measured impulses are correlated with each age differences ¨v, therefore, many sharp partial dis-
other and not with an external parameter (e.g. phase charge patterns occur that are not blurred by statistical
position). averaging and which allow a new and more precise
physical interpretation of events [214].
For example, Figure 6.4.2-5 (left) shows inter-
nal discharges in a cavity, which “in accor- With the superposition of several defects, the
dance with the textbook” and analogous to ability to identify uniquely is often lost, simi-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 447

larly to the phase-resolved representation. Rogowski coils can be used for the measure-
However, a unique identification can be ment of partial discharge currents [215], Sec-
achieved, even in the case of multiple partial tion 6.3-7.
discharge sources, by separation of impulses
with the aid of synchronous multi-channel In large systems with distributed parameters,
partial discharge measurement, Section propagation time measurements of partial dis-
6.4.2.7. charge impulses can indicate the location of
the defect (reflectometry).
d) Analysis of impulse shape Note: With a new approach, it is attempted to determine
the properties of the transmission path in transformers
The analysis of the impulse shape requires a
with a calculated “curve fitting” of a measured impulse
highly broadband signal recording to obtain an shape and hence to infer the location of the origin of the
undistorted image of the signal (time-resolved partial discharge within the transformer winding. For
analysis). Theoretically, the impulse shape or different transmission paths, a theoretical impulse shape
the high frequency spectrum contains infor- is calculated with the aid of network models and com-
pared with measured ones to be able to identify the
mation about the type and size of the defect
suitable transmission path in an iterative process [208].
[67], [77]. Unfortunately, the impulses can
only be coupled out via broadband field probes
in favorable circumstances, such as in gas-in-
sulated switchgear, Section 6.3.3.1. 6.4.2.7 Synchronous Multi-channel Partial
Discharge Measurement
In most cases, the recording of the unaltered
impulse shape is not possible; it always more A basic problem of partial discharge diagnos-
or less reflects the system properties of the tics lies in the separation and analysis of dif-
transmission path. Despite this, the informa- ferent partial discharge signal sources and par-
tion on the transmission path can help in the tial discharge interference sources, which mu-
allocation of an impulse to a specific defect tually superimpose. Until recently, the un-
source. Thus, it supplements the options for solved task in this context was to assign sig-
synchronous multi-channel partial discharge nals to multiple different sources and then to
measurement, which offers an efficient method individually analyze these according to their
for the isolation of different partial discharge type and source.
sources, Section 6.4.2.7.
Note: There is an interesting analogy for this: The orni-
thologist (bird lover) likes to identity different types of
e) Electrical detectionof partial discharges birds and different locations of their origin from various
superimposed voices, Figure 6.4.2-6. The technology
There are a few methods for the spatial local- used for this is based on a multi-channel measurement
ization of partial discharge sources, which are with the aid of two ears for separating different loca-
only applicable in special cases: tions as well as multi-frequency measurement for analy-
sis of different voices.
With the directional coupler technique de-
scribed in Section 6.4.2.5, not only can the a) Principle of
interferences be detected, but the direction of synchronous multi-channel measurement
partial discharge sources can also be identi-
fied. By the measurement of partial discharge For spatially extended insulation systems, such
current at two different points (e.g. left and as generators, transformers or cable systems,
right of a cable joint), it can be distinguished multi-channel synchronous comparative
whether the impulse source lies inside or out- measurements can help in the separation and
side the measurement points. External sources identification of individual defects, allocation
cause common-mode currents and sources to the relevant phases and suppression of inter-
between the measuring points cause push-pull ference sources [217], [272], [422], [455],
currents. Broadband magnetic sensors or [461], [463]:
448 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

each other in their amplitude relationships, they are

different in time sequence or in time differences.

Information about the attribution of individ-

ual partial discharge impulses to different
defects can thus be obtained with the aid of
temporally related impulse groups. For the
first time in the history of the partial discharge
measuring technique, it is thus possible to
overcome a problem that could not be solved
until now: even for multiple superimposed
defect sources, the attribution, sorting and
separation of individual impulses according
Figure 6.4.2-6: Analogy for multi-terminal/multi-chan- to the different defects can now be undertaken.
nel-/multi-frequency partial discharge measurement in
an insulation system, Image: A. Küchler. By sorting individual impulses, the standard
cumulative representation (M,Q,N-pattern,
pulse sequence analysis) can be disintntegrated
During the so-called synchronous multi-chan- in separate diagrams for individual defect
nel partial discharge measurement, the partial sources which can be separately analyzed,
discharge impulses are simultaneously re- Figures 6.4.2-8 to -12.
corded in multiple channels, that is, either at
different points (e.g. at the three phases) or at Synchronous multi-channel partial discharge
different center frequencies. Complete digi- measurement can be performed either by
tal processing of all signals provides the option
to store the entire history of the partial dis- x measurement at multiple points with multi-
charge processes, even down to every individ- ple measuring units (synchronous multi-
ual impulse, and to subsequently evaluate it on point partial discharge measurement) or by
demand, without time pressure and even with
different methods. x measurement at one point, where multiple
channels are realized through parallel
The basic idea of synchronous multi-channel measuring units with synchronously run-
partial discharge measurement is that a single ning filters at different center frequencies
impulse that originates from a partial discharge (synchronous multi-frequency partial dis-
sorce is synchronously measured in different charge measurement).
channels and forms a group of related signal
impulses within a time frame, Figure 6.4.2-7. Note: In a three-phase system, synchronous multi-chan-
The impulses of a group always have the same nel partial discharge measurement does not necessarily
have to be carried out at the three phases, although it is
characteristic amplitude relationships and natural to measure three phase systems accordingly.
time differences with regard to each other.
These relationships are characteristic of the
defect and of different propagation paths Impulse Impulse Impulse Impulse
group group group group
(damping and run time). This makes it possible defect 2 defect 1 defect 3 defect 1
in principle to individually attribute each
measured partial discharge impulse to a spe- k 3 k1 k2 k1 k2 k 3 k1 k2 k 3 k1 k2 k 3
cific defect source.
Example: In Figure 6.4.2-7, defect 1 can be identified t
at recurrent amplitude relationships q1/q2 and q1/q3 as t1 t2 t3
well as recurrent time differences t3 – t1 and t3 – t2.
Figure 6.4.2-7: Superposition of partial discharge
Defects 2 and 3 are distinguished from defect 1 by their
impulses that are synchronously acquired by three
impulse patterns. Although they are not different from
channels k1, k2 and k3 (schematic presentation).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 449

Note: Naturally, combinations of the above-mentioned into a point in the star diagram, whereby the
methods are also possible, e.g. measurement at multiple relationship between the actual defect location
points at different frequencies or measurement at a point
with multiple units at different frequencies.
in the device and the virtual defect location in
the diagram needs certainly not be simple or
Note: A narrowband measurement is sometimes rec- known.
ommended for suppression of interferences during on-
site measurements. For transformers, it should be en- Defects between L1 and ground have the same
sured that the center frequency falls outside the reso- “distance” to the adjacent phases L2 and L3
nance range of the transformer to prevent the alteration
and should therefore lie close to line “L1”.
of signal amplitudes [273].
Defects between L1 and L3 are also placed
between L1 and L3 in the star diagram, since
b) Visualization
the coordinate qL1/qL3 – 1 assumes the value
For distinguishing different defect sources, zero owing to the equality of charges qL1 =
visualization of amplitude relationships or qL3.
time differences is very helpful, since these can
be clearly designed for three-channel meas- Note: The correlation of three synchronous signals can
urements. It will be explained in the example also be realized by the direct as axis-parallel vectors. In
doing so, the length of the vectors corresponds to the
of the amplitude correlations of a three-
respective amount of charge on a linear or logarithmic
channel measurement. Under this, the highest scale. Another option is the visualization of time differ-
of the three measured and related charges, e.g. ences between synchronous impulses. Under this, the
qL1, is set in the ratios qL1/qL2- 1 and qL1/qL3 – impulse triple, depending on the impulse sequences and
time differences, is transformed into such a point on the
1 to the two smaller charges. These ratios are
star diagram that there is a relation between the actual
used as coordinates to “localize” the defect in partial discharge location and the location in the dia-
a so-called three axis star diagram, Figure gram [463].
6.4.2-9. A physical defect location (or defect
source) in the device is virtually transformed Note: According to the terminology of the inventors,
these diagrams for three-channel measurements are
generally described as “star diagrams” [217] and as
3PARD (three-phase amplitude relation diagram),
q 3PTRD (three phase time relation diagram) or 3CFRD
(three center frequency relation diagram) respectively
t [422], [454], [463].

All defect sources A particular advantage of star diagrams is that

different defects each form a characteristic
q cluster. This allows each impulse triple to be
t "marked” and attributed to a partial discharge
source or interference source. The clusters can
Defect 1 be separated and analyzed individually in a
phase-resolved representation.
q
t Example 1: All impulses that are measured in
all three phases as common-mode signals of
Defect 2 equal strength are conidered as external inter-
ferences. They give rise to a value of zero for
q coordinate formation. The origin or zero point
t is thus a type of “trash can” into which these
symmetrical interference impulses can be
Defect 3 moved. However, there are also external inter-
ferences which occur asymmetrically and are
Figure 6.4.2-8: Separation of defect sources. thereby also represented as asymmetrical to
450 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

the axes of the star diagram. However, like

other partial discharge sources, they too form L2
characteristic clusters that can be separately
extracted, analyzed and identified, see also
Example 3.
q L1
Example 2: The test voltage was fed in at q L3 - 1
phase L2 of the stator of an asynchronous
motor and synchronous multi-point meas-
urement was carried out at all three phases.
The star diagram shows two distinct clusters,
Figure 6.4.2-10. After separation of the clus-
ters, the individual representation of phase- L3 L1
resolved cloud plots (M,Q,N-pattern) shows
that Cluster 1 represents an interference source q L1
which is sychroneous with the mains. Cluster 2 q L2 - 1
shows internal partial discharges, which are
symmetrical with respect to phase L3 and L1,
as corresponds to the connection of the test Figure 6.4.2-9: Visualization of a defect location
voltage to L2. in the so-called star diagram.

Note: The above-mentioned two-dimensional star dia-

gram of charge relations is only a visualization exam-
ple. The diagrams, for instance, can also be extended to
three dimensions to be able to illustrate additional im-
pulse parameters for better differentiation (e.g. impulse
polarity). Instead of charge relations, relationships of
measurement time differences can also be developed
[422]. Of course, measurements can also be carried out
with a different number of channels. Furthermore, a
resolution into individual cloud plots is possible also for
the occurrence of multiple clusters.

Example 3: Partial discharge measurements

were carried out on a medium voltage insula-
tor under oil with a single partial discharge
measuring device, i.e. at a single connection
point. Three channels were formed with three
synchronous filters that were operated with
different center frequencies [461]. It was thus
a synchronous multi-frequency measure-
ment with a so-called 3 CFRD (three center
frequency relation diagram), Figure 6.4.2-11
(top left). In the classic PRPD pattern (phase-
resolved PD pattern), superimposed sources
and interferences cannot be kept apart from
each other, Figure 6.4.2-11 (top right). How-
ever, in the multi-frequency star diagram Figure 6.4.2-10: Three-channel PD measurement at the
stator of a 10 kV-7 MW asynchronous motor, single-
3CFRD, three clusters result that can easily be phase test voltage. Top: visualization of interference
distinguished, Figure 6.4.2-11 (left). After re- signals (Cluster 1) and PD (Cluster 2) in multipoint star
verse transformation, they can be separately diagram Below: analysis of individual clusters, phase-
analyzed in the phase-resolved representation: resolved representation. Images: Omicron/ R. Plath.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 451

the three patterns can be attributed to the dis- 3CFRD PRPD (M,Q,N-pattern)
turbed environment, to a network synchronous All Data

External interferences Superimposed sources

impulse interference source that is synchro-
nous with the power system and to an internal
partial discharge source, Figure 6.4.2-11
(right).

With this method, it is possible to specifically Cluster 1

rid the partial discharge patterns or partial dis-
charge measurements from particular interfer-
ence sources and also to analyze different par-
tial discharge sources independently of each
other. This even allows the partial discharge
intensity caused solely by the defect to be de-
termined [461]. Cluster 2

Pulsed interference
Note: Synchronous multi-frequency measurement
(3CFRD) is the first method which performs the sepa-
ration of defects and interferences at a single connect-
ing point and simultaneously provides a classic partial
discharge measurement that is in conformance with
IEC 60270, provided one of the bandpass filters can be
Cluster 3

Partial discharge activity

adjusted to be in conformance with the standard. Con-
sidering the hardware, the measurement is a single
channel measurement at a single connecting point.
However, considering the signal processing, three
channels in the frequency domain are formed by three
bandpass filters.

c) Partial discharge measurement

at DC voltage Figure 6.4.2-11: Multi-frequency star diagram
(3CFRD) for separation of different partial discharge
Synchronous multi-channel partial discharge sources and interference sources [461].
measurement provides the option for the first
time to separate different partial discharge
sources and interferences even at DC voltage Interferences
[454], [455]. Since three phases are not avail- Bandpass 4 MHz
able for use in the direct voltage test set-up,
the channels must be connected to different
locations that are isolated by impedances or
Partial discharge
must be formed by selection of different center source 1
frequencies. Thus, even for DC voltage, it is
ensured that different sources of signal can be
measured with different amplitudes in the dif-
ferent channels and can thereby be separated. Partial discharge
source 2
Example 4: Figure 6.4.2-12 shows a three-
channel partial discharge measurement with Bandpass 400 kHz Bandpass 9 MHz
three different center frequencies at DC volt-
age. Two distinctly distinguishable sources of Figure 6.4.2-12: Visualization of a multi-channel par-
partial discharge as well as interferences can tial discharge measurement for direct voltage in multi-
be identified. frequency star diagram 3CFRD (see text) [454].
452 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Note: The discrimination of interference sources and broadband coupling of signals. Both condi-
signal sources is especially important and complex for tions are satisfied in gas-insulated systems. In
DC voltage, since often only very few individual im-
pulses occur, and all of these must be counted. Owing to
devices and equipment with liquid and solid
this, the DC partial discharge measurement is especially dielectrics, such as cables or transformers, a
susceptible to individual interference impulses. Stand- significantly higher damping and very often
ing, phase-related partial discharge patterns which fa- also complex transmission paths do exist.
cilitate an interpretation at AC voltage are not available Thus, the applicability of the UHF diagnosis is
for DC voltage. Separation by synchronous multi-chan-
nel measurement is, therefore, a great step forward.
significantly limited.

The signal is extracted by broadband capaci-

tive sensors Section. 6.3.3.1. They are either
6.4.2.8 UHF Partial discharge Diagnosis directly mounted in the assembly openings in
the grounded outer conductor of a switchgear
Partial discharge impulses do not only exhibit
(flush with the inner surface of the conductor)
the relatively low frequency spectrum used for
or subsequently applied to the glass panels of
classic measurement. It has been shown that,
viewing windows as so-called “window sen-
especially for partial discharges in gas-insu-
sors”. If multiple sensors are distributed in the
lated switchgear (GIS) and depending on the
system, the partial discharge source can be
type of defect, even very high-frequency spec-
located accurately to a few 10 cm using
tral components (UHF ultra high frequency)
propagation time measurements as well as
can occur up to the region of about 2 GHz.
damping induced amplitude differences. For
Since many sources of interferences (mobile
this, if need be, an acoustic partial discharge
phones, radar, television, outdoor corona) are
measurement is additionally included, Section
predominantly narrowband or transmit in
6.4.2.9.
lower frequency ranges, a very high signal to
noise ratio is possible with a relatively nar- Note: Another possible application of UHF diagnosis is
rowband measurement in the range of 100 the localization of partial discharges in transformers by
MHz to 2 GHz, even for an onsite measure- recording the propagation time differences of multiple
ment [218]. sensors [263].

The most important application of UHF par- The amplified sensor signals can be fed via a
tial discharge diagnosis is the checking of a multiplexer into an oscilloscope and into a
GIS that is assembled at the construction site, spectrum analyzer for time domain and fre-
which can only be checked component-wise in quency domain measurements, Figure 6.4.2-
the factory before transport and assembly. 13. Similar to the classic partial discharge di-
Functional verification of the entire system agnosis process, the UHF signals can be repre-
must be carried out after onsite assembly. In sented with regard to the test voltage phase in
particular, it involves the detection of con- which similar partial discharge patterns occur,
taminations in the form of hopping or fixed and these can be interpreted in a comparable
particles. Moreover, cavities may be detected manner [218]. For this, even classic partial
in cast-esin components (post insulators, temi- discharge diagnosis systems, e.g. for the
nations). In principle, UHF diagnosis is also phase-resolved representation, can be used
possible online, that is, at operating voltage along with converters for the conversion of
[260], Section 6.4.8.4. high frequency sensor signals [260].
Note: Owing to the favorable signal-to-noise ratio in the In contrast to classic partial discharge meas-
UHF range, it is also suggested to carry out online par- urements, UHF measurements cannot be di-
tial discharge measurements on the cable accessories in
the UHF range [262].
rectly calibrated, since there is generally no
clear relationship between the apparent charge
UHF diagnosis requires largely undamped of a PD impulse and the reading of UHF sen-
transmission paths in the device and a very sors.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 453

Note: Instead of calibration of a sensor, until now a so- Optical discharge measurement enables very
called “sensitivity checkis used which is carried out in precise localization in gases and other trans-
multiple steps: (1) At first, an artificial defect is inserted
into the system to be tested, whose partial discharge
parent media.
intensity is measured with a calibrated classic partial
discharge measurement system (e.g. 5 pC). Simultane- For example, even external corona discharges
ously, the UHF spectrum of the defect is recorded in the of up to approx. 10 pC can be seen with low-
vicinity of the defect with the sensor to be tested. (2) light-level amplifiers. This generally requires a
Subsequently, at the defect location, a reference impulse complete darkening to prevent outshining by
with a short rise time (< 0.5 to 1 ns) is fed in and its
amplitude is changed such that the best concurrence
the ambient light.
with the UHF spectrum of the artificial defect results.
(3) The reference impulse determined in this way can Detection can now be carried out even with
later be used as a reference for partial discharge im- daylight UV cameras by selective filtering of
pulses with intensity corresponding to that of the artifi- UV discharge light. This involves special
cial defect (in the example, 5 pC). The accuracy is re- cameras superimposing a UV image with the
stricted (+/-30%). Moreover, the reference impulses for
different systems and different installation locations
partial discharges and a normal light image
must be specified again each time. Sensitivity check is with the view of the discharge location [219].
thus very complicated. This makes it possible to efficiently monitor
outdoor sub-stations.
Owing to excellent correlation options, the
synchronous multi-channel measurement ex- The volumes of encpsulated switchgear can be
plained in Section 6.4.2.7 allows a calibration monitored with light detectors.
of individual UHF impulses for the first time
[462]. Moreover, the method is also simple Using acoustic propagation time measure-
and even conforms to the standards: For each ments, discharges in transformers and other
impulse, the UHF signal and classic partial devices can be localized precisely to several
discharge signal are synchronously recorded. cm. Under this, microphones for the detection
Since the classic signal can be quantified via a of structure-borne noise are mounted at multi-
classic calibration, this even gives the relation- ple points of the transformer tank. The time
ship of the related (synchronous) UHF partial differences between related signals of different
discharge impulse to the classic apparent measuring points are evaluated for a triangu-
charge QA in accordance with Eq. (6.4.2-3). lation of the discharge location. Uncertainties
arise through refraction, reflection or material
This implies that it is now possible to use the
advantages of UHF partial discharge meas- Encapsulation
urements, which are frequently less affected GIS with a hopping particle
Conductor
by interferences, and simultaneously to supply
the relevant value of apparent charge QA to
each individual UHF partial discharge impulse Sensor Sensor
in accordance with the standard.
Amplifier Amplifier
.....
6.4.2.9 Non-electrical Methods of Partial Multiplexer
Discharge Diagnosis
t Q
M
The recording of electrical partial discharge
f
impulses is an ever applicable method, which
also facilitates quantitative intensity data. Al- Oszilloscope for Spectrum Partial discharge
though optical, acoustic and chemical methods transmission time analyzer analysis system
cannot be universally used, in special cases measurement
they are of great importance, see Section 6.4.5: Figure 6.4.2-13: UHF partial discharge diagnosis.
454 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

induced propagation time variations. Back- sistances or hydrolysis resistances, material

ground noises must be damped by opting for a compatibility, mechanical strengths, glass
suitable frequency band in the ultrasonic transition temperatures, pot lives, thermal ex-
range. Further, external corona discharges can pansion, hydrophobicity, material composi-
be detected with directional microphones tions, contaminations and many other para-
that are especially sensitive in the ultrasonic meters.
range.

Acoustic partial discharge measurement is an 6.4.3.1 Determination of Water Content

important aid for defect location in test fields
and in transformer tests. Moisture has a strong strength-reducing effect,
Figure 3.4.2-1. Moisture in cellulose-based
Chemical analyses of insulating oil (gas-in- insulations accelerates thermal ageing through
oil analysis) can detect decomposition gases in de-polymerization, in which water can again
very low concentrations (> 1 ppm). Under this, be the dissociation product, Figure 3.5-6.
however, the immediate partial discharge Drying during production and long-term clo-
events are not measured. It is rather an integral sure against moisture are therefore basic pre-
method that provides information about the requisites for high-voltage resistant oil-paper
elapsed period, Section 6.4.3.2. insulations. Water content must therefore be
checked on a routine basis in order to carry out
drying processes and sealing measures in time.
6.4.3 Chemical Analyses Determining the breakdown strength of oil
provides useful results for water content only
Electrical diagnosis methods are effectively when the moisture level is very high and is
supplemented by physical and chemical meth- close to the saturation concentration, Figure
ods. 3.4.2-1. Moreover, the result is influenced by
other parameters, such as temperature and
Physical parameters, such as gas pressure in particle content. Therefore, a breakdown
gas-insulated switchgear, the oil level in oil- measurement can give only a rough guide.
filled devices, gas formation in transformers
(Buchholz relay) or the insulating material More exact determinations of low water con-
temperature help in online monitoring or the tents in mineral oil and other low viscous flu-
routine checking of devices and systems. ids are possible by Karl Fischer titration
[220]. For this, careful sample extraction
Chemical analyses are especially important for without the entry of additional moisture is
the diagnosis of oil-paper insulation. They necessary at first: a dry syringe is rinsed with
enable the determination of water content the oil to be analyzed before the actual oil
(Section 6.4.3.1), of cracked gas dissolved in sample is taken. The ingress of air must be
oil (Section 6.4.3.2), of dissociation products strictly avoided during this process. The oil
of cellulose (Section 6.4.3.3) and of the degree sample is introduced through an air tight dia-
of polymerization (Section 6.4.3.4). phragm in the analysis container with condi-
tioned solvent (e.g. methanol), in which all
The numerous other chemical and physical
moisture has earlier been directly bound by the
methods of examination that result from the
dosed addition of a titrant (stand-by opera-
many insulating materials used will not be tion).
dealt with in detail here. In practice, the suit-
ability of materials must often be checked un- The actual analysis is carried out by the dosed
der conditions close to the application. For addition of titrant until the moisture released
example, frequent questions of interest are from the sample is completely bound. This is
related to temperature resistances, ageing re- detected by a change in the conductivity.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 455

The titrant can be added with a dosing pump example, can be cut under oil from the top
(volumetric method). The water content of oil layer of the insulation, for development mod-
is calculated in ppm from the quantity of the els or discarded devices, also from electrically
titrant and from the weight of the oil sample. unstressed parts of the insulation. The analysis
In the coulometric method [220], the iodine is based on Karl Fischer titration, in which
necessary for the titration is formed electro- the moisture must first be removed from the
lytically from iodine ions directly in the analy- cellulose. There are three methods:
sis container:
1. Direct titration: The sample is directly
- -
2 J - 2 e o J2 brought into the titrating container with the
solvent. The problem here is that the moisture,
Since one mole of water reacts stochiometri- especially for thicker samples, is released only
cally with one mole of iodine, the amount of very slowly, so that additional moisture can
electricity necessary for preparing iodine is eventually penetrate into the measuring system
proportional to the quantity of water. during the extraction time. This drift of the
Different solvents and titrants are available for measuring system must be determined with a
Karl Fischer titration [221]. In the case of sili- dummy measurement and must be subtracted.
cone liquids, special reagents are necessary, Direct titration is often applicable only for
since water molecules get deposited on silox- very thin samples (paper).
anes by hydrogen bonds [16]. 2. Extraction with methanol: The sample is
Note: In the case of highly viscous fluids, water content stored in previously dried solvent for over 2
can be determined according to the vaporization proce- hours, and its water content can be analyzed
dure explained below for pressboard or by dilution with similarly to that of an oil sample. It is often
very dry solvent.
advisable to mix oil-releasing components into
Determination of moisture in solid cellulose the solvent. The water content of the solvent
based insulations is difficult. Indeed theoreti- must be determined with a dummy test speci-
cally it can be determined via equilibrium men and must be subtracted [220].
curves from the water content in the oil and 3. Evaporation method: The sample is dehu-
the temperature, Figure 5.5-6. Practically, midified in a separate oven at approx. 130 to
however, owing to very long diffusion time 140 °C (partially to 170 °C) in a dry stream of
constants, the absence of an equilibrium status carrier gas. The gas bubbles through the sol-
should be assumed. Moreover, even for very vent and releases the water. The drift of the
low measured water content in oil (e.g. 5 measuring system during the extraction time
ppm), the equilibrium water content in paper must be determined by a dummy measurement
can still be up to several percent. Moreover, and must be subtracted.
the curves of different authors differ from each
other. Measurements of insulation resistance Note: The extraction temperature is a critical compro-
and the new methods of dielectric diagnosis mise: it must be high enough to push out all water and it
(Section. 6.4.7) have also not yet been estab- must remain low enough that there are no significant
new quantities of water owing to de-polymerization.
lished as quantitative methods for the determi-
nation of moisture.

Destructive testing by direct chemical analysis 6.4.3.2 Gas-in-oil Analysis

of paper samples remains a safe option. They
must be brought from the test object under oil Electrical discharges and local overheating
directly to the examination with the exclusion decompose the insulating oil and the cellulose.
of air contact. In the case of air contact, the The resultant type of decomposition gases
hygroscopic cellulose would quite rapidly ab- complies with the energy density in the defect
sorb additional moisture. Paper samples, for and the insulating materials involved (mineral
456 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Table 6.4-1: Characteristic decomposition gases of insulating oil for the defect indication in transformers [96].

Type of gas and maximum normal gas Decom-

Electric discharges Local overheating
concentration after multi-year operation position
of transformers [98] Electric 1000 ... of
Sparks PD >1000°C <300°C
μl/l or ppm resp. arcs 300°C cellulose
Hydrogen H2 200
Methane CH 4 50
Ethane C 2 H6 15
Ethylene (Ethene) C 2 H4 60
*)
Acetylene (Ethyne) C 2 H2 15
Propane C 3 H8
Propylene C 3 H6
Carbon monoxide CO 1000
Carbon dioxide CO 2 11000

Key gases: Associated gases: larger smaller unspecific:

proportion: proportion:
*) only for high energy density

oil, cellulose). Analysis of fault gases dis- chains being formed with two and three carbon
solved in the oil can provide valuable infor- atoms. Defects during decomposition of cel-
mation about the deterioration process. lulose can be identified through carbon mon-
oxide and carbon dioxide. In the process, oxy-
Note: Meanwhile, it is also proposed, to analyze the gen atoms are obtained from the cellulose
collected fault gases in the Buchholz relay and to assess
molecules, Figure 5.5-7
them with the aid of gas exchange models [420].
For distinguishing different types of defect, a
a) Interpretation of gas-in-oil analyses number of empirically substantiated criteria
were developed that are not based on the ab-
The interpretation of measured gas concen- solute concentrations but on the ratios of dif-
trations allows the identification of different ferent gas concentrations, Figure 6.4.3-1. They
types of defects with the aid of characteristic initially apply to transformers, but can also be
key gases and accompanying gases, Table 6.4- applied to other oil-filled devices [95] to [100],
1. Gas-in-oil analysis has, therefore, developed [163], [164], [165]. IEC 60599 recommends
into one of the most important diagnosis an interpretation on the basis of three so-called
methods for oil-filled devices, such as trans- basic gas quotients [393], Table 6.4-2.
formers, measuring transformers, bushings,
oil-filled cables and oil-filled switchgear. For a rough classification, partial discharges
(PD) are characterized by CH4/H2 < 0.2, dis-
Electrical discharges lead to separation of charges (D) are characterized by C2H2/C2H4 >
hydrogen and, with high energy density in 0.2 and thermal defects (T) by C2H2/C2H4 <
electric arcs and sparks, can also lead to low-
0.2. In the case of bushings, we assume
molecular unsaturated hydrocarbons (acety-
CH4/H2 < 0.07 for partial discharges (PD),
lene). Thermal overheating causes a decompo-
sition of oil molecules by pyrolysis at the so- C2H2/C2H4 > 1 for discharges (D), C2H4/C2H6
called hot spot. This even results in apprecia- > 1 for thermal defects (T) and CO2/CO < 1 or
ble quantities of hydrocarbons with longer > 20 for thermal defects in paper (TP).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 457

Developing useful ratios requires the measured (T) and decomposition of cellulose or paper (TP) with
gas concentrations to be significantly greater the aid of a legend.
than the quantification limit and that at least The described nomograph shows a series of advantages
one value in the ratio to be calculated must be for the practical application: interpretation of the data is
above the significant gas concentration. very clear, high gas concentrations are immediately
There are distinct differences between various obvious and differences are especially clear for com-
parative representations in the same image. This is es-
electrical equipment, Table 6.4-3. pecially valuable for the comparison of similar objects
as well as for trend analyses for the same object.
Calculation of ratios can be inaccurate owing
to already present gas concentrations. The The gas concentrations are determined not
causes are, for example, CO2 absorption from only by the energy conversion in the defect but
the atmosphere (up to 300 μl/l), CO2 genera- also by the time, the oil volume and by the
tion through paper ageing or oil oxidation, H2 diffusion time constants. For the assessment of
production through reaction of steel with wa- an analysis result, the types of gases and their
ter, from protective coatings or from over- relations to each other are therefore more im-
heated core plates, as well as the basic con- portant than the concentration values. The de-
centrations that are present owing to natural velopment of concentration values against
ageing or previous defects. Where possible, time is, however, an important criterion with
such influences must be corrected, e.g. by the regard to a trend analysis, in order to decide
evaluation of concentration variations (trend about the removal of operating equipment
analysis). from the network. The difficulty in this is that
the defect can be escalated up to a breakdown
Often, the common classification with defect within very short periods. Annual or half-
codes of ratios is not very vivid. It is therefore yearly control measurements are therefore not
common to use graphic illustrations Some- always adequate to identify hazardous devel-
times. opments. Continuous monitoring with simple
and robust measuring systems is desirable for
Thus, a nomogram [98] is shown as an example, in large transformers [166].
which the measured gas concentrations are marked on
logarithmic scales and are connected by straight lines,
Figure 6.4.3-2. The ratios can be identified in the illus- b) Extraction of fault gases
trated form by the slopes of the straight lines. They can
be related to the basic types of defect, such as electric With the exception of the less common analy-
arc (D), partial discharge (PD), pyrolysis/ overheating sis of free gases from the Buchholz relay, the

100 100

10 10
Pyrolysis (T) Pyrolysis (T) Pyrolysis (T)
CH 4 1 1 CH 4
H2 Arc (D) Arc (D) Arc (D) H2
0,1 0,1
PD (PD) PD (PD) PD (PD)
0,01 0,01
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 0,01 0,1 1 10 100 0,01 0,1 1 10 100
C 2 H2 C 2 H6 C 2 H2
C 2 H4 C 2 H2 CH 4

Figure 6.4.3-1: Allocation of the three basic types of defects "pyrolysis" (thermal overheating, T), "arc" (electric
arc, spark discharge, D) and "PD" (partial discharge, PD) to the characteristic ratios [98].
458 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

gas-in-oil analysis at first requires the extrac- Table 6.4-3: Typical 90 % or 95 % values that were
tion and compression of the dissolved gases. observed in individual networks. Variations in other
For this purpose, an oil sample is generally networks are possible [393].
drawn with a syringe without contact with air Values in μl/l (or ppm)
and injected into an evacuated degassing con- Bushings Oil-
Transfor- Measuring
tainer, Figure 6.4.3-3 (left). Gas **) filled
mers transformers
cables
6 – 1000 150 -
With the classic measurement, a special mer- H2 60 -150 140 *)
300 500
cury-piston pump, the so-called Toepler 250 – 1100
pump, creates a partial vacuum and sucks off CO 540 - 900 1000 *) 40 - 100
300
the evaporating gases, which are compressed 5100 - 800 – 4000 220 -
in a collecting burette, Figure 6.4.3-3. CO2 3400 *)
13000 900 500
11 – 120
Note: The piston of the Toepler pump comprises of a CH4 40 - 110 40 *) 5 - 30
mercury level moving up and down in a glass cylinder. 30
This ensures an ideal impermeability. The influx and 7 – 130
C2H6 50 - 90 70 *) 10 - 25
delivery of gases is carried out via electromagnetic 50
valves that are contactlessly controlled. A great disad- 3 – 40
C2H4 60 - 280 30 *) 3 - 20
vantage of the classic Toepler pump is the large quantity 10
of mercury contained. 1 – 16
C2H2 3 - 50 2 *) 2 - 10
2
Meanwhile, there are mercury-free alternatives *)
: Suggestion for maximum permissible values for
that are available for degassing: during the closed measuring transformers without need for
vacuum extraction, the fault gases evaporat- action.
ing in the degassing container are fully com- **)
: Suggestion for typical values for bushings.

Table 6.4-2: Gas-in-oil analysis according to IEC 60599 [393].

Basic gas C 2 H 2 CH 4 C2H4

Case
quotients: C2H4 H2 C2H6
Partial discharges, < 0.1
not *)
PD in the form of cold corona discharges, associated with X-wax < 0.2 < 0.2
significant **)
formation or small perforations in paper. < 0.07
Discharges of low energy,
associated with larger perforations in paper (holes), carbonization of
D1 >1 0.1 – 0.5 >1
paper surface (creepage path formation) or carbon particles in oil
(similar to on-load tap changers in transformers).
Discharges of high energy,
with energy conversion (often identifiable by disconnection),
D2 0.6 – 2.5 0.1 – 1 >2
associated with extensive decomposition of paper, molten metal at the
discharge base points or extensive carbonization of oil.
Thermal defects upto 300 °C, not > 1, not
T1 <1
associated with brownish coloration of paper significant significant
Thermal defects between 300 °C to 700 °C,
T2 < 0.1 >1 1-4
Associated with carbonization of paper
Thermal defects above 700 °C,
T3 associated with carbonization of oil and if applicable, with metal < 0.2 >1 >4
colorations (above 800 °C) or molten metal (above 1000 °C).
***)
CO 2 <3
TP Thermal defects in paper **) ***)
CO < 1, > 20 ,
*) **)
: valid for measuring transformers, : valid for OIP bushings
***)
: the CO2 and CO values should be corrected by the background values from paper ageing, oil
oxidation and absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere (for open devices, upto 300 μl/l).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 459

pressed in a valve block with a multi-stage analysis of gases dissolved in oil. In the equi-
vacuum pump and an automatically controlled librium condition, the ratio of the gas concen-
on-off valve [419]. This allows a high sensi- trations of the liquid phase to the gaseous
tivity to be attained. Automation even enables phase is given by the so-called Ostwald coeffi-
online monitoring in continuous operation. cients, such that the analysis is generally pos-
sible with the converted concentrations in ac-
Note: For automated systems, it is also possible to allow cordance with Table 6.4-2. However, an equi-
the evaporating gases in a degassing container to enter
into an evacuated tubular filling loop. In this, the gas is
librium condition is often doubtful, since the
subsequently compressed by an auxiliary gas which dynamics of gas generation processes and gas
pushes the fault-gas plug into the gas chromatograph exchange processes must always be considered
[166]. [420]. For this, the concentration comparison
between the liquid phase and the gaseous
A simple to use, but slightly less sensitive phase can give information about the dynamics
method is partial vacuum degassing, in of the progression of defects [393].
which the oil, for example, is sucked in with
the aid of a syringe and partially degassed,
Figure 6.4.3-4. The evaporated gas can be c) Determination of gas quantities
compressed with the same syringe and injected The gases to be analyzed are added to the car-
into the gas chromatograph [419]. rier gas stream in a gas chromatograph (mo-
bile phase of Ar, He or N2) and pass through a
Note: Another option for partial extraction of gases
dissolved in oil is by using permeable membranes. capillary ceramic separation column. Different
propagation times are obtained by the interac-
In the case of transformers, the free gas col- tion with the surface (stationary phase), de-
lected in the oil expansion vessel (Buchholz pending on the type of gas. The emergence of
relay) can also be evaluated in addition to the a gas component at the outlet of the column is

Figure 6.4.3-2: Nomograph for interpretation Examples:

of decomposition gases dissolved in oil [98]: 6 5 6 6
10 10 10 10 Gas
The measured gas concentrations are applied 5 concentration
10
on a logarithmic scale in ppm and are con- 5 4 5 5 in ppm
10 10 10 10 D
nected to each other by straight lines. The 4 3
slope of the line is a measure of the con- 10 10 3
4 10
centration ratio. Allocation to the three basic 10 3 4 4
10 10 10 5
types of defects is conducted with the help of 3 10 6
10 10
the legend. It specifies the angular fields 3 3 3 TP
10 100 10 10 4
through which the lines pass for different 100 10 5
100 100 10
types of defects:
100 10
T 100 100 3 4
D: Electric arc, sparks (discharges) 10 10
T: Pyrolysis, overheating (thermal defect) 10 10
10
PD: Partial Discharges 10 1 10 10 3
TP: Thermal decomposition of paper 100 10
1 1
1
Two analysis examples with key gases: 1 1 1
10 100
1.) D and TP:
H2 C2H2 C2 H6 H2 CH4 C2H2 C2H4 CO CO2
Severely damaged oil-paper core of a
bushing with partial breakdown of Legend:
15 % of the insulation layers.
D PD&T D T D T
2.) T:
Indication of thermally stressed oil. PD& D T D T&PD D TP
T T PD
Concentration range below the significant
gas concentration limit is shaded in grey.
460 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Injection Stream of
Gas Detector
of oil sample carrier


collector Amplifier Integrator
gas
Toepler pump burette

Degassing
Chromatogram 
container Separating
column in
column oven
Hg Recorder

Figure 6.4.3-3: Gas-in-oil analysis system with oil sample injection, degassing, collection and chromatograph.

registered by a detector and plotted in the gases such as N2 and O2 must be measured by thermal-
chromatogram as a peak. The attribution of conductivity detectors (TCD) via the change in the
thermal conductivity in the gas stream. werden.
peaks to different types of gases is dependent
on the individual properties of the column and For automated measuring systems for continu-
must be undertaken with the aid of a so-called ous online monitoring of large transformers,
“calibration gas” of known composition. infrared-spectrometers are also available for
Quantitative evaluation is carried out by the use and they can measure the relevant fault
integration of areas under the peaks. gases with the exception of hydrogen. There-
Note: For inflammable gases, a flame ionization detec- fore an additional sensor is necessary for hy-
tor (FID) can be used as a detector which burns the drogen [166].
gases in a hydrogen flame and registers the change in
conductivity occurring due to ionization in the gas. CO
and CO2 are catalytically converted beforehand to hy-
drocarbon compounds. Hydrogen and non-inflammable 6.4.3.3 High-pressure
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Cellulose chains are shortened during the

Oil ageing of cellulose by depolimerisation. Fur-
open close close
furan derivatives that are partially soluble in
oil are obtained (furfurals, often also described
Gas
as furfurols or furanes). These high-molecular
close close open compounds cannot be determined by the gas
chromatographic method.

For the analysis, decomposition products are

extracted with solvents or silica-gel columns
(liquid-liquid extraction and liquid-solid ex-
traction). The separation of decomposition
Compression of products is performed by high-pressure liquid
Drawing in Partial vacuum- gas and injection chromatography (HPLC: high pressure/ per-
of the oil degassing by into the gas
sample low pressure chromatograph
formance liquid chromatography). In a sepa-
rating column, the decomposition products
Figure 6.4.3-4: Partial vacuum-degassing of transported by a liquid mobile phase are decel-
insulating oil. erated at different rates by addition to a sta-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 461

tionary phase and are registered by a UV de- 6.4.4 Insulating Material Tests
tector [84], [112], [167], [168].
Note: The stationary phase consists of pellets with a
Properties of insulation materials are deter-
diameter of approx. 5 μm in a steel column with a di- mined and checked by a number of chemical
ameter of approx. 4mm. Hydrocarbon chains are linked and physical methods. This should be re-
at the spherical surface made of SiO2 atoms. Non-polar stricted to the most important electrical test
molecules are thus decelerated more than polar mole- procedures in this context. Their application is
cules. Owing to the narrow cavities, high pressures up
to 400 bars are necessary for movement of the mobile
described in the standards (e.g. IEC or DIN
phase. [49]. VDE group 3).

Similar to gas-in-oil analysis, the analysis of

furane derivatives provides integral data about 6.4.4.1 Dielectric Measurements
the entire oil-impregnated volume and about
the entire period in which the oil is neither Dielectric measurements on the insulating
changed nor processed. That is, even the inac- materials have already been described in the
cessible internal areas of the insulation are context of dielectric measurements on devices
monitored. However, in practice, there is not in Section 6.4.1. Important parameters are the
yet a verified relationship between the degrees permittivity H, dissipation factor tan G, volume
of polymerization of aged cellulose-based in- resistance RV and the surface resistance RS,
sulations and the content of furane derivatives [178].
in insulating oil. For the assessment of the
ageing condition, therefore, there is still no Measurements are carried out in guard-ring
standard interpretation pattern [84], [112]. arrangements, to obtain a well defined field
geometry and to avoid inaccurate measure-
ment owing to leakage currents, Figures 6.4.1-
6.4.3.4 Determination of Degree of Polym- 3 and -4. In the case of solid and flat plate-type
erization of Cellulose insulating materials, ring-shaped and circular-
shaped electrodes are placed on the surface or
The average number of glucose molecules in a applied with conducting varnish. Measure-
chain molecule of cellulose is described as the ments on liquid insulating materials are carried
mean degree of polymerization (DP value), out in special cylindrical measuring cells, Fig-
Figure 5.5-7. In the new state it is around 1300 ure 6.4.1-4.
to 1400 and reduces owing to thermal ageing,
especially in the presence of moisture, Figure Important parameters that can influence the
3.5-6. Owing to this, cellulose becomes fragile result of measurement are frequency and tem-
and brittle. On mechanical grounds, the limit perature. Air humidity is also of significance
for the operational safety of transformers is for determining the surface resistance.
seen at a DP value of 150 to 200 [84].

According to IEC 60450, the DP-value is 6.4.4.2 Breakdown measurements

determined by dissolving cellulose samples in
copper ethyldiamine. The viscosity of the so- Breakdown voltages, to a large extent, are in-
lution is a measure of the average chain length fluenced by many different parameters, see
of cellulose molecules. Section 3. For this reason, properly defined
conditions for breakdown measurements are
Paper samples must be taken from electrically specified in the standards to facilitate a com-
unloaded sections of insulation for the analy- parison between different materials.
sis. These random samples are not always rep-
resentative of the ageing condition of the hot The results are strongly dependent on the
spot. electrodes used, on the embedding medium
462 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

and on the rate of voltage rise. Consequently, For many other test objects, which cannot be
they are not comparable for varying test con- tested between disc-shaped electrodes (bands,
ditions. The breakdown voltages that are deter- strips, pipes, tubes, cylinders, cast materials,
mined are therefore not “material properties”, solid shaped pieces etc.), the standard allows a
but only comparative values for test objects widely different range of electrodes (rods,
that are tested under exactly the same condi- foils, spheres, pins). Furthermore, specifica-
tions. Information on breakdown strength tions are provided for tests parallel to surfaces
without the details of exact test conditions is or parallel to the layers in layered or in lami-
worthless. nated materials.

Furthermore, the breakdown strength deter- Electrode arrangements with insulating mate-
mined under standard conditions often varies rial samples form often typical “creepage
significantly from the strength relevant to the surfaces” with very low inception voltages for
application. The user must therefore develop surface discharges, see Section. 3.2.6. In the
the appropriate strength for his application case of test stresses perpendicular to the sur-
purpose from the general dependences in ac- face, the inception of creepage discharges
cordance with Section 3, or determine them should be avoided, so that inaccurate break-
experimentally under application-oriented down measurement values do not occur as a
conditions. result of erosion of the dielectric in the elec-
trode edge area. Thus, the testing under air is
Problems during breakdown measurements restricted to very thin films. By embedding
often result from field strength enhancements the electrodes and the test sample in a dielec-
at the electrode edges, from surface dis- tric with high electric strength and with a field
charges, from the influence of the rate of volt- displacing effect, i.e. with a high permittivity,
age rise and from the statistical dispersion of the inception of surface discharges can be
measurement values. shifted up to a few 10 kV, according to Eq.
(2.4-35). Theoretically, the strength of the in-
a) Electrode arrangements terstice for AC voltage must fulfill the condi-
tion
For the testing of liquids in accordance with
IEC 60156 [176] - [177], a distance d = 2.5 (Hr·Ebd)interstice > (Hr·Ebd)insulation. (6.4.4-1)
mm between spherical electrodes (D = 12.5 to And for DC voltage, the condition
13 mm) or partially spherical electrodes
(spherical caps) is used, Figure 6.4.4-1 (left). (N·Ebd) interstice > (N·Ebd) insulation (6.4.4-2)
The latter show only a weakly non-uniform
must be fulfilled, Figure 2.4-18. Generally, the
field on their axis (K = 0.97) and the field
strength of the interstice increases steeply with
strength decreases outwards. Other standards
narrowing gaps, Figure 2.4-19. In practice,
specify other electrode arrangements and dif-
(dried) transformer oil is often used as an em-
ferent measurement values are obtained, Fig-
bedding medium, whereby it must be ensured
ure 3.4.2-3.
that the material to be tested is not changed by
the oil, e.g. by swelling or unwanted impreg-
According to IEC 60243 [173]-[175], solids in
nation.
the form of boards and films can be tested,
for example, between disc-shaped electrodes Note: Even while testing completed and finished insu-
(D1 = 25 mm, D2 = 75 mm or D1 = D2 = 25 lation systems, the inception of surface discharges often
represents a voltage limiting factor. Along with embed-
mm), Figure 6.4.4-1 (center). Under this, the ding in oil or SF6, potential grading measures are also
stress is applied perpendicular to the surface feasible, e.g. by capacitively grading layers made of
or perpendicular to the layers in layered or metallic foils, or by resistively grading layers made of
laminated materials. conducting varnish [26]. In particular, non-linear mate-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 463

25
d = 2.5
25
r =3
36 d<3

3
13 75

Partially spherical Electrode arrangement for films and Electrode arrangement with worked or
electrodes for liquids boards up to 3 mm with embedding with recast Rogowski electrodes for greater
(IEC 60156) (IEC 60243-1) insulation material thickness

Figure 6.4.4-1: Determination of breakdown voltages for liquids and solids.

rials whose conductivity increases with the electric x While testing with low or very low rates of
strength are advantageous. voltage rise, the majority of breakdowns
occur between 120 to 240 s or between 300
For the breakdown of thick-walled solid in-
sulations, owing to higher voltages, ade- and 600 s, and the initial value is about
quately rounded electrodes must be embedded 40 % of the expected breakdown voltage.
in the material, Figure 6.4.4-1. This is very x For withstand voltage test, the specified
difficult and generally cannot be implemented voltage must be withstood over a given pe-
for routine tests, but can only be applied for riod.
basic investigations. Electrodes can be embed-
ded, e.g. by casting in the spheres or Rogowski c) Statistical dispersion, evaluation
electrodes with the reaction resin compound to
be tested. For given solid material samples, the Owing to the statistical dispersion of break-
electrode contour must be carved out and down voltages, a mean-value calculation from
given a conductive coating. By additional em- several individual values is necessary for esti-
bedding in insulating oil, voltages above 100 mation of the 50 % breakdown voltage Vbd50.
kV can be attained.
For insulating liquids, AC breakdown voltage
b) Voltage rise is determined in kV as a mean value of 6
measurement values in accordance with IEC
The AC test voltage applied to the electrodes [176], [177]. Gas bubbles and decomposition
is increased up to breakdown. For liquids, a products must be eliminated by stirring and
voltage rise of 2 kV/s must be used [177]. In two minutes waiting time between the
the case of solids, there are different types of breakdowns, see Section 3.4.1.
voltage increase [173]:
For solid insulating materials, 5 samples are
x During short term testing, the majority of broken down. The test result is the median
breakdowns occur after 10 to 20 s (rate of (that is, the mean value of the series) of the
rise 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.2 or 5 kV/s). breakdown voltage in kV or the breakdown
strength in kV/mm. If a single value deviates
x During the 20 s or 60 s step testing, the by more than 15 % from the median, the num-
voltage is increased in 20 or 60 s steps, ber of samples must be increased from 5 to 10
whereupon it is started with about 40 % of [173].
the expected breakdown voltage. The volt-
age is increased by 5 to 10 % of the initial For thorough examinations, the type and the
value for each step. parameters of the distribution function must be
464 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

estimated from a larger number of break- surface resistance. Creepage currents can be
downs, in order to allow statements about the concentrated on narrow current paths similar
breakdown probabilities, see Section 3.1. to the case of pollution flashover. This results
in a local thermal and electro-thermal stressing
d) Tests with impulse voltage or DC voltage of the surface. Moreover, owing to drying,
small partial arcs can occur. Depending on the
The preceding explanations and the above-
resistance of the insulating material to these
mentioned standards for AC voltage are analo-
stresses, conductive or non-conductive creep-
gously applicable to breakdown tests of solid
age current traces or tracks are created, which
insulations with impulse voltage and DC volt-
can be two-dimensionally extended or linearly
age [173]. Special features are given in the
engraved. Conductive creepage current traces
supplementary standards [174], [175]. Two- to
lead to flashover, non-conductive traces favor
three-fold higher breakdown values must often
at least the deposit of dirt and reduce the hy-
be expected for DC voltage and impulse volt-
drophobicity. Thereby they also weaken the
age.
strength of the surface, see Section 3.2.6.4.
In DC voltage tests, the type of voltage rise is
restricted to short-time testing, testing with a) Determination of proof and comparative
low or very low rate of voltage rise and the tracking indices
withstand voltage testing [174]. For impulse According to IEC 60112, the tracking resis-
voltage testing, the applied voltage stress con- tance is determined by a proof tracking index
sists of subsequent series of 3 equal lightning and a comparative tracking index [169]:
impulse voltage pulses 1.2/50 μs. The test is from a drop dispenser, 50 drops of a conduc-
started with about 70% of the expected break- tive solution is added on to the surface be-
down voltage. With each series, the voltage is tween two electrodes at which a power fre-
increased by 5 to 10 % of the initial value quency AC voltage is applied, Figure 6.4.4-2.
[175]. The failure criterion is a current I > 0.5 A for a
period t > 2 s or the appearance of a continu-
ous flame. On test objects that have withstood
6.4.4.3 Creepage Currents and Tracking the test without failing, the depth of erosion is
Resistance

The so-called creepage currents flow on the

surface of electrically stressed insulating mate-
rials, and their magnitude is determined by the
Insulation material
sample

Upper electrode
Drop dispenser
in the form of a tip
with filter paper

30 - 40 45°
Elektrodes of Liquid contaminant
5 mm width
60°
platinum edges
Lower electrode
Ins. material sample
in the form of a rake
4

Figure 6.4.4-3: Determination of resistance

Figure 6.4.4-2: Determination of comparative against tracking and erosion under severe
tracking index CTI according to IEC 60112 [169]. ambient conditions, IEC 60587 [172].
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 465

measured. c) Cyclic test (Rotating wheel dip test)

The proof tracking index (PTI) is described as The inclined plane test is considered unsuit-
a specified voltage value, for which a particu- able for silicone elastomers, since the hydro-
lar number of samples (generally 5 units) are phobic properties are suppressed by the
checked and withstand the test with 50 drops. spreading agent [381]. Therefore, a cyclic test
oriented towards the operating stresses was
The comparative tracking index (CTI) is de- developed for evaluation of the resistance
termined as the maximum voltage for which 5 against tracking and erosion (IEC 61302
test objects withstand the test sequence with [382]). In that case, at least 5 identical rod-
50 drops. Moreover, it must be proven that a shaped test objects (diameter 25 mm, creepage
test sequence with 100 drops is withstood at 25 path 140 mm, inclined by 15° to the horizon-
V below this value. tal) are assembled on a rotating wheel and are
alternately dipped into a conductive liquid and
The method is used to differentiate between
exposed to an electrical AC stress of 10 kV at
materials with relatively low to good resis-
the surface three times every minute. The fail-
tance against tracking, even under humid envi-
ure criterion is a leakage current above 300mA
ronmental conditions. Materials for high volt-
or a flashover.
age outdoor usage, however, must be checked
with more stringent methods.

b) Inclined-plane test 6.4.4.4 Arc Resistance

Thus, IEC 60587 describes another test meth- Although flashovers along the surfaces should
od for evaluating the resistance against be avoided by suitable dimensioning, they are,
tracking and erosion under severe ambient however, not generally impossible. Many in-
conditions Figure 6.4.4-3 [172]: a conductive sulating materials, therefore, must be arc re-
solution provided with a spreading agent (con- sistant, i.e. they should not be unacceptably
ductivity 2.5 mS/cm, 23 °C) flows from the severely affected by the thermal effect of arcs
upper to the lower electrode on the underside and discharges.
of an inclined plane specimen (inclined-plane
test). The applied power frequency AC voltage
feeds a creepage current which leads to partial Table 6.4-4: Significance of arc-performance index
arcs and as the case may be, to erosion and LV as per DIN VDE 0303 section 5.
tracking. Two methods are specified:
Index *) 1 2
In the case method 1 (constant tracking volt-
age), voltages of 2.5, 3.5 or 4.5 kV are ap- First digit Length of the arc path is
< 20 mm > 20 mm **)
plied. The voltage value is determined at
which no breakdown occurs during a six hour Second digit Arc path under the arc is
test period for 5 test objects. Both a current non-conductive conductive **)
increase above 60 mA and the growth of a Third digit Arc path after cooling down is
creepage current track over a length of 25mm non conductive conductive **)
is considered as a failure criterion. Fourth digit Changes in the specimen are
not significant significant **)
In the case of method 2 (stepwise tracking
voltage), the voltage is applied in steps of 250
V, and the voltage is determined which 5 test *) If no clear allocation is possible, the index “0”
objects withstand for one hour without failure. is assigned.
The increase of the current above 60 mA is **) Exact description of allocation criteria must be
considered as failure criterion. referred from VDE 0303 section 5.
466 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

a) Resistance test to low-voltage, high-current tion is thus 420 s. The failure criterion is the
arc discharges disappearance of the arc in the material or
burning of the sample. For the 5 test objects,
Performance of high-temperature-resistant the arc resistance is determined as the time to
materials that are stressed by arcs of low volt- failure (median, minimum and maximum).
age and high current is evaluated on the basis
of the so-called low voltage-high current-arc
test, in accordance with DIN VDE 0303 sec-
tion 5 [170]: an arc is ignited at the surface of 6.4.4.5 Additional Tests for Insulating Ma-
the insulating material with two pointed car- terials
bon rods to which a DC voltage (220V) is ap-
The above-mentioned tests represent only a
plied via a protective resistor of 20:. By
selection from different options. Other than the
moving the negative electrode with a speed of
general tests (e.g. for the influences of mois-
v = 1 mm/s, the arc extends up to current
ture or UV radiation), there are a number of
chopping. The test result is specified as an arc-
material-specific methods (e.g. for silicone
performance index LV with four digits, Table
elastomers) that must be obtained from the
6.4-4.
respective material-specific standards or de-
Example: Arc-performance index vice-specific standards [381].

The evaluation LV 1.2.0.1 signifies that the arc length is

smaller than 20mm, that the path under the arc is con-
ductive, that the material can be classified as neither 6.4.5 Optical and Acoustic Diagnosis
conductive nor non-conductive after cooling down and
that the specimen does not show any significant dam- Methods
age.
6.4.5.1 Optical Waveguides
Note: The earlier standard classification into six
stages of L1 to L6 is replaced by the (neutral) LV-clas-
sification. The following are considered as equivalent
In high voltage engineering, optical wave-
substitutes: guides are largely used in the of potential-free
transmission signals in digital or analogue
L1 = LV 2.2.2.2, L2 = LV 1.2.1.2, L3 = LV 2.2.1.0, signal transmission paths and also as sensors
L4 = LV 1.1.1.2, L5 = LV 2.1.1.1, L6 = LV 1.1.1.1 for magnetic fields, temperatures, mechanical
tensions, pressures or light emissions.
b) Resistance test to high-voltage, low-current
arc discharges Important examples of the galvanic isolation
Substances are evaluated with respect to high for signal transmission are potential-free field
voltage arc resistance in accordance with IEC probes, Section 6.3.3.3, optical and hybrid-
61621 by a resistance test to high-voltage, optical current converters, Section 6.3.5.2,
low-current arc discharges [171]: differential voltage measurements at high volt-
age potential or the transmission of control
Arcs are ignited with a test transformer (12.5 pulses, e.g. for triggering spark gaps or for the
kV) between two electrodes (d= 6.35mm) ly- triggering of thyristor valves. Moreover, gal-
ing on the dry surface of the insulating materi- vanic isolation is often necessary in computer
al and are limited to specific currents by pro- networks and in measurement systems for rea-
tective resistors on the low voltage side. The sons of electromagnetic compatibility. Further,
test begins with 10 mA. During a minute, the fiber optics can be used for the transmission of
duration of current is respectively increased auxiliary energy for potential-free electronic
(1/8, 1/4, 1/2 s). Subsequently the test currents systems. However, owing to the moderate la-
of 10, 20, 30 and 40 mA each flow continu- ser efficiency, the power levels are mostly
ously for one minute. The maximum test dura- restricted to the mW range.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 467

Optical waveguides can be used directly as UV light image of corona discharges sepa-
sensors, e.g. for monitoring oil levels in rately for the different spectral ranges and su-
bushings. In extended gas-insulated switch- perimpose them. This results in new options
gear, the optical measurement of light emis- for visual diagnostics, e.g. in new options for
sions can be employed in the individual cham- inspection flights along overhead transmission
bers for localization of discharges. Mechanical lines [219] or for the localization of partial
stresses, temperature changes and magnetic discharges in high-voltage test fields.
fields vary the optical properties (i.e. the so-
called optical activity) of glass fibers, Section Infrared cameras allow the visualization of
6.3.3.5. This results in new application ideas hot spots or non-uniform heating for thermally
that are still in the research or prototype stage, highly stressed components, e.g. on conductors
such as, for example, magneto-optic current and contacts [266], on bushings, on cooling
transformers, Section 6.3.5.2, thermal moni- elements of transformers, on overhead lines or
toring of cables, overhead-line conductors or on surge arresters. The so-called thermogra-
transformer hot spots and potential-free pres- phy or thermographic imaging is of increas-
sure sensors or light sensors for partial dis- ing importance for the supervision of ther-
charge detection in transformers [372], [373]. mally stressed equipment.

Note: All optical fibers, which bypass the potential Endoscopes are used for the visual inspection
differences, may comprise neither conductive sheaths of generators, transformers or switchgear. In
nor encasements or finishings. They must possess ade- future, endoscopes may even possess sensory
quate creepage distances, which, for example, can be capabilities, Section 6.4.5.1.
attained by a spiral-shaped arrangement. Thereby, even
the tangential stress in the direction of the fiber can be
maintained low. For protection against environmental
influences, the optical fiber is often led within a sili- 6.4.5.3 Acoustic Diagnostics
cone-shielded composite housing insulator and foamed
with a compressible medium, Figure 6.3.5-3 c), d). For Corona discharges can also be acoustically
the installation of optical waveguides in electrically located by directional microphones. For the
highly stressed media (e.g. oil), under certain circum-
stances they must be void-free and corresponding elec- coaxial combination of the microphone with a
tric strength must also be specified. laser, the located discharge position can be
marked by the receiving point of the laser
beam.
6.4.5.2 Visual Diagnostics
Discharges within the equipment can be lo-
Efficient tools for visual diagnostics are avail- cated by externally applied microphones for
able in different spectral ranges [374]: the structure-borne noise, see Section
6.4.2.9. Potential-free microphones are used
With the help of low-light amplifiers, corona on insulating material surfaces, and often even
discharges in outdoor installations and indoor on grounded surfaces, for safety purposes and
installations can be located through their light for electromagnetic compatibility.
emission, e.g. on sharp-edged fittings or on
contaminated or wetted surfaces. However, the Acoustic localization is especially important
prerequisite is complete darkness, since low during the testing of transformers, in order to
ambient light already leads to overdriving of be able to localize the area to be repaired. For
the device. Hence, in practice, the use of low- this, time differences between the signals of
light amplifiers often remains restricted to multiple microphones are analyzed (triangula-
completely blacked out high voltage test tion). They correspond to acoustic propagation
fields. time differences for different paths. However,
location is often difficult owing to complex
Meanwhile, there are also daylight UV cam- sound propagation conditions, parallel paths
eras, which capture the daylight image and the and reflections.
468 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

For cable fault locating, charged high voltage 6.4.6.1 Impulse-current Waveshapes
impulse capacitors are discharged into a de-
fective cable. The time difference between the Only in the extreme case of a voltage break-
discharge current signal and the discharge down, insulation defects can be definitely
sounds is a measure of the distance of the de- identified on the waveshape of an impulse
fect. In the vicinity of the defect, exact loca- voltage during the classic lightning impulse
tion of the defect can be detected by repetitive voltage test. Generally, the voltage waveshape
discharge sound and with the aid of a ground is barely influenced by minor changes in the
microphone. test object. For a sophisticated analysis, there-
fore, interference-free recording of transient
Note: The clamping force for transformer windings is a impulse current waveshape is necessary, cf.
decisive factor for mechanical stability in the case of a
short circuit. It has been shown that the windings react Section 6.3-7 and Section 8.
to impulse current loads with movements of varying
amplitude depending on the clamping force. Thus, tran- Note: For transformers, the current through the tested
sient pressure surges in oil occur, which induce a windings, the neutral-point current, the current over the
damped oscillation with a periodic time of several sec- insulated tank (tank current), the inductively or capaci-
onds and with amplitudes in the range of few 10 mbar. tively transmitted current in another winding system or
The pressures are dependent on the squares of the cur- the total current can be analyzed. Test circuits are given
rent amplitudes. A trend estimation of the clamping in the literature and the relevant standards [52], [159],
force is enabled by the so-called transient oil pressure [160].
measurement in the pipe to the oil expansion vessel
and by the conversion of the measured pressure pMeas to Generally, the current waveshapes of the test
the pressure pSC in the case of a short circuit [371]: impulses (with full test voltage amplitude) are
2 compared with each other and with the current
PSC = pMeas (îSC/ îMess) (6.4.5-1)
waveshapes of the so-called calibrating shots
For pSC < 20 mbar, the winding is assumed to be stable (with half the amplitude). The current wave-
enough, for pSC > 50 mbar, it is assumed to be too loose. shapes that are ocillating to a greater of lesser
extend should be congruent taking the ampli-
tude scale into consideration. Different current
6.4.6 Determination of System waveshapes in the course of a test sequence
are sensitive indicators for changed geometric
Properties or electrical characteristics in the windings,
e.g. for partial breakdowns that lead to inter-
Turn-to-turn faults in transformers, displace- turn faults.
ment of windings, partial breakdowns in ca-
pacitor windings or between grading layers in Note: System properties of a winding arrangement also
bushing, short circuits in cables and other depend on the tapping position of the tap changer.
electrical or geometrical changes in devices Hence, the measurements are comparable only when the
lead to changed electrical system properties. tapping positions are equal.
They can be diagnosed during classic impulse
voltage tests (Section 6.4.6.1), by the calcula-
tion of transfer functions (Section 6.4.6.2), by 6.4.6.2 Transfer Functions,
frequency-response measurements (Section Frequency Response Analysis FRA
6.4.6.3) and by reflectometry (Section 6.4.6.4).
Dielectric system properties can be measured Impulse current waveshapes are dependent not
in the time domain and the frequency domain. only on the system properties of the test ob-
This generally yields diagnostic information ject, but also on the waveshape of the applied
about material properties, e.g. about oil con- voltage. Therefore, one strives for the devel-
ductivities or water contents in oil-paper insu- opment of a system function which is specific
lations. This topic is dealt with in detail in for the test object and whose changes are
Section 6.4.7. monitored.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 469

Note: In principle, this is feasible for all the equipment, x Changes which only have an effect for a
but the tests are especially aimed at large transformers
full test voltage can be immediately identi-
for which the increased costs of diagnosis are justified
[160]. The diagnosis objective is the detection of wind- fied.
ing displacements, winding deformations and turn-to-
turn faults (interturn faults)..
x In peinciple, there is a possibility of
“online monitoring” in the network
A transfer function (TF) is generally calcu- through analysis of operation-induced tran-
lated in the frequency domain from the input sient processes [161], [391].
current I1(jZ), from the output current I2(jZ) or Note: A prerequisite for the development of transmis-
from the output voltage V2(jZ) by relating sion functions by transformation is that the analyzed
system is passive, causal, time-invariant and linear.
them to the input voltage V1(jZ), in fact, as a
Linearity can be assumed for transformers for frequen-
complex transfer function TF of the input cur- cies above 1 kHz, since most of the magnetic sheet
rent (admittance function), of the output cur- steel types do not show appreciable magnetization there
rent or the output voltage: [391].

TFI1/ V1 = I1(jZ)/ V1(jZ) = Y(jZ) (6.4.6-1) Problems result, e.g. from the quantizing un-
certainty which affect the measurement signals
TFI2/ V1 = I2(jZ)/ V1(jZ) (6.4.6-2) in the form of noise and lead to tolerance
bands for the transfer functions. Further, the
TFV2/V1 = V2(jZ)/V1(jZ) (6.4.6-3) following influences must be considered:

For comparative purposes, the representation 1. Tapping position

of the amplitude spectrum TF(f) against the (change in system properties),
frequency f is suitable. 2. Temperature (damping of amplitudes),
Broadband sensors are necessary for the 3. Measurement impedances and
measurement, e.g. current and voltage sensors 4. Method of terminal connection.
mounted on the bushings of a transformer on
the high voltage side and the low voltage side, Moreover, there are special requirements for
Figure 6.4.8-3. electromagnetic compatibility during the
measurement of current shapes and voltage
Transfer functions can be measured directly in shapes [162]. The most direct possible con-
the frequency domain (frequency response nection of the analyzer to the terminals of the
measurement), but only at very low voltages. transformer by the shortest possible path is of
decisive significance for the reproducibility of
Transfer functions can be developed by Fou- the measurements. The connection routing
rier transform even from the functions v1(t), must be accurately documented.
i1(t), i2(t) and v2(t) measured in the time do-
main during a lightning impulse voltage test. Comparable results are only possible for iden-
They can therefore significantly extend the tical measuring conditions. Therefore, FRA
informative value of an impulse voltage test. cannot give an absolute, but only a relative
Under this, it is not important whether a com- statement and a reference measurement is al-
plete or chopped lightning impulse voltage or ways necessary. The consideration is generally
another transient voltage shape is involved. In restricted to a frequency domain under 1 MHz
particular, for testing and monitoring purposes, owing to the diverse influences of interference.
this results in significant advantages compared
to frequency response measurement: A comparison of different systems has pro-
duced concurrence in a frequency range of 10
x Additional measurements, before and after to 500 kHz [474]. Measurement procedures in
an impulse voltage test, are omitted. the time domain with subsequent transforma-
470 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

tion could not properly represent the whole shoots and overvoltage stresses can occur, is of
frequency range. By standardization of the concern.
connection technique on the high-voltage
bushings, reproducibility of the results could Frequency-dependent voltage distributions
be achieved up to approx. 1.5 MHz. The low and resonances within devices can lead to
voltage bushings are shorter, and hence are overstressing of specific parts of the insulation
less critical with respect to the connection that are adequately dimensioned for operation
technique. frequency stress. For example, the validity of
equivalent circuits that are related to
Since the result is presented in the form of transformer windings can be verified by
graphic amplitude profiles, the interpretation frequency response measurements. However,
requires the availability of comparable refer- direct measurement of voltage distributions
ence curves and a high degree of experience. requires actual windings or winding models
The interpretation can be facilitated by net- with freely accessible turns.
work simulations, since this allows the influ-
ence of winding changes on the measured Determination of dielectric system properties
curves to be viewed [474]. However, this re- in time and frequency domain is described in
quires an accurate knowledge of the trans- Section 6.4.7.
former design and is associated with greater
effort, and hence the simulation is reserved for 6.4.6.4 Reflectometry
more fundamental investigations.
Note: For the advanced concept of the development of Also propagation time measurements on sys-
online transfer functions, impulses that are generated tems with distributed parameters represent a
in the regular network operation through lightning over- method for determining specific system prop-
voltages or switching overvoltages should be used. The erties in the time domain. Propagation time
problem here is that not all exciting impulses show measurements are especially suitable for the
adequate continuous spectrum and thus, are not always
suitable for the analysis. Further, there must be a clear cable fault locating, during which the propa-
identification and allocation of excitation and response gation time of test impulses between the
which can be made difficult owing to overlapping of measurement point and the reflecting fault lo-
multiple peaks and owing to reflections in the network cation is determined.
environment of the test object. Further, it was shown
that varying temperatures and varying resistances in the Note: The exact localization of defects is thus carried
regulator windings cause damping of amplitudes of out by acoustic detection of noises that occur during the
varying intensity, but the position of the dominant discharging of high voltage capacitors on defective
points of resonance is apparently very marginally influ- cables.
enced [391].

6.4.6.3 Frequency Response Measurements 6.4.7 Dielectric Diagnosis

System properties can be determined at low Classic dielectric diagnostics is based on

voltages both by frequency response meas- simple equivalent circuits that are valid for
urements with sinusoidal AC voltages of var- power frequency and that describe properties
ying frequency and by impulse response such as capacitance C, dissipation factor tan į
measurements. and insulation resistance Rins, Section 4.3.1.
This enables statements about a few basic
Frequency response measurements are a dielectric properties to be made.
common tool for setting up equivalent circuits
for the calculation of transient and high-fre- More accurate information is possible by the
quency phenomena in installations, networks measurement of complete dielectric system
and systems. For this, especially the points of responses, from which equivalent circuits of
resonance at which significant voltage over- higher order can be derived and various po-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 471

larization mechanisms can be described (Sec- voltages and currents in the time domain or
tion 4.3.2.1, Figure 4.3-2). Material changes, frequency domain, Figure 6.4.7-1, and they
e.g. by wetting or by thermal ageing, can often offer various options, Table 6.4-5.
be identified by the change in the dielectric
system responses and in the assigned equiva- In frequency domain, capacitances and dissi-
lent circuit elements respectively. pation factors are recorded for different fre-
quencies by a large number of individual
Summarizing contributions are given in the measurements so that dielectric system prop-
related literature [239] to [242] and [468] to erties can be completely measured (FDS fre-
[470]. In the following sections, the dielectric quency domain spectroscopy, FDA frequency
methods are first distinguished according to domain analysis). For this, each individual
the time domain and frequency domain meth- measurement requires a steady state which can
ods (Section 6.4.7.1). Moreover, the selectivity only be assumed after about four periods.
of the measurements, which can be influenced Hence, measurement periods are very long if
by the selection of measuring electrodes, must low frequencies shall be recorded. Moreover,
be taken into consideration (Section 6.4.7.2). it is very difficult to generate high diagnosis
Subsequently, methods that are often dis- voltages both at low and high frequencies.
cussed, such as discharge voltage analysis
(Section 6.4.7.3), IRC analysis (Section The same and complete information about the
6.4.7.4), recovery voltage analysis (6.4.7.5), system properties can be obtained by step re-
PDC analysis (Section 6.4.7.6) as well as fre- sponse measurement in the time domain in a
quency domain analysis (Section 6.4.7.7) are single measurement, so that the measurement
considered, see also Section 6.4.1.3. durations become significantly shorter. The
generation of higher diagnosis voltages is
comparatively easy. Determination of fast
6.4.7.1 Time and Frequency Domain changing processes is difficult, since a corre-
spondingly high sampling rate is necessary.
There are a number of approaches to dielectric For step response measurements in the time
diagnostics that are based on the analysis of domain, after applying or disconnecting a di-

Charging/
Self-discharging Short circuit Recharging
VL electrification
v D (t)
0.9 V L wv/w t wv/w t
V max v R (t)
t 90 %
t max t
CCA DVA DCA RVA
Capacitive Charging Discharge Discharge Recovery
charging
current current voltage current voltage
impulse analysis analysis analysis analysis
PDC analysis IRC analysis RVM recovery voltage method
PDC analysis t

Polarization current Depolarization current

i p (t) i d (t)
Steady-state direct current (end
value of the polarization curr.) Capacitive
discharge current impulse

Figure 6.4.7-1: Dielectric diagnostics in the time domain [33] (cf. equivalent circuit in Figure 4.3-3).
472 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

agnosis voltage, the relaxation currents in the 6.4.7.2 Selective Measurements

form of polarization currents or depolariza-
tion currents respectively are recorded (PDC Dielectric measurements can include different
polarization and depolarization currents), Fig- parts of an insulation, depending on which
ure 6.4.7-1. For linear systems, the variables of terminals (electrodes) are accessible and be-
the frequency domain and all other diagnostic tween which ones the measurement is made,
parameters can be derived from this using Figure 6.4.7-2.
transformations [230].
Often, only two electrodes are accessible at the
Note: Even the combination of time domain measure- test object, one of which is grounded, such as,
ments and frequency domain measurements is possi- for example, for laid cables. Only integral
ble: since the measurements for very low frequencies in measurements, which incorporate all insula-
the frequency domain lead to very long measurement tion currents, surface currents and leakage cur-
durations, it is better to document slow processes with a
step-response measurement in the time domain (PDC rents, can be carried out.
measurement). This, on the other hand, cannot deter-
mine the fast changing processes and hence rapidly The same applies also for transformers if the
varying processes must be measured in the frequency discharge voltages (DVA) or recovery volt-
domain at higher frequencies. It was therefore proposed ages (RVM) are to be measured, because dis-
that the two approaches be combined and the time do- charge and voltage recovery are influenced by
main measurement be transformed into the frequency
domain and then a cohesive dissipation factor curve
all currents flowing between the windings and
should be formed [467]. the grounded parts, Figure 6.4.7-2 (left).

Note: Furthermore, there are other methods which do Note: For insulations between an electrode and ground,
not use the entire system information, but are content current measurements in the time domain and the fre-
with only particular characteristic parameters. This quency domain (PDC, IRC and FDS) are also possible
includes dissipation factor measurements for a specific when potential-free voltage sources are used, Figure
frequency in the frequency domain, e.g. 50 Hz or 0.1 6.4.7-2 (left).
Hz, and in the time domain, development of character-
istic current ratios, so-called polarization indices or For selective measurements,two earth-free
adsorption coefficients, discharge voltage analysis, electrodes are necessary, Figure 6.4.7-2
which measures the self-discharge of a loaded capaci- (right). At one of the electrodes (1), the diag-
tance, isothermal relaxation current analysis (IRC), nosis voltage is applied, the measurement cur-
which evaluates the depolarization current after a spe-
cific charging cycle and short circuit cycle, as well as
rent (PDC or FDS respectively) is tapped at
recovery voltage analysis (RVM recovery voltage the second electrode (2). The third grounded
method), which also considers the recovering voltages electrode (3) works like a guard-ring electrode
at a polarized and temporarily short-circuited test object. and carries the leakage currents and surface

Table 6.4-5: Properties and special features of dielectric diagnosis methods in time domain and frequency domain.
Exclusion Analysis-
Selective
Complete Integral two- of parasitic software
three- Conductivity
Analysis methods system- electrode surface/ for
electrode measurement
information measurement leakage complex
measurement
currents geometries
Polarization current yes possible possible possible given known
PDC
Depolarization current no possible possible given not possible known
Isothermal relaxation
IRC no possible possible given not possible not known*)
current
Discharge voltage DVM not known*) possible not possible not possible possible not known*)
Recovery voltage RVM not known*) possible not possible not possible Possible not known*)
Frequency domain FDS yes possible possible Possible possible known
Measurement at discrete 50/ 60/
no possible possible possible not possible not known*)
frequency 0.1 Hz
not known*): currently, no usage or application is known regarding this
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 473

Measurement arrangement with two electrodes Measurement arrangement with three electrodes
or two terminals respectively or three terminals respectively
(integral measurement without guard-ring arrangement) (selective measurement in guard ring arrangement)

Diagnosis voltage Diagnosis voltage

Diagnosis current Measured voltage

PDC, IRC, FDS RVM, DVM

2 3
All of the currents
US OS contribute to the di- US OS
electric system response
and this includes the
leakage currents
2 1 2 3 2 1 3

Only selected currents

contribute to the
dielectric system response
2 3
Diagnosis current including Diagnosis current
PDC, FDS Leakage current
parasitic currents (leakage
currents)

Diagnosis voltage Diagnosis voltage

Diagnosis current Measured voltage

PDC, IRC, FDS RVM, DVM

<< Leakage current path (surfaces) >>

2 1 3 1
<< Insulation areas lying parallel >>

<< Insulation areas to be examined >> 2

Diagnosis current including

Leakage current Diagnosis current
parasitic currents (leakage PDC, FDS
currents)

Figure 6.4.7-2: Integral and selective measurement of dielectric system response with the help of different
methods, explained for the example of a transformer. Left: Measurement arrangement with two electrodes.
Right: Measurement arrangement with three electrodes.
474 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

currents without influencing the measurement, ment impedance and do not influence the
see Figure 6.4.1-4. In this manner, different measurement. This means that surface resis-
areas of the insulation system can be selec- tances cannot distort the measurement. How-
tively picked out, e.g. the insulation between ever, information about the DC conductivity,
HV (higher voltage teminal) and ground, HV which is an important moisture indicator for
and LV (lower voltage terminal), LV and oil-paper insulations, is also not provided.
ground or individual bushing insulations.
IRC-analysis especially provides significant
The methods mentioned are described in the results where polarization processes exist with
following chapters. pronounced time constants which are sig-
nificant for particular material conditions. If
the polarization mechanisms in the depolari-
6.4.7.3 Discharge-voltage Measurement zation current
t Wj
Discharge-voltage measurements (DVM), in id (t ) ¦j I j ˜e (6.4.7-1)
principle, can be designed very easily with a
DC voltage source. After disconnecting the are described by exponentially decreasing de-
voltage source, the voltage decreaseses owing polarization current components, after multi-
to self-discharging through the insulation re- plication with the linearly increasing time
sistance of the test object. Measured variables function t, the product
are the initial gradient of the voltage decrease t Wj
during the self-discharging as well as specified t ˜ id (t ) ¦j I j ˜t ˜e (6.4.7-2)
periods (e.g. t90%), Figure 6.4.7-1. The input
impedance of the voltage measuring system has maxima exactly at the positions of the
must be much higher than the DC resistance of time constants t = Wj.
the insulation to be measured. For high-resis-
Note: This can be easily shown with extreme value
tance insulations, electrostatic voltmeters or
determination for the current-time product according to
fieldmill voltmeters are therefore necessary in Eq. (6.4.7-2) if the derivate with respect totime is set to
some cases, cf. Sections 6.3.2 and 6.3.3.4. zero.

The profile of voltage vD(t) gives information Thus, for a small number of pronounced po-
about the resistive components of the equiva- larization mechanisms, there is the distinct
lent circuit that describes the material. Since possibility of visualizing the position of mate-
DC resistances of oil-paper insulations are rial-specific time constants as maxima of the
heavily dependent on the water content [222], function current multiplied by time.
a realistic diagnosis is possible. However, it Note: For more than three time constants, it is difficult
must be noted that surface resistances, parallel to distinctly separate the components from each other.
current paths and measurement impedances Hence, the method is not applicable for oil-paper with
can lead to inaccuracy in the measurement. continuously distributed time constants.

Note: The depolarization current profile is also deter-

mined by the duration of the previous polarization time.
6.4.7.4 IRC Analysis That is, after a discharge period comparable with the
charging time, the depolarization current is very small
During the isothermal relaxation current ana- since hardly any charge is stored in the dielectric.
Therefore, the time constant of the current drop is
lysis, a dielectric, previously polarized by DC caused not only by insulating material but also by the
voltage, is discharged. The discharge current measurement method.
(relaxation current or depolarization current
respectively) is recorded [223]. Surface re- Application examples are the classification of
sistances and insulation resistances lie in par- new and water-tree damaged medium voltage
allel to the low-resistance current measure- plastic-insulated cables [224] as well as the
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 475

evaluation of the hardening status of epoxy A major problem of recovery voltage analysis
resin materials [225]. In theses cases, homo- is that only two-electrode measurements are
geneous insulations are examined with a spe- possible. The influences of parasitic surface
cial charging time of 1800 s in order to currents and leakage currents are fully in-
achieve comparability. In the case of plastic- volved in the measurement, because the entire
insulated cables, IRC-analyses allow the set- polarized dielectric always contributes to the
ting of priorities during renovation of cable recovery voltage. Moreover, selective meas-
runs. urements between ungrounded electrodes are
not possible.

6.4.7.5 Recovery Voltage Analysis Recovery voltage not only presents a danger in
high voltage engineering, but also includes
Recovery voltage analysis or recovery voltage information about the structure and condition
method (RVM) respectively is the oldest di- of the insulation.
electric diagnosis method. It was based on the
experience that a polarized dielectric can be a) The occurrence of recovery voltages
recharged on its own from the charges stored
in the dielectric, even after a temporary short The formation of recovery voltages is already
circuit. It is required that the insulation is not explained in Section 2.4.4.3 for the process of
loaded at all or is only loaded with very high interfacial polarization in a multi-layer di-
resistance, Figure 6.4.7-3. That is, the input electric, see Figures 2.4-31 and 6.4.7-3. From
impedance of the voltage measurement system this, in the case of a transformer insulation
must be very much higher than the insulation consiting of oil ducts or oil gaps (O) and barri-
resistance of the insulation to be measured. ers (B), it is concluded that layers which are
oppositely but equally charged to vO(t=0) = -
Note: Recovery voltage measurement (in the open-cir-
cuit condition), is thus comparable with a depolarization vB(t=0) during the short circuit, undergo self-
current measurement (in the short-circuit condition): in discharging at different rates, owing to differ-
both cases, the voltage signal and the current signal ent conductivities, if the short circuit is
respectively are caused by the charge previously stored
by polarization. opened. The time constants are WO = ROCO and

Depolarization,
V discharging period,
Recovery voltage Barriers
short circuit WB = R B CB
Slow self-discharge of the less
vB conductive dielectric
Polarization, (Transformerboard barriers) vB
charging
period uv
û v(t)
v(t)
tC tD WO vO

0 WB t WO R O CO
=
vO Oil gaps (oil ducts)
Fast self-discharge of the more
conductive dielectric
(oil gap)

Figure 6.4.7-3: Occurence of recovery voltage through interfacial polarization in a multi-layer oil-paper
dielectric, such as in a transformer.
476 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

WB = RBCB. Under superimposition, at first an relationship with the water content of trans-
increasing, and subsequently a decreasing total former barriers [32], [83]. This resulted in
voltage (or differential voltage respectively) contradictory and debatable results [86], [87],
v(t) = vO(t)+vB(t) occurs and this is effective as [226].
a recovery voltage.
A correct interpretation must consider that in
Recovery voltages can be explained even for barrier systems along with material-specific
homogeneous dielectrics with material-spe- polarization processes, even highly distinct
cific polarization processes, Figure 4.3-2: after (and often dominant) interfacial polarization
removing the short circuit, the discharged occurs, and it depends considerably on the
(high frequency or “geometric”) capacitance geometrical structure and the oil conductivity,
Cgeo is recharged from the equivalent circuit Figure 6.4.7-3. Therefore, influences of water
content, of geometrical structure and of oil
elements RpolCpol that describe polarization
conductivity can be distinguished in the
and that still carry charge. Finally, it is dis- measurements only with great difficulty [222].
charged through the DC resistance Rins. An interpretation approach which takes all
these influences into consideration is currently
b) The so-called “polarization spectrum” not known.
In the past, a special measuring method had Note: Increased barrier conductivity (e.g. through
made use of the term “Recovery Voltage moisture) leads to a shortened time constant WB, increa-
Method” RVM (owing to which other options sed oil conductivity (e.g. through oil ageing) leads to a
of recovery voltage analysis were ignored). shortened time constant WO, Figure 6.4.7-3. Both effects
This is a special test procedure that consists of thus shift the maximum of the recovery voltage (and
a series of many recovery voltage measure- also the characteristic time constant of the polarization
ments with varying charging times and dis- spectrum) to earlier times.
charging times [32], [83]: the charging time
and the discharging time of the test object are Another problem is a very time-consuming
in a fixed ratio (e.g. tC:tD = 2:1). By series measuring procedure, in which a large number
measurements with varying charging times tC, of recovery voltages must be documented.
Each individual measurement includes the
but with a fixed time ratio tC:tD, it is intended charging phase, discharging phase and recov-
to excite different polarization mechanisms ery phase as well as a depolarization phase, in
differently or to scan the different time con- which the insulation must be discharged to the
stants respectively. extent that the next measurement will not be
influenced.
A representation which applies the maxima v̂
of individual recovery voltages over the asso- Note: The same information can be determined in a
ciated charging times tC is described as a “po- considerably shorter period from a single step-response
measurement (i.e. in a single charging phase) by con-
larization spectrum”. This is misleading, since
version, see Section 6.4.7.6.
the term spectrum is generally used in the fre-
quency domain and not in the time domain. All recovery voltage measurements are carried
out as two-electrode measurements to ground
c) Interpretation of “polarization spectra” and thereby face the problem of surface resis-
The interpretation of “polarization spectra” at tances lying parallel to the dielectric to be
first presented a major problem, because it was measured, Figure 6.4.7-2 (left). As a result,
postulated that the position of the maximum in shorter discharge time constants WB can occur
a “polarization spectrum” (the so-called char- and increased water content levels in barriers
acteristic time constant) should be in direct can be faked respectively.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 477

d) Other approaches The measurement of depolarization current

id(t) or discharge current respectively, after the
When determining the “polarization spec-
charging or polarization time tC = tp and during
trum”, only the peak value of an individual
recovery voltage curve is evaluated, i.e. only a the short circuit of the test object, also pro-
fraction of the information that is contained in vides the properties of the insulation, with the
the signal can be used. The complete evalua- exception of the DC resistance Rf which re-
tion of individual curves would be considera- mains short-circuited during depolarization.
bly more efficient. For example, the informa-
tion about the time constant WO and also about If the magnitudes of the actually successive
the oil conductivity is included in the initial currents ip(t) and id(t) are shifted relatively to
steepness s, Figure 6.4.7-3. each other on the time axis by the charging
time tC, the described relationship according to
In the case of interfacial polarization according system theory becomes obvious, cf. Section
to Figure 6.4.7-3, a new “p-factor” 4.2.2.3 with Figure 4.2-8. The sum of the two
currents (or the difference in current magni-
p = v̂ / (s·tmax) (6.4.7-3)
tude respectively) provides an estimate of the
was proposed [227]. It contains recovery volt- end value of the polarization current in ac-
age amplitude v̂ , initial steepness s and the cordance with Eq. (4.2-6d) if the current val-
time tmax at which the maximum occurs, and it ues are taken at times that are shifted by tC.
depends only on the ratio of time constants Another effective method for early estimation
WB/WO. This results in a certain amount of tem- of conductivity end values is the charge dif-
ference method described in Section 6.4.1.3.
perature compensation that can be advanta-
geously used, e.g. for comparing paper-insu- The capacitance Cgeo, which is valid for ra-
lated medium voltage cables [228].
pidly changing processes, can be determined
Furthermore, it is also proposed to examine by integration of the charging current impulse
dielectric system responses at different polari- on switching on the DC voltage. For the desc-
zation voltages. Non-linearities are valued as ription of slower polarization processes, the
indicators of damage, but the correlation with remaining RC elements are established
the insulation condition is not yet completely through an approximation of the measured
known [223]. curves with the aid of exponential functions
[229], [230]. The determination of equivalent
circuits describing dielectric materials through
6.4.7.6 PDC Analysis PDC measurements has already been explai-
ned in Sections 4.1.1, 4.2.2.3, 4.3.2 and 4.3.3.
a) PDC measurement
Since the PDC measurement is as a step-re-
PDC measurement (PDC: Polarization and sponse measurement, it contains the entire
Depolarization Currents) measures the polari- system information if linear systems are as-
zation current ip(t) or the charging current re- sumed. All other diagnostic parameters, such
spectively for applied DC voltage, Figures as recovery voltages, “polarization spectra” or
6.4.7-1 and 6.4.7-2 (right). Therefore, it is a frequency responses of capacitance and dissi-
step response measurement, from which the pation factor can be calculated by appropriate
properties of a linear insulation system can be transformation or by using the established
calculated, e.g. in the form of an equivalent equivalent circuit describing the material.
circuit, Figure 4.2-8. It is especially advanta- Good agreement is obtained with the corre-
geous that the entire information (for lower spondent measurements, which are all consid-
frequencies) can be obtained in a single meas- erably more complex than the PDC measure-
urement, see Section 4.2.2.3. ment [232].
478 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

10 nA
w=6%
w =6%
1 nA

d = 0 mm d = 9,6 mm
w=2% 100 pA w=2%

10 pA
1s 10 s 100 s 1000 s Time 1s 10 s 100 s 1000 s Time
Figure 6.4.7-4: Polarization currents, measured at insulation models made of two Transformerboard barriers
(each 1 mm) with an intermediate oil gap. Measurements for differerent water contents of barriers and for different
oil-duct widths d = 0 mm (homogenous arrangement, left) and d= 9.6 mm (multi-layer arrangement, right) [233].

b) Analysis of homogeneous insulations related to PDC measurements, but basically to

all dielectric methods.
In the case of homogeneous insulations, such
as in cables or bushings, the material proper- Example: The above-mentioned considerations helped,
ties can be directly determined according to for example, to correctly identify the wetting condition
the described procedures, and they can then be of service-aged “dry” oil-paper bushings from low end
compared with the reference data. Figure 4.2- values of the current and also to select severely aged
objects on the basis of increased initial values of the
8 in Section 4.2.2.3 shows a dry oil-impreg- current [231], [236], Figure 6.4.7-9.
nated transformer board reference [231]. In the
case of wetted samples, owing to orienting In this case, it was particularly significant that the ob-
laboratory investigations of new materials, it is jects that were selected at room temperature using PDC
assumed that the end value of the DC conduc- measurement showed high dielectric losses at operating
temperature and at power frequency exhibiting the risk
tivity is dependent on both the water content w of thermal instabilities [392], [398].
of the barriers and also on the conductivity of
the impregnating oil NO(f), Figures 5.5-3 to
c) Performance of multi-layer insulations
5.5-5 and 6.4.7-4 (left) [234], [231], 429],
[436]. This corresponds to a conduction of The performance of multi-layer insulations can
current along the wetted fibers and a basic be explained with an example of plane insula-
conductivity owing to oil-filled capillaries. tion model made of two new Transformer-
board barriers (Weidmann T IV, 1 mm) and an
Note: Eq. (4.2-7) in Section 4.2.2.3 gives an experi- intermediate oil duct or oil gap, Figure 6.4.7-4.
mentally determined relationship, which is, however,
not always valid and is still the subject of ongoing re-
In the polarization currents measured in a
search [428], [429], see Section 4.2.2.3 a). guard ring arrangement, the influences of pa-
rameters such as water content in the barriers
Note: In the case of aged materials, also dete- w and oil gap width d (or the geometrical pro-
rioration products deposit on the cellulose fi- portion of the layers respectively) can be eas-
bers. In in many cases, they can increase the ily identified:
conductivity and the polarization currents sim-
ilarly to water. Ageing processes of oil and In moist barriers with high water content (w=
paper under the effect of temperature, light, 6%), the polarization currents rapidly attain a
oxygen, water and metal ions can be of a to- high steady-state end value. In drier barriers
tally different chemical nature. (w=2%), the polarization currents decrease
slower and attain a significantly lower end
Therefore, additional information is necessary value. These end values are largely equal for
for a differentiation of ageing influences and both homogeneous and multi-layer insulations,
moisture influences on dielectric measure- because the end values of the polarization cur-
ments. This difficulty is generally not only rent are mainly determined by the high resis-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 479

tance of the barriers. Therefore, they also cor- enced by undefined surface currents in the test vessel
respond to Eq. (4.2-7). and in the test set-up [222].

A greater advantage of PDC analysis is the

A multi-layer arrangement influences the
option to associate the oil conductivities and
time characteristic of the transient process:
barrier conductivities with the initial values
That is, the barrier capacitance is predomi-
and end values of the polarization current if oil
nantly charged via the oil gap resistance. Thus,
conductivity is much higer than barrier con-
the time constant of the current decrease corre-
ductivity:
sponds to approximately the product of oil gap
resistance and barrier capacitance. The homo- After connection to the voltage and very fast
geneous insulation is the limit case of a very charging of the capacitances, the barrier ca-
small oil gap resistance. The polarization cur- pacitance is initially recharged via the oil gap
rent then decreases very much faster and is resistance which consequently deteremines
especially determined by material-specific the current value. After long periods, the cur-
polarization processes according to Figure 4.2- rent is determined through the series connec-
8, and no longer by the macroscopic multi- tion of the oil resistance and the barrier resis-
layer arrangement. tance. Generally, the latter dominates if the
barriers are dry enough, cf. Section g) with
The conductivity of the oil principally deter- Eqs. (6.4.7-6) and (-7).
mines the initial values of currents, since at
first, the barrier capacitances are charged via With guard-ring-type connection of the wind-
the oil gap resistances. In mult-layer insula- ings, leakage currents can be ruled out and
tions, high initial currents are synonymous selective measurements of parts of the insu-
with high oil conductivities. lation are possible.
Note: On the described insulation models, also recovery d) Analysis of transformer insulations
voltage analyses were carried out, which did not show
any comparable clear differentiation of the parameters Analysis of transformer insulation needs to
water content and the insulation geometry. Some im-
plausible results can be attributed to the fact that recov-
consider both the complex insulation geome-
ery voltage measurements cannot in principle be carried try, Figure 6.4.7-5, and the material-specific
out in guard ring arrangements, and as a result are influ- polarization processes:

Core, tank and

Photo Weidmann, Rapperswil (CH) i L(t) Leakage
grounded parts
current
HV Barriers LV Components
of the me-
asurement
current

1-Y Oil gap,

oil duct i 1(t)
·
· Current
Diagnosis through layers
Figure 6.4.7-5: Transformator insulation with oil ducts (or voltage
oil gaps resp.), barriers, spacers and parallel oil channels.
i 2(t)
Figure 6.4.7-6: Complete modelling for diagnosis measure- Y
ments between HV winding and LV winding. ·· ·· Spacers Current
through spacers
X, Y, Z: Relative portions of thicknesses and areas.
Z i 3(t)
Leakage currents to core and tank are not involved in PDC meas- Parallel oil channels
urements and FDS measurements, but in RVM measurements. The Parallel
measurement current is the superpostion of several components. X 1 -X current
480 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

In the complete model of a multi-layer e) Analysis examples

transformer insulation, the insulation be-
tween the considered windings must be repre- Meanwhile, PDC analysis could successfully
sented by material-specific equivalent circuits be used in various applications:
for the barriers, spacers, oil gaps and parallel
For newly manufactured (and thus, dry)
oil channels, Figure 6.4.7-6. The measurement
transformers, a matching classification of the
current is therefore composed of three compo-
residual water content was achieved with dew
nents i1(t) through the layers of oil and barri-
point measurements in the evacuated tanks, as
ers, i2(t) through the spacers and i3(t) through
well as by Karl Fischer titration on paper
the parallel oil channels.
samples and also by PDC measurements on
Note: Even the insulation against grounded components transformers [235], Figure 6.4.7-7.
would be simulated with comparable models. However,
they are unnecessary for PDC and FDS measurements, Note: The dew point is that temperature at which the
since leakage currents are not involved in these meas- humidity present in a gas condenses (during a decrease
urements. in temperature), i.e. at which the relative humidity has
increased to 100%. Therewith, the absolute humidity of
PDC analysis is carried out with the currently
available diagnosis software by “curve fit- 10
-4 Polarization currents Before oil exchange
ting”, i.e. by comparing the measured and A
-5
calculated polarization currents and depolari- 10 Measurement
zation currents [229], [230]: for the calcula- -6
a 3% 3.5 %
tion, geometrical insulation data must be put 10
w = 3.0 %
in and material-specific equivalent circuits, -7 2.5 %
10
which represent different barrier-conditions 1 10 100 1000 s

(different water contents) and different oil After oil exchange

-5
conductivities, must be selected. By varying 10
the material data, the calculated curves are A
-6
Measurement
made to agree with the measurements. The 10 b 3%
water content of the barriers is obtained 10
-7
2.5 %
from the best fit and the oil conductivity is w = 2.7 %
-8
obtained from its initial value. For this, the 10
1 10 100 1000 s
calculation is done taking the measuring tem-
Before drying
perature into consideration. -5
10
A Measurement
-6
10 c
w/ % Moist -7
3%
PDC analysis 10
w = 2.7 % 2.5 %
Karl-Fischer Ttitration -8
3 10
Dew point measurement 1 10 100 1000 s

Medium water content After drying

2 -5
10
A
10
-6 d Measurement
1
Dry -7
10 2%
w = 1.7 % 1.5 %
-8
0 10 1 10 100 s 1000 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Transformer # Figure 6.4.7-8: PDC diagnosis by “curve fitting” as per
number d) for a 300 MV transformer, before and after
Figure 6.4.7-7: Comparision of diagnosis methods an oil exchange (a and b) as well as before and after
for new high voltage transformers [235]. drying of core-and-coil assembly (c and d) [233], [232].
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 481

the gas and the water vapor partial pressure can be currents and conductivities, and therefore can-
specified. In equilibrium, this is correlated to the water not always be differentiated from moisture by
content of paper.
dielectric diagnosis alone. Another problem is
that the moisture that can be detected by di-
An interesting example is the monitoring of re-
electric diagnosis can originate from ageing
conditioning processes on an aged 300 MVA
processes (through depolymerisation of cellu-
transformer, Figure 6.4.7-8. Before and after
lose) and also from external sources (e.g. from
an oil exchange respectively, and before and
leakages, diffusion processes or air contact).
after drying of the core-and-coil assembly,
PDC analyses were carried out by “curve-fit-
In dielectric measurements on bushings, ex-
ting” (see in this Section, paragraph d)). As
ternal influences can lead to a change in the
expected, they show that with the oil exchange
quantities to be measured when leakage cur-
only a little amount of water was extracted.
rents have access to the free ends of the grad-
Moisture decrease ascertained during the dry-
ing layers. In the frequency domain there is
ing corresponds to the extracted water quantity
sometimes an apparent decrease in the dissi-
[233], [232].
pation factor, eventually leading down to neg-
ative values [243]. In the time domain, polari-
f) Related questions zation currents and depolarization currents can
For bushings, it has been shown that even ob- be modified, eventually, leading to polariza-
jects that possess comparable water contents tion reversal [244], [398].
(identifiable by comparable polarization cur-
rent end values), but are aged differently, can Until now parasitic influences for greatly in-
be distinguished by PDC measurements in a creased oil conductivities have not been in-
time period of a few seconds [236], [231], cluded in the analyses. They can cause in-
[428], Figure 6.4.7-9, see also Section b). creased currents through microscopic oil-filled
capillaries and in transformers also increased
Basically, the differentiation of ageing influ- currents through macroscopic oil ducts. In
ences and moisture influences is a problem both cases, the end values of the polarization
yet to be solved, for which only very few ap- currents are increased and increased moisture
proaches exist [237], [238]. As already ex- values are simulated [231].
plained in paragraph b), also the deterioration
products can lead to an increase in polarization For diagnosis by curve-fitting the necessary
geometric data are sometimes either not
available at all for use or only incompletely
Polarization current/ A (1), (5) severely service-aged available.
(2), (3) service-aged
(4) newly manufactured
High initial currents g) Simplified diagnosis
show ageing even at
room temperature
Even for incompletely known geometry data, a
simplified diagnosis can be conceived in
which two different measurement instants t > 0
as well as t Æ f are taken into consideration
[231], Figure 6.4.7-10 (top).

Time/s For the initial value of the polarization current

ip(0), the current through the layers dominates,
Figure 6.4.7-9: PDC diagnosis of ageing condition of i.e. ip(0) | ip1(0) is valid, Figure 6.4.7-10
400 kV oil-paper (OIP) bushings aged in service [428].
Advanced ageing is evident from significantly enhanced
(bottom left). The current is obtained as the
initial values of the polarization current. solution of the network-differential equation:
482 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

V CB 6d), this allows to estimate the end value from

i p ( 0) | ˜( )2 
RO (0) C O  C B the sum (or the difference in magnitude re-
(6.4.7-4) spectively) of the polarization current and de-
1 CO
V ˜¦( ) ˜( )2 polarization current, even after finite periods,
j Rpj C O  C B Figure 6.4.7-10 (top).
Rpj stands for the resistances assigned to indi- If the Eqs (6.4.7-4) and (-7) are correlated with
vidual RC elements, which describe the polari- geometric relationships for capacitances and
zation of the board. resistances, a physically substantiated correla-
tion between a measurable characteristic cur-
Note: For multi-layer insulations, generally CB >> CO rent ratio and the conductivity ratio between
is valid, so that the first term dominates, which is cor- oil and board is obtained:
related with the resistance of the oil gap RO and the oil
conductivity respectively,: ip (0) ip (t 1s)
|
ip (0) |
V
˜(
CB
)2 (6.4.7-5) ip (f) ip (t )  id (t  tC )
RO (0) CO  C B (6.4.7-8)
In the case of homogeneous insulations, CO Æ f is N O (0) dO
valid and hence the second term, which is largely de- ˜
ip (0) N O (f) d B
termined by the polarization processes, dominates: |
ip (f) d H 1
[ O  O ]2 ˜[  Z ˜ X]
O  N O (f)
1 (6.4.7-6) dB H B d
ip (0) | V ˜¦( )
j Rpj d B N B (f)
The end value of the polarization current re- Here, Z and X are the surface ratios and thick-
sults approximately from the steady-state cur- ness ratios in the barrier system according to
rents ip1 and ip3 through the layers and eventu- Figure 6.4.7-6:
ally, through parallel oil channels, Figure A3 AOil(Parallel)
6.4.7-10 (bottom right): Z
A1  A2 ABarrier
ip ( f ) | ip1 (f)  ip3 (f)
dB d Barrier
V V X (6.4.7-9)
 (6.4.7-7) d B  d Oil d Total
RB  RO (f) R3
The conductivity of the board can be deter-
If the first tem is assumed to dominate, then
mined from the conductivity ratio
ip(f) mainly contains information about RB
NÖ(f)/NB(f) and the oil conductivity, and it
and the barrier conductivity respectively, and
can be correlated with the water content via
with Eq. (4.2-7) an estimate of water content
Eq. (4.2-7).
of the barriers w can be given.
Note: The current ratio ip(0)/ip(f) is not equivalent to
From Eq. (6.4.7-4) and (-7), the correlations of the classical polarization index, which is formed at
the initial value of the current with the oil con- arbitrary times without considering the dynamics of
ductivity and of the end value of the current transient processes. Instead, it is a characteristic cur-
the with the barrier conductivity mentioned in rent ratio, which has a distinct correlation to the con-
Section c) are obtained. ductivity ratio and thus corresponds to a physical
meaning.
For the practical evaluation, it is recommended
Note: An advantage of the ratio formation is a lower
to measure initial values and end values of sensitivity to temperature variations. If the tempera-
the polarization current. According to Eq. (4.2- ture is known, then furthermore an additional arithmetic
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 483

temperature correction for the current ratio can even be layers is very thin or the radial resistance is
made. relatively low.
Note: The current ratio is suitable for the estimation of
Note: These effects can be explained by the fact that all
the influence of parallel current paths through parallel
partial capacitances are at first charged by a positive
oil resistances R3, Figures 6.4.7-6 and -10. The initial
current when connecting a positive diagnosis voltage.
current hardly changes, because the surface ratio A3/A1
For example, a conductive path to the ground side is
= Z is small. In the steady-state current, an addiitional
considered. It partially discharges the outer partial ca-
current component through R3 occurs. From the ratio of
pacitances at the ground side and temporarily leads to a
polarization currents, it can be identified that the paral-
current in the reverse (negative) direction via the meas-
lel current path with the surface ratio Z leads to a de-
uring tap. In the steady-state, all charge reversal proc-
crease in the current ratio, and thus has a similar effect
esses are completed and the steady-state current is again
as a reduction in the conductivity ratio of oil/board or an
positive [430]. The entire process is therefore associated
increase in the water content respectively. The dis-
with a two-fold polarity reversal of the current.
turbing effect of the parallel current path is especially
large for severely aged oil and a large oil/board con- These changes of polarization currents de-
ductivity ratio, since the denominator in Eq. (6.4.7-8) is
small and the influence of the interference term Z·X is
scribed in the time domain correspond to the
large in that case [231]. changes of dissipation factor in the frequency
domain, ranging down to negative values.
h) Bushing diagnosis
Polarization currents and depolarization currents
Bushing insulations at first appear as compar-
atively simple cylindrically symmetric insula- Low-resistance
tions between the inner conductor and the (aged)
outermost metallic grading layer, the so-called
1 nA Board
ground layer. The dielectric in between is di-
vided into a larger number of partial capaci- High-resitance Wet
(new)
tances by the conductive grading layers, Fig-
ure 6.4.7-11. 100 pA Oil
In normal operation, the gound layer is con- Dry
nected to earth via the measuring tap. For
measurement purposes, this connection is
opended so that the current flowing through 1s 10 s 100 s 1000 s
the dielectric can be extracted. But it has now
been proved that under unfavorable conditions
t > 0 t o f
(e.g. for contaminated and wetted surfaces or
for highly conductive transformer oil), leakage CB CO
currents can flow between the free ends of the
ip1(0)
grading layers and the voltage side or the Oil duct
ground side. These currents are added to (or · R pj
· R O(0) RB R Of ip1f
subtracted from) the signal current at the
measuring tap, and thereby cause an error that
is difficult to quantify [398].
Conductive paths to the voltage side increase
the measurement signal; conductive paths to ·· ·· ·· ·· ip2f
the ground side reduce the measurement sig-
nal, ranging down to a two-fold polarity rever-
sal. These influences are at the maximum Parallel oil channels R 3 f ip3f
when the coupling is around the middle of the Figure 6.4.7-10: Differtiation of characteristic
grading contour and when the covering insu- equivalent circuit elements by a selection of
lation layers above the ends of the grading different measuring times.
484 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Grading cont. Inner conductor Grading contour

Figure 6.4.7-11: OIP core

with grading layers (foils) Oil
Dielectric measur- Housing
ements on the meas- insulator
uring tap of an oil- Flange Signal tapping at the measuring tap Porcelain insulator
paper bushing.

Note: The described processes were originally discussed in, and the resulting measurement current is
at first in the frequency domain, in order to explain the too high (upper limit). A grounded bandage
phenomenon of “negative dissipation factors” [243]. behind the edge of the grounded grading layer
can act as a guard-ring electrode and draw off
All these changes of currents or dissipation
the surface currents so that the measurement
factors are only apparent in nature, i.e. they do
signal is improved. A complete measurement
not give any information about changes in the
is thus obtained from three or four individual
bushing dielectric. It must therefore be ensured
measurements with and without bandages,
by suitable measuring procedures that the
Figure 6.4.7-12:
measured parameters are really associated with
the dielectric. 1. Measurement with worst-case bandage at
ground (lower limit).
Cleaning of bushing surfaces and avoiding
measurements during humid weather condi- 2. Measurement with worst-case bandage at
tions are useful measures. diagnosis voltage (upper limit).
3. Measurement without bandage (classical,
A method has now been developed, with
possibly inaccurate measurement).
which the upper and lower limits for the po-
larization current and the dissipation factor of 4. Measurement with guard-ring bandage
the bushing dielectric can be determined [430], behind the edge of the grounded grading
[434]: For this, a conductive bandage is put layer (optional, for improved estimation of
circumferentially on the bushing at the center the current through the bushing dielectric).
of the grading contour (worst-case bandage).
Example: In Figure 6.4.7-12 it can be clearly identified
In the case of a grounded bandage, current that the relative influence of the parasitic surface cur-
components are branched off and the remain- rents is increasingly smaller with increasing currents in
ing current via the measuring tap is too low the main dielectric (e.g. through wetting or ageing). The
(lower limit). If the bandage is at diagnosis bandage measurements which lie close to each other
voltage, additional current components are fed show the measurement result as very reliable, on the

Bandage at diagnosis voltage v(D) = 1000 V

Polarization currents for a 123 kV OIP transformer bushing at RT
Without bandage

Bandage at diagnosis voltage v(D) = 1000 V

Bandage at ground potential
Without bandage

Bandage at ground potential

Polarization currents for a severely aged 400 kV OIP transformer bushing at RT

Figure 6.4.7-12: PDC measurements on high voltage bushings with bandages in the center of the grading contour
(worst-case bandages) for demarcating the scope of the current through the bushing dielectric [428], [430], [434].
Left: new 123 kV OIP bushing. Right: severely aged and thermally unstable 400 kV OIP bushing (also refer to figure
6.4.7-9).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 485

right in the figure. For new bushings with low currents, For practical measurements, capacitances and
the bandage measurements are comparatively far apart dissipation factors must be recorded as a func-
from each other, on the left in the figure. The conduc- tion of frequency in a series of individual
tivity ratio of the main insulation and the insulation of
the top layers can be concluded from the distance of the
measurements. This requires a steady state to
curves [434]. be awaited for each individual measurement,
which can be assumed to be available after
about four periods. Measuring lower frequen-
6.4.7.7 Frequency Domain Analysis cies can therefore result in long measuring
periods.
For capacitances and dissipation factors meas-
ured at power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) and It is advantageous that the measurements, such
room temperature, only a very weak depend- as PDC measurements, can be executed in a
ence on water content or ageing condition is type of “guard-ring arrangement” to eliminate
indicated. leakage currents, Figure 6.4.7-2.

The power frequency dissipation factor of oil-

impregnated paper rises steeply with the water
content at increased temperature (70 °C). Ap- 10
propirate measurements are, however, possible
only in exceptional cases. At room tempera- 1
tanG
ture, increases in dissipation factor that are
0.1
dependent on water content occur at very low
frequencies (mHz range). At low frequencies,
1%
the dissipation factor generally increases be-
cause the reactive power decreases and thereby
the ratio of real power to reactive power rises. 1m 10m 0,1 1 10
f / Hz
From the point of systems theoretically, the ··· < f3 < f2 < f1 << f
measurement of capacitances and dissipation DC conductivity Polarization processes
factors in the frequency domain (FDS: Fre- slower fast
quency Domain Spectroscopy) is equivalent to Rf CGeo
a step-response measurement in the time do- ···
main (PDC measurement) for linear systems,
and it is possible to transform the results [239],
[240], [241]. Therefore, many explanations for Figure 6.4.7-13: Frequency domain analysis for a
PDC measurements can also be transferred homogeneous insulation.
into the frequency domain.
a) Instead of a step-response measurement, the 10
system properties and the related equivalent Wet
circuits can also be determined by frequency 1 Low resistance
tanG (aged)
response measurement for the real part and the Dry
0,1
imaginary part of complex permittivity, in ac- tanG
cordance with Eq. (4.2-16), Figure 6.4.7-13. Oil
1% tanG
Board High resistance
Note: The equivalent circuit comprises the DC resis- (new)
tance, polarization processes recorded during the meas-
urement and a so-called geometric capacitance CGeo. It 1m 10m 0,1 1 10
integrates the vacuum capacitance C0 and those high f / Hz
frequency polarization processes that lie outside the
considered frequency domain, Figures 4.3-2 and 4.2-8. Figure 6.4.7-14: Frequency domain analysis for a
multi-layer insulation.
486 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

b) In homogeneous insulations, the influence tially improved quality of the exchanged oil.
of water content is manifested by a sharp rise Measurements at 0.1Hz agree with the calcu-
in dissipation factor, especially for very low lated frequency responses [233].
frequencies, but not for the power frequency.
This can be explained by the moisture-induced f) Additional questions here, similar to those of
exponential increase in the conductivity in PDC analysis, refer to the ability to distinguish
accordance with Eq. (4.2-7): at low frequen- between moisture effects and ageing effects, to
cies, the parallel resistance Rf = Rp especially the effect of external environmental influences
determines the losses. According to Eq. (4.3- on measurements on bushings [243] and to the
1), a decrease in this resistance corresponds to effects of oil conductivities and parallel cur-
an increase in power loss or an increase in the rent paths.
dissipation factor.

c) The performance of multi-layer insulations 6.4.7.8 Dielectric Diagnosis in Time Domain

will be explained with the example of a lay- and Frequency Domain
ered arrangement of an oil gap and barriers.
The basic correlations are explained in Section According to systems theory, PDC analysis
4.3.3 with Figure 4.3-7: at higher frequencies, and frequency domain analysis are methods
the capacitively divided voltage drops largely which correspond to each other in the time
across the capacitance of the oil gap, which is domain and in the frequency domain if linear
assumed to be lower. The measured dissipa- systems are considered. All the above-men-
tion factor, therefore, must be largely attrib- tioned considerations about the effects of wa-
uted to the oil gap. The higher barrier capaci- ter, deterioration products, surface currents
tance acts like a short circuit. At lower fre- and other parameters are, in principle, valid in
quencies, the generally lower oil gap resis- both the time domain and the frequency do-
tance acts like a short circuit because the ca- main, as, for example, the comparison of Fig-
pacitive reactances increase. Therefore, the ures 6.4.7-10 and -14 shows. Therefore, the
measured dissipation factor must be largely efficiency and the problems of the two meth-
attributed to the barriers, Figures 6.4.7-14 and ods can be compared [468].
4.3-2.
Both methods, for example, are able to differ-
d) Transformer insulations, as explained ear- entiate the properties of oil and of oil-impreg-
lier with Figure 6.4.7-6, must be simulated by nated pressboard barriers in multi-layer oil-
a complex equivalent circuit oriented towards paper insulations. However, the accuracy in
the geometry. Based on this, and similar to determining the water content is restricted,
PDC analysis, frequency responses can be cal- since a series of other parameters that are dif-
culated and can be fitted with the measure- ficult to control is of significance [436]. This
ments (curve-fitting) to determine the best includes, for example, that the differentiation
fitting material parameter. of water and deterioration products in oil-im-
pregnated insulations is difficult, because both
e) The oil exchange in a 300 MVA transformer increase the conductivity and thereby produce
is mentioned as an analysis example; see Fig- a similar effect in the dielectric system re-
ure 6.4.7-8 (a) and (b). The curves transformed sponse. However, it has been shown that dete-
from the time domain into the frequency do- rioration products also invoke polarization
main, at low frequencies and before and after processes with shorter time constants and
the oil exchange, result in practically unaltered thereby can be measured at shorter times or at
dissipation factors, which corresponds to a higher frequencies, see Figure 6.4.7-9.
hardly altered water content. At higher fre-
quencies, the insulation shows significantly A few more differences between the practical
lower losses, which correspond to the substan- applicability of PDC analyses and FDS analy-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 487

ses are mentioned: as against the information

that can be obtained in a single step response
measurement during PDC measurement, a Polarization current tanG
series of measurements is necessary during
FDS analysis, which can especially signifi-
cantly extend the measurement durations for
low frequencies. Further, during PDC meas-
urement, even very high voltage steps can very
easily be used to investigate non-linearities 1 10 100 1000 1 10 100
with the aid of external DC power supply units t /s f / Hz
[271]. For FDS measurement, the frequency- Transformation
variable sinusoidal voltage is restricted to
lower values by the amplifier. PDC analysis 10
reaches its limits at faster processes or higher
frequencies respectively, which occurs as a 1
tanG
result of the time resolution during digitaliza-
0.1
tion. It is therefore easier to measure fast
changing processes in the frequency domain.
1%
A new method combines the advantages of
both systems [467], Figure 6.4.7-15: slow 1m 10m 0.1 1 10 100
processes are measured by a polarization cur-
f / Hz
rent measurement in the time domain and fast
processes by a dissipation factor measurement Figure 6.4.7-15: Combined time domain and
in the frequency domain. With regard to a pure fequency domain analysis for a multi-layer
frequency domain measurement, the meas- insulation [467].
urement time is reduced by about 75%. For a
coherent representation, the measurements are appear to be necessary and moreover, was too
transformed from the time domain into the expensive.
frequency domain and further analyzed there.
This point of view has now changed such that
the operator of electrical equipment is more
than ever interested in online monitoring of his
6.4.8 Online monitoring devices, including the insulation. The follow-
ing reasons are responsible for this:
Complex technical systems (such as power
stations or networks) and important compo- x Many operating devices have long ex-
nents (such as large generators and large trans- ceeded their nominal lifetime and continue
formers) are monitored not only within the to be operated in an unknown ageing con-
inspection periods, i.e. “offline” in the discon- dition; a preventive replacement invest-
nected state, but are also monitored perma- ment is no longer made without a condi-
nently “online” during operation to enable a tion assessment.
response to dectable defect evolutions just in
time. x The cost pressure during the manufacture
of electrical equipments reduces the safety
Dependable operation of electrical insulations margins, including the dimensioning of in-
up to the end of the nominal lifetime was ini- sulation systems. Operation in the limit-
tially expected, based on factory tests and ac- rating range (from electrical and thermal
cording to a safe design. Continuous online viewpoints) is increasingly expected from
monitoring of electrical insulations did not insulations.
488 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

x The cost pressure while operating power of fault gases in oil (especially hydrogen) with gas sen-
sors. Therise in fault-gas contents should then cause a
stations and networks leads to the provi-
sophisticated gas-in-oil analysis, see Section 6.4.3.2. It
sion of less redundancy and lower stand-by is, however, also recommended to analyze the gas con-
capacities, so that the strategic significance tent in the oil expansion vessel with regard to fault gas
of individual and possibly vulnerable content and correlate it with the fault gas content in oil
equipment increases. On the other hand, using gas exchange models [250].
increasingly fewer personnel and lower
technical competence are available, so that Transformers are now equipped with very well
it is increasingly difficult to assess the advanced monitoring systems [251] [252] as
plants on the basis of experience and to re- in Figure 6.4.8-1. They are largely used in
spond adequately in case of emergency. monitoring classic parameters such as current,
voltage, oil level or temperatures. Moreover,
x The costs for monitoring systems, compris- maintenance-intensive on-load tap changers
ing sensor technology, signal transmission are monitored. Furthermore, properties of the
technology and signal processing technol- insulating oil, e.g. water content [248] or hy-
ogy, are declining and hence online moni- drogen gas content (which indicates partial
toring systems are increasingly described discharges), are analyzed during operation,
as an economically viable option. More- with sensors or by sample extraction.
over, the performance and the reliability of
the systems are continuously rising. Note: Continuously operating sensors are thus the better
solution since, for sample extractions, practical analysis
x For the operators of networks, monitoring intervals are so long that this is not an online monitoring
systems eventually provide valuable in- any more.
formation about the evolution of fault
The monitoring system records a large number
events (fault history).
of data that are continuously analyzed and
In the following sections, the online monitor- evaluated. Thus, the data are available for au-
ing of transformers (Section 6.4.8.1), bushings tomatic control (e.g. for cooling circuits). Op-
(Section 6.4.8.2), rotating electrical machines erational management of the power system
(Section 6.4.8.3) and XLPE cables (Section continuously acquires relevant information
6.4.8.4) is considered. Under other equipment about the condition of the equipment and is
(Section 6.4.8.5), mainly switchgears with warned in advance about the emergence of
their components are summarized. critical situations.

In relation to this, temperature monitoring

6.4.8.1 Monitoring of Transformers with the aid of multiple temperature sensors is
of great practical importance. The loading ca-
The high strategic significance of large trans- pacity of the transformer is especially re-
formers has already led to the early develop- stricted by reaching the maximum permissible
ment of transformer monitoring in the form of temperatures for the insulating materials used.
the Buchholz protector. This involves trapping The directly measurable upper oil temperature
the gas formed in the transformer as a result of and the temperatures of hot spots within the
discharges. The fault gas is trapped in the oil windings, which cannot be directly measured,
expansion vessel, which is closed at the top, are significant here. The hot- spot temperature
and it is detected via the displacement of oil. is calculated with the aid of a thermal trans-
This, however, is just a protective device former model, in which the heat sources
which is activated only for very large gas (copper losses owing to load current, iron
quantities when the defect is already at an ad- losses owing to applied voltage), the ambient
vanced stage. temperatures, the thermal capacitances and the
thermal transmission conditions (taking the
Note: Actually, it is important to record small quantities cooling into consideration) are involved.
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 489

Load Permitted Not permitted

On-load Bushings Oil level
tap Buchholz n · 100 %
changer protector Load step
moni- 100 %
toring

t max t
Fault
Hot spots in the inside gases
of the limb assemblies Hot spot temperature
in the winding Tmax
Water (calculated)
in oil

Upper
oil temperature
(measured)
Voltage, cur- Oil flow rate, air Oil temperatures,
rent, loading blower capacity air temperature
Temperature of cooling agent /
temperature of ambient air (measured)
Thermal model of the transformer t max t

Figure 6.4.8-1: Important components of transformer monitoring (left) and transient temperature profiles for
change in load condition (right).

The so-called homogeneous-body model, in The thermal reserves as well as the actual and
accordance with IEC 60354 (meanwhile re- estimated load capacity of the transformer are
placed by IEC 60076-7, Loading guide for oil- calculated using the transformer model. The
immersed power transformers), can be up- cooling system can thus be controlled and the
graded to a two-body model, in which shorter data are provided for effective operation and
thermal time constants (in the range of few for optimal utilization of the equipment [251],
minutes) are used for the winding and longer [252].
time constants (in the range of hours) are used
for oil, core and tank [251], Figure 6.4.8.2. Note 1: The large mass of the transformer (especially as
a result of the oil and iron core) is associated with a very
Thus, the transient temperature profiles for large thermal capacitance, which accounts for thermal
load changes or changes in the ambient tem- time constants in the hours range for large transformers.
perature can be calculated and predicted This allows short-term load conditions which are
online, Figure 6.4.8-1 (right). Predictions of significantly above the maximum permissable values in
the permissible overload duration under the the steady-state condition, Figure 6.4.8-1 (right).
actual load conditions and ambient conditions Note 2: Transformers, which reach the temperatures
are thus made from the material-specific tem- mentioned under continuous operation or very fre-
perature limits, Figure 6.4.8-1. For oil-impreg- quently, are subjected to accelerated ageing. Reducing
nated paper, the permissible continuous hot- the load can considerably extend the lifetime of the
spot temperature is 120 °C; the hot-spot tem- insulation.
perature may not exceed 140 °C for an over- Note 3: A heavily wetted paper insulation allows only
load with 1.5 times the nominal current for a considerably lower temperature limits, since outgas-
maximum duration of 30 minutes [295], [296]. sing and vaporization take place [251]:
The maximum permissible load duration tmax
wPaper
is thus obtained from the maximum permissi- THS max 166 qC  13 K ˜ (6.4.8-1)
%
ble temperature Tmax, as in Section 7.1.3.6.
490 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

For a water content of w = 5 % only about 100°C can 6.4.8.2 Monitoring of Bushings
therefore be tolerated.

Remark 4: Bushings have a considerably lower thermal Owing to their large numbers, bushings are
capacitances and significantly shorter thermal time generally not monitored online since this in-
constants. The overload capacity of a transformer is thus volves high costs which are not proportionate
often limited by the bushings. Hence, it is useful to to their comparatively low value.
include the bushings in the monitoring, Section 6.4.8.2.

Monitoring the on-load tap changers is an On the other hand, bushings are the “bottle-
important component of transformer monitor- necks of energy transport” and thus they are of
ing [297]. Malfunctions can lead to serious great strategic significance for highly expen-
damage to windings. The load and number of sive transformers and switchgears. Addition-
switching operations are recorded for moni- ally, they are subjected to especially high
toring purposes. Moreover, the time-charac- thermal and electrical stresses. For example,
teristic of the mechanical drive torque can be this can lead to the accelerated ageing of oil-
tracked during a switching process. It is com- paper insulations in the case of high continu-
pared with references and limit values to be ous loads, such as in the machine transformers
able to trace the erosion of switching contacts of power plant units working to full capacity.
[252]. An additional task is the monitoring of Moreover, bushing damage is one of the most
oil in the switching compartment that is sub- common causes for transformer failures. The
jected to rapid ageing owing to switching arcs. question of bushing monitoring is therefore
raised ever more frequently.
New diagnosis methods, such as dielectric
methods, electrical and acoustic partial dis- Classic monitoring parameters that can be
charge measurements, chemical-analytical tracked online are oil level, oil pressure and
sensor technology or the online determination various temperatures, Figure 6.4.8-3.
of system-theoretical transfer functions are
involved only in the form of experimental set- For electrical measurements, bushings gener-
ups or conceptual studies in monitoring sys- ally have an access to the outermost grading
tems. Furthermore, there are ideas for exten- layer (to the so-called ground layer) via the
sive optical monitoring systems with optical measuring tap, which is normally connected to
waveguide sensors for currents, voltages, tem- ground potential but can also be separated
peratures, partial discharges and moisture in from it for measuring purposes. Usually, the
the core-and-coil assemblies of transformers measuring tap is used for offline diagnosis,
[372]. i.e. for the measurement of capacitance, dissi-
pation factor, insulation resistance, polariza-
tion currents and depolarization currents.
'TWinding>oil 'TOil>environment However, measurements can only be taken
Hot spot Upper oil
during occasional maintenance intervals, ra-
temperature temperature
ther at random, and this is by no means com-
Thermal resistance Thermal resistance prehensive. This cannot be called monitoring.
Winding >>> oil Oil >>> environment
This is also due to the fact that a dissipation
factor measured at a random ambient temper-
ature is in no way meaningful with respect to
the often much higher operating temperatures.
Load Thermal Iron Thermal
Hence, a reliable diagnostic statement is not
dependent capacitance losses capacitance even guaranteed. Also for this reason, moni-
copper of the winding of core, oil toring under operating conditions would be
losses and tank
desirable. The measuring tap is also the speci-
Figure 6.4.8-2: Thermal two-body model for a fied connection option for this, Figure 6.4.8-3.
transformer (according to [251]).
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 491

Note: A few acutely hazardous situations, such as ex-

cessive temperatures or oil losses, can be detected via Hot spot
sensors and can be reported to the monitoring system of Oil level
the transformer. The temperature of the hot spot can be Atmospheric temperature
estimated with the aid of a thermal model [246]. Bushing Transformer oil temperature
dielectric Bushing temperatures
However, it would be highly desirable to be
able to observe the ageing process already at Ground
layer
an early stage by monitoring the dielectric pa- Sensors
Measuring
rameters. The power frequency dissipation tap
factor at operating temperature is especially
Current Temperatures
considered for this: at increased temperatures, transformer Current
Oil level
it is indicating ageing and moisture. Moreover, Transformer
oil
Voltage, phase position
a threat to the insulation from dielectric ohmic Capacitance
heat loss can be immediately detected, so that Measuring Dissipation factor
impedances
even short-term, thermally escalating situa- (Partial discharges)
tions can be directly measured as shown in
Figures 3.5.7 and 5.5.2. Monitoring the dissi- Figure 6.4.8-3: Online monitoring for bushings.
pation factor under operating temperature
would therefore be especially interesting, since variations occur continuously and not suddenly or in
the relationship between the thermal-electrical steps as in the case of partial breakdowns.
load capacity and the actual load, i.e. the ac-
tual safety marigin which theoretically can- Measuring the current flowing via the meas-
not be determined, could be read online from uring tap of the bushing is not sufficient for
this. the measurement of capacitance and dissi-
pation factor. The voltage magnitude must be
Note: During the dissipation factor measurement, it known to be able to determine the capaci-
must however be considered that also contamination tance, and a reference measurement arm,
and wetness of the insulator surface can influence the against which the phase displacement can be
results. determined, is necessary to determine dissipa-
tion factor. These prerequisites are given for
Partial breakdowns between the grading lay- an offline-measurement in a bridge circuit or
ers of the bushings can be detected by in- in a dielectric analyzer [204], but not for an
creasing the capacitances. Cyclic monitoring online measurement with unknown and vary-
at the frequency of maintenance intervals is ing voltage.
not adequate, since partial breakdowns can
escalate to total breakdown in a very short There are three approaches to online moni-
time. For this reason, it is recommended to toring:
implement online monitoring that is sensitive
to capacitance variations [245]. Thus, in an (1) The bushing along with a low voltage im-
extreme case, it might even be feasible to op- pedance is assembled as a voltage divider and
erate the dielectric until failure (i.e. until the its low voltage impedance is designed to be
first partial breakdown), to have an alarm switchable. Therefore, measurements are un-
immediately before further, spontaneously dertaken at short intervals with two different
caused breakdowns and to initiate automatic dividers (but with the same voltage) and both
emergency measures via the power system the unknown C and tan į are calculated from
protection. this. First experiments with capacitance mon-
itoring were absolutely successful [245],
Note: In the case of the old resin-bonded paper(RBP)
bushings, increases in capacitances can also be caused [252], but the precision achieved so far is not
by subsequent oil absorption by incompletely resin- yet adequate for determining the dissipation
impregnated paper layers. However, these capacitance factor.
492 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

(2) It is also feasible to make comparative from the environment.

measurements between the three bushings of a
three-phase system. Small deviations from the Note: Outcoupling of partial discharges at the measur-
ing tap of bushings are already used today in shielded
standard phase displacements by 120° indicate test laboratories to monitor the entire test circuit. Owing
that ageing does not occur completely syn- to this, a separate coupling capacitor is unnecessary in
chronously in all phases. Thus only relative some cases.
and not absolute data are obtained from this
[247]. Synchronous variations in all three
phases cannot be detected. Further, problems 6.4.8.3 Monitoring of Rotating Machines
occur owing to the isolation of fundamental
components and harmonic distortions or Generators and large drives (high voltage ma-
asymmetrical loads and voltages. A recom- chines) are expensive and strategically impor-
mendation for the elimination of temporally tant equipment, for which a higher expense for
scattering network interferences consists of diagnosis and monitoring is economically jus-
graphically illustrated pattern recognition with tified.
the aid of a cloud representation; the changes
in the measurement values should be made For offline diagnosis, with regard to mainte-
visible by displacement of the cloud [247]. nance intervals, generally the partial discharge
performance and the variation in the dissipa-
(3) A new approach consists of obtaining a tion factor ¨(tan į) as a function of voltage,
reference signal from external sources that are the insulation resistance or other dielectric
independent of the bushings to be monitored, parameters are considered and are compared
e.g. via capacitive probes from the electric with experienced data of the performance of
stray field to the three phases of the three- similar generators. Especially for offline diag-
phase system [431], [432]. The measurement nosis, the visual inspection (e.g. endoscopy) of
signal recorded at a bushing can be compared crucial machine components is of great sig-
with this reference signal. This does not in- nificance. However, there is a series of para-
volve absolute determination of the dissipation meters which must be monitored online [352]:
factor, but monitoring of dissipation factor
variations: the phase difference between the Moderate voltages up to few 10 kV and very
reference arm and the measurement arm must high currents up to the range of 30 kA espe-
first be determined as an initial state; ageing- cially lead to high thermal loads in large, com-
induced variations of the dissipation factor are pactly built turbo generators, and this must be
then indicated by the variation in the phase controlled by temperature monitoring and
difference. Dissipation factor variations can be active cooling, e.g. with water-cooled con-
determined with a high accuracy of few parts ductors. An additional recommendation for the
per thousand, if the signals are digitalized, identification of hot spots is to chemically
filtered, compared, statistically evaluated and analyze the cooling air with respect to thermal
monitored over long periods [433],[435]. It is reaction products [253].
also advantageous that individual objects can
be monitored independently of each other in In large turbo-generators, the cooling water
both single-phase and three-phase systems. must be transported twice over the voltage
difference against earth, de-ionized for this
Basically, the bushing capacitance can also be purpose and continuously monitored with re-
used for the outcoupling of partial discharge gard to its residual conductivity. In addition,
impulses via the measuring tap. Onsite meas- hydrogen gas is used as a cooling medium for
urements at bushings are very problematic large turbo-generators, owing to its high heat
since the low signal level of partial discharge transfer capability and to lower friction losses
sources in the bushing are frequently overlaid in the so-called “air” gap between rotor and
by the many times larger interference levels stator. Hydrogen gas requires reliable moni-
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 493

toring of gas pressure, leakage rates and es- There are many approaches to the diagnostic
caped gas in the environment of the generator. evaluation of partial discharge signals right
Even the smallest possible quantities must be from phase-resolved interpretation of broad-
indicated by gas sensors long before a flam- band signals in the classic frequency domain
mable air-gas mixture can be formed. [254] or in the VHF range for a few 10 MHz
[255] through to the localization of defects by
The stator insulation system of generators and comparison of propagation times in the time
large motors consists of partial-discharge-re- domain [256].
sistant mica-based tapes, impregnated with
synthetic resin, and of conducting layers on the Investigations of electrically aged generator
internal side and external side of the winding rods at 1.6 Vn show that during the course of
elements (rods or coils). Very small cavities ageing, the partial discharge intensity in-
within the insulation are unavoidable in pro- creases by about one order of magnitude and
duction, which leads to non-critical partial an ever-increasing voltage dependence occurs.
discharges during the operation of the ma- Moreover, phase-resolved partial discharge
chine even in new insulation systems. pattern vary in a significant manner [257].
Artificial defects at the generator rods (internal
The dielectric is subject to high thermal and defects, damaged semi-conductive layer (co-
mechanical alternating stresses, see Section rona screens), damaged potential grading on
7.1.6. These can lead to detachments, gap for- the winding head insulation) show clearly dis-
mation as well as mechanical loosening, and to tinguishable partial discharge pattern [258].
increased partial discharge activity as a result. Further, it is proposed to correlate the signals
Partial discharge resistant mica plates present of the three phases with one another for com-
in the dielectric are responsible for preventing parative purposes and for the suppression of
erosion breakdowns. In this respect, the ma- interferences [259].
chine insulation, in contrast to pure organic
insulating materials, is quite insensitive, even
to high partial discharge levels. Partial dis- 6.4.8.4 Monitoring of XLPE Cables and
charge monitoring therefore, not only has to Fittings
monitor the risk of partial discharge erosion;
variations in the partial discharge performance High-voltage cables with XLPE insulation are
are also used as an indicator of variations in practically maintenance-free and achieve very
the structure of the generator insulation in- long lifetimes if the conductor temperatures
duced by thermal-mechanical stresses. To a remain under 90 °C and the ingress of mois-
large extent, generator failures are attributed to ture is prevented. The task of monitoring is
electrical breakdowns of the stator insulation above all to monitor these conditions. More-
owing to local mechanical/thermal overstress over, temperature monitoring can show the
[257]. currently still available load capacity of the
cable and thereby contribute significantly to
A “normal” partial discharge intensity lies in the economical utilization of the cable lines.
the range of few nC and is thus significantly
higher than the intensities from other interfer- Temperature measurements are carried out
ence sources connected via the power system. with optical waveguides in the cable sheath
Owing to the resultant high signal-to-noise into which the laser light impulses are fed. A
ratio, partial discharge monitoring for genera- location-dependent temperature profile can be
tors (e.g. in nuclear power stations) or strategi- generated from the light that is backscattered
cally important drives (e.g. for the oil pumping owing to temperature gradients. Along with
or water pumping) can be employed for the the load current and the cable data, the re-
supervision of normal partial discharge activ- maining load capacity can be determined with
ity. the aid of a mathematical model [264].
494 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

Water sensors are likewise integrated into the niques for testing the newly laid cable lines or for con-
cable sheath. They consist of wires that are dition assessment of the aged cable lines. In view of the
high cable capacitances, basically the availability of a
encased by a plastic braiding. The insulation sufficiently powerful test voltage source is a major
resistance between wires an sheath is meas- problem.
ured, it decreases with ingressed moisture.
Defect location is possible by the measurement The previously popular DC voltage test is today viewed
of the longitudinal resistance of the sensor as meaningless, especially for XLPE cable insulations
which are extremely resistant to DC voltage. Other test
[264]. methods with series resonance systems (variable fre-
quencies up to a few 100 Hz), "oscillating voltages"
XLPE high voltage cables are subjected to a (damped oscillations) or very low frequencies (VLF 0.1
sensitive partial discharge test in the factory, Hz sine or cosine-rectangular voltages) manage with
so that partial discharges are generally no low-power sources. Therefore, they can be implemented
in mobile test systems. These methods are described in
longer to be expected in the laid cable. More- detail in Section 6.2.1 (generation of AC voltages).
over, a classic partial discharge measurement
at the cable terminations is often not useful The purpose of the tests is to provide proof of withstand
owing to the damping of partial discharge im- test voltage levels and to perform partial discharge
pulses for greater cable lengths. measurements as well as dissipation factor measure-
ments.

Despite this, partial discharges can occur in

operation owing to assembly faults of fittings
6.4.8.5 Monitoring Other Equipment
(cable entrance fittings, cable joints). For an
online measurement, the directional coupler Transformers, generators and cables are ex-
technique [215] is specifically applied there- pensive and strategically important equipment
fore, with measurement points on both sides of that is very difficult to repair or is very expen-
the fitting to be checked [265], cf. Sections sive to repair after an insulation failure. More-
6.4.2.5 (Interference-free Measurement) and over, they are especially exposed to thermal,
6.3.3 (Field Sensors). Of various options for electrical and to some extent, even mechanical
directionally selective measurement of im- stresses (in the case of short circuits and for
pulses, those directional coupling sensors have generators), oxidative attacks (by the influx of
proven their worth which consist of two suc- atmospheric oxygen into oil-paper dielectric in
cessively placed capacitive measurement sur- transformers) or the effect of moisture. These
faces that cover each other and produce differ- conditions are not the same for other equip-
ent signal magnitudes depending on the direc- ment. Moreover, for almost all types of
tion of wave propagation, Figure 6.4.8-4. equipment there are properties that can be
monitored online.
By using two directional couplers on both
sides of a cable fitting, it can be decided a) Gas-insulated switchgear
whether the partial discharge source lies be-
tween the directional couplers, thus within the In switchgear, the pressure of SF6 gas must be
fitting to be monitored, or whether the im- monitored above all else. Loss of pressure
pulses come in from the left side or the right leads to loss of electric strength, whereby
side and thereby must be rated as external in- emergency running properties must still exist
terferences. Where there are multiple impulse at ambient pressure in any case, i.e. adequate
sources, different impulses can be sorted to strengths must remain for the operating volt-
some extent, i.e. different locations of origin age. Pressure losses or gas losses must also be
can be assigned. Thereby, a high sensitivity of avoided because SF6 as a "greenhouse gas" is
up to about 1 pC can be achieved [265]. to be held in closed circuits.

Note: Along with the described online monitoring Experimentally, there are also fiber-optic sen-
methods, there are also extensive offline test tech- sors, with whose help partial discharges are
6.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring 495

assigned to individual chambers of an encap- in order to be able to detect corona discharges

sulated switchgear. or other discharges at the silicone surfaces
[267], which can lose their hydrophobicity
Furthermore, it is possible to couple out the owing to electrical discharges [9], [57]. Local
UHF spectrum of partial discharge events heating can be identified from the infrared
via capacitive sensors that can even be fitted as radiation [267]. Occasionally, potential distri-
“window sensors”to the windows in the enclo- butions are measured by field sensors and
sures of old assemblies, e.g. to detect free par- compared with numerical field calculations to
ticles in the system, see Section 6.4.2.8. For be able to identify uneven potential distribu-
online measurement, it is possible to check old tions on insulation strings or field stress en-
systems under operating voltage with mobile hancements on the sheds or fittings [267].
test systems at random or in a routine manner
[260], [261]. In the case of strategically im- c) Surge arresters
portant systems, many measurement points can
be cyclically and continuously monitored with For monitoring metal-oxide surge arresters,
a single analysis system via a multiplexer the use of surge counters, the measurement of
[260]. External interferences or interferences leakage current with the evaluation of its third
by switching operations can be identified harmonic component or its resistive compo-
through simultaneous appearance in all phases. nent as well as potential-free temperature
measurement with surface wave sensors
b) Outdoor switchgear and overhead lines (which are scanned by microwaves) are con-
sidered [268] along with the visual inspection
Also for overhead lines, temperature moni- of surge marks in the series spark gaps (which
toring by optical waveguides in the overhead requires sophistcated experience). In view of
conductor is feasible. Similar to cables, a tem- the high reliability of the arrester and the high
perature profile can be recorded and optimal costs of monitoring, which generally has to be
utilization of overhead lines is effected up to implemented with unreliable electronics, the
the actual thermal limits. usefulness of the mentioned methods is still
Also (random) monitoring of the contact debatable [268].
points with the aid of an infrared camera is of
practical significance (thermography, thermo- d) SF6 circuit-breaker
graphic imaging). Owing to ageing processes
For SF6 circuit-breakers, monitoring is mainly
and corrosion, the contact resistance increases,
restricted to monitoring the gas pressure and
local overheating can occur and the stability of
the contact can be lost. With the help of meas-
ured temperatures, the contact resistance can
Larger Smaller
be calculated based on a thermal equivalent signal amplitude signal amplitude
circuit, and a statement about the remaining
service life is made [266].
Cable joint or
cable entrance
Some other monitoring procedures, such as the fitting
visualization of corona discharges on over-
head line fittings with UV filters (Section Cable dielectric
6.4.2.9), are only used for commissioning Conductor
tests, for random inspections or in substanti-
ated suspicious cases.
Partial discharge impulse
For inspecting composite insulators, UV ra-
diation measurements and measurements with
low-light amplifiers are especially considered Figure 6.4.8-4: Directional coupler technique.
496 6 TESTING, MEASURING AND DIAGNOSIS

the hydraulic systems. Further developments (switching speeds, switching paths), spring
are related to measurement and evaluation of drives or hydraulic drives [268]. The objective
gas parameters (pressure, mixture ratio and of monitoring is to be able to change over to
temperatures), mechanical parameters condition-based maintenance intervals.
 mized according to Section 2.3.1.3, occurs in
7 APPLICATIONS such a radial-field cable....
Note: Owing to a temperature gradient, a conductivity
gradient results, which leads to significant field distor-
After describing the principles and the tech- tions and space charges in the case of DC voltage stress,
nologies of high voltage engineering in the as in Figure 2.4-27.
earlier Sections, typical applications will also
be presented by way of example. The range of Cables are designed as single-conductor ca-
probable applications does not allow a com- bles and three-conductor cables (single-core
plete and thorough overview. However, spe- or three-core cables) with different insulation
cial monographs are available for most of the systems [179], Figure 7.1.1-1a) to g).
topics. Moreover, reference should be made to
previous Sections, which have already dealt A reliable insulation requires a close, cavity-
with many application examples. free contact between the conductors and the
dielectric. It is guaranteed by inner and outer
semi-conductive layers acting as conductor
screen and insulation screen. In the case of
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems paper-insulated cables, they are made of
graphite paper or copper strips. In polyethyl-
for AC Voltages ene cables, semi-conductive layers are applied
by extrusion of a semi-conductive PE mixture
7.1.1 Cables and Accessories onto the inner conductor and onto the dielec-
tric, which is extruded in the same way (multi-
Cables used for transmission of electrical en- ple extrusions), as in Figures 7.1.1-2 and 5.3-3.
ergy must conduct high currents, insulate the A stranded-conductor shield with current car-
respective operating voltages and overvoltages rying capacity, a bedding layer, a diffusion
and withstand diverse environmental influ- barrier, an armour and a sheath are arranged
ences. Now XLPE cables are almost exclu- on the outer semi-conductive layer (insulation
sively installed for all voltage levels owing to screen), in order to in ensure protection against
economical and ecological advantages and to mechanical damage, against diffusion of
very good operating experience [417]. Owing moisture and against oil leakage, all in addi-
to the long service life of cable installations, tion to the electrical function. This can be im-
many old types of cables are still being used to plemented in different ways depending on the
a great extent [311]. design of the cable.

For example, in the German 110 kV network, there are

cable installations with a system length of approxi- 7.1.1.1 Paper-insulated Cables
mately 4600 km. Until 2002, only about 25% of this
was XLPE cable, but about 22% was low-pressure oil-
filled cable, about 36% was external gas-pressured cable The classic cable insulation consists of many
and about 17% was internal gas-filled cable [311]. layers of paper strips (cable paper d= 80 to
130 μm) that are wound helically and stag-
With the exception of low voltage cables, the gered against each other, as in Figure 5.5-8.
electric field in power cables is confined to the Gaps between adjacent edges of paper are
volume of the dielectric by inner and outer covered by the following paper layers. These
semi-conductive layers, the so-called conduc- gaps allow for the displacement of paper strips
tor and insulation screens. As a result of this, when the cable is bent, Figure 5.5-11. Addi-
partial discharges in undefined cavities are tional layers of the cable structure are wound
eliminated. A nearly cylindrically symmetric on the dielectric. After drying, impregnation is
electric field, which is calculated and opti- carried out with a so-called mass of mineral oil

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4_7
498 7 APPLICATIONS

and resins that is viscous at ambient tempera- Note: If three conductors are led within a common outer
ture (paper-insulated mass-impregnated cable) conductor (belted cable), interstices between the con-
ductor insulations are also stressed electrically, Figure
or with low-viscosity mineral oil (oil-filled 7.1.1-1 a). Hence, they can only be used up to a voltage
cable). level of 10 kV. If three radial-field cables are installed
as three-core cable or triple-sheath cable, as in Figure
Note: For new productions, these cable designs are 7.1.1-1 b), voltage levels up to 30 kV can be used. In the
replaced by polymeric cables of extruded and cross- high voltage range, thermal stability is no longer guar-
linked polyethylene, except for few exceptions (cables anteed.
for high-voltage direct-current transmission), cf. Section
7.1.1.2. However, owing to the long service life of old An external gas pressure cable is made of a
cable installations, these old designs are still in use. mass-impregnated cable in which cavity for-
mation is inhibited by an external pressure on
Mass-impregnated cables have the advantage a lead sheath. The slightly oval cross-section
that the impregnating agent does not leak out allows for the necessary deformation. For this
at cable joints or as a result of damage. How- purpose, the cable must be conducted within a
ever, temperature changes or load changes compression-proof steel pipe (so-called pipe-
create the risk of cavity formation through line compression cable), Figure 7.1.1-1 c).
detachments. Therefore mass-impregnated Through this, protection against the leakage of
cables can only be used up to the medium volt- impregnating agent is also provided. In Ger-
age range, as in Figure 7.1.1-1 a) and b). many, usage is up to a voltage level of 110 kV,

Cable cross-section Dielectric Typical application

a) Mass- Paper and viscous mass

impregnated Low voltage (medium voltage)
cable (belted cable)

Paper and viscous mass Medium voltage (single

b) Mass- conductor mass-impregnated
Original impregnated (three core/ sheath cable
cables are still in use for
cable membrane cable) for HVDC submarine cables)

c) External Mass-impregnated cable with

gas-pressure lead sheath in a steel tube High voltage
cable under external gas pressure

Paper and mineral oil High voltage and

d) Oil-filled cable (low-pressure and high-
pressure oil-filled cable) extra-high voltage

e) Gas-filled Impregnated with mass or

intenal-pressure High voltage
cable with nitrogen (approx. 15 bar)

f) Plastic- (Polyvinylchloride PVC) Low voltage (medium voltage)

insulated
cable Cross-linked polyethylene XLPE Medium voltage and
Today high voltage
g) Pipe-type cable
Sulfur hexafluoride /
(gas-insulated ultra-high voltage
nitrogen mixture
line GIL)

Figure 7.1.1-1: Typical cable cross-sections for different insulation systems (schematic representation). Inner
conductors, outer conductors, conductive layers, pipes, binding bands and sheaths are uniformely plotted in bold.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 499

in other countries rarely up to a voltage level longer thermal stability, Sections 5.3.2.2 and
of 275 kV. 3.5.2. Since it is cheap, PVC is used even to-
day in the low voltage range as insulating ma-
Note: HVDC submarine cables must be mentioned as an
application of single-conductor mass-impregnated ca- terial and sheathing material.
bles which is still up to date, cf. Section 7.2.5.
Currently, the dominant insulating material in
In oil-filled cables, the paper is impregnated all new medium voltage cables and high volt-
with low-viscosity mineral oil, Figure 7.1.1-1 ages cables is cross-linked polyethylene
d). This results in high-quality and thermally (XLPE), Section 5.3.2.1. VPE Cables are in-
stable insulation that is suitable for application creasingly replacing and displacing the classic
up to the extra-high voltage range. In the case mass-impregnated cables and oil-filled cables
of low-pressure oil-filled cables, thermal ex- and are now qualified up to 500 kV [325],
pansion must be compensated by expansion Figure 7.1.1-1 f).
tanks. For this purpose, oil channels for the oil
exchange are formed either through hollow Owing to the solid dielectric, no oil systems or
conductors (single-conductor cables) or compressed-gas systems are necessary and
through the interstices between conductor in- there is no risk of oil loss, gas loss or pressure
sulations (three-core cables). Up to a voltage loss. Furthermore, XLPE has excellent electric
level of Vm = 525 kV, high-pressure oil-filled strength and, owing to low losses, thermal
cables (oilostatic cables) with pressures of 14 stability is very also good. The low long-term
to 16 bar can be used. heat resistance, which amounts to only about
90° C even for cross-linked material, is a dis-
Note: Despite their high-quality insulation, oil-filled
advantage, Section 5.3.2.1. When laying the
cables will more and more be replaced by XLPE cables
even in the high extra-voltage range, since oil losses cables, special care must therefore be taken to
pose a risk to the environment, and on the contrary solid ensure good heat dissipation during service
dielectric offers advantages also during operation. operation. Hence it is often recommended not
to install multiple cables in bundles.
The ageing of oil-paper insulated cables, both
for oil impregnation and mass impregnation, is Medium voltage cables, high voltage cables
comparable with the ageing of similar systems and extra-high voltage cables are manufac-
in power transformers, measuring transformers tured as single-conductor radial-field cables
or bushings. Ageing mechanisms are, for ex- by multiple extrusion of inner semi-conductive
ample, cavity formation, oil ageing, depoly- layer (conductor screen), PE dielectric and
merization or wetting. Hence, corresponding outer semi-conductive layer (insulation screen)
diagnosis methods such as analyses of insu- on the conductor in one manufacturing process
lating oil, partial discharge measurements or (triple extrusion). The quality and the electric
dielectric measurements are also applied, cf. strength of cable core depend essentially on
Section 6.4.7. the care and cleanliness in this process step,
In gas-filled internal-pressure cables, cavi- Section 5.3.2.1 with Figure 5.3-3. Multiple
ties are impregnated with compressed gas of extrusion guarantees an intimate connection
high electric strength (N2, approx. 15 bar), between semi-conductive layers (screens) and
Figure 7.1.1-1 e). dielectric which was not always achieved for
old cable designs. Subsequently, cross-linking
of polyethylene (PE) to XLPE takes place in
7.1.1.2 Plastic-insulated Cables the three extruded layers. In the case of the so-
called horizontal method, the extruded core is
The first plastic-insulated medium voltage drawn with the aid of a lubricating agent
cables were made of polyvinylchloride through the heated cross-linking pipe, in which
(PVC). However, owing to high dielectric peroxides, that were admixed prior to this,
losses in the high voltage range, there is no cause spatial cross-linking. The use of a hori-
500 7 APPLICATIONS

zontal movement enables eccentricities in the

core to be largely avoided [325]. Thereafter, 16 Operating field strength (r.m.s. values)
semi-conductive tapes, wires, bedding layers, 14 at the inner semi-conductive
armour and a diffusion barrier are wound onto layer (conductor screen)
12 in kV/mm
the cable core, Figure 7.1.1-2. The outer
sheath is again extruded from PE or PVC. 10
8
For the dimensioning of XLPE cables, quite 6
low operating field strengths of around 2 to 4
4 VN
kV/mm (r.m.s. values) were at first used for
medium voltage levels. This resulted in these 2 kV
cables having a strength far above the test re-
quirements. With increasing experience and 24 72 124 245 420 525
improving production technology, the operat-
ing field strengths for higher voltages were Figure 7.1.1-3: Typical operating field strengths
raised further up to 15 kV/mm, in order to be in XLPE cables [312].
able to specify the diameter of cables at an
acceptable level for transport and laying, Fig- Electrical weak points occur especially due to
ure 7.1.1-3. faults during assembly of cable accessories
and rarely in the cable dielectric itself.
Note: This approach contradicts the high voltage engi-
neering law of enlargement (statistical size effect), ac- The ageing of XLPE dielectric must not be
cording to which larger insulations have a lower compared with that of oil-paper insulations:
strength, Section 3.1.3. However, this is possible be- there is neither thermal ageing nor cavity for-
cause the strength reserves of the XLPE material have
not been exploited by far at low voltage levels, cf. Sec- mation. However, there is a certain amount of
tion 5.3.2.1. sensitivity to moisture ingress, which has
caused problems with the first XLPE cable
designs: under the effect of the electric field,
Inner conductor (stranded)
in the presence of moisture and owing to elec-
trochemical processes, small tree-like struc-
Inner semi-conductive layer tures, so-called “water trees”, are formed
(extruded conductor screen)
which increase the local field owing to the
XLPE dielectric (ex- high permittivity of water and grow in the di-
truded) with radially
symmetric field rection of the field. Although they form an
obvious sign of cable ageing, they can only be
Outer semi-conductive layer
(extruded insulation screen)
the cause of instantaneous hazard when fine
discharge channels, so-called “electrical
Conductive tape trees”, develop from them. The length of
Stranded-conductor “water trees” is considered an ageing indica-
shield with copper tape tor, since it has a (weak) relationship with the
Bedding layer residual strength of the insulation [311]. How-
ever, a section of cable has to be cut out for
Armour and
diffusion barrier determining the water tree lengths. Further-
more, IRC analysishas been found to be a
method that allows a statement about the over-
Thermoplastic sheath
(extruded) all ageing condition of the cable, Section
6.4.7.4.

Figure 7.1.1-2: Design of a single-conductor XLPE

By the modification of materials, construction
high voltage cable (schematic representation). and production processes, the sensitivity to
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 501

“water trees” is reduced to such an extent that erties are very low magnetic field strengths
even in the presence of free water, a service outside of the line (even in comparison with
life of 40 to 50 years is expected. Therefore, cables). Additionally, the GIL doesn’t pose
further measures are often omitted for medium any danger to the environment, even for very
voltage cables [311]. high short circuit currents [314].

High voltage cables and, to some extent, also Examples of use are the replacement of cables,
medium voltage cables are designed to be lon- e.g. for reducing the fire hazard in tunnels,
gitudinally watertight, by embedding a swell- especially also in publicly accessible areas,
ing tape or swelling powder (water blocking replacement of overhead lines, e.g. owing to
powder) in the sheath. High voltage cables space requirements or for aesthetic reasons, as
generally have a laterally watertight design in well as reducing the magnetic field strengths
the form of a diffusion resistant metallic in the environment of power transmission
sheathing. The most insensitive covering is the routes.
corrugated aluminum sheath, furthermore lead
casings and, as a lighter alternative, even an In a first generation, a length of over 100 km
aluminum-composite layer sheath of a lami- was installed and experience of about 30 years
nate of aluminum foil with a PE sheath have was obtained. A new generation is distin-
been proven of value. guished by improvements, especially by intro-
ducing a N2/SF6 gas mixture, by elastic con-
The designs so far are related to fixed cables to nections of aluminum pipes, by using standar-
be laid for power transmission and power dis- dized modules, by automatic welding, by di-
tribution. In the industrial application, how- rect installation in the ground with the help of
ever, there is also a large demand for flexible pipeline installing methods and by increasing
cables, which, for instance, must supply large the rate of installation. Through this, distinct
drives with medium voltage in sometimes very reductions in cost can be achieved, which
rough environments. Flexible insulating mate- make the GIL an economical alternative in the
rials, e.g. silicone elastomer, are used for the case of high power levels above approximately
flexible cables, cf. Section 5.3.3.5. Conductors 1000 MVA.
are manufactured by stranding of many indi-
vidual wires and this requires special exper- Similarly to gas-insulated switchgear, an on-
tise, so that alternating mechanical stresses site test with mobile resonance systems (possi-
(e.g. during regular coiling and uncoiling) can bly as segmented testing) is necessary for the
be borne without damage. GIL after assembly to detect assembly faults.
UHF diagnosis is recommended for partial
discharge measurements [313], Section
7.1.1.3 Gas-insulated Lines (GIL) 6.4.2.8.

The technology of metal-enclosed tubular

conductors, which is known from gas-insu- 7.1.1.4 Cable Accessories (Cable Fittings)
lated switchgear, can also be used in gas-in-
sulated lines (GIL) and pipe-type cables for The end of a cable with uncovered and bare
power transmission over longer distances, Fig- conductor insulation according to Figure 7.1.1-
ure 7.1.1-1 g). The GIL combines the advan- 2 represents a creepage configuration with an
tages of cables and overhead lines [313]: sim- extremely low partial discharge inception volt-
ilarly to a cable, the system is enclosed and age, cf. Sections 2.4.5 and 3.2.6 with Figure
shielded, but permittivity and capacitance are 3.2-35. It is therefore necessary to provide for
lower. Moreover, the dielectric cannot age, it a field grading at the edge of the outer con-
cannot be thermally overloaded and it is self- ductor and for increasing the dielectric
healing. New and highly advantageous prop- strength in the environment of the bare cable
502 7 APPLICATIONS

0% 25 % 50 % 75 %

Outdoor
100 %
toroid

Housing insulator
Deflector Oil or gas
Cable electrode Cable insulation

Grading cone or stress cone resp. Conductor

Figure 7.1.1-4: Cable termination with grading cone (stress cone) and housing insulator. Top: Diagram with
equipotential lines. Bottom: Sectional view, 145 kV termination, photo Tyco Electronics now TE Connectivity.

insulation [180], [464]. There are different a) Cable terminations (cable entrance fittings)
technologies available for this (geometrical,
An outdoor cable termination for a high
capacitive, refractive, resistive and non-linear
voltage XLPE cable shall be considered as an
field grading or potential grading, respec-
example, Figure 7.1.1-4. A grading cone (or
tively) and these are explained in Section
stress cone respectively) of ethylene-propylene
2.4.5. In particular, geometrical field grading
elastomer (EPR ethylene-propylene rubber) or
is applied for cable accessories. However,
silicone elastomer (SIR silicone rubber) with
there are also solutions for the medium voltage
integrated conductive deflector electrode is
range using refractive, resistive and non-linear
placed on the bare cable insulation and con-
grading.
tacted with the outer semi-conductive layer
Note: Resistive grading is especially proposed for the
(insulation screen) of the cable; cf. also Figure
new HVDC cable fittings in order to handle the migra- 5.3-21. Assembly is analogous to the assembly
tion of electric fields at DC stress owing to temperature of cable joints by the slip-on technique or the
variations and related conductivity variations [496], cold-shrinking technique, Section 7.1.1.4b).
Section 7.2.5.5.
At least for the high voltage levels, the grading
The field grading media can be applied in the cone or stress cone is situated in a housing
form of tubes, tapes, elastomer bodies or lay- insulator (porcelain insulator or composite
ers, for example, using the slip-on technique, insulator made of glass-fiber-reinforced plastic
the hot-shrinking technique, the cold-shrinking tube and silicone sheds) containing a highly
technique and the winding technique. A few insulating medium (e.g. oil, oil-type filling
examples are considered in the following sec- mass, SF6-gas). The equipotential lines are
tions. widened by the grading contour of the deflec-
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 503

tor electrode in such a way that in the outside The conductive deflector must also be con-
space and in the interface between cable and nected at the earth potential of the outer semi-
stress cone, lower tangential field strengths conductive layer (insulation screen) with great
result that can be handled. The stress cone care, i.e. without cavities forming against the
must fill that space in which the field strength cable insulation, e.g. by means of semi-con-
would be too high for the surrounding insu- ductive tapes and through a press fit on the
lating medium. The diameter of the housing outer semi-conductive layer of the cable.
insulator is to be designed large enough, so
that unacceptable field strengths do not occur For XLPE medium-voltage cables, one-piece
in the adjoining atmosphere. Generally, opti- slip-on cable terminations (or cable entrance
mization is by field calculation. fittings respectively) made of silicone elas-
tomer with integrated deflector and outdoor
A steady contact pressure through radial ex- shed profile are provided, Figure 7.1.1-5 (top
tension of the permanently elastic stress cone left). Even for XLPE high-voltage cables and
is necessary for increasing the strength of the XLPE extra-high-voltage cables, elastic slip-
interface between the stress cone and the cable on stress cones are used and the traditional
insulation. The inside diameter of the stress winding technique is replaced. The slip-on
cone is smaller than the outside diameter of the elements can be manufactured in the factory
uncovered cable insulation. The quality of the under optimal conditions and pre-checked; and
tight push fit and the operational reliability of they can be assembled relatively easily, thus
the cable are largely dependent on the care increasing the reliability of the cable termina-
taken during assembly. tions.

Medium-voltage slip-on cable termination with cable lug

(photo Tyco Electronics, now TE Connectivity) Partition insulator
Stress cone
Conductor

Cable Cable Conductor

Plug-in cable
connection system
Medium-voltage slip-on cable termination SF 6
for a gas-insulated
(schematic representation)
switchgear GIS

Joint insulation body

Cable Cable
Outer semi-conductive
layer (insulation screen)
Conductive coating
Deflector Compression connection
Connection joint for XLPE cables Shielding electrode

Figure 7.1.1-5: Examples of cable accessories.

504 7 APPLICATIONS

Figure 7.1.1-6: Permanent elastic connecting joint of silicone elastomer for XLPE medium voltage cables. Top: Joint
body with conductive deflectors for geometric field grading (left and right, earth potential) and with "Faraday cage" for
covering the metallic through connector (center, high voltage potential). Bottom: Joint mounted according to cold-
shrinking technique, cf. Figure 7.1.1-7. The sheath is connected on both sides by coil springs, the outermost layer is
formed by the external tube. Photos Tyco Electronics, now TE Connectivity.

Note: In the case of paper cables, which are used less Two deflectors and a shielding electrode of
and less frequently, the stress cone is coiled from insu- conductive elastomer are cast in the joint body.
lation paper and it is impregnated with oil to be free of
cavities. A funnel-shaped metallic cone that is pressed
The shielding electrode ("Faraday-cage") co-
against the stress cone is used as a deflector. Alterna- vers the junction of the two conductors. The
tively, field grading can also be carried out with metallic earth potential of the outer semi-conductive
foils, i.e. with capacitive grading layers in the stress layers (insulation screen) on the cable contin-
cone (grading cone). The insulator diameter can be ues into a conductive coating of the joint in-
reduced in this way, cf. Section 7.1.2.
sulation body. There is a highly stressed in-
Note: For cable tests, special cable test terminations
terface between the joint insulation and the
with resistive potential grading using water are used, cable insulation, which must be carefully exe-
Section 7.1.1.5. cuted. The explanations given for slip-on ter-
minations (lubricant, press fit, and freedom
In plug-in cable connector systems, e.g. for from cavities) are valid analogously. For as-
transformers or for gas-insulated switchgear, sembly, the joint must first be completely
the elastic stress cone completely fills the par- pushed over one of the cables. After estab-
tition insulator [181], [182]. This leads to an- lishing the conductor connection, the joint is
other highly stressed interface. The field dis- pulled back into its final position [180]. Two
tributions results from the deflector geometry methods are specially considered for the as-
and electrode geometry, Figure 7.1.1-5 (top sembly:
right). Filling the joints with oil is necessary
above Vm = 145 kV. 1. In a slip-on termination, the grading cone
is pushed with the aid of a lubricating paste
b) Cable joints and radially stretched with the build-up of me-
chanical stress. The press fit created in this
Cable joints are used for connecting two cable way ensures an interface contact that is free of
sections. In the case of XLPE cables, prefabri- partial discharges, wherein cavities in the in-
cated slip-on joints of EPR or silicone elas- terface are filled by the lubricating paste used
tomer can now be used up to the highest volt- for sliding.
ages, Figure 7.1.1-5 (bottom). Along with the
assembly of the joints by slipping on, it is pos- 2. During the so-called cold-shrinking tech-
sible to assemble pre-stretched joints (cold- nique, the permanent elastic elastomer body is
shrinking technique), Figures 7.1.1-6 and -7, initially stretched on a spiral and stored in this
or shrinkable joints (hot-shrinking technique), state. During the assembly, the expanded body
Section 5.3.3.4. is applied over the cable insulation and is let
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 505

onto the surface by removing the assembly ror risk cannot be completely ruled out. For
spiral, Figure 7.1.1-7, cf. Section 5.3.3.5. For this reason, additional tests must be under-
this, a certain amount of extension must re- taken for the already laid and assembled
main to guarantee the press fit. cable system. This includes the system type
test, long term test, qualification test and on-
Note: The traditional taped joints are manufactured on- site test.
site from self-bonding EPR tapes with a winding ma-
chine. They are used for up to 220 kV.
New cable systems, e.g. for development of
Note: In the case of paper insulated cables, the joint new voltage levels, must be subjected to ex-
insulation is wound from insulation paper and impreg- tensive qualification tests, and indeed as a
nated with oil. Metallic funnels are used as deflectors. system, i.e. with cables, joints and terminations
[326].

7.1.1.5 Testing Cable Systems Pre-qualification tests for a 400 kV XLPE cable section,
with which the operating stress of 35 years should be
Test voltages for cable systems and its compo- simulated, are mentioned as an example [327]:
nents are related to the Test voltage: 400 kV
(1.7 times rated voltage)
R.m.s. value of line-to-ground voltage V0 Conductor temperature:
90 to 95 °C
with which the cable dielectric is stressed in Load cycles: Heating cycles 12h/36 h
operation, Table 7.1.1-1. Test duration: 8760 h (one year)
Lightning impulse voltage test and switching im-
Tests for individual cables and accessories pulse voltage test after completion of the tests (1175
include (also similar to other operating equip- and 950 kV resp.)
ments) development tests, type tests, selection An additional qualification test with enhanced require-
tests and routine tests. After these tests, how- ments was carried out for the joints with 100m long
ever, additional processing steps which have a cable units:
definitive influence on the quality of the insu- PD measurement: 1.7 V0 = 400 kV, q < 5 pC
lation are necessary: While installing the ca-
Long-duration test: 2 V0 = 460 kV, 30 days
bles, large mechanical stresses occur which
Heat cycling test 8/16 h, 90-95
can lead to damage. The subsequent assembly °C, temperature monitoring and
of accessories requires manual operations on PD monitoring
the insulation system itself, so that even with Lightning impulse voltage:
all the necessary care, a certain amount of er- 1425 kV, 10-times pos,
10-times neg.
PD measurement: 1.7 V0 = 400 kV, q < 5 pC
Long duration test: 1.7 V0 = 400 kV, 4 days

The routine test of individual components

and the on-site test for verifying the opera-
tional readiness of his individual cable system
are of maximum significance for the operator,
Table 7.1.1-1.
Figure 7.1.1-7: Assembly of a permanent elastic joint by
cold-shrinking technique: Joint (including outer tube)
that is pre-stretched and present on a spiral is arranged
a) Routine test
over the connecting point and is lowered by pulling out
the spiral (left to right in the image), Figure 7.1.1-6
High voltage cables are tested in their com-
shows a section after the assembly. Photo Tyco plete manufactured length in the factory, in
Electronics, now TE Connectivity. order to verify the freedom from cavities of the
506 7 APPLICATIONS

Table 7.1.1-1: Voltage tests for cables and cable systems [356].
Routine tests (for cables) On-site tests (for cable systems)

Standard Frequency Voltage PD Frequency Voltage PD

1 kV < U < 40 kV

DIN VDE 0276-620 49 - 61 Hz 3.5 Vo/ 5 min 2.0 Vo/ 2 pC 45 - 65 Hz 2.0 Vo/ 60 min ---
0.1 Hz 3.0 Vo/ 60 min ---
IEC 60502 49 - 61 Hz 3.5 Vo/ 5 min 1.73 Vo/ 10 pC 49 - 61 Hz 1.73 Vo/ 5 min ---
49 - 61 Hz Vo/ 24 h ---
DC 4.0 Vo/ 15 min ---

40 kV < U < 150 kV

IEC 60840 49 - 61 Hz 2.5 Vo/ 30 min 1.5 Vo/ 49 - 61 Hz Vo/ 24 h ---

no detectable PD 20 - 300 Hz 1.73 - 2 Vo/ 1 h ---

Obsolate: 49 - 61 Hz 1.5 Uo/ 10 pC 49 - 61 Hz 1.73 Vo/ 5 min ---

DC 3.0 Vo/ 15 min ---

150 kV < U < 500 kV

IEC 62067 49 - 61 Hz 2.5 Vo/ 30 min 1.5 Vo/ 10 pC 49 - 61 Hz Vo/ 24 h ---

2.0 Vo/ 60 min 20 - 300 Hz 1.1 - 1.7 Vo/ 1 h ---

cable by partial discharge measurement at AC b) On-site test

voltage in the context of the routine test. This
gives rise to two problems: on the one hand, Weak points of cable systems generally do not
very high capacitive charging currents must lie in the cable insulation but in the joints and
be supplied, and this is possible with appropri- terminations with their interfaces. In addition
ate powerful test transformers or series reso- to the manufacturer’s tests of the components,
nance test systems, Section 6.2.1.5. On the on-site testing of assembled cable systems is
other hand, very high voltages must be applied necessary for verifying operational readiness,
and this requires special test terminations, Section 6.2.1.6.
Figure 6.2.1-7. They consist of an insulation
housing, in which the cable with bare insula- Testing longer cable lengths with power fre-
tion projects over a very long length. The gap quency is very difficult owing to high capaci-
between housing and insulation is filled with tive charging currents. Therefore, for paper-
water, which effects a resistive potential insulated cables, a DC voltage test was origi-
grading through the axial conduction current. nally initiated, in which even very long cable
lengths could be tested with comparatively
XLPE cable must be practically free of partial compact systems. However, XLPE cables ex-
discharges owing to the sensitive dielectric. hibit a very poor sensitivity to damage of the
The PD intensities mentioned in Table 7.1.1-1, dielectric, so that even incisions in the dielec-
therefore, must not be considered as tolerable tric or nails driven into it were not detected in
PD levels, but rather as a practicable specifi- the DC voltage tests. Very high DC voltage
cation with regard to realizable measuring sen- levels can furthermore induce preliminary
sitivities and the background noise level. New damage to the dielectric. DC voltage tests,
specifications stipulate “no identifiable dis- therefore, are only applied to check the intact-
charges from the test object” [356]. ness of the external cable sheathing.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 507

Note: Owing to the very low conductivity of XLPE, whether a PD impulse has occurred in the joint
space charges or surface charges can build up during a or outside using two sensors on both the sides
DC voltage test, which can be discharged only very
slowly and can even present a risk for the electric
of a cable joint.
strength of the insulation.
After long-term operation, dielectric diagnosis
Considerably better reproduction of the real measurements on installed cables can give
operating stresses is provided by AC voltage indications of the ageing (in paper cables) or
tests. In practice, tests with low frequency water-tree damages (in XLPE cables). In the
voltages of 0.1 Hz (sinusoidal or cosinusoidal- case of a breakdown, a defect can be local-
rectangular) with damped AC voltages (oscil- ized via the propagation time difference be-
lating voltages) or with AC voltages close to tween an electrical signal and an acoustic
power frequency (f = 20 to 300 Hz) are carried ground-borne sound signal.
out, Section 6.2.1.6, Table 6.2.1-2, Figure
6.2.1-10. The relevant test technique is de-
scribed in Section 6.2.1.5. 7.1.2 Bushings
Partial discharge measurements would be Leading a conductor through an opening in a
desirable also for on-site tests. However, ow- grounded wall (“bushing”) presents a creepage
ing to the usual interference levels, they can be configuration with low partial discharge in-
executed only in special cases and then only ception voltages, Figure 3.2-35 and -36.
with difficulty. Therefore, there are no relevant Bushings must increase the strength to such an
specifications for this, Table 7.1.1-1 (right). extent and the field distribution must be ho-
Despite this, PD measurements can be used, mogenized to such an extent that test stresses
for example, for verifying the assembly quality and operating stresses are withstood. That is,
of cable accessories: with the help of the di- for walls, substations, transformers and gen-
rectional coupler technique described in Sec- erators, bushings fulfill the same function as
tion 6.4.2.5, it is possible to differentiate cable terminations for cables.

PDI: a few 10 kV
(a) Ungraded (b) Geometrically Oil
Oil
low voltage graded medium
bushing voltage bushing

PD inception: a few kV

Outdoor side Outdoor side

GIS
PD inception: a few 100 kV
Oil or
SF6 gas

SF6 gas
L g2 PD inception: a few 100 kV
L g1
(d) Geometrically graded
(c) Capacitively graded high voltage bushing (fine-grading) high voltage bushing

Figure 7.1.2-1: Ungraded and graded bushings with typical orders of magnitude of partial discharge
inception (PDI).
508 7 APPLICATIONS

7.1.2.1 Field Grading or Potential Grading creepage discharge inception voltage at the grading-
layer edges and the actual applied voltage, cf. Section
3.2.6. Since the highest local field strengths appear at
Ungraded bushings are suitable only for low the grading-layer edges, these should be embedded in
voltages of a few kV owing to the discharges an electrically strong medium and should not emerge
at the edges on the wall side, Figure 7.1.2-1(a). un-insulated at the surface of the core.
In the medium voltage range, e.g. in distribu-
tion transformers, economical hollow porce- Fine-grading and high voltage resistant embedding of
lain bushings are used, Figure 7.1.2-1(b). the grading-layer edges are measures which guarantee
the insulation function even for high lightning impulse
Owing to its oil filling, about ten times higher voltage stresses.
electric strength results in the area of ground-
side edges. Up to the voltage level of 123 kV, If the grading is designed as a coarse grading with only
bushings can be implemented with acceptable a few cylindrical grading electrodes, considerably
diameters by rounding of edges, formation of higher edge field strengths occur at the grading-layer
double-sided deflector geometry (on both edges. Possibly, other designs of self-supporting grading
electrodes with rounded edges are selected in these
sides) and coatings of conductor and grading cases. Owing to this, the overall larger insulation di-
electrode. ameters are obtained.

However, high voltage bushings generally

Similar to cable terminations according to Fig-
have a capacitive field grading, since this
ure 7.1.1-4, also geometrically graded bush-
allows the diameter to be kept small, Figure
ings can be implemented up to the high volt-
7.1.2-1 (c). On the cylindrical, longitudinally
age range, Figure 7.1.2-1 (d). In order to limit
graded conductive grading layers, a potential
the field strengths at the insulator surfaces, at
distribution results, which is determined by the
the conductor and at the electrode to the re-
mutual capacitances [183]. For this, the aim is
spective permissible values, a grading elec-
uniform potential grading along both the
trode is necessary, which is arranged at an
grading lengths Lg1 and Lg2. adequate distance above the conductor and
under the insulator and has a sufficiently large
The potentials of the grading layers even in-
rounding. Owing to this, much larger diame-
fluence the field distribution outside the bush-
ters are obtained for the bushing insulator than
ing core and homogenize the field distribution
for a comparable capacitively graded bushing,
at the surface of the housing insulator and in
cf. Figure 7.1.2-1 (d), (c).
the adjoining media respectively. Under this, it
can be imagined that the grading layers pass
Other grading methods, based on materials of
on to the corresponding equipotential surfaces,
increased conductivity (resistive field grad-
cf. also Figure 1-1. It has been approved that
ing) or increased permittivity (refractive
the grading length Ls1 should be chosen to be grading), can be generally applied also for
about half the length of the flashover distance bushings, but have not yet been widely spread.
and must be placed somewhere in the center.
Note 1: In the case of a bushing between two media
with different electric strengths, both the grading 7.1.2.2 Calculation of Capacitive Grading
lengths can be different such as between oil and air or
SF6 and air. Wall bushings (air-air) or oil-gas bushings For the calculation of a capacitive field grad-
respectively have two comparably long grading lengths. ing, for undivided end-to-end grading lay-
ers, the two grading lengths Lg1 and Lg2 are
Note 2: It has been approved that the grading must be
designed to be finely graded as a so-called fine grading integrated into one resultant grading length Lg,
with radial distances of approximately 1 to 3 mm. For Figure 7.1.2-2 (top):
this, metallic foils are wound along with an insulating
medium (paper, crepe paper, film) which must be made
suitable for high voltages by drying and impregnation.
Lg = Lg1 + Lg2 (7.1.2-1)
This leads to a favorable relationship between the
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 509

The following is applicable to axial and radial

Flange, ground layer
field strengths L g = L g1+ L g2
n
x 'x
...
Eax = - 'V/'x (7.1.2-2) 'C 'V 'r
...
and 1
Erad = 'V/'r. (7.1.2-3) 0
Inner conductor
Assuming a capacitive voltage division, the r Erad
partial voltage 'V is calculated from the total x Eax
voltage V, the total capacitance C and the par-
tial capacitance 'C = (H·2Sr·x)/'r: n
L g1 oder L g2

... 'x
'V = V·C/'C = V·C·'r/(H·2Sr·x) (7.1.2-4) ...
'r
1
In this, 2Sr and x are the circumference and 0
the length respectively of the cylindrical layer Inner conductor
under consideration. By a transition to infini-
tesimal sections 'x o dx and 'r o dr, differ- Figure 7.1.2-2: Capacitive grading in a bushing
ential equations are obtained from Eqs. (7.1.2- core, both as an overall grading (top) and as a
2) and (-3) with Eq. (7.1.2-4). They determine boundary-area grading (bottom).
the profile of the grading contour [22]:
C r
xn2  x 2  Ls ˜ ˜ ln n (7.1.2-7)
C 1 dr ʌH r
Eax (r , x) V ˜ ˜ ˜ (7.1.2-5)
2 ʌH x ˜ r dx The overall capacitance C is considered here
as constant parameter and is determined by
C 1 applying the geometrical boundary conditions
Erad (r , x) V˜ ˜ (7.1.2-6)
2 ʌH x ˜ r x = x0 and r = r0. After elimination of C, the
Note: The simplest solution is obtained under the as-
grading layer length x is calculated:
sumption of constant radial field strength in the dielec-
ln(rn / r )
tric according to Eq. (7.1.2-6). According to x ~ 1/r, the
x xn2  ( x02  xn2 ) (7.1.2-8)
length of the grading layers is shortend hyperbolically ln(rn / r0 )
with the radius. According to Eq. (7.1.2-5), the axial
field strength is dependent on x and r in this case. That
is, a non-linear voltage distribution along the surface Note: Another approach for solving differential equa-
results, which adversely affects the voltage distribution tions (7.1.2-5) and (-6) is the specification that the ratio
at the housing insulator surface. Since the electric of Erad/Eax = a shall remain constant. This gives a de-
strength along the surface is generally considerably clining linear relationship between r and x that is x = b –
lower than that within the insulation body, a solution for a·r. The quantity b can be determined by the definition
which the field strength at the surface remains constant of boundary conditions for x = x0 and r = r0. However,
is mostly sought. A certain amount of non-uniformity of the field strengths are constant neither in the axial nor in
radial field strength in the insulation body must then be the radial direction.
accepted and taken into consideration during dimen-
sioning. When calculating unilateral boundary-area
gradings, non-negligible stray capacitances to
For a linear axial voltage distribution at the the inner conductor (and probably even to the
surface, Eq. (7.1.2-5) must be solved under the outer conductor) must also be considered
condition Eax(r,x) = V/Lg = constant. After along with the partial capacitances between the
isolating the variables x and r, integration from grading layers, Figure 7.1.2-2 (bottom). This
the external ground layer (xn, rn) up to any results in a lattice network of longitudinal ca-
grading layer (x, r) gives the conditional equa- pacitances and parallel capacitances. The
tion for the grading layer length x: magnitude of the parallel capacitances can
510 7 APPLICATIONS

only be estimated from the geometrical data. Moreover, the maximum field strength occurs
Exact values require knowledge of the field at the edges, so that this area should be appro-
distribution. priately embedded in a medium of high electric
strength.
Increased currents flow through the outer par-
tial capacitances and cause increased voltage
drops and a non-linear voltage distribution at 7.1.2.3 Designs
the surface. A linear voltage distribution is
achieved when the outer capacitances are in- Capacitively graded bushings are manufac-
creased by extending the length of the layers tured in various designs depending on the pur-
or by displacement of the position of the layers pose of the application, Figure 7.1.2-3. Flash-
into internal areas of the bushing core. over distances and creepage path lengths re-
sult from the respective ambient conditions, cf.
Note: The dimensioning of the grading can be per-
formed, for example, iteratively [26]: for given constant
Section 3.2.6.4 and Figure 3.2-38. Signifi-
edge distances 'x and insulation thicknesses 'r, the cantly shorter lengths are adequate under oil
potential differences 'V are calculated for a given initial and compressed gas. Diameters are determined
condition, taking the lattice network structure into con- from the permissible stress of the dielectric in
sideration. Depending on the deviation from the mean the bushing core. Standard operating field
value V/n, the overlapping lengths of the layers are strengths lie between 2 and 4 kV/mm for high-
changed. Any further iteration step consists of a recal-
culation of potential differences with subsequent cor- quality large-volume insulations, cf. Section
rection of the overlapping lengths. 3.5.3 with Figure 3.5-5 and Table 3.5-2.

Note: the edges of the conductive grading lay- The classic bushing insulation is made of oil-
ers shall not come up to the surface of the in- impregnated paper (OIP). The bushing core
sulation body neither for the boundary-area is formed by winding of paper web material, in
grading nor for the overall grading. Bare elec- which metallic foils are inserted as grading
trodes reduce the electric strength in the ad- layers after a specific radius increase in the
joining gas gaps or oil gaps, cf. Figure 3.4.2.6. mm range, Figure 5.5-9. After heating up the

Outdoor-indoor bushing (wall bushing)

Outdoor-gas bushing
or
outdoor-oil bushing Oil-gas bushing
(outdoor-transformer (transformer-gas
bushing) bushing)

Figure 7.1.2-3: Comparison of capacitively graded high voltage bushings of the same voltage level for different
applications with the appropriate bushing cores (i.e. insulating bodies). Grading contours are under the cones.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 511

winding and drying under vacuum and tem-

perature, impregnation can be carried out un-
der vacuum with dried and degassed oil, cf.
Section 5.5.1.4 with Figure 5.5-13.
Note: Analogously to the so-called “hard-paper wind-
ing” (resin-bonded paper winding), the oil-impregnated
paper winding is also referred to as “soft-paper”.

Subsequently, the impregnated winding or

core respectively is assembled in a bushing
housing consisting of a flange, housing insu-
lators and top fittings. The evacuated housing
is finally filled with oil. These economical oil-
impregnated bushings are preferred for use in
transformer manufacturing. The comparatively
small quantity of oil in the bushings is not a
big issue for an oil-filled transformer.

In the past, oil-free (“dry”) bushing cores

made of resin-bonded paper (RBP) or hard
paper respectively were wound from phenolic
resin-impregnated paper and hot-cured.
Thereby, the paper layers are bonded, but the
resulting body is not completely impregnated, Figure 7.1.2-4: 123 kV RIP bushing with silicone sheds
after an internal short circuit (40 kA, 0.5 s, 50 Hz) [57].
it still contains some air. Cavities, and thereby Photo by HSP Hochspannungsgeräte, Troisdorf.
partial discharges, can not be avoided there-
fore, cf. Section 5.3.3.3. For new bushings,
resin-bonded paper is thus no longer state of RIP bushings have a series of advantages
the art, but is still in use in old systems. This is when compared to oil-insulated bushings:
possible as RBP has a comparatively high re- There are neither problems of leakage nor en-
sistance to partial discharges. However, the vironmental impacts from escaping oil. Even
risk of erosion breakdowns is significantly for higher thermal loading, neither oil ageing
higher than for modern insulation technolo- nor gas bubble formation lead to deterioration
gies. of the dielectric properties. In the case of dam-
age, an oil fire cannot occur, Figure 7.1.2-4.
Today, oil-free (“dry”) bushing cores made of
resin-impregnated paper (RIP) are wound RIP cores have either directly vulcanized sili-
from crepe paper, dried and impregnated with cone sheds on the outdoor side or they are as-
unfilled epoxy resin under vacuum which sembled in a porcelain housing insulator or a
guarantees a cavity-free insulating body [69], glass-fiber-reinforced composite insulator with
cf. Figure 5.3-15. During shrinkage of the silicone sheds. The secondary insulation in the
resin during the curing process, the crepe pa- gap between the bushing core and the housing
per can follow without mechanical stress due insulator can be formed by oil, by compressed
to its waviness. Moreover, well-defined small- SF6 gas or by compressible foam which must
scale wrinkling is specified for the smoothly be electrically sufficiently strong and ade-
inserted metal foils. The impregnation and quately thermally conductive.
curing of cavity-free bushing cores with a
length of several meters is possible, but pre- In the future, oil-free (“dry”) bushing cores
sents the greatest challenges to the production made of resin-impregnated synthetics (RIS)
technology, cf. Section 5.3.3.1 d). might more and more be wound also from
512 7 APPLICATIONS

synthetic fabric and impregnated with filled 7.1.3 Transformers

resin under vacuum. It is advantageous that
drying times can be drastically reduced and Transformers are used as power transformers
that the insulating body is less sensitive to hu- for the transmission of electrical energy be-
midity. In order to reduce shrinkage and en- tween different voltage levels, as test trans-
sure mechanical properties, impregnation must formers for the generation of test voltages and
be performed with a filled resin, and this is a test currents and as measuring transformers or
big challenge. Today, RIS technology is only instrument transformers even for the measure-
applicable to the lower high voltage levels ment of currents and voltages.
therefore.
Along with single-phase transformers, mainly
Note: Using gas-impregnated film dielectrics is not three-phase high voltage power transformers
common owing to comparatively higher costs. Never-
theless, voltage transformers and current transformers play a significant role. Especially at the high-
often contain SF6 gas. Therefore, they make use of this est voltage levels, they are expensive and stra-
insulation technology for the design of potential grading tegically important components of the electric
systems quite often, cf. Section 6.3.5. power systems. Figure 7.1.3-1 shows the ex-
ample of a typical oil-insulated construction
Capacitive grading is also possible with a smaller num-
with the three-limb iron core, with the three
ber of metallic cylinders in SF6, which are fixed by
insulating spacers (coarse potential grading). However,
limb assemblies comprising concentric wind-
relatively large diameters are the result of this. More- ings and with the three high voltage bushings.
over, large insulator diameters also occur for geometri- Additionally, important components are the
cal grading. In gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), the on-load tap changer for varying the trans-
insulating gas of the system must also ensure the inter- formation ratio under load by switching be-
nal insulation of the bushing, Figure 7.1.2-1 (d).
tween the winding taps and the automatically
Hollow porcelains and composite insulators controlled cooling circuit of the oil through
made of glass-fiber-reinforced hollow cylin- which the heat loss of the transformer is car-
ders with silicone sheds are used as outdoor ried to the heat exchanger. The oil expansion
side housing insulators, cf. Section 5.3.4. In vessel absorbs the thermal expansion of the
the case of resin-impregnated insulating bod- oil. In the case of gas accumulation, the so-
ies, silicone sheds can be vulcanized directly called Buchholz relay triggers an alarm. Now-
on the bushing core. Above all, the advantage adays, the operating condition of strategically
of composite insulators, in addition to the hy- important transformers is increasingly moni-
drophobicity of the surface and lower weight, tored online with the aid of monitoring-sys-
is a reduced hazard potential in the case of tems and thermal models.
internal short circuits, Figure 7.1.2-4. Porce- The structure of the insulation is determined
lain fragments flying around must not be ex- by the voltage stresses in the windings, be-
pected even with major defects. tween the windings and against the core and
Oil side or gas side housing insulators in the tank. Weight and leakage inductance of a
transformers or substations are generally cast transformer are the result of the insulation dis-
resin parts with cast-in shield electrode for tances and gap widths between windings,
covering the conductor connections. layers and turns. Therefore, it is always
necessary to look for a very compact but reli-
Note: Resin-impregnated bushing cores do not require able insulation design.
any oil side or gas side housing insulators. Owing to
this, very simple oil-gas bushings and oil-oil bushings Although modern transformers exhibit very
are possible, which are practically made of only one low losses (approximately 0.2 to 0.5 %), the
insulating body with a fitted flange. In the case of hot
surrounding media (transformer oil) and very high volt-
heat removal from the insulation also has a
ages, the thermal stability must be checked, cf. Section high significance, since very large power is
3.5.2. transmitted: for example, a relative loss of
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 513

0.2 % for an 800 MVA transformer would 7.1.3.1 Oil-filled Transformers and Dry-
correspond to a power loss of 1.6 MW! Since type Transformers, Reactors
the power loss of windings increases ap-
proximately with the square of the current, the a) Transformers with oil-board insulation
insulation in a weakly loaded transformer is Oil-filled high voltage transformers are
subjected to considerably lower thermal loads insulated by low viscosity insulating liquids
and in a transformer that is overloaded within (generally, mineral oil) and impregnated fiber
a short time, it is subjected to considerably materials (generally, of pressboard or transfor-
higher thermal loads. merboard based on cellulose respectively).
Note: Extreme thermal loads occur, for example, in Thereby good heat removal through con-
traction transformers: in order to save on the weight of vection, a high thermal capacity for short-
the iron core, the magnetic flux density of the core is duration overload and high quality insulation
driven to the extent that large hysteresis losses and of oil channels and solid barriers are guar-
appreciably larger relative losses occur.
anteed simultaneously, cf. Sections 5.4 and
A large number of different designs of trans- 5.5. Furthemore, the hygroscopic behavior of
formers is available for diverse applications, the cellulosic fibers maintains the oil in a dry
but they are not dealt with here. The same condition with a high dielectric strength.
applies to various specific characteristics that
result, for example, from different vector The insulation consisting of oil and board
groups or the integration of on-load tap (pressboard) is discussed in detail in the fol-
changers. lowing Sections 7.1.3.2 to 7.1.3.5 owing to its
importance in high voltage power trans-
In the following section, only the most im- formers. Other insulation systems do not yet
portant transformer insulation systems are dis- have corresponding significance for high volt-
cussed and the focus is on oil-paper insulation age transformers, and therefore will be ex-
that is still dominant in the high voltage area. plained only briefly in the following sections:

High voltage Oil expansion vessel

bushings with Buchholz relay

On-load
tap changer
in a separate
Oil
compartment Yoke

Sensor data Hot spots in the internal areas

(V, I, T, ....) of the limb assemblies
Limb Limb Limb
assembly assembly assembly
see Fig. 7.1-10 Drier
System
management
Monitoring Iron core
system
Tank
Thermal Feedback
Cooling circuit (insulating oil)
model control

Figure 7.1.3-1: Components of on oil-insulated high voltage power transformer (schematic representation).
514 7 APPLICATIONS

b) Dry-type transformers power transformers are possible in principle,

they do not currently represent an economical
Resin-encapsulated windings or resin-bonded
alternative to oil-filled transformers in many
windings are used for so-called dry-type
cases owing to the high costs of the pressure-
power transformers and voltage transfor-
resistant tank. Nevertheless, the oil-free con-
mers in the medium voltage range. In these
struction is of great value for seismic prone re-
applications, the windings are insulated by
gions.
polymeric films or fiber materials. High field
strengths cannot at all be tolerated owing to air
d) Cable transformers
inclusions between the layers. Heat removal
by conduction of heat through the resin encap- Another idea for manufacturing dry, high volt-
sulation is considerably poorer than the con- age transformer windings from wound and ex-
vective heat removal in oil-insulated trans- ternally cooled XLPE cables is described in
formers. Therefore, it leads to power rating Section 7.1.6.3 along with similar applications
limitations and often even to high temperatures (cable generators).
which necessitate the use of thermally stable
materials (e.g. aramide fibers, polyimide e) Superconducting transformers
films). Dry-type transformers have vertical
cooling channels between core and windings, The vision of superconducting transformers
between the windings and even inside the with considerably lower losses is associated
windings themselves to improve removal of with new concepts of the construction of in-
heat. sulation systems based on liquid nitrogen, cf.
Section 7.5.
By eliminating hygroscopic materials (cellu-
lose), time-consuming drying procedures (such f) Reactors
as with pressboard-insulated core-and-coil a-
ssemblies) can be avoided during production. Also high voltage reactors are designed simi-
Moreover, an open structure without a tank is larly to high voltage transformers, and hence
possible. they are not described separately. Instead of a
closed iron core, they use one with a single
The oil-free construction, which is less haz- gap or a distributed gap which determines the
ardous for the environment is also advan- inductance. The winding is similar to a trans-
tageous. Therefore, despite their higher price, former high voltage winding. All types of
dry transformers are often used as medium transformer insulation can be used for the in-
voltage distribution transformers. sulation systems. Examples are oil-paper in-
sulated reactors with an in-tank design for
c) Gas-insulated transformers large reactive power ratings or low-weight
compressed-gas insulated reactors for mobile
Dry-type transformers for the high voltage use. Applications are shunt reactors for the
range can be implemented in a compressed- compensation of reactive power, filter reactors
gas tank under SF6 by means of gas-im- in AC circuits and smoothing reactors in HV-
pregnated polymeric film insulation. They are DC converter stations as well as series-reso-
used, for example, as measuring voltage nance test reactors for on-site AC testing, cf.
transformers or test transformers in gas-in- Section 6.2.1.5.
sulated sitchgear, cf. Section 6.2.1.2. The oil-
free construction is especially advantageeous
in gas-insulated switchgear, in which the in- 7.1.3.2 Windings and On-load Tap Changer
sulation medium SF6 is already present. But
even in outdoor switchgear, SF6-insulated in- The windings can be designed as a foil wind-
strument transformers have been established ings (sheet or strip windings), multi-layer
owing to low fire load. Although gas-insulated windings or disc windings, Figure 7.1.3-2.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 515

Foil windings, sheet windings or strip wind- Core

ings are wound from sheet material or strip
material (e.g. from copper foils, sheets or
strips respectively) along with the interlayer Winding
insulation, Figure 7.1.3-2 (top). Since the total (Conductor foil or sheet)
winding voltage V occurs across the very nar- Interlayer insulation and
row front sides of the winding, the foil wind- interturn insulation resp.
ing is a typical low voltage winding. The ad-
vantage here is that as a result of the broad Foil winding
strip-shaped conductor, a favorable distribu- (Sheet or strip winding)
tion of the currents and the electro-mechanical
forces in the case of short-circuit currents oc- V
cur Furthermore, the construction is mechan- Core
Layer
ically stable, and it can easily be manufac-
tured. The interturn insulation, owing to the Interlayer
Trans- insulation
very low turn-to-turn voltage, has no insu- verse
lation function in the usual sense, but has a insu- Interturn
distancing function between the turns to pre- lation insulation
vent turn-to-turn faults. High temperatures of- Turn
ten require the use of temperature-resistant
materials, e.g. of aramide fibers or polyimide Multi-layer winding
films. Paper is also used in oil-insulated
transformers. During drying, the long axial dif- V
fusion paths between the conductor foils must Core Interturn
be considered. Residual moisture would form insulation
conductive bridges and could lead to thermal
instabilities even at very low voltages. Turn

Disc coil
In the case of a layer winding or multi-layer
winding, turns are laid next to each other and V
one layer is laid above the other, Figure 7.1.3- Intercoil
2 (center). A paper winding on the conductor insulation
or an oil-proof enamel coating serves as the
Disc winding
interturn insulation (or turn-to turn insulation
(Pancake or sandwich winding)
respectively). Between the layers, the inter-
layer voltage, which is the doubled voltage per Figure 7.1.3-2: Foil winding, multi-layer winding
layer, must be insulated by the interlayer insu- and disc (sandwich or pancake) winding.
lation of wound and oil-impregnated paper
layers or pressboard layers. Vacuum drying Therefore, cylindrical multi-layer windings are
and vacuum impregnation must be carried out mainly used in the medium voltage range, but
with special care here, since the remaining re- for cost reasons they are now even used up to
sidual gas cannot diffuse easily from the com- 123 kV.
pact multi-layer insulation into the surround-
ing oil. By shortening the layer lengths with increasing
radius, multi-layer windings with a potential
Note: In the case of dry-type transformers with resin-
grading in the axial direction up to half the
enclosed windings, interlayer insulation is carried out
using polymeric films. winding height are achieved. This principle is
especially appropriate for windings that must
The full winding voltage V occurs over the be insulated only on one side against the sur-
relatively narrow front side of the winding. rounding, e.g. as for single-phase test trans-
516 7 APPLICATIONS

formers, Figure 6.2.1-3 a), d) and e). The outer end (c), which is the connection to the first disc, is posi-
connection to the center of the winding is used tioned at the outside Figure 7.1.3-2a (middle and bot-
tom). Finally, the second disc is pushed towards the first
as a high-voltage terminal and the inner one as disc along with simultaneously thightening of the wind-
a ground connection. ing wire. Then, the next pair of discs can be wound in
the same manner [184].
High voltage windings and extra-high voltage
windings are designed as disc windings con- As a first approximation, the total winding
sisting of stacked disc coils, in which one turn voltage V is uniformly distributed over the en-
is laid over the other forming a spiral coil, Fig- tire winding length so that windings can be de-
ure 7.1.3-2 (bottom). Individual discs are alter- signed for very high voltages. Across the nar-
nately connected to each other at the inner row front sides, there is the relatively low par-
ends and at the outer ends which results in a tial voltage of an individual disc only. A paper
series connection. Winding terminals are ar- winding on the conductors serves as the inter-
ranged at the front sides. turn insulation. The intercoil insulation (coil-
to-coil insulation) cosists of discs, edge pro-
Note: Disc windings are also called pancake windings or tection rings and spacers made of pressboard
sandwich windings.
[27]. Individual disc coils are often spaced so
Note: The entire winding can be wound from a continu- far apart that the insulating oil can flow past
ous conductor (winding wire) as a so-called continuous the windings and remove the heat loss. This
turned-over winding or inverted winding. This shall be construction also facilitates vacuum drying
explained for a pair of two consecutively wound discs, and allows reliable impregnation of the insu-
Figure 7.1.3-2a. The first spiraliform disc (a) - (b) is
regularly wound ourwards on the winding mandrel, i.e.
lation, Figure 7.1.3-4b (top left).
from the inner end (a) to the outer end (b). With the
same conductor, and continuative to this, the winding of For AC voltage, the voltage distribution in
the second disk is also started inside on the mandrel (c) the windings is linear according to the number
and it is also wound outwards (d), i.e. from the inner of turns. In the case of lightning impulse volt-
end (c) to the outer end (d), Figure 7.1.3-2a (top). Then, age, the effects of capacitances between turns,
the wire at the external end of the second disk is fixed
on the mandrel again (d), Figure 7.1.3-2a (middle). Dur-
layers and discs as well as between winding
ing further rotation of the winding mandrel, the second and the surroundings prevail, Figure 7.1.3-3.
disc is now turned-over or inverted in such a way that The lattice network structure of the capacitan-
the external end returns inside (d) and that the internal ces causes a non-linear voltage distribution.
Hence, in the case of lightning impulse voltage
Winding
Winding of the first conductor
b d
and the second disc or wire z Cw Cs
a c
Lightning
Winding mandrel impulse
voltage
b
Overturning of distribution
the second disc
a c d
Winding mandrel AC
voltage
b c
Continuous distribution
turned-over
a d
(inverted) disc
Winding mandrel V (z)
V
Figure 7.1.3-2a: Manufacturing of a continuous
turned-over (inverted) disc winding on a horizon- Figure 7.1.3-3: AC voltage and lightning impulse
tal mandrel [184]. voltage distribution in a high voltage winding.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 517

stresses, turn-to-turn faults preferably occur at should not come into contact with the insulat-
the upper end of the stressed winding. Multi- ing oil of the transformer. Therefore, on-load
layer windings perform better than disc wind- tap changers are arranged in separate com-
ings owing to their large winding capacitances, partments within or outside the transformer
provided that the layers are of equal lengths or tank, Figure 7.1.3-1. The taps are voltage-car-
capacitances. In disc windings, an increase in rying conductors and must be fed into the tap-
the longitudinal capacitances in the highly changer compartment with the aid of an insu-
stressed upper winding area is possible by lating partition wall.
changing the sequence of interconnection of
the disc coils. This results in a change from a To facilitate quicker switching operation and
series connection of disc-to-disc capacitances to prevent mechanical wear and degeneration
to a series-parallel connection [67]. Addition- of tap-changer oil, the application of vacuum
ally, the effect of earth stray capacitances can switches can be used as diverter switches (load
be compensated by stray capacitances to a transfer switches). Furthermore, the use of thy-
screen at high voltage potential [184]. ristors and hybrid concepts is discussed [380].
Note: Fully power electronic tap changers still have
Note: During frequency response measurements, trans- problems with current commutation, with losses, with
former windings exhibit multiple resonances, whose ex- the fault current ratings and with the large number of
citation can lead to overstressing of windings or of thyristors. In contrast to mechanical switches, which
winding parts. Detailed analyses necessitate much more preferably change the tap connections of the high volt-
complex equivalent circuits [191]. age windings because of the lower currents there, thy-
ristors should change the tap connections of the low
Taps of high voltage transformers windings voltage windings, since in this case fewer thyristors
are generally located on the ground side ends have to be connected in series. However, in this case
of the windings which are designed as regu- new transformer designs would be necessary.
lating windings. With the aid of an on-load
tap changer, the tranformation ratio of a
transformer can be changed under load, i.e. 7.1.3.3 Design of Oil-board Insulation
without interrupting the current. The changes
are performed stepwise according to the steps a) Insulation design
set by the taps For this, a new current-free tap Along with the insulation within the windings,
is pre-selected by a so-called tap selector. The the insulation of high voltage windings and
so-called diverter switch or load transfer high voltage conductors relative each other,
switch then connects the original current-car- against the low voltage windings, against
rying tap and the new current-free tap in par- grounded components (core, tank) and against
allel via resistances (circulating currents are the windings of other phases, is also necessary.
limited by the resistances), before the connec- Adequately dimensioned oil gaps must be pro-
tion to the original tap is opened and closed to vided for this purpose, Figure 7.1.3-4a.
the new tap without resistance. For trans-
formers up to about 123 kV and currents up to Note: In Figure 7.1.3-4a, the classic construction with a
about 600 A, the functions of tap selector and low voltage winding, high voltage winding and com-
diverter switch even can be combined in a so- pensating winding is schematically represented. Under
this, Figure 7.1.3-4b shows the typical insulation com-
called selector switch. For this, the tap- ponents, but in the form of an autotransformer (single-
changing operation is always performed be- winding transformer) for coupling between a 220 kV
tween adjacent taps with the aid of rotating network and a 400 kV network. The compensating
resistance-linked and resistance-free contacts winding is located internally on the core.
[184], [297].
The dielectric strength of the oil gaps can be
On –load tap changers operate under oil that is considerably increased with pressboard bar-
loaded, degenerated, and polluted by contact riers, which divide the wider oil gaps into nar-
abrasion and by breaking sparks and hence rower sub-gaps, Section 3.4.2.3 Figure 3.4.2-6.
518 7 APPLICATIONS

Bushing
lead exit
Yoke

LV HV CW
wind. windung

made of
disc coils
Limb
cf. Figure
7.1.3-2

Convective Grading ring (shield ring)

oil flow
Cylinders, angle rings, caps, moulded parts
spacers and clamping rings made of pressboard

Figure 7.1.3-4a: Insulation system of a classic high voltage power transformer with core, low voltage winding LV, high
voltage windingHV and compensating winding CW (schematic representation from inside towards outside).

Winding end (top) Bushing 220 kV

Clamping ring

Grading ring

400 kV 220 kV CW Core

winding winding Tank

Lead exit 220 kV

CW

Winding end (bottom)

220 kV winding 400 kV winding

Figure 7.1.3-4b: Typical insulation components in the arrangement of a 200 / 400 kV autotransformer. The upper ends
of the 400 kV and the 220 kV windings have the same potential, the 400 kV lead exit is present at the outer side of the
winding but not visible in the photo, cf. Figure 7.1.3-6. Photo of insulation model: Weidmann, Rapperswil (CH).
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 519

Yoke
However, heat removal through oil flow in the
oil ducts between the barriers necessitates gaps
and openings which must be mutually dis-
placed so that the oil gaps are always sub-
divided in the direction of the field. Axial
cooling channels can also be created within
E ( x, t ) multi-layer windings by windings of corru-
gated board between the layers.

Forces occurring in the case of a short circuit

tend to considerably enlarge the leakage flux
Grading ring
(Electrode)
gap (normal force) and compress the winding
(contraction force) [184]. They must be taken
up via an adequately stable clamping of the
windings by spacers and by clamping rings
[27], [65], [82]. High dimensional accuracy
Core
Multi-layer Oil gaps Disk must be maintained to avoid shearing forces.
winding and barriers winding

Figure 7.1.3-5: Dielectric stressing of a barrier system

Windings, together with the barriers, spacers,
at the upper end of a high voltage winding (schematic grading rings (shield electrodes), angle rings
representation) [274]. and caps, are braced upwards and downwards
against the core by clamping rings of lami-
Owing to this, smaller distances, lower leakage nated wood (densified laminated wood, beech-
inductances and a lower transformer weight wood veneers compressed with synthetic
are possible. It is desirable that the barriers fol- resin) or laminated pressboard (bonded press-
low approximately the profile of equipotential board panels). Here, laminated pressboard is
surfaces since then the stress on the oil gaps is used in the areas of higher field strengths and
normal and not tangential to the pressboard wood in the areas with lower field strengths.
surface.
Concentric windings, barriers and supports on
Especially high field strengths are created at a limb together form a structural unit and an
the exposed edges of the winding ends below insulation component. It is therefore referred
the grounded yoke of the iron core. Therefore, to as limb assembly, Figure 7.1.3-1.
the winding ends are covered by metalized and
rounded grading rings or shield electrodes. If Also the high voltage conductors are led to the
the windings are not directly grounded, the bushings or to adjacent windings through cy-
lower winding ends must also be insulated lindrical barrier systems, the so-called lead
against the core and the housing, Figures exits, Figures 7.1.3-6 and -7. The oil volumes
7.1.3-4 and 7.1.3-5. of the transformer and the lead exits are often
separated by partition insulators in order to en-
Pressboard barrier systems consist of cylin- able assembly tasks to be carried out on the
ders, angle rings (flange rings), caps, discs, lead exits and bushings without lowering the
manually formed parts, spacers and clamping transformer oil level. For this, so-called drip-
rings. The fixing is carried out with oil-proof proof sealed end caps of epoxy resin or of
casein glue that can be impregnated. Here it is pressboard are used, as well as pressboard Fal-
important that the closed barrier surfaces are tenbalgs or bellows with creepage path exten-
designed perpendicular to the direction of the sions for very high voltages, Figure 7.1.3-6.
field. This can be ensured by overlapping the
cylinders and shaping the insulation compo- Sections 5.4 and 5.5 describe the processing
nents, Figure 7.1.3-5. and preparation of the insulating materials.
520 7 APPLICATIONS

b) Design of cylindrical barriers Figure 7.1.3-6:

Cut-away model of a
The function of barriers is especially to removable 400 kV lead Bushing 400 kV
increase the dielectric strength of the oil exit system with a Fal-
gaps by subdividing the gaps into narrower tenbalg (bellow) at half
sub-gaps. the winding height.
Photo: Weidmann, Elektrode
Rapperswil (CH). with barrier
The dielectric strength of the oil gaps and the
barriers results from the relationships pre-
sented in Sections 3.4.2.3, 3.5 and 7.3.4. In the
case of AC test voltages, field strengths up to
Winding
10 kV/mm are possible in oil ducts of a few
mm gap width, Figure 3.4.2-6, Eq. (3.4.2-1). Lead exit 400 kV

The leakage flux gap of the transformer

between the low voltage winding and the high
Support
voltage winding is designed largely cylindri-
cally symmetrically. To a first approximation, Faltenbalg
(bellow)
the electric field in this range can often be con-
sidered as a uniform one, Figure 7.1.3-8a. Ac-
cording to Figure 3.4.2-6 and Eq. (3.4.2-1) re-
spectively, a specific oil gap width d results
for a voltage to be insulated, Figure 7.1.3-8a
(top). If the oil gap is subdivided into narrower
sub-gaps by the barriers, the strength is in-
creased so that the same voltage can be insu-
lated over a shorter distance d, Figure 7.1.3-8a
(center). Owing to the higher permittivity of
pressboard, the field is largely displaced from
the barriers into the oil gaps, Figure 7.1.3-8a
(bottom). Thus, the oil gaps are the actual in-
sulation distances; the barriers essentially pro-
vide separation.

In order to design the most compact trans-

former, the smallest possible insulation thick-
ness d must be determined. It is obtained from
the ratio of voltage V to insulation thickness d, Figure 7.1.3-7: Connection of a 220 kV Lead exit
which must be maximized [274]. Wherein n is system of concentric barriers to the windings of an
the number of oil gaps, n+1 is the number of autotransformer, cf. Figure 7.1.3-4b. Foto of the cut-
barriers. The indices “B” and “Oil” represent away model: Weidmann, Rapperswil (CH).
the barriers and oil gaps, also cf. Figure 7.1.3-
8a:
With Eq. (3.4.2-1), the following is obtained
V 1
˜ >n  1 ˜ VB  n ˜ VOil @
d d (7.1.3-2)
(7.1.3-1)
n  1 ˜ H Oil d B  n ˜ dOil n  1 ˜ H Oil d B  n ˜ dOil a
V HB §d ·
HB ˜ E0 ˜ ¨ Oil ¸
n  1 ˜ d B  n ˜ dOil
˜ EOil d n  1 ˜ d B  n ˜ dOil © mm ¹
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 521

The maximum ratio V/d results for the smallest c) Design of lead exits
possible barrier thickness dB. However, at dB
For the dimensioning of lead exits, a radial
= 2 mm, a practical lower limit is reached, (cylindrically) symmetric field can approxi-
because the barriers at the overlapping points mately be assumed in the environment of the
must be angularly sharpened, because they conductor. High field strengths at the conduc-
must remain dimensionally stable during the tor surfaces can be reduced by sufficiently
drying process and also because they require a large conductor diameters and, if necessary,
certain amount of resistance against sporadic by a thick paper wrapping. A comparable op-
partial discharge events [274], [285]. Under timization example is explained in Section
this basic condition, the maximum ratio V/d is 2.4.3.1 (but with other materials, i.e. with cast
obtained for the narrowest possible oil gap resin in air instead of paper in oil). The dis-
dOil with a maximum possible number n. This advantage here is the low strength of the re-
condition also has its practical limitations: The maining large free oil gap, which is addition-
oil gaps must be wide enough to make up for ally stressed by field displacement from the
manufacturing tolerances and to allow paper wrapping. The accumulation of fibers
undisturbed oil circulation. and particles is thus held responsible for a
large dispersion of breakdown voltages and for
Note: The described result with the thinnest possible
a comparatively low strength at very high volt-
barriers is correct only for AC voltage and impulse
voltage insulation. For DC voltage insulations, field ages [274], [286].
displacement conditions are completely different and
the barriers must insulate a voltage close to the total
Similar to a uniform field, also in a non-uni-
voltage. Therefore, the barriers require adequate thick- form field substantial increases in the dielec-
ness; cf. Section 7.2.3 with Figure 7.2.3-5. tric strength can be achieved by subdivision of

Oil

Approximately uniform field E (r)

E (z)

n = 3 oil gaps n +1 = 4 barriers

Oil Oil Oil

Oil Oil Oil

E (z)

E (r)
d d d d d d d
B Oil B Oil B Oil B
E (z)
E r
Oil
E z
B

Figure 7.1.3-8a: Transformer leakage flux gap between Figure 7.1.3-8b: Barriers in the lead exit of a trans-
two windings with a large oil gap (top) and with bar- former between high voltage conductor and tank with
riers for subdividing it into electrically stronger sub- adjustment of gap width and dielectric strength to the
gaps with smaller volumes (center and bottom) [274]. local field stress in a nonuniform field [274].
522 7 APPLICATIONS

Oil Öl

E
norm
Etan
E

Figure 7.1.3-9: Insulation system of a lead exit with

bushing side (left) and winding side (right) for 1000 kV,
photo: Weidmann, Rapperswil. deff

the oil gap with the aid of barriers concentric-

ally arranged around the conductor, i.e. with a Figure 7.1.3-10: Tangential and normal field
so-called lead exit system, Figures 7.1.3-6, -7, components as well as effective gap widths.
-8a and -9. The gap width and the strength of
the oil gaps can be adjusted to the magnitude Transition
of the local field stress, Figure 7.1.3-8b. Board Free oil
zone
Owing to this, smaller conductor diameters
and smaller external dimensions are possible
[274]. Lead exit systems can be implemented
up to the highest transmission voltages of
more than 1000 kV in a compact design, Fig- Etan
ure 3.1.3-9.

d) Design for non-uniform and

tangential fields (creepage paths) Effective oil gap width
E Oil d eff
The field distribution at the winding ends in
Dielectric
the area of the shield electrodes, at the E bd strength
bracings, at the supports or at the Falten-
balgs (bellows) can generally no longer be de- E Fiber
E Oil
termined analytically and must be optimized z
with numerical field calculations. In these
areas, non-uniform field distributions occur,
whereby the field vectors can also be inclined Figure 7.1.3-11: Oil-pressboard interface for a
to the barriers, Figure 7.1.3-10. tangential field stress (microscopic presentation)
with comparison between dielectric strength and
It must first be noted that the length applicable electric stress profile (schematic representation).
to the strength calculation according to Eq.
(3.4.2-1) and Figure 3.4.2-6 respectively, is ception: the fiber structure of the board results
not the geometrical gap width d, but rather the in a quasi-steady transition from the press-
larger effective gap width deff in the field board into the free oil, Figure 7.1.3-11 (top).
direction E, Figure 7.1.3-10. The capillary forces prevent the wetting prob-
lems that are known for smooth surfaces.
Furthermore, tangential field components Moreover, the very small oil gap width be-
Etan can occur, representing a critical stressing tween the pressboard fibers (with high electric
at high voltage interfaces. However, in this strength) increases quasi-steadily outwards,
context oil-pressboard interfaces are an ex- whereby the dielectric strength steadily de-
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 523

creases to the values of the free oil gap. Fibers shall be determined for various interval
projecting into oil act in practice as micro- lengths along a criticalfield line which shall be
scopic barriers for the tangential field compo- compared with the design curves according to
nents, Figure 7.1.3-11. Eq. (3.4.2-1), Figure 3.4.2-6 [274], [288], Fig-
ure 7.1.3-12:
Based on these theoretical considerations, it
would be expected that the tangential electric A long oil gap with non-uniform field strength
strength corresponds to the strength of a free profile as in Figure 7.1.3-12 a) and b) is con-
oil gap [274]. Experimental tests have actually sidered for this. Starting off with the maximum
shown that this assumption is correct for short field strength values, average field strengths
tangential paths, but lower values can result
for longer paths [286]. The 63 % breakdown 1 z
Eav ( z ) ˜ ³ E( z' ) d z' (7.1.3-3)
field strength Ebd63% lies above the values of z 0
design curves for a free oil gap according to
Figure 3.4.2-6, and a roughly comparable are now calculated for various interval lengths
length dependence can be observed [287]. In or path lengths from z = 0 to z = d, Figure
practice, tangential design stresses are fre- 7.1.3-12 c) (lower curve). These average field
quently limited to about 70 % of the permiss- strengths are compared with the design values
ible stresses for free oil gaps [274]. permissible for the oil gap of the respective
length z according to Eq. (3.4.2-1), Figure
Electrical stresses can be associated with 7.1.3-12 c) (upper curve).
highly non-uniform field strength profiles,
especially in long oil gaps and for tangential The ratio of the permissible to average field
stresses along creepage paths. The application strengths
of design curves according to Eq. (3.4.2-1) and
Figure 3.4.2-6 is thus generally associated with Ebd ( z )
q (7.1.3-4)
difficulties: Eav ( z )
x A very conservative approach could be one is considered as a safety factor q for the inter-
in which local maximum field strengths are vals of length z, Figure 7.1.3-12 d). For a criti-
to be restricted to values that are obtained cal interval length zcrit, this results in the
for the total insulation path from the smallest safety factor q. However, if the
above-mentioned design curves. Although strength of the arrangement has to be guaran-
on one hand it is safe, this could result in teed, it must still satisfy the condition q > 1.
oversizing, since the arrangement would
not be stressed according to its strength Note: Breakdown tests have shown that the voltages de-
over large paths. termined in this way correspond to a low breakdown
probability of about 2 % [289].
x On the other hand, it would be dangerous
to compare average field strength values For the tangential stress along creepage
with the design curves. In highly non-uni- paths, e.g. along the barrier surfaces, the same
form fields, very low average values can evaluation concept can be applied: At first the
be obtained, although partial insulation tangential field strength values along the
paths are highly stressed and probably creepage path are rearranged to a new profile
overstressed. Average field strengths can with steadily decreasing values. The average
therefore only be considered for weakly field strengths values for different creepage
non-uniform fields, cf. Eq. (3.4.2-2). path intervals z are calculated as per Eq.
(7.1.3-3). For the calculation of safety factors
For the evaluation of non-uniform field analogously to Eq. (7.1.3-4), and for reasons
strength profiles in long oil gaps, it is there- of precaution, the tangential dielectric strength
fore recommended that average field strengths of the barrier surface must be assumed only
524 7 APPLICATIONS

with about 70% of the dielectric strength of the thin, and magnetically soft iron sheets in the
oil: horizontal position. The sheets are insulated
against each other by phosphatized layers in
0.7 ˜ Ebd ( z )
q (7.1.3-5) order to avoid eddy currents. At the beginning,
Eav ( z ) the build-up of the core is performed without a
Note: It is reported that with this evaluation concept, the yoke, since the windings must first be arranged
partial discharge inception voltage at a 400 kV Falten- on the limbs after the erecting of the core into
balg (bellows) was predicted as 882 kV, which comes the vertical positon.
quite close to the measurement value of 950 kV, [288].
The windings are made individually on hori-
zontal or vertical winding benches with wind-
7.1.3.4 Manufacture ing mandrels that are adjustable in diameter.
Multi-layer windings are wound, for instance,
The manufactureof a high voltage transformer horizontally on a pressboard cylinder as a sup-
starts with the stacking of the iron core of port. Disc windings can be wound, for exam-

(a) Ebd ( z ) (d)

Critical field line E (z) q = Safety factor
E av ( z )
d total gap width
z crit Critically stressed
insulation interval
Variable path length q crit
z z = 0 .... d 1
z' Coordinate z'

(b) z crit d z

E (z) E max (c)

Critically
stressed
Ebd ( z ) Dielectric strength curve
E av ( z ) for varying oil gap widths
interval
z = 0 .... d
Average
stress for
variable path Safety clearance
lengths z = 0 .... d
Average stress E av (d) E av (d)
Stress profile
E min
z crit d z z crit d z

Figure 7.1.3-12: Evaluation of cumulative field stresses für non-uniform field strength profiles [274], [288].
(a), (b): Long oil gap or long creepage path with highly non-uniform field strength profile.
(c) Starting off with the maximum field strength values, avearge field strengths Eav(z) for increasing path lengths
z= 0 to z= d are calculated (lower curve) and compared with the design values according to Eq.(3.3-1)that are
applicable for the oil gaps or creepage paths of the considered length z (upper curve).
(d) From the ratio of permissible to average field strength Ebd (z) / Eav(z), a safety factor q results for an interval
of length z. The saftey factor is smallest at the critical interval length zcrit . For this, the condition q > 1 must
always be fulfilled.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 525

ple, in vertical or horizontal positions as spi- and trapped in undercuts must be completely
rals with the discs lying one above the other or dissolved in oil after the final pressurization
one besides the the other respectively. Wind- and during an adequate impregnation period.
ing processes require a lot of manual work,
many experiences owing to complicated wind- Note: Ageing-resistant oils are preferred for trans-
ing diagrams and great care, especially owing formers since the thermally stressed oil stays in contact
with the atmospheric oxygen via the oil expansion
to the great sensitivity of the insulation and vessel.
owing to the fact that it cannot be inspected
later. The wound conductors are often
wrapped with a thin paper layer to avoid con- 7.1.3.5 Transformer Testing
tact between bare metal and the oil gaps,
whereby the paper wrapping should not ob- Transformers have insulation systems of
struct the transfer of heat to the oil. Since cel- extremely complex designs with many model-
lulose-based insulation components shrink based variants. Testing a finished transformer
during the subsequent drying, appropriate therefore includes a very extensive program of
length compensation must already be ensured routine tests, type tests and special tests that
during winding. Windings with unfavorable are cofigurated differently depending on the
drying conditions are sometimes pre-dried, individual transformer. Therefore, only a few
since moisture can only diffuse out of multi- basic intentions are explained in the following
layer windings and foil windings in the axial sections; details are presented in the standards
direction, as in bushings, for instance. and, in addition, can be agreed between the
manufacturer and the client [290], [291], [52],
The windings and formed components of the
[292].
barrier system are assembled for complete
limb sets and set on the limbs of the vertically Routine tests include the measurement of
erected iron core. By interconnecting the winding resistance, transformation ratio
windings and closing the iron core with the (including phase angle rotation), short-circuit
yoke, a complete core-and-coil assembly is impedance, load loss (short-circuit loss), no-
built up. It must be subjected to intensive dry- load loss and no-load current. Moreover,
ing. various high voltage tests or dielectric tests
(see below) and functional tests on the tap
While drying, effective heat transfer is carried changers are necessary.
out at first in the heat-up phase by hot kerosine
vapor, since the heat of evapouration must be Temperature rise tests as well as a number of
supplied and large masses must be heated up further high voltage tests (see below) must
(vapor-phase method). The temperature rise additionally be provided as type tests.
during this should not be too rapid in order to
protect the fiberboard materials that are still Special tests include special dielectric tests
moist [27]. In the pressure decreasing phases (see below), the measurement of capacitances,
and medium vacuum phases, temperature is dissipation factors and insulation resistances,
maintained by radiant heating; cf. Section short-circuit tests, determination of
5.5.1.4 with Figure 5.5-13. transmission behavior for transient voltages as
well as measurement of zero impedances,
Flooding of the core-and-coil assembly with distortions of no-load currents, noise levels
degassed and dry oil takes place in the trans- and power consumtion of oil pumps and
former tank under vacuum. For a partial-dis- cooling fans.
charge-free insulation, it is necessary that the
rising oil can completely displace the gas up- From the point of view of high-voltage
wards through the ducts and openings in the engineering, high voltage tests (dielectric
barriers. Residual gas adhering to the surfaces tests) are of special significance for verifying
526 7 APPLICATIONS

insulation quality. It must be noted that the routine tests increases with the voltage: For
dielectric strength is dependent on the duration Vm > 72,5 kV, partial discharge measurements
of the stress, Figures 3.4.1-1 and 3.5-1. For the (IVPD) and full-wave lightning impulse
design of oil gaps in transformers, different voltage withstand tests (LI) are mandatory. For
dielectric test levels, the so-called rated
insulation levels or design insulation levels
2.5 LIC 1.2/4 μs
(DIL), are applied for chopped-wave lightning
impulse voltage (LIC), for full-wave lightning LI 1.2/50 μs
impulse voltage (LI), for switching impulse 2.0
DIL
voltage (SI), for AC voltage for one minute SI 250/2500 μs
factor
and for AC voltage for one hour, Figure 7.1.3- 1.5
13. Accordingly, the dielectric test stresses
acting for different durations are staggered in 1.0 Reference value AC 50 Hz, 1 min
their levels, Tables 6.1-2, -3 and 7.1.3-2.
0.5 AC 50 Hz, 1 h
The type of tests to be carried out is based on
the highest voltage for equipment Vm (highest
r.m.s. value of voltage between two phases, for 0.0
-6 -3
which the insulation is designed), Table 7.1.3- 10 10 1 1000
Stress duration t/s
1. In the case of the induced voltage tests, the
test levels are determined in relation to the Figure 7.1.3-13:
rated voltage Vr, Figure 7.1.3-14, but may also Design values for the electric strength of oil gaps as a
be related to Vm for the tests with partial function of stress duration in comparison to the one-
discharge measurements, cf. Sections e), f) and minute AC voltage strength (r.m.s. value), expressed as
g) below. Generally, the amount of testing for a Design Insulation Level (DIL) [274].

Table 7.1.3-1: High voltage tests on power transformers (selection) according to IEC 60076-3 [52].
Tests

Highest Lightning impulse voltage Induced voltage (e)

Switching Applied AC
Insulation voltage for
impulse withstand
equipment Chopped Withstand Test with PD
Full wave voltage voltage
wave test measurement
Vm LI LIC SI AV IVW IVPD
(a) (b) (c) (d) (f) (g)

Uniform Vm < 72.5 kV Type test Special test Routine test Routine test Special test *)

Uniform**) Routine test Special test Special test Routine test Routine test Routine test *)
Vm > 72.5 kV

Vm < 170 kV Routine test

Non-uniform**) Routine test Special test Special test Routine test Routine test *)

Uniform
and Vm > 170 kV Included in LIC Routine test Routine test Routine test Replaced by SI Routine test
non-uniform
Note *): The requirements of the IVW withstand test can be incorporated in the IVPD test
with PD measurements so that only one test is required.
Note **): Differences refer to tests that are not shown in this table
(Line terminal AC withstand test LTAC, cf. [52])
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 527

Vm > 170 kV, withstand tests with chopped- a) Full-wave

wave lightning impulse voltage (LIC) and lightning impulse voltage tests (LI)
switching impulse voltage (SI) must
additionally be performed, but the latter Fast rising voltages cause voltage distributions
replace the short duration induced voltage within the transformer that are determined
withstand test (IVW). mainly by the capacitances and by the
resonant behavior of the whole system. Thus,
The test voltage levels(dielectric test levels, the voltage distributions and dielectric stresses
insulation levels) are stated in the relevant can be completely different from those during
standards [290], [291], [52], an extract for Vm AC and switiching impulse stresses.
> 170 kV is given in Table 7.1.3-2. Up to Vm = Therefore, testing must be performed
accordingly with a fast rising voltage impulse,
170 kV, the values largely correspond to the
the so-called full-wave lightning impulse
values in Table 6.1-2. Additionally, chopped-
voltage. Testing the winding terminals with
wave lightning impulse witstand voltages
full-wave lightning impulse withstand voltage
(LIC) are specified that are 1.1 times the LI
shall verify the lightning impulse voltage
peak values. Furthermore, a few additional test
strength between the terminals and ground,
voltage values are also given which represent
between the terminals and the remaining
common practice in some parts of the world or
windings and along the tested winding [52],
which can be used in some special cases.
[292].

Table 7.1.3-2: Test voltages for withstand voltage For oil-filled transfomers, test with negative
tests on transformers related to the highest voltage polarity is recommended to avoid external
for equipment winding V m > 170 kV flashovers. After a calibrating shot (reference
AV impulse with a voltage between 50 % and 70
Vm LI SI or % of the full test voltage), three full-wave
LTAC impulse tests must be withstood. The test is
peak value
successful if there are no significant
r.m.s. value peak value peak value differences between voltage and current
—2
kV kV kV kV transients recorded from the reference impulse
and those recorded from the full test voltage.
245 650 550 275
750 620 325 Note: Current transients are a very sensitive indicator of
300 850 700 360 impedance changes and internal faults, see below.
950 750 395
362 1050 850 460 All the winding terminals to be tested are
1175 950 510 stressed successively in the impulse voltage
420 1300 1050 570 test sequence. The other winding terminals are
1425 1175 630
550 1550 1300 680 grounded directly or via low resistances. In the
1675 1390 case of a delta connection, two phase windings
1800 1425 are always in parallel with the test voltage.
800 1950 1550
2050 1700 Note: One, more or all of the impulses may be specified
1100 2100 1675 by the purchaser’s enquiry and order to be of positive
1200 2250 1800 poalrity. Then, additional reference impulses may be
necessary and the test sequence shall be agreed between
Note: LIC values (chopped wave) are calculated manufacturer and purchaser [52].
from LI values (full wave) by multiplying with a factor 1.1.

Note: Some of the values are not in accordance with IEC 60071-1 If non-linear elements or surge arresters are
but they represent existing practice in some parts of the world.
built into the transformer for the limitation of
Note: Dotted lines represent special cases.
overvoltages, they may operate during the test
Note: The table represents values given in IEC 60076-3 in extracts only.
and cause differnet voltage and current curves
528 7 APPLICATIONS

at different test voltage magnitudes. Thus, a In particular, high winding capacitances slow
direct comparison between reference impulse down the voltage rise and increase the front
and test impulses is not possible any more. time. This can be counteracted by decreasing
The test sequence shall at least contain a refer- the damping resistance in the impulse circuit.
ence impulse below the threshold value of the However, the condition for overdamping is
non-linear elements. Therefore, three reference often violated as a result of this, and hence
impulses a) with 50 to 60 %, b) with 60 to 75 oscillations are superimposed on the voltage
% and c) with 75 to 90 % of the full test volt- waveform.
age magnitude are recorded. After the three
Note: Depending on the given situation, IEC 60076-3
full test voltage impulses, the reference im- [52] gives the following guidelines:
pulses are repeated as accurately as possible in
the reversed order. The test is successful if the x If the maximum relative overshoot magnitude is 5 %
transient impulse voltage and current curves or less, the test voltage value may be taken from the
measured voltage waveshape as the extreme value
do not differ significantly at the same test volt-
V̂ test = V̂ extr according to Section 6.2.3.4 and Figure
age magnitude and if the successive impulses
6.2.3-9.
exhibit curves that can be expected from the
behavior of the non-linear elements. Further x If the maximum relative overshoot exceeds 5 % the
information is given in IEC 60076-3 and -4. damping resistance and the front time may be in-
creased to reduce the overshoot. For transformers
with Vm < 800 kV, the front time shall not exceed
In the case of lightning impulse voltage tests 2.5 μs. If the relative overshoot magnitude still ex-
on transformers, it is especially difficult to ceeds 5 %, then the test voltage value shall be taken
attain the standardized test voltage parame- from the so-called test voltage function according to
ters within the permissible tolerances (T1 = Tf to Section 6.2.3.4 and Figure 6.2.3-9. In these cases,
the tested windings must receive a chopped-wave
= 1.2 μs +30 %, T2 = Th = 50 μs + 20 %, over- lightning impulse test, in order to provide a high-fre-
shooting <5 %, back swing < 50 %, test volt- quency stress.
age + 3 %), cf. Section 6.2.3. Therefore, IEC x For very large transformers with Vm > 800 kV, it
60076-3 describes a number of special rules might be difficult to achieve a front time of less than
and exceptions for impulse tests on trans- 2.5 μs. Then, a longer front time may be accepted by
formers: agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.

IVW: Induced voltage IVPD: Induced voltage test

withstand test with partial discharge measurement
Note: Test time depending
(*) on test frequency or
Line-to-ground voltage Line-to-ground voltage (**) on transformer voltage
and test frequency
(*) (**)
2.0 · Vr / 3 AC withstand voltage PD criteria
Enhancement voltage
rapid rapid q < 250 pC
One hour PD
rise fall measurement voltage ' q < 50 pC

1.2 · Vr / 3 q < 250 pC q < 100 pC

Vr / 3 Vr / 3

1 0.4 · Vr / 3 Background noise level < 50 pC (100 pC)

3 Vr / 3
on off
0 0
15 ... 60 s 1 min 5 min Test time One-hour PD measurement 5 min
(*) (**)
t t

Figure 7.1.3-14: Transformer testing with induced voltage withstand test (IVW) and induced voltage test with
partial discharge measurement (IVPD) according to IEC 60076-3 [291], [52].
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 529

In the tail of the impulse voltage, a very much 6.3.7 and 6.3.8. Current profiles can be recorded in
slower back-swing can occur, since the leak- analog or digital form, wherefore special demands are
made on transient recorders with regard to bandwidth
age inductance of the transformer and the low- and resolution [292]. It is important that digitally re-
voltage-side winding capacitances form a reso- corded data are stored as raw data and are not subjected
nance circuit that is weakly damped only. to further mathematical processing (filtering, smooth-
Thus, the time to zero-crossing is shortened ing), since this gives rise to the risk of deletion of fault
and the time to half-value (tail time) can event- indications.
ually fall below the still tolerable value of 40
μs. In this case, it can be agreed that even Changes in the test object can be identified not
shorter tail times down to 20 μs may be ac- only from the changes in the transient current
ceptable if the thereby shortend stress duration waveforms in the time domain, but also from
is compensated by an increased test voltage the derived transfer impedances or transfer
magnitude. For each 2 μs by which the tail admittances (or transfer functions) in the fre-
time is less than 40 μs, the test voltage shall be quency domain, cf. Sections 6.4.6 and 6.3.7.
increased by 1 %.. The advantage of transfer functions is that they
are no longer dependent on the test voltage
Note: Eventually, these resonances can be waveform. For the analysis, it is recommended
damped by resistances, which are connected to to use the admittance function I(Z)/U(Z) since
the low-voltage-side terminals, to such an ex- the voltage spectrum does not have any zero
tend that the back swing is less than 50 % and points [292].
that the tail time remains within the tolerance
Note: Partial breakdowns in the windings are evident,
zone, Figure 6.2.3-10. for example, from the displacement of poles in the ad-
mittance function, partial discharges from the flattening
The criterion for a successful impulse testing of poles and variations in the external test circuit from
is not only withstanding the impulse voltage. changes in the current and voltage waveforms for an un-
Diagnostic statements that can be derived from changed transfer function [292].
the variations of the transient currents are
also of great significance: by comparing the b) Chopped-wave
currents between reference impulses at re- lightning impulse voltage test (LIC)
duced voltage and test impulses at full test
voltage, turn-to-turn faults (interturn faults) or Testing with chopped-wave lightning im-
mechanical displacements and deformations of pulse voltage (LIC) is performed along with
windings can be detected, for example. For the full-wave lightning impulse voltage test, in
these measurements, the neutral point current, order to apply high-frequency stresses to the
the winding current, the current transmitted to transformer insulation, as they can occur dur-
the adjacent windings or the tank current as ing breakdowns, resonance excitations or
well as the voltages transmitted to the untested transient overvoltages. The peak value must be
windings are suitable [292]. 1.1 times the full impulse voltage amplitude;
the chopping time must be between 3 and 6
Note: The interpretation of current comparisons ne- μs.
cessitates special experience to be able to differentiate
common variations from real fault indications. In par- Note: A chopping time between 2 and 3 μs can be ac-
ticular, for chopped-wave impulse voltages, different cepted if there is an according agreement and if the peak
chopping times can lead to varying oscillation behavior, value of the test voltage is achieved before the chop-
especially to varying amplitudes. However, variations of ping.
oscillation frequencies must be assessed as critical.
The breakdown of the test voltage shall be as
Note: The interference-free measurement of transient fast as possible and the time to the first zero-
currents requires a very low inductive and broadband
(generally coaxial) current measuring shunt as well as
crossing shall be as short as possible. Thus, no
effective shielding measures against the electromagne- additional impedances shall be used in the
tically highly disturbed test environment, cf. Section chopping circuit. Nevertheless, the back-swing
530 7 APPLICATIONS

of the test voltage must be restricted to 30 % in Note: The switching impulse duration is simi-
order to avoid high stesses with opposite lar to the duration of a power frequency AC
polarity. If necessary, damping of the chop- half-wave. Consequently, the dielectric
ping circuit must be performed with the lowest strengths of insulations are comparable for
possible impedance required for this purpose. both the switching impulse stress and the
short-duration AC stress. Especially for trans-
The test sequence is combined with the full- fomers with very high rated voltages, it would
wave impulse voltage testing: be difficult to provide the required very high
AC test levels, and the switching impulse volt-
Impulse Impulse Impulse Impulse age test is chosen instead of this. According to
number type waveform peak value Figure 7.1.3-13, there are differences between
the dielectric strengths at SI and AC (1 min)
1 reference full 50 … 70 % which must be regarded by choosing differ-
1 test full full
2 test chopped enhanced ently high test voltages.
2 test full full
Testing with negative polarity is recommend-
ed to avoid external flashovers. After a refer-
The test is successful if there are no significant ence impulse of a voltage between 50 % and
differences between voltage and current 70 % of the full test voltage, three full test im-
transients recorded from the reference impulse pulses must be withstood. In order to avoid the
and those recorded from the full test voltage. influence of magnetic saturation on the voltage
waveform of successive impulses, demagne-
Note: If non-linear elements or surge arresters are built
tizing impulses with opposite polarity and re-
into the transformer, three reference impulses a) with 50
to 60 %, b) with 60 to 75 % and c) with 75 to 90 % of duced level are necessary after each test im-
the full test voltage magnitude are recorded. After the pulse.
full-wave test voltage impulses and the chopped-wave
test impulses, the reference impulses are repeated as ac- The termials of a winding to be tested are
curately as possible in the reversed order. grounded on one side (at the neutral point, if
present) and connected to the impulse gen-
c) Switching impulse voltage test (SI) erator on the other side. The transient current
is always measured on the grounded side.
Slowly rising voltages cause voltage distribu- Then all the windings are stressed successively
tions within the transformer that are deter- in the impulse voltage test sequence.
mined mainly by the turn ratios and by the
behavior of the magnetic circuit. Thus, the The test is assessed by comparing the recorded
voltage distributions and dielectric stresses transient voltages and currents.
come close to those during AC and switiching
impulse stresses. Therefore, testing must be In order to avoid the magnetic saturation of the
performed accordingly with a slowly rising iron core, the impulse voltage waveshape is
voltage impulse, the so-called switching im- purposely different from the standard wave-
pulse voltage. Testing with switching impulse shape of 250/2500 μs which is intended for
withstand voltage shall verify the switching equipment without saturable magnetic circuit.
impulse voltage strength for the terminals and The waveshape should exhibit a time to peak
the connected windings to ground and to the of at least 100 μs, remain above 0.9 V̂ for at
other windings. It is an important requirement least 200 μs and exhibit the first zero crossing
for transformers that are subject to a long-dur- (time to zero) after 1000 μs at the earliest.
ation test with induced AC voltage (IVPD),
Note: Considering the given limits for the maximal
especially when short-duration induced volt-
magnetic flux density that is possible without saturation,
age withstand testing (IVW) at high test levels the shortening of time to peak and time to zero is
is not provided or is not possible. necessary as higher induced test voltages can only be
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 531

achieved by a faster changing voltage (i.e. by a higher stead of 50 or 60 Hz respectively) at a given

derivate of the voltage with respect to time). Because of magnetic flux density, cf. Section 6.2.1.1.
the same reason, also AC testing must be performed at
higher testing frequencies (e.g. at 100 Hz or 120 Hz
instead of 50 Hz or 60 Hz respectively).
There are two types of tests with induced volt-
ages, Figure 7.1.3-14:
d) Appplied AC voltage test (AV) x The induced voltage withstand test (IVW)
Tests with an externally applied withstand is a short-duration withstand test at ap-
AC voltage (external voltage) should verify
proximately twice the rated voltage, cf.
Section f). It shall verify the withstand
the AC voltage strength of the tested winding
strength of the insulation against short-du-
and of their terminals against ground and
against the other windings and parts of the ration AC overvoltages.
transformer which all are grounded. x The induced voltage test with partial dis-
charge measurement (IVPD) is a long-du-
The voltage is applied as a single-phase AC
ration test with an enhancement voltage
voltage to all the terminals of the tested
and a one-hour PD measuring phase, cf.
winding, including the neutral terminal. Thus,
Section g). The test shall verify that the
there is no turn-to-turn voltage, and the AV
transformer will be free from hamful partial
test can not replace an induced voltage test.
discharges under normal operating condi-
Tests last for 60 s, approximately at the rated tions.
frequency fr (i.e. f > 0.8 fr). The test voltage Both tests can be combined, if the enhance-
value is the measured peak value divided by ment voltage level in the IVPD test is raised
2 . The magnitude of the test voltage de- up to the withstand voltage level of the IVW
pends on the transformer design, for the details test.
refer to IEC 60076-3 [52].
For the determination of the test voltage value,
e) Induced AC voltage tests both the r.m.s. value and the peak value di-
vided by 2 are measured. The lower of both
Tests with induced AC voltage are performed the values is considered as the test voltage
with the transformer connected and excited value.
exactly as it will be for service. Testing is
carried out by excitation of the test object on
f) Induced voltage withstand test (IVW)
the low-voltage side or by excitation from
another winding being suited for that purpose. The induced voltage withstand test (IVW) is
Then, symmetrically induced AC voltages ap- performed for transformers with Vm < 170 kV
pear at all the line terminals, with no voltage at according to Section e). The test is intended to
the neutral. Also, turn-to-turn voltages are in- verify the short-duration AC withstand
duced. The test is performed with a single strength of all terminals and windings among
phase voltage on a single phase transformer each other and against earth as well as the
and with a three phase voltage on a three phase strength along the windings.
transformer respectively.
The test voltage (phase to earth) is 2 ˜Vr / 3
In order to reach the increased test voltage
and the test duration at full test voltage is 60 s,
level at a given magnetic flux which is limited
Figure 7.1.3-14 (left). However, if the test
by saturation of the magnetic core, increased
frequency fT exceeds twice the rated frequency
frequencies are necessary. If the induced volt-
fr, the test duration tT is reduced, maintaining
age shall approximately be doubled in com-
the number of periods.
parison with the service voltage, also the fre-
quency must be doubled (100 or 120 Hz in- tT = (120 s)·fr / fT (7.1.3-6)
532 7 APPLICATIONS

In any case, test duration must not be less than that is also given by Eq. (7.1.3-6). Only for
15 s. the very large transformers with Vm > 800
kV, the test duration with the enhancement
Note: The partial discharge behavior of the voltage is increased by a factor of 5.
transformer is not investigated during the in-
duced voltage withstand test (IVW) but during Note: If an enhancement voltage with mag-
an additional test with long-duration partial nitude of 2 ˜Vr / 3 is used this test can sub-
discharge measurements (IVPD), see below stitute for the induced voltage withstand
and Figure 7.1.3-14 (right). test (IVW) on transformers with Vm < 170
kV, cf. Section f).
Note: For transformers with higher voltages
(Vm > 170 kV), short-duration withstand capa- x Then, the test voltage is reduced to the one-
bility against overvoltages is verified by the hour PD measurement voltage with a mag-
switching impulse withstand voltage test (SI), nitude of 1.58 ˜Vr / 3 . During the one-hour
cf. Section c). test, the PD level must not exceed 250 pC
and must not increase by more than 50 pC.
g) Induced voltage test During the last twenty minutes of the one-
with PD measurement (IVPD) hour test, the PD level must not exhibit any
rising trend and no sudden and enduring in-
The induced voltage test with partial dis-
crease must occur.
charge measurement is intended to verify
that transformers with Vm > 72.5 kV will be Note: In the case of old transformers, it is assumed
free of harmful partial discharges under nor- that intensities of 500 pC can indicate a serious insu-
mal operating conditions and after short-du- lation problem [294].
ration AC overvoltages. For transformers with
x Finally, the test voltage is reduced to a
Vm < 72.5 kV, the test can be applied as a
special test. The test sequence (i.e. test volt- magnitude of 1.2 ˜Vr / 3 , at least for five
age vs. test duration) and the related partial minutes. The PD level must not exceed 100
discharge criteria are definded according to pC in this case. This test should verify that
Figure 7.1.3-14 (right): the transformer is free of partial discharges
even after preceding AC overvoltages.
x The background noise level at 0.4 ˜Vr / 3
Note: For the one-hour PD measurement voltage and for
must be below 50 pC (or 100 pC for shunt the enhancement voltage, higher voltage levels may be
reactors resp.) both before the test and after used if specified by the purchaser. In particular, a one-
the test. These levels are defined with re- hour PD measurement voltage of 1.5 ˜Vm / 3 and an en-
spect to the achievable background noise hancement voltage of 3 ˜Vm / 3 may be used if higher.
levels in the high voltage transformer test
fields. Amongst others, also the quality of the im-
pregnation and the formation of gas in the in-
x At the beginning of the test, a test voltage
sulating oil can be detected from the results of
of 1.2 ˜Vr / 3 and the so-called “one-hour the partial discharge measurements. Partial
PD measurement voltage” of 1.58 ˜ Vr / 3 discharge measurements should therefore be
are applied, at least for one minute and for carried out after the withstand voltage tests.
five minutes respectively. The PD level With the occurrence of discharges, the trans-
must not exceed 250 pC in these cases. former must not be rejected immediately; a
specific waiting time can possibly lead to the
x In order to see whether enhanced AC volt- dissolving of free gas bubbles and the disap-
ages can ignite additional partial discharge pearance of partial discharges. If not, additio-
activity, a so-called “enhancement voltage” nal diagnostic measures are necessary, e.g. by
of 1.8 ˜ Vr / 3 is applied for a short duration acoustic localization attempts.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 533

7.1.3.6 Operation, Diagnosis and Mainte- Phases with increased load must be compen-
nance sated by longer phases at lower load in order
to compensate for the consumption of service
a) Thermal stressing life.
During service operation of the transformer, 2. If necessary, longer lasting overloads up to
thermal stressing of the oil and paper owing 1.8, 1.5 or 1.3 times the contiuous load are
to heat loss in the core (no-load loss) and possible (for small, medium or large trans-
owing to ohmic loss in the windings (load- formers), sometimes even for weeks or
2
dependent loss ~I ) plays an especially impor- months. In these cases, an increased rate of
tant role: heavy continuous loads, associated using life is permitted, but without thermal de-
with high continuous temperatures, accelerate composition of the insulation (pyrolysis) and
the ageing of oil and paper, while transient ex- without exceeding the maximum temperatures
cess temperatures damage the cellulose. in the steady state.

The permissible hot-spot temperatures at the 3. For a very short-duration emergency op-
conductor surface are considered to be 120 °C eration, whose duration is less than the ther-
for continuous operation and 140 °C for short mal time constant of the transformer and
duration (for a maximum of 30 min at 1.5 which should not exceed 30 minutes; overloads
times rated current) [251], [295], [296]. At up to 2.0, 1.8 or 1.5 times the nominal power
these temperatures, severe ageing already oc- are permitted. In these cases, a distinct rate of
curs [305]. For example, a continuously highly using life occurs. The transient temperature
loaded generator transformer ages consider- characteristics would exceed the maximum
ably faster than an only moderately loaded line permissible thermal limits if the duration were
transformer. Therefore, cooling as well as too long, Figure 6.4.8-1 (right).
monitoring and regulation of temperatures
Note: The above-mentioned load factors for small, me-
have great significance for long-term mainten-
dium and large transformers are related to nominal ap-
ance of value. Supporting monitoring systems parent powers up to 2.5 MVA, up to 100 MVA and
were described in Section 6.4.8.1. above that.

The loading capacity and overload capacity of In the case of large transformers, monitoring
oil-filled transformers is given with regard to of the above-mentioned conditions and the
load magnitude and load duration in the knowledge of thermal reserves require an ex-
standards (IEC 60076-7 [295], [296]). Impor- act image of critical temperatures, which gen-
tant parameters are the ambient temperature erally cannot be measured directly. Neverthe-
and the cooling method. If the permissible less, transient temperature characteristics can
continuous load at 20 °C is specified as 100 be calculated simultaneously with the varying
%, then, depending on the cooling method, a load by means of detailed equivalent thermal
higher continuous load is permissible at lower networks [304], Figure 6.4.8-1 (right) and
ambient temperatures (e.g. 124 % to 137 % at 6.4.8-2. Thus, prognoses can be made for hot-
-25 °C) and a lower continuous load is per- spot temperature which cannot be measured
missible at higher ambient temperatures (e.g. directly and for the maximum permissible du-
81 % to 87 % at 40 °C). Deviations from this ration of an overload state.
are possible in the following situations:
Note: The thermal loading capacity of transformers is
1. Normal load fluctuations which do not yet not only determined by heating up of windings and oil.
Thermal limits must be regarded also for the connected
lead to accelerated ageing, can temporarily be
components (bushings and on-load tap changers
1.5 times or 1.3 times higher than the above- [297]). Owing to comparatively very short thermal time
mentioned continuous load (for small and me- constants, the components can significantly and
dium or for large transformers respectively). temporally restrict the overload capacity of the
534 7 APPLICATIONS

transformer. For the specification of components, this cm [294]) or by the formation of insoluble
must be taken into consideration through the specifi- sludge.
cation of correspondingly higher nominal values.
Gas-in-oil analyses are the most effective tool
b) Ageing, damaging and diagnosis for detection and classification of thermal,
electrical and chemical defects, Section
After year-long or decade-long service oper-
6.4.3.2 [300].
ations, it is practically impossible for the oper-
ator to estimate the insulation condition and Analyses of paper samples provide direct evi-
residual service life. Ageing and damaging dence of the properties of solid insulation. But
can occur during operation owing to thermal the sampling is very complex, destructive and
loads (hot-spot temperatures), electrical dis- generally not representative, since samples can
charges (partial discharges, arcs), chemical in- be extracted only from the edge areas and
fluences (oxidation, hydrolysis, electrolysis, never close to the hot spot. Complete or criti-
catalytic reactions) or mechanical loads (short- cal loss of mechanical strength of cellulose
circuit current forces, easing of bracings). fibers can be detected from the fiber length,
Moreover, changes in the components (bush- i.e. at average degrees of polymerization (DP-
ings, on-load tap changers, magnetic circuits, values) below 200 or 400 respectively [299].
cooling system, control system and monitoring Dielectric strength, rate of ageing (Figure
system) must be considered. 3.5-6) and thermal loading capacity (Eq.
6.4.8-1) depend on the water content of the
Attempts to identify an up-to-date insulation
paper, which should be normally below 2%
conditions are made using a large number of
[294].
diagnostic methods that are explained in
Section 6.4. A consistent picture is generally Indirect statements about paper quality are
obtained only by taking multiple indicators possible via gas chromatography analyses and
into consideration, on the basis of relevant liquid chromatography analyses of the oil. De-
standards and experiences as well as by trend composition of paper is indicated by CO (<
analyses of different parameters [294], [298], 1400 ppm), CO2 (< 10000 ppm) and furfural
[299], [300], [301]. Therefore, in the following
(< 15 ppm) [299]. For furanes, an approximate
sections only a few fundamentals can be de-
relationship to the average degree of polymeri-
scribed, a few critical values are mentioned in
zation is specified (250 ppb corresponds to DP
brackets as a very rough guide:
400, 1000 ppb corresponds to DP 330 to 230,
Oil analyses are of outstanding significance 2500 ppb corresponds to DP 200 [299]).
owing to easy availability of oil samples: re- Note: The determination of the water content in paper
duction of dielectric strength of oil can be from the water content in the oil with the aid of
detected directly by breakdown voltage equilibrium curves is not possible or only possible in a
measurements (> 30... 50 kV [301], Figure very inaccurate manner, since the setting of equilibrium
3.4.2-3) and indirectly by measuring relative states would require constant temperatures over very
long periods. Generally, these equilibrium states cannot
water content (wrel< 20... 30 % [294], Figure be reached for transformers in the field.
3.4.2-1) and particle concentration. Progres-
sive ageing can be identified by the change in Dielectric measurements are to an incrasing
the color of the clear insulating oil from yel- degree used for the analysis of water content
low to dark brown, by an increase in the dis- in paper, cf. Section 6.4.7. Interpretation re-
sipation factor (< 0.3... 1 % at room tem- quires good experience to be able to isolate the
perature [298], [294] and < 100 % at 90 °C re- parameters oil conductivity, geometry, ageing
spectively [301]), by the acidity (neutralization and water content [231], [237]. Although
number < 0.18... 0.5 mgKOH/g [294], [298], measurements can be carried out selectively
[301]), by the interfacial tension (> 24 dynes/ between individual windings, a more precise
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 535

spatial resolution is not possible, and hence the which measures for the maintenance of value
moisture profiles, which are definitely present would be disproportionately expensive.
within the insulation, cannot be identified,
Section 6.4.7.2. Measures for the conservation of value and for
the life extension of oil transformers are es-
Power frequency dissipation factors and in- pecially
sulation resistances of the main insulation
x oil processing or oil exchange if need be,
between the windings can be sharply increased
x drying the insulation,
owing to severe ageing of oil or by conduc-
tive deposits on the insulating material sur- x replacement of windings as well as
faces. Dissipation factors should remain below x maintenance and exchange of components
0.9 to 2 % [298], [294]. (on-load tap changers, bushings, gaskets).
In the following section, mainly the first two
Electrical repeat tests are rarely used on points are taken into consideration [299].
service-aged transformers for diagnostic pur-
poses owing to the related efforts. Retests are Oil is especially damaged by the absorption of
carried out with reduced test levels, for ex- gas (oxygen), water, deterioration products
ample with 80 %. Hence, partial discharge (acids, sludge) and particles as well as by the
measurements (q < 500 pC [295] or 500... decomposition of inhibitors.
2500 pC respectively [298]) as well as the
comparison of transfer functions are especially Water or moisture and gas in oil can be sim-
suitable for diagnosis, Sections 7.1.3.5, 6.4.2 ultaneously eliminated by a vacuum-degassing
and 6.4.6. system, Figure 5.4.2. The costs necessary for
the application of heat and vacuum must be
For strategically important large transformers considered. Furthermore, owing to the
in the power grid, even online monitoring can corresponding partial pressure gradients, water
be economically justified to detect rapidly pro- and oxygen can be removed rapidly and ef-
gressing defects, even between routine checks, fectively from the oil by blowing-out with dry
Section 6.4.8.1. nitrogen. This results in a reduction of ageing
accelerating components O2 and H2O, how-
c) Maintenence of value ever saturation with nitrogen occurs. Drying
and elimination of oxygen is also possible by
Also for transformers, a fall in the dielectric, the formation of nitrogen foam at low air
mechanical and thermal strength occurs in the pressure. Water alone can be eliminated with
course of normal ageing. Additional damage
can accelerate the loss in strength, Figure
7.1.3-15. Previously, maintenance activities or Dielectric, mechanical or thermal strength
reinvestments were undertaken after specific
time intervals had elapsed (time-based main- First measure
tenance). Since large transformers are highly Second
expensive operating equipment, it is now measure
common to carry out measures for the main-
tenance of value on the basis of diagnostic Critical level
condition analyses to attain a maximum Service stress
possible service life (condition based main-
tenance), Figure 7.1.3-15. It is also feasible to Regular ageing Degradation Failure
operate a transformer until the actual break-
down (event-based maintenance). However, t
this strategy is only useful for small trans- Figure 7.1.5-15: Measures for the maintenance of
formers that can be directly replaced and in value on transformers (schematic representation).
536 7 APPLICATIONS

the aid of water absorbing (hygroscopic) filter 4. Vapor-phase drying by evaporation and
materials (cellulose, molecular sieve, zeolites condensation of a solvent for heat transmission
[306], micro-fiber glass). The saturated filters to the windings, with separation of condensate
must be replaced or regenerated (dried) in and water, with subsequent re-evaporation of
time; moreover the release of particles (e.g. the solvent by pressure reduction and with a
cellulose fibers) must be avoided. fine-drying phase under vacuum [302].
Particles (e.g. moist fibers, metal, and carbon) 5. Resistive heating of windings at 110 to 120
must be separated from the oil by filtration. °C with direct current or alternating current of
For a good filter efficiency (even for small low frequency (LFH Low-frequency heating),
particles), oil flow rate, filter and pore size draining of oil, drying under vacuum and
must be coordinated. The filter on its own filling with reclaimed oil; repetition of the
must not act as a source of fibers or bubbles cycle if necessary [307].
formed by partial vacuum. Filtering in the
bypass is less effective than filtering during Note: Moisture-containing solid insulation
draining of oil and refilling with oil. shrinks owing to the removal of water during
drying and hence the bracing of windings can
Sludge and deterioration products, which in- be loosened during intensive drying.
crease the dissipation factor of oil, can be ab-
Note: Drying tests with the LFH method on a 110 kV /
sorbed by aluminum silicate (bleaching earth, 31.5 MVA transformer (year of construction 1955,
fuller’s earth). Residues of low solubility in sorted out) resulted in reduction of water content from 2
the solid insulation must be dissolved away by to 2.7 % down to 0.5 to 1.5 % (measured with Karl
flushing oil or by the operating oil at increased Fischer titration on material samples). The reduction de-
temperatures. For heavy accumulations of pended on the position and thickness of the barriers,
strips, moldings and thrust pads made of pressboard.
sludge, the surfaces must be sprayed or The winding pressure is reduced by up to 30 %, which
washed with oil and also subjected to heat- corresponds to a winding length variation of nearly
vacuum cycles. 0.1 %, similar to what would also occur when cooling
the transformer by 40 K [308].
The water content (or the moisture resp.) in
solid insulation practically cannot be reduced Online measures for permanent cleaning and
by (one-time) drying of oil, because the oil drying of oil use the oil which is circulated in a
comprises only a few 10 ppm, but the cellulose bypass as a transfer medium. Thereby, water
contains a few percent of water. Concentration and deterioration products can be removed
difference amounts to about a factor of 1000 from the windings (very slowly and over a
and the major proportion of water (approx. long period of time). Even for a short-time
99 %) is bonded in the cellulose. Effective processing, the removal of particles and water
drying can be achieved in various ways with from the oil has a strength increasing in-
high temperatures in the insulation and low fluence.
water saturation vapor partial pressures in the
environment: The operation of transformer must not be ham-
pered by the drying systems, e.g. owing to the
1. Multiple circulation of hot oil (85 to 100 risk of oil losses, gas bubble formation or heat-
°C) through the transformer and degassing sys- ing of oil. This can be achieved, for example,
tem. by connecting the drying system to the oil ex-
2. Spraying of windings with hot oil (90 to pansion vessel.
120 °C) under vacuum at 5 - 10 mbar, fine
Note: If the fault gases present in oil are to be retained
drying at 1 mbar. as indicators for the gas-in-oil analysis, no degassing
under vacuum must be carried out for the drying of oil.
3. Combination processes with cyclic hot air
Instead, only absorption in hygroscopic filter materials,
heating and spray oil heating as well as cyclic such as cellulose [303] or zeolites [306], may be used.
vacuum drying and oil circulation drying. Cellulose filter should be cooled so that a higher water
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 537

content can result in the filter than in the insulation of for the lagging reactive power in the grid.
the transformer.
x Measuring capacitors as reference capa-
Note: Online oil drying is not so much a measure for
citors in bridge circuits, as capacitive
subsequently drying a heavily wetted transformer. It is
more appropriate that, even for newer transformers, series impedances, as impedances in capa-
online drying systems are used preventively in order to citive voltage dividers and as coupling ca-
compensate for the slow wetting process with a (like- pacitors for decoupling partial discharge
wise slow) dehumidification process. impulses.
Note: Special features of DC capacitors and impulse
capacitors are discussed in Sections 7.2 and 7.3.
7.1.4 Capacitors
Capacitors consist of a housing and an “active
High voltage capacitors for AC voltages are part”, which consists of a highly stressed di-
used in various applications, Figure 7.1.4-1: electric between two electrodes. Depending on
the application, various forms of housings,
x In high voltage circuit-breakers in the open bushings and connections are used, Figure
state, with multiple breaker gaps connected 7.1.4-1.
in series, grading capacitors guarantee a
well-defined capacitive voltage distribu-
tion. 7.1.4.1 Structure of the Dielectric

x Coupling capacitors are used as carrier- For optimal utilization of the volume availa-
frequency coupling devices for coupling ble, a dielectric which allows the maximum
high frequency signals into power lines. possible energy density
Coupling capacitors are also used for the 2
decoupling of pulse-shaped partial dis- w = ½ H Emax (7.1.4-1)
charge signals in laboratories, in test fields must be chosen. Above all, the dielectric must
or for monitoring of equipment. exhibit a high permissible field strength Emax
x Compensation capacitors (power-factor and also a relative permittivity Hr as high as
correction capacitors) are to compensate possible.

a) b) c) d) e)

Coupling capacitor Grading capacitors Flat section Cylindrical section

in outdoor housing in outdoor housing for installation capacitor capacitor
(only for vertical under SF6 in metal housing in insulating
assembly) with bushings housing

High voltage capacitors Medium voltage capacitors

Figure 7.1.4-1: Examples of high voltage and medium voltage capacitors in various designs (schematic).
538 7 APPLICATIONS

High energy densities can be achieved with Section 7.3.3.2 (so-called “capacitor induc-
oil-impregnated paper, with mixed dielectrics tance”). Low inductances can be achieved, es-
of paper and polymeric films and with “all- pecially for flat butting contacts of all single
film” dielectrics. In the case of special re- turns on the face sides.
quirements, the classic mineral oil is even re-
placed by low-viscosity synthetic insulating li- Increasing the permissible field strengths is not
quids, Section 5.4.3.3. only possible by using polymeric films and
synthetic insulating liquids. Rounding of the
Capacitor elements are formed by winding pa- metal foil edges also leads to a decrease in the
per (and/or polymeric films) with two metallic local electrical stess, e.g. as a result of turning
foils, Figures 5.4-7 and 5.5-9. The energy den- over the foil edges or of laser-cut melted
sity is at a maximum when the dielectric is edges.
formed from only a limited number of thin
layers, Section 2.4.3.3: For large insulation
thickness, the field strength in the area with 7.1.4.2 Drying and Impregnation
uniform field between the metallic foils is re-
stricted to low values, because high edge field If the dielectric contains paper, the sections
strengths occur at the sharp edges of the foils, that are stacked and connected in the insula-
Figure 2.4-20. With decreasing insulation tion rack are dried at increased temperature
thickness, the ratio of Eedge/E0 improves and under vacuum, re-pressed and flooded with oil
the energy density in the dielectric increases, under vacuum, Figures 5.4-2 and 5.5-12. Ca-
Figure 2.4-21. For very small insulation thick- pacitance compensation can be effected on the
nesses, the fixed dead volume of metal foils impregnated stack by opening previously es-
leads to a reduction in the resultant average tablished contact bridges. In this way, the short
energy density, Figure 2.4-20 and Eq. (2.4-37). circuit is removed from adjustment elements.
After assembly of the stack in the housing,
In practice, maximum energy density can be evacuation, flooding with oil and final pres-
achieved for insulation thicknesses of several surization are carried out.
10 μm, which generally result from windings
of four or five layers of 10 to 20 μm thick ca- In mixed dielectrics, papers and polymeric
pacitor papers and/or polymeric films. Short- films are wound one upon the other. Thereby,
term permissible r.m.s. values of field strength paper serves as an impregnating wick, by
in homogeneous fields lie at about 50 V/μm (= means of which the impregnating agent infil-
50 kV/mm). Owing to this, a single capacitor trates into the volumes between the films, Fig-
element can only insulate test voltages of a ure 5.3-6. Gaps that are not in contact with the
few kV. Therefore, high voltage capacitors are paper can also be impregnated (with delay) by
made of a series connection of many individ- diffusion through the polymeric films. During
ual elements. For this purpose, the cylindrical service operation, mixed dielectrics are not
capacitor elements are removed from the stressed uniformely any more: Owing to field
winding mandrel, pressed to form flat sections displacement, electrical stress in the polymeric
and stacked in an insulating rack. Contacting is films is generally increased and in the papers
either by metal strips that are placed in the generally reduced. Thereby, the paper volume
winding (cf. Figure 5.5-10) or by the metal contributes less to energy storage and should
foils projecting out of the winding on the face therefore be kept as small as possible. More-
sides to the left and right (Figure 2.4-20 top). over, the dielectric strength of the paper often
establishes the limits for the strength of the
Note: The type of contacting and the position whole dielectric.
of the contact strips influences to a large extent
the contribution of a capacitor element to the In all-film capacitors, paper is totally dis-
inductance of the electrical circuit [113], cf. pensed with in order to be able to fully utilize
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 539

the high dielectric strength of the polymeric and e). For liquid-filled capacitors, any desired
dielectric. Nevertheless, impregnation is pos- mounting position is possible by using expan-
sible with low-viscosity insulating liquids sion bellows or expansion cells, Figure 7.1.4-1
(Section 5.4.3.3), but it requires a rough or b), or by using deformable rectangular hous-
embossed surface of the polymeric films, Fig- ings for the compensation of thermal expan-
ure 5.3-6. An adequate space factor between sion in the completely liquid-filled housing,
the films, which lie upon each other, is a pre- Figure 7.1.4-1 c) and d). Thus, especially
requisite for impregnation. Loosely stacked compact designs are created for use in gas-in-
windings are directly dried in the housing for a sulated switchgear; also cf. Figure 5.4-1.
brief period under vacuum, impregnated and
re-pressed in the “wet” condition, see Figure
5.4-7. 7.1.4.4 Measuring Capacitors

For gas-insulated switchgear, all-film capaci- Measuring capacitors must fulfill special re-
tors can also be designed oil-free with SF6 gas quirements. In many cases they are therefore
impregnation in a closed and pressure-tight in- quite different from the described designs.
sulating housing.
First of all, oil-impregnated flat section ca-
pacitors are used as coupling capacitors in
7.1.4.3 Capacitor Designs partial discharge measuring circuits and as
high-voltage capacitors in capacitive voltage
Capacitors in the high voltage range mostly dividers. For this, it must be checked whether
have an insulating housing, because no vol- the voltage dependence of the capacitance is
ume for transverse insulation is lost and be- within tolerable limits. In the case of special
cause additional high voltage bushings are un- requirements, the temperature dependence of a
necessary in that case, Figure 7.1.4-1 a), b), capacitance can be compensated by a combi-
and c). In order to maintain a practical con- nation of dielectric materials with different
struction height during the series connection of temperature coefficients of relative permittiv-
many capacitor sections, high voltage capaci- ity.
tors are generally stacked with flat elements
and not cylindrical elements. In the medium For special requirements of linearity, i.e. of
voltage range, the complexity of transverse capacitance stability with respect to voltage,
insulation and bushings is significantly lower, temperature and frequency, so-called com-
so that even rectangular metallic housings are pressed-gas capacitors can be used. They are
used. Along with flat capacitor elements, they insulated with compressed gas and designed
offer advantageous space utilization, Figure with geometrically well defined capacitance in
7.1.4-1 d). a guard ring arrangement, Figure 6.4.1-3. As a
result of the guard ring arrangement, no sensi-
Capacitors for outdoor installation require a tivity with respect to earth stray capacitances
weather-resistant housing with an appropriate occurs in compressed-gas dividers. Compared
creepage path extension, Figure 7.1.4-1 a) and to other technical insulating materials, the di-
b). Porcelain insulators with sheds are largely electric is extremely low-loss, linear, and in-
used. For indoor installation or for application sensitive regarding temperature and frequency.
under compressed gas (e.g. SF6), smooth or Therefore, it is well suited for reference ca-
slightly profiled insulation housings are ade- pacitors or standard capacitors in bridge cir-
quate. In capacitors having an upright position, cuits, Figure 6.4.1-1. However, owing to the
the thermal expansion of the dielectric and large insulation distances in gas insulations,
impregnating liquid can be compensated by a only relatively small capacitance values are
gas cushion (generally, N2), Figure 7.1.4-1 a) possible.
540 7 APPLICATIONS

7.1.5 Circuit-breakers and the risk of inflammation and explosion led

to the development of so-called small-oil-vol-
The task of power circuit-breakers is the relia- ume circuit-breakers and of oil-free circuit-
ble interruption of operating currents and breakers. In these breakers, the arcs burn in a
short-circuit currents as well as the safe insu- very narrow arcing chamber, which comprises
lation of the recovery voltage across the notches for holding the liquid extinguishing
opened switching contacts [20], [47], [186]; cf. medium (oil or water respectively). Here, an
Section 3.2.7.2. For the selection of a circuit- effective cooling of the arc is achieved by the
breaker, above all the specific current char- adiabatic expansion while retracting the mov-
acteristics of the breaker, such as ing contact, by the heavily exhausting vapor-
ized extinguishing medium and, if applicable,
Ir rated current, by an enforced liquid flow.

ip peak short-circuit current, A very simple principle was realized for

smaller switching capacities in the medium
Ith thermally equivalent short-time current voltage range by the so-called hard-gas cir-
as well as cuit-breaker (gas-evolving circuit-breaker).
Under this, a gaseous extinguishing medium
Ib symmetrical short-circuit breaking current evolves as an arc decomposition gas in the
form of hydrogen and crystallization water at
must be compared with the actual stresses oc- the inner surface of an expulsion tube made of
curring in the electrical power network. In the solid insulating material.
case of short-circuit currents with initial aperi-
odic components (so-called “DC compo- Through the development of air-blast circuit-
nents”), the stressing of the interrupter assem- breakers (compressed-air circuit-breakers)
bly is greater and more powerful circuit- it is possible to abstain from any kind of extin-
breakes must sometimes be chosen [20]. guishing liquid. Here, the arc is blown with
compressed air under 15 to 21 bar and high
Note: In addition to power circuit-breakers, there are velocity. Thereby the arc is so intensely cooled
other switching devices which serve for various other
tasks, must not fulfil the same specifications and will
that it is extiguished in the first or second cur-
not be discussed further here: For example, disconnect- rent zero crossing. In the case of a free-jet cir-
ors guarantee the establishment of a safe isolating gap cuit-breaker, the compressed air blows on the
without having to interrupt the currents. Grounding openly burning arc. In an arcing-chamber cir-
switches must ensure a reliable connection to ground. cuit-breaker, the air is compressed in a closed
Load interrupter switches can interrupt the operating
currents and to certain degree also overload currents,
chamber during the movement of the switch-
but are not able to switch short-circuit currents. Switch ing contact [47].
disconnectors combine the functions of load interrupter
switches and disconnectors [20]. With the development of SF6 compressed-gas
circuit-breakers for the medium voltage
range, high voltage range and extra-high volt-
7.1.5.1 Development of Switching Devices age range (of about 20 to 400 kV) and devel-
opment of vacuum circuit-breakers that
The first high-capacity power circuit-breakers dominate in the medium voltage range, the
were oil circuit-breakers, in which the arc is above-mentioned switching principles were
burning in bulk oil after disconnecting the passed, but to some extent they are still in use
switch contacts. By heating up, vaporizing and in the grid.
decomposition of oil, as well as by heat trans-
fer, energy is extracted from the arc until it is Due to the high global warming potential of
extinguished. The long arc extinction time (10 SF6 gas that might escape into the atmosphere,
to 20 half waves), restricted breaking capacity alternative solutions both for insulating appli-
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 541

cations and arc-extinction applications are dis-

cussed. In the case of circuit-breakes, both A B
C
vacuum circuit-breakers and CO2 com-
pressed-gas circuit-breakers are considered
for the future.

High voltage switches earlier had to be im-

plemented basically through series connection a) Switch is closed: the current to be disconnected
flows over the outer contacts A, B, C.
of several capacitively graded interrupter
units. For this purpose, a single SF6 com-
pressed-gas interrupter chamber is meanwhile Compression
adequate for up to 400 kV. D
E
Drive
Note: The series connection of several medium-voltage
vacuum interrupter chambers in order to meet the high-
voltage switching requirements is not yet sufficiently
solved owing to very stringent conditions for synchro- b) Switch opens: the current is comutated to the
nism of the units. inner contacts D and E. The gas is compressed
in the pressure chamber by the movement of the
piston (right).

7.1.5.2 SF6 Compressed-gas Circuit- Nozzle Compression

Gas flow
Breaker
Drive
Arc
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is an electron-affine
gas and possesses superior insulation proper-
ties. Therefore, is suitable especially for the c) Contacts are separated: the arc is intensely
insulation of the recovery voltage over the blown by the gas flowing through the nozzle
and extinguished in the current zero crossing.
clearance of the open contacts. For low ambi-
ent temperatures, mixtures of SF6 and nitrogen
are used; cf. Section 3.2 and 5.1.2.

Moreover, SF6 has excellent arc-extinguish-

ing properties, since lot of energy is required v (t)
to break SF6 down into an arc plasma. There-
fore, a very rapid and practically complete re- d) Switch is opend: the compressed-gas-insulated
generation of SF6 molecules along with the re- clearance insulates the recovery voltage.
combination of charge carriers and recovery of
electric strength occurs after extinguishing the Compression
arc. Another advantage of SF6 is that, unlike
many other electron-affine gases, free carbon
Drive
is not formed as a decomposition product v (t)
[187].
e) Switch closes: on closing, the gas is compressed
a) Functional principle (left) to avoid a pre-igniton of the isolating
distance.
There are two principles for SF6 power circuit-
breakers: In the puffer circuit-breaker, the arc
Figure 7.1.5-1: Principle of a compressed-gas puf-
extinguishing gas is blown with the help of a
fer circuit-breaker, a) to d) while opening, d) and
piston into the nozzle of the extinction cham- e) while closing (schematic).
542 7 APPLICATIONS

ber, Figure 7.1.5-1. In the self-blast circuit- d). This, for example, can be achieved for a
breaker, the compression pressure that is nec- 110 kV circuit-breaker for pressures of 4 to 6
essary for arc extinction is generated by the bar and opening velocities of 4 to 5 m/s. If
thermal expansion of the arc. For this, how- breakdowns occur again, owing to lack of
ever, adequately high currents are necessary. strength of the isolating gap or owing to higher
Therefore, actual switches often combine both transient recovery voltages in the network, this
the principles. is characterized as re-ignitions (until 5 ms) or
arc-backs (after 5 ms). In these cases, the arc
In an enclosed puffer circuit-breaker, the must be extinguished in the next current zero
current flows over the outer, very low resistive crossing. The amount of compressed gas is
copper contact pieces A, B and C, Figure enough for several extinguishing trials. There-
7.1.5-1 a). On opening the switch, the contact fore, the magnitude of transient recovery volt-
tube E pulls the contact piece B towards right ages in the network is of high significance for
by means of a limit stop within about 30 ms, successful arc extinction [20].
Figure 7.1.5-1 b). The energy for the drive
originates from a spring energy store or a Note: A breakdown of the gap during dielectric strength
compressed-air energy store. At first, the recovery is described as a thermal arc-back if the con-
ductivity of the gas is still too high or as a dielectric
contact between the contact pieces A and B is
arc-back if the charge carriers are not yet cleared out of
separated and the current is commutated to the the gap.
inner tungsten-copper contacts D and E. Con-
tact piece B simultaneously works as piston by On closing the switching contacts, at first, the
which the SF6 gas is compressed into a pres- nozzle is closed by the contact tube E, Figure
sure chamber. After separation the contacts D 7.1.5-1 e). Subsequently, the circuit-breaker
and E, the arc is formed, and as soon as the gas is compressed in the left section of the
nozzle made of polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE arcing chamber. The resultant pressure rise
is cleared, this arc is blown intensively in the prevents an early and untimely breakdown.
axial direction by the gas flowing out of the Breakdown and arcing occur just before the
pressure chamber, Figure 7.1.5-1 c). galvanic contact of the contact pieces is made,
so that the thermal stress remains low and
Owing to intensive cooling, the heat removal fusing or contact welding are avoided. This is
in the area of current zero crossing far exceeds referred to as so-called switch-on safety.
the supplied Joulean heat R·i² which leads to a
fall in temperature of the arc plasma. Below b) Arcing models
approximately 3000 K, the plasma largely
loses its high conductivity and the arc extin- The permissible breaking currents are deter-
guishes, already in the first current zero mined by very complex gas dynamic processes
crossing in modern switches. In this process, it in the arcing chamber which are difficult to
must be taken care that the current chopping describe. Hence, the designs of the circuit-
does not occur before the current zero crossing breakers were done in the past mostly on the
because high rates of current change wi/wt can basis of experience and experiments. Rising
cause serious over-voltages L·wi/wt at the in- short-circuit power levels in the network, as-
ductive equipments in the electrical power sociated with the demand for reliability of cir-
system. Even a current chopping at 4 A can be cuit-breakers, require a better understanding of
critical. the arcing behavior. This has two objectives:

Even after the arc is extinguished, the cooling First, the interaction of the switch with the
must be continued by blowing in order to de- electrical network shall be described using
ionize the isolating gap. Strength recovery of global models. For this, it’s not necessary to
the gas-insulated gaps must be faster than the have a thorough understanding of the physical
rise in the recovery voltage v(t), Figure 7.1.5-1 processes. Often it is adequate to describe the
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 543

arc as a “black box” with a two terminal net-

Grading capacitor Grading capacitor
work model. Based on the global macroscopic
arc properties, a differential equation for the
conductance G of the arc plasma is often de-
rived from an energy balance:

1 wG 1 v ˜i
˜ ˜(  1) (7.1.5-1) Arcing chamber 1 Arcing chamber 2
G wt W P

Eq. (7.1.5-1) is comparable with the spark re-

sistance laws according to Section 3.2.7.1. v
and i are arc voltage and arc current, P and
Ware model parameters which are again de-
pendent on G and i and which must be deter-
mined empirically. Some modifications of this
model are described in the literature [317].

Secondly, improved physical models shall

provide a deeper insight into the behavior of
the arc and shall enable the optimization of Figure 7.1.5-2: Series-connection of two circuit-
breaker units in an outdoor installation (schematic).
circuit-breaker properties. For this, physical
processes in the arc and during the interaction
with the cold gas flow as well as interaction the case of open contacts, the grading capaci-
with the nozzle and the electrodes must be tors of about 200 pF provide a uniform voltage
studied and understood in detail. The correct distribution.
description here includes the conservation
equations for energy, mass and impulse in Compared to oil-based circuit-breakers, gas-
their full form. Non-linear properties of gases blast circuit-breakers with inert and non-toxic
must be described with chemical reaction SF6 gas are very safe and low-maintenance.
equations that reflect the atomic interactions Gas decomposed in the arc actually reacts
[317]. In this regard, there are research activi- completely again to form SF6. Hermetically
ties for several questions yet to be solved, such and permanently sealed medium voltage cir-
as thermodynamic properties of SF6, meas- cuit-breakers only have to be monitored with
urement of plasma-state variables, flow simu- respect to the gas pressure.
lation (turbulences, ultrasound), influence of
Teflon vaporization or dielectric strength re- In the intensive arcs of high voltage circuit-
covery after the arc extinction. breakers and in the presence of small contents
of the gases O2 and H2O, secondary reactions
c) Arcing chambers and circuit-breaker units occur to a greater extent, and toxic and corro-
sive decomposition products are formed., They
Arcing chambers can be used directly in an are bound to some extent by absorbers. More-
encased or compressed-gas-insulated substa- over, fluorides in powder form result from re-
tion, but the gas volume of the arcing chamber actions with metallic electrodes. High voltage
is separated from the volume of the switch- circuit-breakers must therefore be opened pe-
gear. For outdoor installations, a weather- riodically for removing the solid decomposi-
proof housing insulator is necessary. The se- tion products. This requires special safety
ries connection of the circuit-breaker units is measures to be followed to avoid contact with
carried out, for example, in T-form with par- and inhalation of toxic decomposition prod-
allel grading capacitors and with a drive fed ucts. SF6 gas is pumped out before opening
through the post insulator, Figure 7.1.5-2. In and re-conditioned in a closed cycle.
544 7 APPLICATIONS

SF6 circuit-breakers are designed for a large drawn and this leads to rapid recovery of di-
number of normal switching operations. De- electric strength of the opened vacuum gap,
spite this, wear does occur, so that regular especially for small contact distances [316].
maintenance activities are required in consul-
Note: However, the rapid de-ionization has the disad-
tation with the ciruit-breaker manufacturer. In-
vantage that small currents of a few 10 A are already
spections are necessary, especially after the chopped before the zero crossing and with a high rate of
very rare interruptions of large short-circuit current change wi/wdt. Therefore, overvoltages can be
currents in the extreme range. Meanwhile induced in inductive operating equipment (“current
there are proposals for status-oriented mainte- chopping”). This still presents obstacles to the use of
nance, whereby various electrical, mechanical vacuum circuit-breakers in high voltage switchgear.
and gas-analytical parameters are measured Note: Owing to the rapid de-ionization, also a break-
during switching operations and compared down spark in the circuit-breaker may extinguish at the
with the reference values [318]. next current zero crossing without leading to a short cir-
cuit of the network. This leads to a conditioning of the
electrode surfaces. For example, micro-tips that are
SF6 gas must be held in closed cycles for yet burnt away by sparks can be considered as the cause of
another reason: owing to its greenhouse effect, self-healing breakdowns.
it has 23900 times larger global warming po-
tential (GWP, time horizon of 100 years) com- The dielectric strength of vacuum gaps
pared to CO2. Although only small quantities amounts to about Vˆ = 20 kV already at d = 0.5
are produced (1995 approx. 8500 t/a, of which mm and increases to about Vˆ = 100 kV for d =
about a third for power engineering devices), 3 mm, cf. Section 3.7. In a medium-voltage
unmonitored release into the environment is no vacuum circuit-breaker the recovery voltage
longer permitted. Alternatives for SF6 circuit- can be withstood even after a very short period
breakers are available today only to a limited after the opening of the contacts, since only
extent: in the medium voltage range, the vac- short switching paths are necessary and the de-
uum circuit-breaker has achieved a share of ionization of the metal vapor-plasma takes
above 80%, SF6 switches are still at about place very rapidly by the deposition (conden-
10%. In the high voltage range and the ultra- sation) of heavy metal ions on the electrodes in
high voltage range, currently there are no al- the span of the current zero crossing. This is a
ternatives yet to SF6. Vacuum circuit-breakers decisive advantage of the vacuum technique
could reach the lower high voltage ranges (up compared to switching devices with com-
to 110 kV) in the near future. Nevertheless, pressed gas, especially in the medium voltage
higher voltages would require series connec- range [316].
tions of very well synchronized interrupting
units. Vacuum circuit-breakers are made of large-
area contacts pressed against each other in a
two-piece ceramic vacuum tube made of alu-
7.1.5.3 Vacuum Circuit-breaker minum oxide Al2O3, Figure 7.1.5-3. The
movement of the moving contact that amounts
Vacuum is well suited as a switching medium, to only about one centimeter is conveyed via a
since the arc is formed by the current flow metallic bellow expansion joint. With a sealing
over a metal-vapor plasma of electrode mate- that is soldered under vacuum, a gasket-free
rial. Even in the first zero crossing of the cur- and hermetically closed set-up is possible,
rent, an extremely fast de-ionization of the dis- which must hold the vacuum without mainte-
charge gap occurs due to radial diffusion, re- nance during the entire service life of the cir-
combination and condensation of the heavy cuit-breaker. Special requirements are placed
metal atoms at the electrodes. During the re- on the quality of the vacuum interrupter tube,
covery of the voltage across the separated since a loss of vacuum is not detected and in-
contacts, residual charge carriers are with- evitably would lead to breakdown.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 545

tacts. The arc contracts under the magnetic

Protected TP forces (pinch) and the electrodes are thermally
heavily stressed in the two root points of the
Upper shield Upper arc. Metal vapor that is formed during melting
ceramic and vaporization of electrode material does not
tube
only delay the de-ionization at the current zero
Protected TPs
Electrodes
crossing, it also decreases the dielectric
strength of the gap for the recovering voltage.
Metal-vapor Lower Therefore, special electrodes are used, on
condensation ceramic
tube which a contracted arc does not stick to a
shield
fixed root point [316], Figure 7.1.5-4:
Bellow
Protected TP expansion For the so-called radial-field contacts (RMF,
joint with
lower shield radial magnetic field) or spiral contacts re-
Drive spectively, the current is guided by the geo-
Figure 7.1.5-3: Medium voltage vacuum interrupter.
metrical shape of the electrodes in such a way
that radial magnetic field components Brad are
Ceramic surfaces under vacuum represent es- formed. Along with the axial direction of cur-
pecially critical weak points of the insulation, rent flow, an azimuthal Lorentz force results,
Section 3.7. Therefore, they must be protected which propels the arc in a circle on the elec-
by overlapping concentric shields of metal trode surface, Figure 7.1.5-4 (left). The use of
(e.g., copper with low gas emissions, so-called this contact system is restricted to currents of
oxygen-free copper OFC) against the deposi- up to approximately 31.5 kA and to smaller
tion of metal vapors. Another important func- contact distances of up to 10 mm.
tion of the shields is the protection of triple
points (TP) against high electric field stresses, Higher currents and larger contact distance are
i.e. the provision of a so-called “field shadow” possible, if the arc can be held in the diffuse
at the junction of ceramics, metal and vacuum, state, i.e. at lower current density. For this,
so that no electron emissions can take place axial-field contacts (AMF, axial magnetic
there which would lead to avalanche formation field) are used, in which axial magnetic field
and flashovers via secondary electron emission
at the ceramic surfaces, Figures 3.7-3 and
7.1.5-3.
The metal-vapor condensation shield in the
middle position is fixed on a potential-free F B ax i
ring between the upper and the lower ceramic
tube. In the case of open contacts, it is B rad
maintained capacitively at half-potential. i

Highly pure, gas-free and highly thermoresis-

tant materials must be used as electrode mate-
rials, e.g. the sinter material CuCr (50/50), so F B rad B ax
that the arcs cannot release unacceptable
quantities of gas. Released gas atoms are
bonded by absorbers (“getters”) made of reac- i i
tive rare-earth elements. Radial-field contacts Axial-field contacts
(RMF, radial magnetic field) (AMF, axial magnetic field)
During a current-breaking process, metal-
vapor plasma and a high-current arc are Figure 7.1.5-4: Electrode configurations for
formed in the gap between the separating con- vacuum circuit-breakers (schematic).
546 7 APPLICATIONS

components Bax are generated by the geomet- the lower high-voltage range (< 123 kV). For
rical structure of the electrodes or by external the higher voltage levels, the SF6 circuit-
coils, Figure 7.1.5-4 (right). Slots impede the breaker continues to be indispensable.
formation of eddy currents by Bax. The axial
magnetic field prevents the contraction of the
arc in the following manner: 7.1.6 Electrical Machines
Owing to Lorentz forces, electrons and ions
Electrical synchronous and asynchronous ma-
describe helical paths around the axial mag-
chines are used both as generators and as mo-
netic field lines. The path radii of ions are
tors. They consist of a rotor and a stator, Fig-
greater than the path radii of electrons owing
ure 7.1.6-1. The rotor generates a magnetic
to higher centrifugal forces. Thus, the current
field B that rotates with the rotation of the ro-
is led via concentric plasma tubes of electrons
tor and that induces alternating voltages in the
(internally) and positive ions (externally).
stationary windings of the stator. The stator
Since the charges of same polarity in the
consists of a cylindrical iron-core stack made
plasma tubes repulse each other, the contrac-
of sheet metal with a concentric opening for
tion of the arc (pinch) is substantially hin-
the rotor. Stator windings are inserted in axial
dered.
slots on the inner side of the core stack and are
Individual vacuum circuit-breakers can switch uniformly distributed over the circumference.
off currents of a few 10 kA for voltages of
several 10 kV. Vacuum circuit-breakers are The machine insulation must insulate the con-
especially suited to the medium voltage range ductors against each other and against the
(Vm < 84 kV), since the breakdown strength of iron sheets of the stator. The conductors
emerge from the slot ends at the front ends of
vacuum rises only slightly with the flashover
the iron core stack and are interconnected in
distance, cf. Section 3.7. However, the vacuum
the winding overhangs, Figure 7.1.6-1 (left).
circuit-breaker has many advantages in the
The design of the insulation varies greatly de-
medium voltage range; it has therefore widely
pending on the size and age of the machine
gained acceptance.
[319]. For small machines that are stressed
In the high voltage range, vacuum circuit- only with low voltage, the conductors are
breakers have not been considered until now wound as enamel-insulated wires directly into
as an alternative for compressed gas-blast cir- the slots, Section 7.1.6.2. For large machines,
cuit-breakers owing to the small increase in preformed and insulated conductor bars or so-
dielectric strength of the vacuum with the dis- called integral coils are accomodated in the
tance. Nevertheless, the application of SF6 is slots and connected at the front end and at the
now subject to increasing restrictions, and back end in the winding overhangs, Section
hence vacuum circuit-breakers are again being 7.1.6.2. Even the largest generators in the GW
more strongly evaluated as a possible alterna- range are stressed only with medium voltage,
tive. For high voltage use, there are two feasi- since the insulation problems for higher volt-
ble options [316]: on the one hand, medium ages cannot be solved with conventional ma-
voltage vacuum interrupters can be connected chine insulation systems. Therefore, a so-
in series, for which exact coordination of called generator transformer is always neces-
switching instants must be ensured. On the sary for the supply of electrical power into the
other hand, single-stage circuit brakers are high-voltage system.
being tested up to 168 kV as laboratory sam-
Note: As an experiment, the vision of a cable generator
ples. From the insulation point of view, for ex- was therefore developed, in which, owing to the high
ample, additional potential-free shields, which dielectric strength of the XLPE cable insulation, the
provide capacitive field grading, are necessary. high voltage is directly generated and hence the gener-
The practical use must at first be expected in ator transformer can be dispensed with, Section 7.1.6.3.
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 547

7.1.6.1 Low-voltage Motors mersed in varnish, sprayed with varnish or, for
higher requirements on the insulation quality,
During the manufacture of low voltage motors, impregnated under vacuum with polyester
slot liners made of cutted and folded insulation resin or epoxy resin.
sheets are first placed into the slots. Subse-
quently, enamel-insulated or coated wires are The function of immersion in varnish or im-
inserted with the aid of special automatic pregation with resin is first to protect the
winding machines. In doing so, there are al- winding against moisture and to provide me-
ways numerous wires put into a slot. Insulating chanical stabilization of the insulation under
sheets are placed between different phase vibration to prevent abrasion. Moreover, the
windings in the area of the winding overhang heat transfer shall be improved. The type of
forming the so-called interphase insulation. insulating materials used is primarily chosen
Then, the stator carrying the windings is im- according to the thermal stresses (temperature

Winding overhang at the front-end connections Stator with

and at the back-end connections circum-
of conductor bars ferentially
in the stator distributed
B windings slots

Conductor bars
in the axial slots of the
stator core stack B Iron-
core stack
with axial
slots
Magnetic field lines
Rotor with the excitation winding
for the generation of magnetic flux

Example:
High-speed synchronous
generator
(turbo-generator)
Cylindrical-rotor generator
500 MVA/ 50 Hz
21 kV/ cos M = 0,8
Hydrogen-cooled approx. 5 bar
Efficiency > 98,8 %

Product Alstom [352]

Figure 7.1.6-1: Principle and construction of an electrical synchronous machine (schematic).

548 7 APPLICATIONS

class) to be expected during operation [319].

Low voltage insulations are generally not free

from cavities, but for the standard operating
AC voltages of a few 100 V, no eroding par-
tial discharges occur in these cases. However,
power supply with converters over longer ca-
ble runs can be problematic: owing to their
high rate of rise of voltage, switching impulses
propagate as traveling waves and increase the
voltage by reflection at the motor impedance
to about double the value. If turn-to-turn volt-
ages in the phase termination area become too
high, partial discharges of high repetition rate
occur in the cavities and lead to rapid erosion
of the sensitive enamel insulation and subse- Figure 7.1.6-3: Stator windings of a high voltage motor
with winding overhang. Photo Siemens AG, Nuremberg
quently to turn-to-turn faults. Some example
remedies are (adequately voltage-resistant)
low-pass filters, cavity-free insulations or spe- Note: The sensitivity of an insulation to converter im-
cially coated insulating materials with in- pulses can be checked by a step test with impulse volt-
creased partial discharge resistance. ages with increasing amplitude. By simultaneous im-
pulse current measurement, a partial insulation failure
can be detected long before it leads to complete break-
down. The results can even be correlated with the re-
sults of partial discharge measurements [320].

Stator 7.1.6.2 Machines for High Powers

with axial slots
for the location of For motors and generators for high powers, the
conductor bars or use of high voltages would generally be ad-
coil windings vantageous. However, even for the so-called
(schematic) “high voltage machines”, it is restricted to
rated voltages of about 27 kV, since the insu-
lation problems for higher voltages cannot be
solved with the classic machine insulations
systems. Owing to limited voltage levels, large
Preformed coils Roebel bar made power generators must always supply their
made of turns that lie of transposed
on top of each other conductors power via generator transformers to the high
Slot wedge
voltage and ultra-high voltage levels.
Conductor Owing to comparatively low voltages, currents
Interturn insulation and conductor cross sections are very large.
Sub-conductor insulation For example, in a 1300 MVA generator, at Vr
Slot-cell insulation
with corona shielding = 27 kV, operating currents are approx. 28 kA.
Stator iron core
a) Winding arrangement and insulation design
Figure 7.1.6-2: Insulation in the stator of a rotating
machine (schematic). Only one winding layer is
In the axial slots of the stator, preformed coil
illustrated. Generally, there is one upper and one elements (insulated bars or preformed coils)
lower layer in the slot. are inserted, fixed with slot wedges and con-
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 549

nected at the front end and at the back end in For operating voltages in the kV range, the
the winding overhang to form so-called bar main insulation must be shielded against cavi-
windings or preformed windings, Figure 7.1.6- ties and delaminations by means of an inner
2 and -3. Large conductor cross sections must and outer semi-conductive layer (inner and
be established with several parallel sub- con- outer “corona shielding”) in order to avoid
ductors, which must be regularly cross-con- partial discharges. The outer corona shielding
nected for uniform current distribution (trans- largely helps with good electrical contact of
posed conductor, Roebel bar), Figure 7.1.6-2 the main insulation to the grounded stator iron
(right). In the case of very large currents, some core in order to prevent discharges between
of the sub-conductors are designed to be hol- the stator iron and the insulation surfaces of
low and are cooled with water. bars or coils. The surface resistance of the
outer layer, however, must not be so low that
Note: Cooling water must be passed to conductor po- appreciable eddy currents can flow between
tential via insulating tubes (mostly of polytetrafluoro-
ethylene PTFE) and must be kept de-ionized to the ex-
the adjoining iron sheets.
tent that leakage currents in the liquid are not too large.
The electric field between the inner and outer
For the so-called preformed winding, the con- semi-conductive layers (corona shields) is less
ductors of a winding layer that are accommo- homogeneous than in a cable, and owing to the
dated in a slot, are connected in series to form rectangular cross section, field stress enhance-
multiple turns of a coil, Figure 7.1.6-2 (left). In ments occur at the edges of the sub-conduc-
contrast, the sub-conductors in a transposed tors, Figure 7.1.6-4 (left bottom). Originally,
conductor (or Roebel bar resp.) are connected field strengths (at the broad and flat side of the
in parallel, Figure 7.1.6-2 (right). In the case of conductor rods) were restricted to values be-
a double-layer winding, tow coils are accom- low 2 kV/mm to largely rule out partial dis-
modated in one slot above each other (upper charges in cavities, but now, owing to im-
layer and lower layer). proved insulation systems, field strengths of
up to 3 kV/mm are used and even higher
The conductor insulation, either as interturn values are under discussion [319]. Neverthe-
insulation or as strand insulation, is stressed less, insulation thicknesses of a few mm only
only with very low voltages. The full operating allow voltages of a few 10 kV.
voltage lies between the conductor stack and
the stator iron core across the slot-cell insula- The conductors emerging from the front ends
tion, which acts as the main insulation. It is of the stator are interconnected in the so-called
also described as coil insulation, Roebel bar winding overhang to form turns and windings
insulation, ground insulation or slot armour. or coils respectively, Figure 7.1.6-3. For that

Rotor Gas gap (air or hydrogen)

Creepage discharge path

Main insulation
Resistive
Semi-conductive Outer
layers potential
semi-conductive layer
grading
Sub-conductor

E Strand insulation Exposed

main insulation
Gas-filled
Circumference s Stator iron core winding overhang

Figure 7.1.6-4: Generator winding insulation (schematic).

550 7 APPLICATIONS

reason, the main insulation must be continued The actual insulation is formed by winding the
continuously as an overhang insulation, Figure preformed conductor with the mica tapes. The
7.1.6-4. bonding agent is not yet hardened at this stage.

The exit points of the conductors at the front The insulation is either hardened with the
end of the iron core stack represent classic bonding agent that is still present in the liquid
creepage configurations; cf. Section 3.2.6.2 form in the mica tapes, or the wrapped-up
with Figures 3.2-33 to -35. Therefore, a resis- tapes are flooded under vacuum with polyester
tive potential grading by semi-conducting var- resin or epoxy resin, exposed to pressure, im-
nish or tapes is used for the suppression of sur- pregnated and hardened (VPI process: vacuum
face discharges. The potential grading is per- pressure impregnation); cf. Section 5.3.3.1
formed along a lattice network of longitudinal with Figure 5.3-14. Here, the accelerator and
resistances and transverse capacitances or the hardener that are present in the impreg-
stray capacitances towards the high voltage nating resin penetrate also the mica tapes,
side, Figures 7.1.6-4 and 3.2-34 (center). Non- which initially contained only little resin, and
linear materials (e.g. based on silicon car- also harden them.
bide), whose conductivity increases with the
field stress, are especially effective, because The described processes can be carried out ei-
this causes the field to be displaced away from ther for the individual not yet assembled con-
the areas with higher field strength. Potential ductors or for the complete, ready-made stator
grading is also possible by the application of (with dryly inserted windings). Best results are
capacitively grading layers [22], [26], [45], achieved with the complete-stator impregna-
Figure 7.1.2-2 (below). The flashover dis- tion with epoxy resin (i.e. with the so-called
tances in gas in the winding overhang area global VPI). It requires very large vacuum-
must also be adequately dimensioned, and tight and pressure-proof vessels (so-called
with this there is also a voltage restriction to autoclaves) and this can now be carried out for
less than 30 kV. machines of more than 200 MVA [319].
Note: In the past, the insulation was designed based on
b) Insulating materials and production bitumen and mica splittings. With this approach, it was
especially problematic that shear stresses can be in-
The machine insulation system in operation is voked by thermal expansion in the insulation while
not only subjected to high electric field heating by the internal copper conductors. Even though
strengths, but also to remarkable mechanical this technique has now become outdated, there are still
old, safely dimensioned generators with long residual
forces, thermal expansions and thermo-me-
lifetimes present in the network.
chanical stresses. Therefore, freedom from
cavities and partial discharges cannot be guar- For the described production processes, there
anteed. Only inorganic ceramics or mineral are many manufacturer-specific and histori-
materials can resist persistent partial discharge cally developed variants [319].
erosion. In practice, mica products have
proven to be useful, Section 5.2.3. c) Generator operation and diagnosis
The base material of mica tapes is mica paper: Large, strategically important generators and
Mica that is released from water of crystalli- drives must be diagnosed not only in the
zation and processed to a foil similar to paper course of inspection intervals but must also be
is applied on a carrier material (paper, glass monitored online if possible. The methods
silk, polyester fleece or polyester silk) with a employed here are described in Section
bonding agent and protected by a facing [319], 6.4.8.3. For example, partial discharges and
Section 5.2.3. Depending on the process, the changes of dissipation factor with voltage or
tapes comprise higher or lower quantities of insulation resistances are measured offline.
bonding agent. The online monitoring of temperatures, me-
7.1 Typical Insulation Systems for AC Voltages 551

chanical vibrations as well as partial dis- in order to show the basic technical feasibility
charge behavior in the context of trend anal- [322]. Meanwhile, generators according to this
yses is of great significance [352]. principle are operated even with voltages of
136 kV (turbo-generator 42 MVA) and 155 kV
Owing to the numerous different insulating (hydro-electric generator 75 MVA). The prin-
materials and design variants, comparable ciple of the cable generator can also basically
groups are formed by the manufacturers and be applied to other electrical machines.
the development of measured parameters is
tracked over their lifetimes. Thus, it can be With the concept of the cable generator, not
determined whether an individual machine is only a single Roebel bar or a single preformed
operating within the standard limits of its coil is accommodated in one slot of the stator:
group. a greater number of cables can be inserted so
that multiple turns can be formed for the in-
Damaged insulations can be often repaired by duction of higher voltages, Figure 7.1.6-6
replacing the respective conductor. (bottom). This results in considerably larger
diameters and very much higher weight in
comparison to a conventional generator, see
7.1.6.3 Cable Generators, Cable Machines Figure 7.1.6-6 (top). The diameter of the cable
generator is also enlarged as there is a two-fold
The limited dielectric strength of mica-resin cable insulation between two turns laying side
dielectric and the insulation problems in the by side, although there would only be a very
winding overhang restrict the rated voltages of small interturn voltage to be insulated.
conventional “high voltage machines” to about
30 kV, Figures 7.1.6-5 and -6 (top). Therefore, In the area of the winding overhang, a simple
a visionary concept was proposed, in which structure results: the cable can be led from one
the existing voltage limits are exceeded by slot to the next without interruption and with a
using XLPE high voltage cables, Figures closed insulation screen, so that the potential
7.1.6-5 and -6 (bottom) [321]. Cable genera- grading at the surface that was previously nec-
tors were at first implemented as so-called essary is eliminated, and almost no power-fre-
powerformers™ in demonstration projects for quency electric field leaks from the cable in-
relatively low voltages (e.g. 45 kV, 10 MVA) sulation into the surrounding space.

30 kV 400 kV
G
B
Generator Generator Generator HV
Rotor
B
circuit- transformer circuit-
breaker breaker Stator segment of a
conventional generator
High-current technology High-voltage tech.

G
High voltage B
Cable generator
High-voltage
Rotor
B
circuit-breaker
Stator segment of a
High voltage technology high-voltage cable generator

Figure 7.1.6-5: Conventional generator (top) and Figure 7.1.6-6: Dimensional comparison between
vision of a high-voltage cable generator (bottom). conventional and HV cable generator (schematic).
552 7 APPLICATIONS

The insulation of the cable can be adapted to 7.2 Typical Insulation Systems
the local magnitude of voltage along a phase
winding from the high voltage side to the neu- for DC Voltages
tral point (stepped insulation thickness, star
connection). Individual cable sections, whose 7.2.1 Electrical Stess, Strength and
lengths are also restricted for production rea-
sons, must be connected in the winding over-
Design for DC Voltage
hang by cable joints. In order to avoid para-
sitic eddy current loops, the cables must not For stressing insulations with DC voltage, a
have highly conductive sheaths or screens. A “rethinking” is necessary in view of the fact
semi-conductive insulation screen is never- that the intuitive assessment of high voltage
theless required to force the electric field into problems is often based upon experiences with
the cable dielectric, at least at power fre- AC voltage stresses. Therefore, dielectric and
quency. thermic stresses and the behavior of materials
are often considered as especially problematic,
Note: A simplified installation concept without genera- i.e. as “the seven plagues of the HVDC in-
tor switch and generator transformer, lower currents and sulation system”:
conductor losses as well as slightly increased efficiency,
lower conductor temperatures and a simplified cooling 1. Undefined and varying conductivities de-
system are listed as advantages of the cable generator.
termine steady-state DC field distribu-
Furthermore, increased thermal time constants and a
higher overload capacity, probably owing to the large tions.
mass of the generator, are also assumed.
2. Multiple polarization processes deter-
Note: Advantages of the conventional generator are mine transient field distributions.
its technology that is well proven over many years with
a long and known service life, the known dynamic per-
3. The development of space charges and
formance of the stator (e.g. the natural frequencies of
the stator teeth), the partial-discharge-resistant as well surface charges cause spacially and tem-
as thermally and mechanically highly stress-resistant di- porally variable field strength enhance-
electric, the lower weight of individual components ments.
(transport, modular construction) as well as the decou-
pling of the generator from power-system perturbations
4. Behavior of materials can be strongly
(overvoltages) by the impedances of the generator trans-
former. non-linear or field-dependent respective-
ly.
Note: It was also proposed to use high voltage windings
of cables with semic-onductive external screens for ca- 5. Behavior of materials is strongly depend-
ble transformers [323], e.g. as so-called dry formers™. ent on temperature.
Conductors that are insulated on all sides for the full
voltage lead to a relatively large winding cross section.
This can be counteracted by a smaller number of wind- 6. Temperature gradients and field-strength
ings and an increased magnetic flux, i.e. with an en- gradients cause undefined and variable
larged iron core. The no-load loss and part-load loss in- gradients of material properties.
crease as a result. Short-circuit loss is comparatively
low owing to the large conductor cross sections. Owing
to the cooling air channels present between the wind- 7. Altogether, field distributions are not at all
ings, relatively low thermal time constants and a lower stable, i.e. spatial-temporal field migra-
overload capacity, especially for very high short-dura- tions occur.
tion overloads result.
In the following sub-sections 7.2.1.1 to 7.2.1.4
Special requirements are imposed for cooling, since the
temperature difference between the cooling air and the dielectric stesses, electric strengths, material
permissible conductor temperature is comparatively low properties and insulation design are discussed
and the electrical insulation also simultaneously acts as for DC voltage. After that, examples for typi-
thermal insulation. cal DC insulation systems in high-voltage
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 553

equipment and high-voltage components are which can be a danger for highly resistive
described. materials such as cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE) in DC cables.

7.2.1.1 Dielectric Stresses at DC Voltage Note: Polarity reversals occur in traditional HVDC
transmission systems with line-commutated convert-
There exists an analogy between the steady- ers (LCC) in order to reverse load flow direction, as the
thyristor valves must carry the current always in the
state conduction field (for DC voltage) and same direction. Now, voltage source converters (VSC)
dielectric displacement field (for AC voltage with IGBT switching transistors are coming up. Here,
and impulse voltage): the conductivity N corre- load flow direction is reversed by reversing current di-
sponds to the permittivity H. However, com- rection, polarity must not be reversed any more and
XLPE cables can be used.
pletely different field distributions often oc-
cur in practice. Basic relationships and a few
Furthermore, DC insulation systems are often
applications are discussed in Section 2.4.4.
stressed with mixed voltages (pulsating volt-
In the case of DC voltage stresses, the situa- ages), i.e. with both DC voltage and superim-
tion is complicated by the fact that the con- posed AC voltage. Booster capacitors in recti-
ductivity values vary by many orders of mag- fier units with voltage multiplier connetions,
nitude, and furthermore, vary greatly in some high voltage cables to be tested with DC volt-
cases with the parameters such as stress dura- age and different components for high-voltage
tion, field strength, temperature, water content direct-current transmission (HVDC transmis-
and pollution, Section 4.2.2. This can also be sion) are mentioned as examples.
accompanied by the formation of space
charges and surface charges. Field distribu-
tions that are dependent on the time or the op- 7.2.1.2 Dielectric Strength at DC Voltage
erating state occur.
The dielectric strength for DC voltage per se
Another time dependence results from transi- is not different than for AC voltage, as can be
tion processes after the application, change or identified in the example of gas breakdown in
switch-off of a “direct” voltage. Steady states a homogeneous field; cf. Table 6.3.1-1.
are often established with time constants in the
range of hours. This can lead to transient over- However, there are practically important dif-
stressing, Section 2.4.4.3. These transition ferences with regard to the dielectric stresses
processes must be taken into consideration in a macroscopic and in a microscopic scale.
with sufficiently long test durations. DC volt- Thereby, the so-called “DC voltage strength”
age tests therefore often last over several of an insulation system or an insulating mate-
hours. rial can either be increased or decreased. The
circumstances that are responsible for this are
Especially high stresses often occur immedi- often difficult to understand and to quantify.
ately after polarity reversal: In the preceding Therefore, the topic DC voltage strength is
steady state, surface charges and space often regarded as a “book with seven seals”.
charges have been built up which relieve
electrical stresses in the areas of the insulation The main concerns are already mentioned
system that have a higher conductivity. After above: conductivities and conduction process-
the polarity reversal, the displacement field es, polarization processes, space charges and
that is associated with the high voltage varia- surface charges, non-linearities, temperature
tion at polarity reversal is constructively su- dependences, gradients of temperature and
perimposed on the existing space-charge fields material properties as well as spatial-temporal
and surface-charge fields. Thus, very high field migrations. They require a specific analy-
field stresses can occur for a short duration sis of the individual insulation problem.
554 7 APPLICATIONS

A particularly significant loss of dielectric 7.2.1.3 Dielectric Properties of Materials

strength results at the surfaces, especially for
external insulations, owing to non-uniform The dielectric properties of insulating materi-
contamination and wetting, Figure 2.4-29. als in HVDC insulation systems were until
now described with simple parallel equivalent
The erosion of insulating materials by internal circuits, according to Figure 4.3-1. Here, only
partial discharges is very much delayed, since two basic properties are considered, the per-
the defective spots can only be recharged very mittivity Hr and the steady-state conductivity N
slowly via the insulation resistance after a dis- which is also known as DC conductivity. In-
charge. Therefore, a comparatively long time sulating materials are properly described when
passes before the next discharge impulse oc- the stresses result either from relatively rapidly
curs. varying displacement fields (e.g. for impulse
voltage, power frequency AC voltage,
Some examples shall be mentioned here: switching on, polarity reversal) or from very
long-lasting steady-state conduction currents
x The development of space charges in a (for DC voltage after very long periods).
non-uniform field leads to a pronounced
polarity effect in gases and liquids, Section After switching on or polarity reversal of a DC
3.2.5.2. voltage, transition processes take place in a pe-
riod of time in which currents and field
x In liquids, the strength falls owing to drift- strengths are influenced by further dielectric
ing impurities; cf. Section 3.4.2 with Table properties in addition to the basic properties Hr
3.4.2-1.
and N:
x In a multi-layer dielectric, with a field or-
thogonal to the interface, the field is some- At first, it must be considered wether the mate-
times displaced from a material with a rial behaves nearly linear or significantly non-
higher conductivity and a lower dielectric linear, see subsection a). In solid materials,
strength (e.g. oil-imregnated paper) into a polarization phenomena, play an important
material with a lower conductivity and a role, see b). In liquid dielectrics, conduction
higher dielectric strength (e.g. polymeric processes and field stresses are determined
films). In these cases, this leads to an in- predominantly by charge carrier drift, charge
creased DC voltage strength of the insula- carrier diffusion and charge carrier injection,
tion system. see c). Gases are extremely high-resistive, but
corona discharges and charge carrier drift can
x Even close to the edges of the metallic foils cause charge accumulation on highly resitive
in capacitors, a relief of the stress takes interfaces, see d). Multi-layer dielectrics and
place for DC voltage owing to a more con- complex insulation systems are discussed in
ductive impregnation gap, Figure 2.4-30. the subsections e) and f). In all kinds of di-
electrics, space charges and surface charges
x The dielectric strength of gaps and joints can be built up which will severely change the
depends on the distribution of the (more field distributions.
conductive) filling medium and its con-
tacting to the electrodes. Gaps with in- For the measurement of conduction pro-
creased conductivity have a potential- cesses and dielectric properties it is espe-
grading effect in the longitudinal direction cially important that the measurements are car-
if they are set properly with a preferably ried out under exactly comparable conditions
constant width, Figure 2.4-34. In contrast, and exactly under the conditions that occur in
narrowings of gap-width can result in sig- the device during test or in operation. This
nificant field stress enhancements. pertains to
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 555

(1) the material condition (density, thick- currents and depolarization currents (PDC)
ness, water content, contaminations, parti- for all above-mentioned parameters [436].
cle content, batch etc). These requirements can only be satisfied with
great difficulty and the standards used today
(2) the temperature,
fall short and are not suitable for this purpose
(3) the field stress and [456]. Therefore, it is recommended to meas-
ure polarization and depolarization currents
(4) the measurement duration. (PDC analysis) which consist of displacement
A complete picture is provided only by long- current components, polarization current com-
lasting step response measurements of the di- ponents and conduction current components
electric system with recording of polarization [500], Figure 7.2.1-1.

Test voltage v(t)

Time of electrification,
Depolarization phase t
charging time, polarization time
t C = tp
Current response i(t)

Displacement current component C·dv/dt

So-called "polarization current" (corresponds to the "apparant conductivity")

Polarization t C = tp
current component
Long duration steady-state current
Conduction current component v(t) / R (corresponds to the "DC conductivity")
Depolarization current t
component

Displacement Polarization Conduction So-called "depolarization current"

current current current
component component component
Displacement current component C·dv/dt
iC = C·dv/dt (Summation of parital currents) iR= v(t) / R

Ri
C R
Ci v(t)
Wi

i(t)

Figure 7.2.1-1: Determination of dielectric properties of a HVDC insulation material by means of PDC analysis
(top). Different components of the so-called polarization and depolarization currents are related to the elements
of a polarization equivalent circuit (bottom) describing the dielectric properties of a linear material [500].
556 7 APPLICATIONS

a) Description of linear and non-linear

materials (1) charge injection at the electrodes due to
very high local field strengths,
For linear materials, the abovementioned cur-
rent components are related to capacitances, (2) charge carrier drift due to potential gradi-
RC elements and resistances respectively, Fig- ents (electric field forces resp.) and mo-
ure 7.2.1-1 (bottom). Thus, a polarization bility,
equivalent circuit is provided describing the
dielectric properties of a HVDC insulating (3) charge carrier diffusion due to concentra-
material for a wide scope of applications. The tion gradients and mobility as well as
assumption of linear material behavior is a
rough first-order approximation only. Never- (4) local build-up of surface charges and
theless, it is often appropriate mainly for solid space charges due to interfaces and gradi-
materials and at low field strengths. ents of temperature and field strength.

Note: Firstly, DC conductivity can only be determined For example, Figures 4.3-5 and 4.3-6 show the
from the steady-state current after a long time of electri-
non-linear behavior of an insulating oil which
fication. As long as the measurement current is still de-
creasing, the resultant conductivity values must clearly is further described in subsection c).
be denoted as apparent conductivities. Nevertheless,
DC conductivities can be estimated from still decreasing b) Solid dielectrics
currents by use of the current difference method or the
charge difference method, cf. Figure 6.4.1-4 (left and
In solid materials, also polarization phenom-
right).
ena occur in addition to conduction (in the
Furthermore, it is possible to measure steady-state cur- time span relevant for HVDC stresses). They
rents at higher temperatures after a shorter time and to lead to increased currents that decay over time,
calculate the values at a lower temperature according to and they cause charge storage and release,
the Arrhenius equation if the material is linear. For this, Figures 4.1-1 to 4.1-3 and 6.4.7-4. At field
it is first of all necessary to calculate the activation en-
strengths below 10 kV/mm, solids generally
ergy from two measurements at elevated temperatures
(e.g. 90 °C and 70 °C), cf. Figure 5.5-4. behave linear and the mentioned polarization
processes can be considered in an equivalent
In Section 4.3.2.2 it also described that not only the DC circuit with additional RC elements with dif-
resistance R but also the resistances Rj can be recalcu- ferent time constants; Figure 7.2.1-1 (bottom),
lated for other temperatures according to the Arrhenius Section 4.3.2.1 and Figure 4.3-2. Linear
equation assuming the same activation energy [501].
equivalent circuits are therefore often suffi-
For a first-order approximation, the equivalent capaci-
tances C and Cj need not to be changed. For a linear cient.
material, the complete dielectric system response and
the DC conductivity that were measured at higher tem- There are strong temperature dependences;
peratures (e.g. 90 °C and 70 °C) in a feasible time span see Figures 4.2-9 and 4.3-3 (right). Conduc-
(e.g. 1 to 10’000 s) can therefore be extrapolated to tivity follows the so-called Arrhenius equation
lower temperatures (e.g. 20 °C), to longer times (e.g.
100’000 s) and to very low current magnitudes below
Eq. (4.2-9).
the measuring sensitivity (e.g. 1 pA), even without the
possibility for direct measurement in this range, Figure The water content of cellulose based insulating
4.3.4 (right). materials is especially of significance, i.e. the
absorption of water can lead to steeply in-
Non-linear materials cannot be described by creased conductivities or conduction currents
equivalent circuits with linear elements that and to steeply increased polarization currents
represent global properties of the dielectric. [429], [436]; refer Eq. (4.2-7).
Therefore multi-physical approaches must be
chosen taking into account a number of phe- Field strength dependences are not so strongly
nomena such as evident in oil-impregnated materials (e.g. pa-
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 557

per or pressboard) or in polymeric materials

(e.g. epoxy resin or polyethylene) at low field Figure 4.3-6 (right) gives an example of the
strengths and are observed only at high field so-called “bath-tub curve” of oil conductivity
strengths above 10 kV/mm, Figure 4.3-3 (left). which can be explained by the described be-
The reason for such a nonlinearity is charge havior.
carrier injection from the electrodes which
causes the filling of traps and the built-up of The complex behavior of conduction phenom-
space charges [502]. This results in a space- ena in oil cannot be described by linear equiv-
charge-limited current that increases with the alent circuits. Nonlinear equivalent circuits,
square of the voltage. which descricbe the nonlinear behavior of oil
by functional relationships, can be used if
Especially in polymeric materials with very space charges and local field stress enhance-
low conductivity, space charges and trap ments in the oil are neglected. A multi-physi-
charges can persist for very long time. cal approach is given by the Poisson-Nernst-
Thereby, very high local electric stresses are Planck equation considering charge injection
caused in case of polarity reversal. and charge carrier drift due to field forces, dif-
fusion processes and interaction of ions, cf.
Section 4.3.2.3 [503], [504].
c) Liquid dielectrics
For practical applications, e.g. for design pur-
The strongly non-linear dielectric behavior of poses or for condition assessment of HVDC
insulating liquids and therefore also of insu- transformers, conduction behavior of oil plays
lating oil was described in, Section 4.3.2.3 an important role, but it cannot be adequately
with Figure 4.3-5 and -6. determined by measurements according to
standards or by theoretical calculations. There-
At low field strengths, oil conductivity de- fore, CIGRÉ has recommended to characterize
creases during the time of voltage application the conduction behavior of insulating oil by
as the intrinsic charge carriers (ions) drift to- measurement of polarization currents at three
wards the electrodes and form space charge “characteristic stress points” with respect to
layers of opposite polarity (heterocharges). the abovementioned “bath-tub curve”: (1) at
Thereby, local field strength is increased. very low field strength after a short time
shorter than 1 s, (2) at 1 kV/mm after one hour
Without voltage, only a very small depolari- and (3) at 6 kV/mm after one hour [500].
zation current is flowing as the electrically in-
fluenced counter-charges on the electrodes Note: Conductivity data for insulating oil, can
hold the space charges for a long time. only be used for HVDC insulation calculations
with the utmost care. If the conditions under
Nevertheless, if the polarity is reversed, the which the conductivity values were deter-
space charges are free again, and the polariza- mined are not exactly known, then the values
tion current has an amplitude as high as it is cannot be used. For example, the conductivity
expected from the originally present intrinsic values measured according to the standards
charges [486]. are related to the initial conductivity (often
also referred to as AC conductivity) for rea-
At high field strengths (i.e. with effect from sons of comparability [270], [283], while for
approx. 2 kV/mm), injection of homocharges HVDC calculations, steady-values of the con-
from the electrodes starts to increase ductivity must be known. These are quite sen-
conduction current significantly. If voltage or sitive to temperature and field strength, Figure
background field strength is further increased, 4.3-6. Even oil types, electrode materials,
current increases therefore disproportionately contaminations and ageing conditions can ex-
until breakdown takes place. ercise great influence on conductivities [271],
558 7 APPLICATIONS

[500]. The influence of water content (mois- rials (e.g. polyethylene, silicone, epoxi resin)
ture content) is of less significance, if it is very under dry air conditions with a relative hu-
much below the saturation concentration. midity below 30 %. These problems can be
avoided by higher air humidities or by less re-
d) Gaseous dielectrics sistive materials (e.g. glass, resin-bonded pa-
per) which both increases the surface conduc-
At low field strengths, gases have a conduc- tivity to the extend that accumulated charges
tivity that is significantly lower than the con- come into contact with surface charge carriers
ductivities of solid and liquid dielectrics, Satu- and can be discharged.
ration current densities are also very low due
to a very small number of ions in the gas, cf. e) Multi-layer insulations
Figure 3.2-1 and -2.
In the following, an oil-pressboard insulation
Conductivities and saturation current densities in a converter transformer is chosen as an ex-
can vary over many orders of magnitude ample.
depending on the intensity of ionizing
processes (e.g. UV light, X-ray, radioactive In simple planar multi-layer insulations, inter-
radiation, cosmic radiation) that have access to facial polarization can be simulated with a
the gas volume. simple RC parallel equivalent circuit. After a
long time, when the effects of interfacial po-
Furthermore, a number of phenomena must be larization are dominant, good consistency of
considered that are related to the gas-solid in- simulations with current measurements can be
terfaces: achieved [271]. In shorter time periods, addi-
tional polarization processes in solids as well
(1) Conductive contaminations e.g. water or as non-linear oil properties must be considered
wet layers on the surface cause a non-uniform [456], Figure 4.3-9.
surface conductivity and severe field distor-
tions leading to surface discharges and flash- The effect of polarization processes in solid
over at comparatively low voltages. materials is that larger currents flow over
longer periods than those that would be ex-
(2) A solid material with a comparatively high pected from the steady-state DC conductivity.
volume conductivity behaves like an electrode. Increased currents in the solid insulation com-
If the surface is rough or has edges, corona ponents increase and especially prolong the
discharges can occur in the gas and a signifi- voltage drops and stresses at the oil gaps that
cant corona current can be fed via the re- are connected in series [271].
sistance of the solid insulating material.
Note: In a simplified manner (which is physically not
(3) Charge carriers that drift along the electric entirely correct), the described effect can be compared
with an increased “apparent conductivity”, at least as
field lines out of a large gas-volume can be ac- long as only polarization currents are flowing. Depolari-
cumulated at the surface of a solid material zation currents can no longer be explained using this
with a very low surface conductivity (electro- simplification.
static charging). If a corona source is within
the range of the field, charge accumulation can Owing to the increased initial conductivity in
be significantly intensified. This gives rise to liquids, oil gaps are at first relieved in transi-
field distortions, and the risk of suface dis- tion processes, since the polarization currents
charges and flashovers is increased. that are given by the barrier properties lead to
lower voltage drops. This acts against the
Note: In air, electrostatic charging is especially field-strength-increasing influence of initially
dangerous for high-resistance polymeric mate- increased polarization currents in the barriers.
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 559

The duration of the relief is dependent on the 7.2.1.4 Design of Insulation Systems for DC
transit time W of ions through the free oil gap, Voltage
i.e. it is dependent on the effective oil gap
width (in the direction of field), Eq. (4.2-5). The designer of DC insulation systems is faced
to a number of specific difficulties. In princi-
Further, the decline in the number of charge ple, they require consideration of the following
carriers for new and highly resistive oils can steps:
lead to very low steady-state conductivities
and very large time constants in insulation 1. Steady-state DC field distributions are con-
systems. duction fields and must be calculated by
means of conductivities.
Thus, the transition processes proceed very
slowly and the stresses on the oil gaps last 2. In the case of polarity reversals or voltage
longer, Figure 7.2.3-7 (bottom). During the variations, steady-state or transient field
polarity reversal, a partial compensation be- distributions and displacement fields must
tween the actual field that is still in transition be superimposed.
and the superimposed displacement field re-
sults in the oil, so that the peak stress in oil is 3. Transient processes, which can sometimes
reduced. last for very long times, must be investi-
gated up to the time when steady-state is
Moreover, the non-linear behavior of the in- reached.
sulating oil at very high field strengths leads to
a conductivity rise, which in turn causes a fall 4. The variations of conductivities must be
in the field strength. Only a simulation that well-known for the relevant parameter field
takes this non-linear correlation into consider- (inter alia, temperature, field strength, time,
ation, can therefore clarify which field ageing), must be quantitatively described
strengths develop in the insulation system and must be taken into consideration.
[271], [486], [504]. Linear equivalent circuits
are not suitable for this. 5. Parameter dependences that cannot be
quantified, must be considered by worst-
f) Complex insulation systems case estimations.

Also in this sub-section, the converter trans- 6. A robust design must be chosen which
former insulation is considered as an example: meets the stresses according to the worst-
case scenarios.
Owing to the non-linear increase of oil con-
ductivity with the field strength, also the con- 7. Relevant multi-physics phenomena that
ductivity ratio between oil and barriers is in- are not always included in the applied sim-
creased, and the grading effect of the barriers ulation models, such as temperature gradi-
for steady-state stresses is thereby improved. ents, charge carrier drift, charge carrier
injection or space charge formation, must
The effect of non-linear oil properties as well be considered by further on refined multi-
as the effect of polarization currents in solids physics simulations. If this is not possible,
on the complex transition processes in insula- qualitative analyses must be performed and
tion arrangements, especially on the tangential appropriate safety factors must be chosen
stresses at bushing surfaces and barrier sur- for the design.
faces (as illustrated as an example in Figure
7.2.3-9), is the subject of research [456], [486], 8. The variation of important parameters
[500], [503], [504]. (such as operational temperatures, temper-
560 7 APPLICATIONS

ature gradients in the insulation or varia-

Oil
tion of conductivities during ageing) should
kept as small as possible, should be moni-
tored by diagnostic measures, if possible,
and should be assessed with respect to reli- Figure 7.2.2-1:
ability and safety of the insulation. DC capacitor for the use
in an oil-filled device.
Examples for typical DC insulation systems in Single capacitor element
high-voltage equipment and high-voltage com- with internal series con-
ponents are described in the following sec- nection of partial capac-
tions. itances and potential gra-
ding at the front ends.
Compensation of the
thermal expansion by
the surrounding oil.
7.2.2 Capacitors for Direct Voltage
(DC Capacitors)
the latter, which accordingly must be designed
The basic structure of capacitors for direct to be strong; the paper must rather be
voltage (DC capacitors) is not different from considered as an electrically less heavily
the structure of AC capacitors. DC capacitors stressed impregnating wick.
likewise consist of impregnated individual ca-
pacitor elements connected in series in a At the foil edges, a stress reduction results
housing, Figure 7.1.4-1. from currents and the accumulation of space
charges in the impregnating gap between the
Compact high voltage capacitors can also be insulation layers, Figure 2.4-30 (bottom).
implemented with internal series connections Therefore, the DC voltage strength of the
in a single capacitor winding element, Figure capacitor dielectric is higher by about a factor
7.2.2-1. The capacitor element is made by of two than the AC voltage strength: the foil
winding of a paper web similar to how a edges are relieved from stress, the field is
bushing is made. The metallic foils are in- generally displaced from the more conductive
serted axially offset. Along with the series and weaker materials into the more resistive
connection of partial capacitances, the foils and stronger materials. Eroding partial dis-
simultaneously cause an axial grading of the charges at power frequency cannot occur, cf.
potential. Section 7.2.1.

When using the capacitor in an oil-insulated Nevertheless, in the case of a polarity

device, e.g. as a smoothing capacitor for the reversal or for back-swinging discharges, the
voltage source of an X-ray device, thermal ex- accumulated charges lead to severe field stress
pansion can be compensated via a connection enhancements, partial discharges and reduced
opening to the surrounding oil. service life.

The stressing of the capacitor dielectric was However, for booster capacitors in DC volt-
explained above in Section 2.4.4.1 and 2.4.4.2 age multiplier circuits, the lower AC voltage
with Figures 2.4-23 and 2.4-30: strength must be taken as a basis, since a dis-
tinct AC voltage stress exists at the beginning
Oil gaps are largely relieved from field stress of the charging process, Figure 6.2.2-4.
owing to their higher conductivity. In a mixed
dielectric made of oil-impregnated paper and DC voltage capacitors are frequently also used
polymeric films, the DC field is displaced into as energy storage capacitors in impulse cur-
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 561

rent circuits, Section 7.3.3. Thereby, the ser- Attention! As a preceding DC stressing can
vice life is significantly reduced. Terminations never be completely ruled out, the requirement
and contacts in the capacitor must be designed of a permanent, reliable and readily visible
for very large impulse currents. short circuit of all capacitor terminals is al-
ways valid for all openly accessible DC, AC
When applying a (direct) voltage, the voltage and impulse capacitors if they are unused at
distribution in a capacitor (or in a series con- the moment.
nection of capacitors) is at first inversely pro-
portional to the partial capacitances, owing to
the capacitive charging current. Ideally, this
distribution should also be equal to the steady- 7.2.3 HVDC Transformers
state distribution on the basis of the insulation
resistances. 7.2.3.1 Dielectric Stresses

For series connections, it must therefore be Converter transformers in the converter sta-
strictly ensured that the capacitors are tions of high-voltage direct-current transmis-
identical, even with respect to the insulating sion systems (HVDC transmission systems)
material and the insulating material tem- have high-voltage bushings that project into
perature. In the case of diverse insulation re- the converter hall and supply the converter-
sistivities, the voltage distribution is modified. bridge circuits, Figure 7.2.3-1. These, for ex-
ample, consist of a series connection of two
Stressing capacitors with DC voltage is associ- bridges that are each fed by transformer
ated with a few typical hazards for the user, windings in the star connection and delta con-
which do not arise the in case of AC voltage nection to reduce the ripple of the DC voltage
applications: (twelve-pulse three-phase bridge connection),
Figure 2.2-2.
Even after disconnecting the voltage source
and opening the safety circuit, a charge can The rectifier valves are connected in series and
still be present at the capacitances. It must be parallel in the so-called valve towers and are
dissipated by safety measures (discharge re- provided with circuits for uniform potential
sistances, automatic and manual discharge, distribution and for potential-free ignition. The
permanent short circuit). valve towers are surrounded by shielding
electrodes which are at the potentials of the
A further danger arises from the voltage that shielded bridge units being connected in se-
recovers after removing a short circuit (recov- ries. For reasons of protection against earth-
ery voltage). It results from charge reversal quake, the valve towers are suspended from
processes in the dielectric and leads to the re- the ceiling in the converter hall. DC voltage is
charging of the main capacitance, Figures 2.4- led through wall bushings into the outdoor
31, 4.3-2 and 6.4.7-1. Therefore, capacitors substation.
that have been stressed with DC voltage must
remain permanently short-circuited. With transmission voltages of 800 kV, previ-
ously valid insulation limits were broken. Safe
Danger also occur from a series connection of design of the operating equipment leads to ex-
capacitors that are not identical: in the case of tremely high test voltages and design voltages
a short circuit of the two external terminals, [466], Table 7.2.3-1. This results in dimen-
dangerous residual voltages between the in- sions that have been unknown until now, both
termediate terminals and the external terminals for the internal and external insulation of the
can still remain. Therefore, all terminals must whole installation and in particular also for
be included in the short circuit. HVDC transformers [453], Figure 7.2.3-2.
562 7 APPLICATIONS

AC side Converter hall DC side Figure 7.2.3-1:

Basic construction of a HVDC
Valve converter hall (left).
tower 500 kV converter transformer in a
transformer test field (bottom left)
and converter hall with valve
towers and transformer bushings
(bottom right).
Wall bushings
Photos Siemens.
Transformer
bushings

Converter
transformers

Maximum test voltages and design voltages

Table 7.2.3-1: Test voltages and design voltages for
an 800 kV DC system [466]: (1) Transformer valve
are generally required for the transformer
side, (2) Transformer-bushing valve side, (3) DC wall bushings, since an especially high level of
bushing, (4) DC switchgear. safety is necessary for these strategically im-
portant components, Table 7.2.3-1 (2). The
Voltage in kV (1) (2) (3) (4) technological leap becomes especially clear
from the the transformer bushing dimensions
SIL (Protection level) 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,330 and specifications that have never seen before
[432], Figure 7.2.3-3 and Table 7.2.3-2.
SIL (Withstand volt.) 1,600 1,760 1,600 1,600
Note: Type test voltages and routine test voltages for
BIL (Protection level) 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,579 the highest voltage levels are still specified very much
depending on the respective project as long as stand-
BIL (Withstand volt.) 1,800 1,980 1,800 1,950 ardized values are not yet available for this.

AC (Test voltage) 905 1,054 --- --- For example, the values that are listed in Table 7.2.3-2
are type test values for 844 kV converter-transformer
bushings. However, these values are partly also stipu-
DC (Test voltage) 1,250 1,455 1,200 1,200 lated as routine test values (BIL withstand voltage 2090
kV, AC 60 min at 1100 kV). For wall bushings, slightly
PR (Test voltage) 965 1,124 1,000 1,000 different values can be used, e.g. for type tests SIL 1800
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 563

kV and BIL 2105 kV, and for routine tests respectively Further, critical DC voltage stresses occur also
BIL 2105 kV, AC 1 min at 1002 kV, DC 1224 kV as for wall bushings in the converter halls, where
well as DC-PR 1020 kV.
problems arise above all with the external in-
sulation owing to contamination and wetting,
In the transformers, the insulation of the high
cf. Section 7.2.4.2.
voltage windings is stressed, at the same time,
not only by induced AC voltages but also by In addition to the steady-state DC field
superimposed DC voltages, that is to say, by stresses and pulsating field stresses that
the so-called pulsating or undulating. mainly occur in operation after a long time,

Figure 7.2.3-2: The world’s first 800 kV HVDC converter transformer with AC bushing (left, in an upright position)
and HVDC bushings for both the winding terminations on the converter side (in the foreground and in an inclined
position) after the final acceptance tests in the high voltage test field [453] (5000 MW HVDC system Yunnan-
Guangdong in the southwest of China, photo Siemens).

Figure 7.2.3-3: Technological leap in conjunction with the transition from 400 kV to 800 kV HVDC systems, illustraded
with the example of cast-resin-impregnated RIP transformer bushings [432] (length 8.1 and 13.5 m respectively; other
technical data in Table 7.2.3-2, photo HSP Hochspannungsgeräte GmbH, Troisdorf).
564 7 APPLICATIONS

stresses occur as a result of connecting to DC used for higher voltages. They can precisely reproduce
voltage or polarity reversal of DC voltage the sinusoidal time characteristic of the AC voltage by
means of charged capacitors that are connected in series
owing to high dielectric displacement currents by transistor switches. That’s why multi-level convert-
and transition processes (transients), in which ers have comparatively low filtering requirements. Nev-
critical stresses can occur that cannot be di- ertheless, the ohmic loss of the transistor switches is
rectly identified from the initial and final val- slightly higher than the loss of the thyristor switches in
ues. the CSC systems so that VSC technology is not yet used
for the highest transmission powers.
Note 1: In conventional HVDC systems with a current-
source DC-link, polarity reversal of DC voltage is Steady-state DC voltage stresses, stresses after
necessary if the direction of power flow is to be re- polarity reversal (PR) and transient stresses
versed; the current direction remains the same in this shall be covered by special HVDC test cycles,
case (CSC current source converter). Figure 7.2.3-4. They are described in detail in
the following sections.
Note 2: In HVDC systems with voltage-source DC link,
reversal of the power flow direction is possible by re-
versal of the current direction for constant voltage po-
larity, i.e. without polarity reversal (VSC voltage 7.2.3.2 AC and Steady-state DC Voltage
source converter). Systems with lower voltages (up to Stresses
approx. 100 kV) can be operated by phase-fired control,
i.e. in the switching mode with square-wave voltage a) Barrier systems
pulses; cf. Section 7.2.6. However, very high voltage
transients occur. Therefore, multi-level converters are In the case of AC voltage stresses, barrier
systems are used in oil-insulated devices for
subdivision of the oil gaps into sub-gaps with
Table 7.2.3-2: Comparison between 800 kV HVDC higher dielectric strength [27], Figure 3.4.2-6
converter transformer bushings and previous 400 kV
bushings, as per Figure 7.2.3-3 [432].
and Section 7.1.3. The barriers must fulfill this
function also in oil-insulated HVDC devices
844 kV UHVDC 412 kV HVDC with pulsating field stresses. The barriers are
arranged approximately parallel to the equi-
Bushing data potential surfaces, as in AC voltage transform-
ers. The basic formation of electric AC fields
844 kV Voltage 412 kV and DC fields is explained in the example for a
3.600 A Curent 2.200 A
field section assumed to be uniform [274],
Figure 7.2.3-5.
3.000 MW Power 906 MW

13,5 m Length 8,1 m

4.000 kg Mass 800 kg Transition process

v (t)
2.400 kg Resin mass 440 kg Polarity "DC"
reversal
26.000 N Bending stress 5.000 N "PR"
90 min 180 min t
Test voltages
Switching
on of the
1.100 kV, 1 h AC 750 kV, 1 min voltage Polarity
reversal
"PR" "DC"
1.455 kV, 2 h DC 900 kV, 1 h
Transition process Trans. process
2.090 kV BIL 1.550 kV

1.843 kV SIL 1.300 kV

Figure 7.2.3-4: Typical HVDC test cycle.
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 565

x x
Pressboard
Oil
Pressboard
Oil
Pressboard
Oil
Pressboard
E average Oil E average
Pressboard
E (x) E (x)
AC field distribution Barrier arrangement DC field distribution

Figure 7.2.3-5: Field stressing of materials in a planar barrier arrangement (center) for AC and DC voltage
stresses (left and right) with a ratio of permittivities of 2:1 and with a ratio of conductivities of 1:10
(pressboard : oil) [274].

Since the electric AC field is displaced from b) Gaps bordered by high-resistance barriers
the pressboard barriers (Hr = 4.4) into the in-
In oil gaps that are bordered by high-resist-
sulating oil (Hr = 2.2), the oil gaps are higher
ance barriers, e.g. between overlapping barri-
stressed than the barriers, Figure 7.2.3-5 (left). ers, a steady-state current flows parallel to the
It would therefore be advantageous to select surface in the steady-state DC voltage condi-
thin barriers as in a conventional transformer, tion, Figure 2.4-34a. The potential difference
so that the oil gap widths are not excessively across the barrier is approximately equal to the
reduced. This, however, conflicts with the re- voltage drop along the overlapping length of
quirement for DC voltage strength. the barriers. The length of the overlap must
For DC voltage stress, the electric field is dis- correspond to this stress.
placed from the more conductive oil (e.g., with The design of oil gaps between lowly-conduc-
-12 -13
N = 10 ... 10 S/m) into the pressboard that tivity boundaries can be used specifically for
is less conductive by about two orders of mag- grading the DC voltage distribution between
-15
nitude (e.g., with N = 10 S/m). Thus, a field the electrodes [7], [10], [276], [277]. A uni-
stress relief of the weaker oil takes place, but form voltage distribution requires a uniform
the applied voltage must be insulated largely gap cross section between the two electrodes.
by the barriers, Figure 7.2.3-5 (right). There-
fore the DC voltage strength is not determined Also the contact to the electrodes must be of
by the oil gap width, but by the thickness and large area and adequately conductive. Press-
number of the pressboard barriers [82]. board coating of electrodes, which is useful for
AC voltage, must not obstruct current access
Thus, a design compromise with adequately to electrodes for DC voltage.
wide oil gaps and adequately thick barriers
must be made to satisfy conflicting require- Narrowing of gaps would lead to an increase
ments for AC voltage strength and DC voltage in field strength by constricting the current
strength [274]. flow lines.
566 7 APPLICATIONS

c) Transformer bushing riers, since the resistive potential distribution

within the bushing core is decoupled from the
An HVDC transformer bushing for AC volt- surrounding oil by a generally high-resistive
age stress and DC voltage stress is considered insulation cover layer, Figure 7.2.3-6 (right
as an example, Figure 7.2.3-6 (left and right). top).
The connection between conductor and bush-
ing is shielded by an electrode. It is coated For DC voltage, a barrier system leads to a
with pressboard in order to increase the di- completely changed field distribution and it
electric strength of the adjacent oil gap. The can therefore be used specifically for resistive
bushing is considered both without and with a field grading, Figure 7.2.3-6 (right bottom).
barrier system, Figure 7.2.3-6 (top and bot- The radial stress persists in the conductor and
tom). This arrangement has already been dis- electrode area. In the oil gaps, however, stress
cussed in Section 2.4.4.2 as an example of a is largely reduced and almost the entire volt-
typical DC voltage field, Figure 2.4-28. age drop occurs in the less conductive press-
board barriers, cf. Figure 7.2.3-5. The barrier
For AC voltage, the capacitive grading layers dimensioning must be appropriate for this
of the bushing and the electrode geometry de- stress. In the axial oil gap between bushing
termine the spatial distribution of the equipo- surface and the barrier ends, an axial con-
tential lines, Figure 7.2.3-6 (left). Thin barri- duction current flows, which homogenizes
ers have only a slight influence on the field the potential distribution in the axial direction
distribution (Figure 7.2.3-6 left, top and bot- and corresponds to an axial field stress, cf. also
tom). The barriers in the lead-exit area are ad- Figure 2.4-28 and 2.4-34a. This current
justed to the profile of the equipotential lines through the axial “grading gap” must be pro-
in order to sub-divide the oil gaps in the direc- vided with a large area access to the con-
tion of the electric field and to increase their ductor. Considering the AC stresses, this area
dielectric strength. The stress applied is pre- must be covered by the insulated shield elec-
dominantly radial and is concentrated on the trode. An oil gap with a continuously even
oil gap. cross section, uniform current density and uni-
form field strength would be optimal. Con-
For DC voltage, an intense field concentration strictions that lead to increased current density
occurs around the electrode if there are no bar- and increased field strength are critical here.

AC DC
Insulating oil
Porcelain

Bushing core with grading layers Conductor bolt Shield electrode

Top: without barrier system. Bottom: with barrier system

Radial and axial

AC DC Barrier system field stresses

"Grading gap"

Figure 7.2.3-6: HVDC transformer bushing at AC voltage (left) and at steady-state DC voltage (right), without
barrier system (top) and with barrier system (bottom). The 20 % equipotential lines are illustrated (schematic).
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 567

Note: In addition, some bushings have a housing insu- pressboard tend to approach a steady-state
lator made of porcelain and an internal oil gap. The axi- condition
al potential distribution can also be significantly influ-
enced in this way.
EÖ NB
 1 (7.2-2)
The field grading effect of the barriers is based EB NÖ
on the large conductivity difference between
oil and pressboard. If this difference reduces, with a completely changed field distribution.
e.g. by using less conductive insulating oil, the Whether the steady state is reached, depends
grading effect of the axial oil gaps deteriorates. on the time constant
Also for increased temperatures, field grading
deteriorates, since the conductivity difference W = ROilCB (7.2-3)
between the oil and the barriers decreases,
Figure 4.2-9, and in extreme cases it can com- with which the barrier capacitance is charged
pletely disappear. via the oil gap resistance. Therefore, steady-
state conditions are achieved at high oil con-
Within the bushing, and for AC voltage, a ca- ductivities and small time constants (e.g. after
pacitive voltage distribution takes place which ageing in operation), Figure 7.2.3-7 (center),
causes potential grading even in the surround- but not necessarily at low oil conductivities
ing dielectrics. For DC voltage, the resistive and large time constants (e.g. for routine test-
voltage distribution between the grading layers ing), Figure 7.2.3-7 (bottom).
corresponds to the capacitive voltage distribu-
tion, provided a temperature gradient and con- Note: It must be noted that conductivity ratios
ductivity gradient do not lead to distortion and DC field distributions can be greatly var-
[188]. However, penetration to the more con- ied by temperature variations and tempera-
ductive oil in the barrier system is negligible to ture gradients. This can lead to the situation
a first approximation. The bushing thus re- that stress conditions that were not covered in
quires an adequately dimensioned radial insu- the tests are possible in operation [275], [278],
lation over the grading layers, since internal [279]. It is therefore advisable to carry out
and external potential gradings are in general field calculations and field studies with vari-
different and can, for example, vary with the ous feasible conductivity ratios, so that worst-
temperature. case scenarios can be identified [281].

The stress after the polarity reversal (PR)

7.2.3.3 Stresses during Voltage Variations can be estimated by determining the field con-
dition before the voltage variation Ebef . The
Voltage variations generate dielectric dis- voltage step during PR then superimposes a
placement fields which are superimposed on field-strength step in the form of a dielectric
the existing fields. The stresses will first be displacement field 'EAC (similar to an “AC”-
explained for a simple oil barrier system, Fig- alternating field), whose magnitude corre-
ure 7.2.3-7 (top).
sponds to the voltage swing 'V = +V – (-V) =
On connecting a DC voltage, field strengths 2 V and thereby a particularly high stress is
are distributed according to the permittivities; generated. In the case of linear systems, the
for the simple oil barrier system it is approxi- magnitude of the polarity reversal stress (PR)
mately in the ratio is

EOil HB 4.4 2 EPR = Ebef + 'EAC('V=2V). (7.2-4)

, (7.2-1)
EB H Oil 2.2 1
For the oil gaps with the previously lower
Figure 7.2.3-7 (left). Subsequently, and in a stresses, very high stress peaks thus occur,
transient process, the field strengths in oil and since the superimposed dielectric displacement
568 7 APPLICATIONS

field again meets a capacitive field distribution Therefore, the displacement field superim-
according to Eq. (7.2-1). posed during the polarity reversal is partially
compensated by the previous field, especially
Polarity reversal stresses in the oil gaps are in the oil, so that a reduced peak stress in oil
strongly dependent on the initial state. For the results.
simple barrier system as in Figure 7.2.3-7, the
equal step height leads to different stresses:
For a high oil conductivity, a very high peak
CB RB H B NB EB
stress in oil occurs which quickly decreases;
and for a low oil conductivity, a significantly v (t)
lower peak stress in oil is generated, but it lasts COil R Oil H Oil NOil EOil
significantly longer. Again, the time constants
according to Eq. (7.2-3), with which the insu-
lation system tends towards the new steady
state, are important. v (t)
+V
t
PR

7.2.3.4 Transition Processes (Transients) -V +V

a) Two-layer arrangement
EOil EB
In a two-layer arrangement, e.g. made of oil
and oil-impregnated pressboard in the barrier
system of a transformer, the transition pro-
cesses proceed approximately exponentially High oil conductivity,
between the initial state (e.g. a capacitive volt- small time constant
age distribution after connection or polarity R OilCB
reversal of a DC voltage) and the final state
(e.g. a resistive voltage distribution after a
very long time). EOil t

Note: Deviations from the exponential profiles owing to

polarization currents and as a result of non-linearities
are discussed in Section 7.2.1.3. EB

Basically, the above-mentioned transients have

already been described in Section 2.1.4.3 with
Figure 2.1-16 for a plane capacitor dielectric
and in Section 7.2.3.3 with Figure 7.2.3-7 for a
plane transformer barrier arrangement. EOil
Low oil conductivity,
Depending on the test duration, initial states large time constant
and final states, need not always correspond to R OilCB
EB
the capacitive field distribution and resistive
field distribution respectively, because the t
field distributions caused by previous stresses EB
are to be superimposed, cf. Figure 7.2.3-7.
Low oil conductivity causes, for example,
large time constants and slow transition pro- EOil
cesses, so that before the polarity reversal, oil
Figure 7.2.3-7: Stressing of an oil barrier system
is still under stress and the pressboard experi- on connection and polarity reversal of a DC voltage
ences reduced stress, Figure 7.2.3-7 (bottom). for high and low oil conductivity (top and bottom).
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 569

Here, the transition processes proceed largely

v (t)
exponentially decreasing or increasing and
V
without intermediate maxima, so that the
maximum stresses can be determined from the v 3(t) Lowest conductivity
(e.g. pastic material)
initial states (for the oil) and from the final
states (for the pressboard). However, for very v 2(t) Medium conductivity
highly resistive materials with large time con- v 1(t) (e.g. pressboard)
stants, steady states are reached only after very Highest conductivity (e.g. oil)
long periods, which probably do not occur in W1 t
practice for short-duration DC voltage stresses.
Figure 7.2.3-8: Transition processes (transients)
in a three-layer dielectric after switching on a
b) Three-layer arrangements DC voltage v(t).

In a three-layer arrangement, e.g. made of

oil, oil-impregnated paper and synthetic mate- c) Complex insulation systems
rial, the transition processes proceed in com-
In complex insulation systems, spatial and
plex form after switching on or polarity rever-
temporal displacements of field stresses
sal of the voltage [7], [10], [276], [277], Figure
(field migrations) occur within the insulation
7.2.3-8.
system similarly to the field displacements
Note: A similar case (plastic barriers between two dif- between the insulating materials described in
ferent oils) has already been discussed in Section 2.4.4.3 Figure 7.2.3-8. These processes can be exam-
with Figures 2.4-32 and -33 as an example of a transi- ined, for example, with spatially cross-linked
tion process. equivalent circuits [280] or with transient nu-
merical field calculation [282]. Below, the
Based on the capacitive field distribution,
field migrations will be explained in a clear
which stresses all three materials according to
and simplified representation:
their permittivities, the field stress at first de-
creases in the most conductive layer (gener- As an example, the polarity reversal of a DC
ally, in the oil gap) but the capacitances of voltage at two overlapping barriers was al-
higher resistive layers are thereby charged and ready explained in Section 2.4.4.3 with Figure
stressed to a greater extend. These less con- 2.4-34.
ductive layers (pressboard and plastic) must
therefore additionally take over voltage drops Directly after the reversal of polarity, high
from the oil gap. Thereby, both experience an field strengths in the oil gap as well as a zig-
initially increasing field stress. In the further zag-shaped potential pattern with high, but op-
course of the transition process, also the mate- posite stresses in the oil and in the barriers re-
rial of medium conductivity (e.g. pressboard) is sult from the superimposition of conduction
discharged, so that the applied DC voltage fields and displacement fields according to Eq.
must finally be insulated largely by the mate- (7.2-4). Additionally, “islands” with potentials
rial with the lowest conductivity (e.g. plastic). above 100% and below 0% occur that are to be
For the material with the medium conductiv- attributed to positive and negative surface
ity, the first increasing and then reducing stress charges.
causes a transient voltage overshoot or a field
strength maximum, which cannot be detected A practically important example is the interac-
from the initial state and the steady state. tion of the bushing and the barrier system in
a HVDC transformer, Figure 7.2.3-9. The oil
Here too, the initial states can be displaced by is regarded as significantly more conductive
preceding stresses and the steady states can than the bushing core and barriers. For DC
possibly be reached only after very long peri- voltage, the oil gap thus fulfills the field
ods. grading function explained in Figure 7.2.3-6.
570 7 APPLICATIONS

Moreover, the barriers increase the dielectric field that corresponds to an AC field results at
strength of the oil gaps in the radial direction. first.

For the simplified schematic representation, Immediately thereafter a transition process

the barrier system according to Figure 7.2.3-9 (2) begins, during which, basically, the capac-
(top) is aggregated in a tapered equivalent bar- itances of the highly resistive materials (barri-
rier, Figure 7.2.3-9 (1) to (6). A numerical cal- ers and bushing core) are charged in the radial
culation is possible, e.g. with spatially cross- direction via the more conductive oil gaps,
linked equivalent networks [280]. Some espe- Figure 7.2.3-9 (2). In the lower area of the in-
cially important equivalent elements are indi- sulation (L), the charging of barriers proceeds
cated in the figure. faster than in upper area of the insulation (U)
owing to smaller capacitances of the thicker
Transition processes start with the connection barriers: thus, the equipotential lines displaced
of a negative DC voltage (1). Here, the per- into the bushing insulation must pass over into
mittivities that are described by spatially dis- the barrier system close to the electrode. This
tributed partial capacitances are the dominant causes a high tangential (axial) transient stress
properties. Therefore, an electric displacement in the lower end of the oil gap close to the

Simplification of a HVDC insulation system consisting

Barrier system of bushing and barrier system for the qualitative de-
scription of transition processes following voltage
changes. For a clear description, some especially do-
Bushing core Oil gap
minant properties are represented by selected network
elements. Numerical claculations require spatial
cross-linking [280].

U (1) L U (4) L
Step voltage Polarity reversal

U (2) L U (5) L
Transition process Transition process

(3) (6)
Steady state Steady state

Figure 7.2.3-9: Transient phenomena in a HVDC insulation [280] after connection of the voltage (1 to 3) and
after reversal of the polarity (4 to 5) in a 25 % equipotential plot (schematic).
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 571

electrode, which can significantly exceed the 7.2.4 HVDC Bushings

steady-state stresses [280].
The design of DC bushings is very much sim-
Subsequently, a steady state (3) occurs, in
ilar to the design of AC bushings, cf. Section
which the axial conduction current flowing in
7.1.2. However, some important differences
the oil gap determines the axial electric field
must be considered. must be considered.
strength by the magnitude of its current den-
sity. In case of a suitable gap geometry, a uni-
form current density homogenizes the field
7.2.4.1 Internal Insulation
stress. Whether this steady state is achieved
depends on the time constants of the materials At first, it must be noted that potential grading
(especially determined by the oil conductivity) in the bushing core, which is designed as a ca-
and on the duration of the voltage stress. pacitive grading, must act as a resistive
During the polarity reversal (4), a dielectric grading during steady-state DC voltage appli-
displacement field which corresponds to the cation. Due to identical capacitive and
doubled voltage swing 'V = 2·V is superim- resisitve geometries, the potential distribution
is basically identical for both of the cases if
posed on the preceding field state according to
there is no temperature gradient in the core.
Eq. (7.2-4) and the oil gap is extremely
This can be shown by a step response meas-
stressed. This scenario has already been ex-
urement during which a transition from the
plained in detail in Figure 2.4-34 for overlap-
capacitive to the resistive potential distribu-
ping barriers.
tion occurs [505], [506], Figure 7.2.4-1 (top).
In the subsequent transition process (5), the
Note: The insulating layers between the grading layers
still charged radial capacitances of the barriers act similar to a compensated resistive-capacitve voltage
and the bushing top layer insulation are first devider which exhibits a frequency-independent divider
discharged and then charged again (i.e., fi- ratio and which can be used from impulse voltages, to
nally charged reversely) with different time AC voltages, transient voltages and DC voltages, cf.
constants in the lower (L) and upper (U) areas Figures 6.3.4-2 (b) and 6.3.4-3.
of the insulation. Thereby, the radial stresses
in the oil gaps are reduced. Here too, the field Similar to a cable insulation, the bushing in-
displaced into the bushing insulation must pass sulation encloses the current-carrying con-
over into the barrier system close to the elec- ductor which produces heat loss. As the en-
trode. Again, this causes high axial transient closing electrical insulation is also an effective
stresses in the oil adjacent to the bushing. thermal insulation, a temperature gradient de-
velops which causes a conductivity gradient.
Finally, here too a steady state (6) results, As a result, the stress is reduced on the inner
provided the time constants are sufficiently layers and increased on the outer layers. The
small or the stress time is sufficiently long. reason for this is the space charge that is built
up due to the conductivity gradient.
In order to keep the described processes un-
der control by the insulation system, a coor- This effect of potential shifting, which can
dinated design of all components is required also described as field migration, was already
with regard to the geometrical contours of all described for a cable in Section 2.4.4.2, Figure
components, with regard to the properties of 2.4-27. Meanwhile, it could be verified for a
all the insulating materials used and with re- bushing by measurements: i.e. in a step-re-
gard to extensive test experience and operating sponse measurement, the expected capacitive
experience [280]. For field studies, it is rec- potential distribution passes over into a signifi-
ommended to carry out calculations with dif- cantly displaced resistive distribution with a
ferent feasible conductivity ratios to determine high stress on the outer layers, Figure 7.2.4-1
the critical scenarios [281]. (center). For a bushing core with a constant
572 7 APPLICATIONS

temperature, a current step or a temperature age. Thereby and by the highly resistive cover
step at the conductor results in a synchoneous layers of the insulation, the potential distribu-
run-off of thermal an electrical transients tion within the bushing core is more or less
which again end up in a displaced resistive decoupled from the external potential distri-
potential distribution, Figure 7.2.4-1 (bottom) bution.
[505], [506].
In HVDC converter transformers, as already
The effect of the grading core on the potential explained with Figure 7.2.3-6, an external
distribution in the sourrounding media is grading in the oil is realized by means of bar-
significantly weaker than for AC voltage as rier systems, oil gap geometries and electrode
the field-grading conduction currents at DC contacts. In the case of transient processes, the
voltage are significantly smaller than the cor- interaction of internal and external potential
responding displacement currents at AC volt- grading can become very complex, cf. Figure
7.2.3-9.
100 % Potentials of selected grading layers
25%SpannungͲͲ>75%Belag
at constant temperature
80 %
50%SpannungͲͲ>50%Belag
(from bottom to top: 2575%SpannungͲͲ>25%Belag
%-, 50 %- and 75 %-layer) 7.2.4.2 External Insulation

60% Usually, bushings are also links between the

internal insulation (e.g. in a transformer or a
40 %
Capacitive potential distribution Resistive Potential distribution
GIS) and the external insulation (e.g. indoor or
outdoor). For DC voltage, the design of the
20 %
external insulation is especially difficult so
0%
Time in hours that long creepage paths, large dimensions and
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 hydrophobic surfaces are necessary. The Fig-
100 % ures 7.2.3-1 to -3 and Table 7.2.3-2 give an
impression.
80 %
External insulation poses a problem for sys-
60% tems of high voltage direct current transmis-
sion, especially at high voltages above 500 kV.
40 %
Potentials of selected grading layers
25%SpannungͲͲ>75%Belag Deposits of dirt and wetting cause conductive
at a stationary temperature difference of 60 °C
20 %
50%SpannungͲͲ>50%Belag
(from bottom to top: 25 %-, 50 %- and 75 %-layer) pollution layers. For AC voltage, surface cur-
75%SpannungͲͲ>25%Belag
rents are mostly negligible compared to the
Time in hours
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
capacitive displacement currents, so that the
potential distribution is not significantly
100 % changed. For DC voltage, the field distribution
is, however, largely determined by the surface
80 %
currents. Potential grading measures inside the
60% device are no longer effective in the case of
extensive wetting at the surface, Figure 2.4-29.
40 %
Potentials of selected grading layers
25%SpannungͲͲ>75%Belag In unfavorable cases, e.g. during non-uniform
at a temperature step of 60 °C
20 % 50%SpannungͲͲ>50%Belag
((from bottom to top: 25 %-, 50 %- and 75 %-layer) rain, the high voltage potential is displaced on
75%SpannungͲͲ>25%Belag
Time in hours the insulator surface [8], [58]. Especially unfa-
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 vorable is the effect of a horizontal mounting
Figure 7.2.4-1: Transient potentials of grading layers
position, because this even allows wetting of
in a DC bushing at a constant temperatur (top), the underside of the sheds.
for a stationary temperature gradient (center) and
for a temperature step (bottom), all measured with a Potential displacement leads not only to axial
fieldmill voltmeter [505], [506]. flashover. In bushings, also extreme radial
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 573

Figure 7.2.4-2: 545 kV HVDC wall bushings at a converter hall (Manitoba Hydro, Winnipeg, Canada). For increasing
flashover voltage for non-uniform rain, OIP porcelain bushings are retrofitted with so-called booster sheds. One of the
bushings is designed oil-free with hydrophobic silicone shed composite insulator [7], [8], [9], [93], Figure 7.2.4-3.
Photo HSP Hochspannungsgeräte GmbH, Troisdorf.

stresses are created between the surface car- porcelain insulators, the same effect can be
rying high voltage potential and the ground achieved temporarily by coating with silicone
layer or another grading layer at low potential paste or with a coating made of room-temper-
below the surface. A radial breakdown leads ature vulcanization silicone (RTV coating).
to a short circuit, which may destroy the Coating is, however, not a longlasting solu-
porcelain and can ignite the oil filling. tion.

The property of the porcelain surface to lose An increase in the flashover voltage by a cer-
its hydrophobicity owing to contamination and tain amount also results from so-called
rain, and thereby to enable water drops to flow “booster sheds”, Figure 7.2.4-2: with silicone
and wet the surface, causes the formation of discs of large diameter, which are distributed
continuous films of moisture. This can be over the insulator length, the pollution flash-
identified by the reduction of the surface re- over should be delayed by interrupting the pre-
sistance, Figure 5.3-19. arcs [8], [58], Section 3.2.6.4. However, with
this, the cause of the problem, i.e. the potential
An effective countermeasure is to use compo- displacement on the surface is not combated. It
site insulators with hydrophobic siliconesheds, only results in delaying the formation of con-
Figures 5.3-18 and 7.2.4-2. Individual drops tinuous pre-arcs. Nevertheless, it is advanta-
remain insulated, so that continuous conduc- geous that this measure can be applied later on
tive bridges cannot be formed. On the existing to improve the reliability of critical systems.
574 7 APPLICATIONS

Example: Oil-free HVDC wall bushing with used as housing insulators, which pose no risk
silicone rubber sheds of exploding porcelain in the event of damage.
Moreover, a significantly reduced weight re-
Figures 7.2.4-2 and -3 show a flashover-re-
sults. The combustible oil-paper insulation is
sistant 545 kV wall bushing for high voltage
replaced by a solid vacuum impregnated RIP
direct current transmission with silicone rub-
bushing core made of epoxy resin; cf. Sections
ber sheds on the outdoor side. GRP pipes are
7.1.2.2 and 5.3.3.1 with Figure 5.3-14. Com-
pressed SF6 or polyurethane foam is used as
Table 7.2.4-1: 545 kV HVDC wall bushing as per subsidiary insulation between the bushing core
Figure 7.2.4-3 in comparison with conventional
design with porcelain and oil-paper insulation [8].
and the housing insulator [7] ... [10], [93].

Electrical test data: Note: A special feature results from the condition that
an epoxy-resin-impregnated core cannot be manufac-
Lightning impulse full wave +/- 1675 kV tured in any desired length. For a very long bushing, the
voltage chopped wave - 1845 kV outdoor side and the indoor side must be assembled
from two separate outdoor-gas and indoor-gas bushings
Switching impulse under rain +/- 1300 kV
which are connected in a short SF6 pressure tank under a
voltage (105 : m, horiz. 1.2, vert. 1.4 mm/min)
shield electrode. The entire arrangement is clamped on a
AC voltage 50 Hz, 72 seconds 750 kV continuous conductor bolt with spring assemblies in the
shield toroids.
DC voltage negative, 2 hours 500 kV
polarity reversal, 1 min In comparison to porcelain bushings, signifi-
positive, 0.5 hours 500 kV
positive, 1 hour 795 kV cantly smaller dimensions and masses are
achieved, Table 7.2.4-1.
PD- measurement for AC voltage
- and DC voltage
Important technical data:
Conventional Bushing as per 7.2.5 HVDC Cables and Accessories
bushing Figure 7.2.4-3

Mass 3700 kg 2600 kg 7.2.5.1 DC Cables

Creepage path
outdoor 21.8 m 13,7 m At first sight, DC cables and their accessories
indoor 7.6 m 3.6 m are not very much different from the designs
Flashover distance for AC voltage, Section 7.1.1. In the DC cable,
outdoor 5.5 m 4.3 m the electric field is also formed in a defined
indoor 3.2 m 3.6 m manner between the conductor screen and the
Specific creepage path at 500 kV insulation screen within a highly resistant di-
outdoor 43.6 mm/kV 27.3 mm/kV electric, and in the accessories, a grading of

Indoor side Outdoor side

GIS encapsulation

SF6
SF6
SF6

Epoxy resin bushing core Epoxy resin bushing core

GRP tube with RTV coating Composite insulator with silicone rubber sheds

Figure 7.2.4-3: Oil-free 545 kV HVDC wall bushing with composite insulator carrying silicone rubber sheds for a
HVDC converter station as per Figure 7.2.4-2, design HSP Hochspannungsgeräte GmbH, Troisdorf [7]...[10], [93].
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 575

the electric field must also be performed in the marine cables is similar to the design of land
DC case. cables. Additionally, they need a mechanically
very resistant armour made of spirally circu-
Nevertheless, some special features of DC lating steel wires in order to avoid damages by
voltage stress and of material behavior under ships’ anchors or by tensile forces that occur
DC stress must be regarded. They are espe- during cable laying and by sagging cables on
cially related to field distortions by space the seabed.
charges. In a current-carrying cable, for exam-
ple, a temperature gradient develops which DC cables can transmit significantly higher
causes a radial conductivity gradient. Due to powers than AC cables owing to the following
the conductivity that is increased towards the root causes: The permissible operating volt-
conductor, the electric DC field is displaced ages are higher, as the dielectric is only
outwards and space charge is built up. Thus a stressed with the voltage V that is directly re-
severe misgrading of the potential can occur lated to the transmission power and not with
culminating in an overstressing of the outer in- an AC peak voltage that would be higher by a
sulation (stress inversion). This effect was ba- factor 1.41. Additionally, the permissible load
sically explained in Section 2.4.4.2 by means currents are higher, as reactive power needs
of Figure 2.4-27 and experimentally demon- not to be transmitted, as current displacement
strated for a DC bushing, see Figure 7.2.4-1. or skin effect does not occur, and as eddy cur-
rents neither generated in the conductor nor in
Depending on the field of application, very the armouring wires. Lowest ohmic conductor
different cable technologies are used [507], losses and highest transmission powers are
Figure 7.2.5-1. While AC cables are limited in acieved with copper conductors, but alumin-
length (as long as there is no reactive-power ium conductors are are also used because of
compensation) to some 10 km up to just over cost reasons or because of its lower weight.
100 km due to high capacitive reactive power, Furthermore, also dielectric losses are lower as
an electrically caused length limitation for DC the dielectric does not show polarization losses
cables does not exist. Therefore, they are espe- at DC voltage but only comparatively low
cially suited as submarine cables with very conduction losses. Nevertheless, at high DC
long transmission lengths. The design of sub- voltages, thick insulations are used and high
field strengths occur. This results in poor heat
V dissipation of the ohmic conductor losses and
kV AC+DC DC only
in significant ohmic loss density within the di-
electric:
Oil cables
600 AC+DC
Mass-impregnated DC cables
pdiel = N·E² (7.2-5)

400
Extruded In order to avoid the risc of overheating, ther-
AC cables mal runaway or thermal breakdown, the con-
Extruded DC cables ductivity N of the insulating material must not
be too high.
200
Basically, paper-insulated DC cables and
plastic-insulated DC cables are distinguished.
20
200
The former have a lesser problem with build-
0 50 100 150 l / km up of space charges due to the higher conduc-
AC+DC DC only tivitiy of the oil-impregnated paper or the
mass-impregnated paper. Thus they can be
Figure 7.2.5-1: Typical fields of application for dif-
ferent cable technologies under AC and DC voltages
used for current-source converter stations
(schematic). where the power flow direction must be re-
576 7 APPLICATIONS

versed by polarity reversal. The latter are mation of the lead sheath. In this process, cav-
comparatively low-loss, leightweight, oil-free ities and gaps with reduced electric strength
and cost-efficient, and they can be transported can occur close to the conductor screen and the
in longer lengths. However, due to the space- insulation screen. The electric field stress can
charge problems, they are not yet used for the therefore be reduced in this region by more
highest operating voltages, and they are nor- conductive paper layers.
mally used in HVDC current-source converter
stations only, where the power flow direction Mass-impregnated cables can be manufactured
can be reversed without polarity reversal. nearly in any length and they do not loose oil
in case of a damage. Thus, the mass-impreg-
nated cable is the traditional but still the high-
7.2.5.2 Paper-insulated HVDC Cables end solution for power cable transmission at
high transmission power, at high DC voltages
a) Oil-filled Cables and over long distances.
The highest operating voltages of more than
600 kV, both for AC and DC voltages, can be 7.2.5.3 Plastic-insulated HVDC Cables
achieved with paper-insulated self-contained
oil-filled cables, Figure 7.2.5-1. The insulation Plastic-insulated cables made of extruded and
wound of lapped paper layers is dried and im- cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE cables) can
pregnated under vacuum with low-viscosity be manufactured at relatively low cost, com-
oil. The cable has a hollow conductor which pletely without oil and with comparatively low
enables the compensation of the thermal ex- weight and small diameter. For AC applica-
pansion of the insulation by displacement or tions up to very high operating voltages above
suction of oil. Due to the viscosity of the oil, 500 kV, they have therefore almost entirely
this is only possible for lengths up to 50 km, so prevailed against paper-insulated cables and
that longer continuous cables cannot be oper- they have performed very well, Figure 7.2.5-1.
ated. The low-viscosity oil imposes several Consequently, extruded XLPE cables are also
additional disadvantages: the cable must be desired for DC applications, but the applica-
tightly sealed, there is a risk of oil-leakage and tion is unfortunately complicated due to the
active auxiliary systems for the oil supply are build-up of space charge, so that the higher
required. voltage levels must be opend up step-by-step
by newly developed insulating materials.
b) Mass-impregnated Cables (MI and PPLP)
Unfortunately, also the production of long
Mass-impregnated (MI) paper cables and XLPE cable lengths is not possible as the
polypropylen lapped paper (PPLP) cables polymeric material already starts cross-linking
can be used up to 600 kV, Figure 7.2.5-1. The within the extruders which must therefore be
insulations consist of wound and lapped layers cleaned regularly. Long lengths must therefore
of paper or polypropylene and paper. Con- be assembled with factory joints or with cable
ductor screen and insulation screen are made joints that are mounted on-site.
of semi-ocnductive paper. The cable is dried
under vacuum and impregnated with the so- XLPE dielectrics are not yet used for the high-
called “mass”, i.e. with an oil that has a high est transmission voltages in HVDC systems,
viscosity at ambient temperature. Impregna- since space charge would be removed only
tion is performed at elevated temperature and very slowly owing to low conductivity. Space
in a low-viscosity state. charges are caused by temperature gradients,
conductivity gradients, charge carrier injection
During operation, the thermal expansion and and traps in the cable dielectric, Figure 2.4-27
contraction is compensated by radial defor- and 7.2.5-2.
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 577

Low field strengths High field strengths

Build-up of charges with opposite polarity Build-up of charges with equal polarity
(Heterocharges) (Homocharges)

t = 0

Charge carrier drift at low field strengths Charge carrier injection at high field strengths
U U

U (x) U (x)
x d x
0 d 0
At low field strengths, At high field strength,
U (x) U (x)
charge carrier drift predomi- charge carrier injection pre-
nates over injection at first dominates over drift at first

t o f

E E
E0
E0 = V / d
E(x)
E0 = V / d
E0 E(x)

Drift and injection are at equilibrium x Drift and injection are at equilibrium x
0 d 0 d

Figure 7.2.5-2: Build-up of space charges in a highly resistive dielectric at low field strength (left) by accumulation
of existing charge carriers as "heterocharges" and at high field strength (right) by accumulation of injected charge
carriers as "homocharges", as well as enhancement and reduction of the local field strength close to the electrodes
(left and right respectively).

Even if there is no temperature gradient, space 2 (left and right respectively). The injected
charges are built up in highly resistive dielec- charges can be accumulated in traps in the di-
trics (e.g. in XLPE insulations) by the drift of electric and at microscopic inhomogeneities
existing charge carriers at low field strengths (e.g. at the interfaces between amorphous and
and also by injection of charge carriers at the crystalline regions). For long lasting or for
electrodes at high field strengths, Figure 7.2.5- steady-state DC voltage stress, field strength
578 7 APPLICATIONS

enhancements (by so-called “heterocharges” Meanwhile, XLPE cables are qualified for
i.e. charges of opposite polarity) or field 500 kV. Nevertheless, higher voltages and
strength reductions (by so-called “homo- polarity reversal operation still require drastic
charges”, i.e. charges of same polarity) can be improvements with respect to space charge ac-
caused especially close to the electrodes, Fig- cumulation and removal. This can already be
ure 7.2.5-2 (bottom). achieved very effectively by nanofillers
(nano-structured fillers) such as metal oxides
The described space charges are especially like MgO or SiO2 and carbon black. But the
dangerous at polarity reversal as the dis- biggest challenge is a sufficient dispersion of
placement field that is related to the high volt- the filler particles in full scale procuction
age swing and the remaining space charge quantities [507].
field are locally superimposed constructively,
cf. Figure 7.2.3-7. New candidates for extruded cable insulation
that avoid the drawbacks of XLPE dielectric
Therefore, XLPE cables are not yet used in the with and without nanofillers are non-cross-
traditional line-commutated converters (LCC). linked thermoplastic materials with a higher
They are only used in the new systems with melting point. They are based on PP/PE com-
voltage source converters (VSC) and without pounds such as the high-performance poly-
polarity reversal. Here, power flow direction propylene thermoplastic elastomer (HPTE).
is reversed by reversing the current direction, First of all, the possibility of melting down and
cf. Section 7.2.1.1. recycling of thermoplastic materials is a big
Now, development of cable technology allows advantage. Although this cable technology is
the use of HVDC XLPE cables up to 320 kV now used for medium voltage AC applications
[496], [497]. Successful tests on 500 kV XLPE only, a high potential for a wide range of high
DC voltage cables have been reported [315], voltage applications for AC, DC and combined
[507]. voltages is expected. Qualification tests for
320 kV DC are reported [507].
The challenges especially exist on the side of
material development. The risk of thermal in- High-temperature superconducting (HTS)
stability (runaway) at very high field stresses cables can be made of PPLP insulation im-
shall be reduced by lower conductivity of the pregnated with liquid nitrogen. Limiting fac-
insulating materials. The accumulation of tors are the possible lengths of cooling systems
space charge must be reduced by better chemi- and the limited lengths of HTS material tapes.
cal cleaniness, lower amount of impurities and Up to now, demonstation projects are realized
lower content of polar cross-linking by-prod- for AC systems, but there are promising ad-
ucts [507]. vantages for potential DC applications. Even
at comparatively low voltages of approx. 200
kV, superconducting cables would allow very
7.2.5.4 Emerging HVDC Cable high currents and very high transmission loads
Technologies of several GW in comparatively small corri-
dors [507].
Today, traditional cable technologies with
long-term experience are challenged also for
DC applications by extruded cables that have 7.2.5.5 HVDC Cable Accessories
lower costs in production, laying and opera-
tion. Also DC cables have creepage surfaces at
their ends if the are not terminated by cable
Mass-impregnated cables can be used up to joints or by cable entrance fittings, Figure
600 kV and self-contained oil-filled cables 7.2.5-3 (1). After the inception of corona dis-
have been qualified for 800 kV [507]. charges at the edge of the partially removed
7.2 Typical Insulation Systems for DC Voltages 579

cable sheath, streamer discharges and leader homogeneous temperature distribution, a field
discharges, which can be observed under AC stress concentration would then occur at the
voltage stress, cannot develop as there is no high voltage electrode. Unfortunately, a design
displacement current that can feed high-cur- optimum that covers both of the situations
rent surface discharges. Nevertheless, accu- cannot be found easily, as the conductivities
mulated space charges and surface charges are neither well known nor stable [496], [497].
cause flashover at comparatively low voltages,
so that field grading is absolutely necessary. Alternatively, resistively graded accessories
are possible, Figure 7.2.5-3 (4). Here, potential
Field grading techologies that were described grading in axial direction is achieved by a spe-
in Section 7.1.1.4 are also used for DC voltage
cable accessories. For oil-impregnated and
mass-impregnated cables, cable joints and en- (1) Creepage surface without grading
trance fittings are wound of paper and impreg- 25 %
50 %
Cable 75 %
nated on site. For polymeric cables, prefabri-
sheath
cated joints and entrance fittings made of
Cable insulation
elastomeric material are slipped or shrinked on
the bare cable insulation, Figure 7.2.5-3. Cable side Air side

DC voltage cable accessories require special

attention with respect to the electric field (2) Geometrically graded cable entrance fitting
stresses in the cable and in the accessory itself
Grading cone 25 % 50 %
which are predominantly determined by the with deflector
conductivities of the involved materials. 75 %
Cable
sheath
Unfortunately, many materials that are used Cable insulation
for AC voltage are not applicable for DC volt-
age as conductivities are not stable under long Cable side Air side
lasting DC voltage stress due to ion drift, and
because of the accumulation of field-distorting
(3) Geometrically graded cable joint
space charges and surface charges. Further-
Insulation of the joint
more, conductivities in adjacent materials can
differ by some orders of magnitude and sig- Earthed
nificant field migrations can occur owing to deflector 25 % 50 % 75 %
HV electrode
temperature gradients and transient tempera- Cable insulation
ture variations. These problems are described
in the following for the examples of geometri- Cable side Joint side
cally and resistively graded accessories.
In the case of geometrically graded cable en- (4) Nonlinearly and resisitvely graded cable joint
trance fittings and cable joints, Figure 7.2.5- Insulation of the joint
3 (2) and (3), the DC field distribution for con- Earthed
deflector
stant and similar conductivities in adjacent in- Resistive material
sulating materials is theoretically comparable Cable insulation
to the field distribution at AC voltage. Owing Cable side Joint side
to an operational temperature gradient from
the inside out, the field stress is displaced to-
Figure 7.2.5-3: Cable assesories at DC voltage,
wards the earthed deflector electrode. This
(1) creepage surface without grading, (2) geometri-
distortion could be considered by an according cally graded cable entrance fitting, (3) geometrically
design of electrode geometry. Nevertheless, if graded cable joint and (4) resistively graded cable
the cold cable would be switched on with a joint.
580 7 APPLICATIONS

cifically designed semiconductive layer be- peak magnitude and for opposite impulse po-
tween earthed deflector and high voltage elec- larity only with a reduced peak magnitude.
trode. Due to the constant diameter, the grad-
Note: Owing to their low losses, LCC installations can
ing layer is situated at a comparatively con-
be built up to the highest transmission powers of several
stant temperature. Also here, the design opti- GW. Unfortunately, polymeric cables which can safely
mum cannot be found easily: on one hand, the be reversed in polarity are not yet available for the high-
semiconductive layer must carry a sufficiently est transmission voltages because of space charge ac-
high current for effective field grading, and on cumulation in the dielectrics.
the other hand, it must not be heated up inad- In VSC installations, polymeric cables can be used
missibly by ohmic loss [496]. without polarity reversal and the introduction of the first
polymeric cable for 500 kV DC transmission is ex-
Real cable systems must withstand both DC pected. The compact design without large filter units
voltage stresses and impulse voltage stresses. and the black-start ability without connection to a strong
three-phase power gid are very advantageous. Never-
Therefore, also combinations of resistive and theless, transmission power is limited to approximately
geometric grading are built. 1 GW and the losses are still higher than the losses of
LCC installations.

VSC installations are largely used for the connection of

7.2.5.6 HVDC Cable Testing offshore wind energy farms or offshore power consum-
ers via polymeric DC cables with medium transmission
HVDC cable systems are qualified in yearlong lengths.
endurance tests with numerous load cycles at
high DC voltage. For this purpose, two basic
applications must be distinguished [507],
[508]: 7.2.6 High-frequency Chopped DC
Voltages
In the conventional line-commutated con-
verters (LCC) with thyristor valves, the direct 7.2.6.1 Applications
current is always flowing in the same direc-
tion. A reversal of power flow direction can For the connection of offshore wind energy
only be achieved by reversal of voltage polar- farms or offshore power consumers via DC
ity. Consequently, load cycles with polarity re- voltage cables, especially HVDC converters
versals of the voltage must be included during with DC link, constant polarity and multi-level
the endurance tests. Under applied DC volt- converter topologies are used. They can model
age, transient impulse voltage stresses are the sinusoidal shape of the AC voltage curve
tested for both DC polarities at opposite im- even for very high voltages without high-fre-
pulse polarity with full impulse peak magni- quency chopping (pulse-width modulation) of
tude. the DC voltage and without complex filtering
on the AC side.
In the new voltage source converters with
Pulse-width modulation with high-frequency
DC link (VSC) and with multi-level converter
chopped DC voltages is used for DC equip-
topologies that use IGBT switching transistors,
ment up to about 100 kV, in particular for
the DC voltage has always the same polatity.
switched-mode power supplies and for the
Here, a reversal of power flow direction is
converter feed of electrical machines.
achieved by reversal of current flow direction
while different voltage magnitudes are set in Note: Other applications for chopped DC voltages can
the converter stations. Consequently, polarity result from the vision of energy transmission networks
reversals during the endurance tests can be and energy distribution networks of low loss and space-
saving DC systems. Energy is exchanged between vari-
omitted. Under applied DC voltage, transient ous DC voltage levels via input side converters, very
impulse voltage stresses are tested for the compact high-frequency transformers and output side
same impulse polarity up to the full impulse converters [284].
7.3 Typical Insulation Systems for Impulse Voltages 581

Furthermore, it is possible to exchange energy analo- systems (transformer windings, cable lengths),
gously between three-phase AC systems of different which can no longer be viewed as electrically
voltage levels (and even different power frequencies).
Then, a heavyweight power-frequency transformer will
short, so that traveling waves, reflections,
possibly not be required any more. standing waves, resonances and voltage over-
shoots must be reckoned with.

7.2.6.2 Insulation Problems An example is given by low voltage motors

that are supplied from inverters over longer
New types of thermal and electrical problems cable lengths, in which the steep switching
result from the chopping of DC voltages of edges generate traveling waves which are re-
several 10 kV. They are not direct DC voltage flected with doubled magnitude at the motor
problems, but they occur in DC voltage sys- impedance and which very rapidly can damage
tems and hence they will be discussed in this the insulation by high-frequency partial dis-
context: charge erosion [285].

Dielectric losses for square-wave voltages are

about four times larger than for the sinusoidal 7.2.6.3 Test Techniques
fundamental component of equal amplitude,
even for a frequency-independent dissipation The common high voltage test methods are no
factor. With high-frequency chopping, a linear longer adequate for this. For thermal reasons,
rise of power loss with switching rate also oc- high frequency stresses must be simulated, for
curs, Eq. (4.2-14) and (...-20) respectively. I.e. example with resonance transformers further
for a switching rate of 10 kHz, the fundamen- developed from the classic Tesla transformer
tal component alone would lead to 200 times [284]. Rapidly varying stresses can be simu-
increased dielectric losses, and the square- lated with impulse voltage tests with simulta-
wave voltage to 800 times increased dielectric neous observation of partial discharge impulse
losses when compared to a sinusoidal 50 Hz currents [285]. Actual square-wave voltages
voltage. A possible dissipation factor increase have 20,000 switching edges per second at 10
with frequency is not yet considered here. kHz. The development of adequate square-
wave test generators poses new and high re-
These considerations show that only very low- quirements for high voltage test technology. A
loss insulations can be used and that the insu- possible concept includes, for example, two
lation concepts must include dissipation of oppositely charged high voltage capacitors,
larger heat quantities, in order to avoid ther- which are alternatingly connected to the test
mal instabilities (“thermal breakdowns”); cf. object via power electronic switches that are
Section 3.5.2. suited for high voltages [284].

In the case of partial discharges, high chop-

ping rates lead to a significantly accelerated
partial discharge erosion. Therefore, dimen- 7.3 Typical Insulation Systems
sioning and production of insulations must
guarantee prevention of partial discharges to
for Impulse Voltages
an even greater extent than now. Insulations
that must be stable over long periods tend to 7.3.1 Electrical Stress and Strength
require larger insulation distances or insula-
tion thicknesses. Impulse voltage stresses and field distribu-
tions result predominantly from the dielectric
Additional problems result with fast and steep displacement field. Therefore the permittivity
switching edges and with high switching must be considered as the most important ma-
rates because of the spatial dimensions of terial property.
582 7 APPLICATIONS

In insulations that are complex in arrangement, electrical background field, Figure 3.2-28. For
for example in transformers, the voltage distri- arrangements similar to point-to-plane ar-
bution is based on the overall system proper- rangements, orders of magnitude of break-
ties. Therefore, isolated consideration of the down voltages are roughly estimated from the
dielectric is not adequate, additionally induct- length-related voltage requirement or voltage
ances, stray capacitances and magnetic cou- drop of streamer discharges (approx. 5 kV/cm
plings must be considered, cf. e.g. Figure for d < 1 m) and leader discharges (approx. 1
7.1.3-3. kV/cm for d > 1 m), cf. Sections 3.2.4 and
3.2.5 with Figures 3.2-27 and -29.
In spatially extended systems and for very
rapidly varying processes respectively, e.g. for Impulse voltage strength decreases with in-
fast transients, a description of the systems creasing stress duration, cf. Section 3.2.4 (im-
with distributed parameters is necessary, Sec- pulse voltage-time characteristic). Thus, the
tion 2.6. dielectric strength at switching impulse voltage
is more comparable to the strength at AC volt-
In the case of impulse stresses, external insu- age because of the longer stress duration.
lation is very insensitive to pollution layers on
insulator surfaces, since the displacement cur- Liquid and solid insulating materials are ba-
rents are practically always larger than the sically stronger for short stress durations than
conduction currents over the pollution layers. for long-lasting stresses, Figure 3.4.1-1 and
3.5-1. Many breakdown processes require
In case of lightning impulse voltage and for longer periods for their development, such as
large flashover distances and non-uniform fiber bridge formation in liquids, thermal
fields in atmospheric air, also the rounding of breakdown in solids or erosion in materials
electrodes is not as important as for DC volt- that contain voids. Generally, about two to
age and AC voltage. Even with the inception three-fold higher strength is assumed for
of pre-discharges, the propagation velocities lightning impulse voltage compared to short
of streamers and leaders respectively are often duration AC voltage strength.
not sufficient to reach the counter-electrode
during the stress period of a lightning impulse Some examples are discussed in the following.
voltage, cf. Eq. (3.2-44). That is to say that the
range of pre-discharges is restricted because
the voltage requirement of the pre-discharge
7.3.2 Energy Storage
must be covered in the comparatively weak
The generation of electrical impulses necessi-
t =0 I (t < 0) I (t > 0) tates an energy storage device, from which the
impulse energy can be very rapidly released.
Energy storage capacitors or impulse capaci-
t =0 tors are predominantly used for this, because
C R L R of the following reasons, Figure 7.3-1 (left):
V v (t)
I
v (t) x They can store energy over longer periods
with minimum losses.
V R·I
x Very rapid release of energy in low-induct-
v (t) v (t) ance impulse circuits is possible.
0 R·C t 0 L/R t
In principle, electrical energy can be stored
Figure 7.3-1: Generation of high voltage impulses from with significantly higher energy density in the
capacitive and inductive energy storage devices. magnetic field of a current-carrying coil, Fig-
7.3 Typical Insulation Systems for Impulse Voltages 583

ure 7.3-1 (right). By opening a switch between 7.3.3 Impulse Capacitors

the current source and the storage inductance, (Energy Storage or Surge Capacitors)
the coil current commutates from the source to
the load that is connected in parallel and gen- 7.3.3.1 Capacitor Design
erates a high voltage impulse.
Energy storage capacitors, impulse capacitors
However, in practice the application of this or surge capacitors respectively serve as en-
principle leads to significant problems: ergy sources for all practical impulse circuits.
They can be directly charged from a DC volt-
The interruption of the direct current requires a
age source. Impulse capacitors are basically
very complex opening switch. The interruption
constructed similarly to AC voltage capacitors
of extreme currents can actually be managed
or DC voltage capacitors from a series con-
by blasting away the conductor.
nection of several capacitor windings in a
In the loaded state, the maximum current flows housing, Section 7.1.4 and 7.2.2.
and causes continuous ohmic losses. They re-
It is shown that the service life is not restricted
quire sufficient removal of heat, large con-
by the steady-state DC voltage stress in the
ductor cross section, large conductor weight
loaded condition, but owing to transient
and a continuous re-supply of energy. Long
stresses during the discharging. In general,
lasting storage is not possible without using a
owing to circuit inductances and resistances,
resistance-less (superconducting) conductor,
damped oscillation profiles of capacitor volt-
Section 7.5.
age and discharge current occur, Figure 7.3-2.
Short-duration inductive intermediate storage The impulse capacitor is, therefore, usefully
takes place only in special impulse generators, described by the series equivalent circuit (CS,
Section 6.2.3.7. For this, the energy of the im- RS), Section 4.3.1.
pulse is transferred in an oscillating manner
from one capacitive storage device to another In the case of weak damping, the amplitude of
via the circuit inductance in order to increase the current can be roughly estimated by
the pulse power. equating capacitively and inductively stored
energy:
2 2
½·LK·Î < ½·CS· Vˆ (7.3-1)
t=0 i (t)
In the case of strong, overcritical damping, an
LK exponentially decreasing current with a com-
RS
v (t) R paratively low initial value results:
CS Î = V/(R + RS) (7.3-2)
The mechanical and thermal loading capacity
V̂ of connections and contacts must correspond
0
V V̂ to the resultant discharge currents. The current
2 V̂ density for single-point contacting of thin
v (t) 4 metal foils via contact strips is especially criti-
0 T t
cal here. Contacting with the inclusion of the
V̂ entire length of the winding is possible if the
3 metal foils project from both face sides of the
V̂
1 winding, Figure 2.4-20. When stacking cylin-
drical sections and by series connection of flat
Figure 7.3-2: Oscillating discharge of an energy sections, butting contacts with low current
storage capacitor. density are established.
584 7 APPLICATIONS

7.3.3.2 The so-called “Capacitor contact strips, the currents are compensated in
Inductance” the circumferential direction.

Impulse circuits must often have especially Note: If metal strips are used for contacting,
low inductance in order to quickly transfer the the electrode foils form long strip lines in the
stored energy to a load circuit or to avoid un- circumferential direction [113]. They extend
wanted oscillations. Here, circuit inductance from the contact point to both the sides up to
is also influenced by the design of the capaci- the beginning and to the end of the foils in the
tor. winding, cf. Section 2.6. Validity of an electri-
cally short (quasi-stationary) approach must be
Note: Often a parasitic “capacitor induct- verified checking the propagation times.
ance” is attributed to the capacitor [189]. This
is physically not correct since the inductances
are defined only for closed electrical circuits 7.3.3.3 Dielectric and Service Life
[113]. Nevertheless, so-called “partial induct-
ances” are calculated from the magnetic field While charging the capacitor, the field distri-
energies of partial volumes, which are then at- bution in the dielectric corresponds at first to
tributed to the capacitor component and not to the dielectric displacement field, Figure 2.4-30
the entire electrical circuit. (top). Intense stressing of the foil edges is,
however, not as critical as it is for AC volt-
Particularly low-inductance circuits are possi- ages, since periodically burning partial dis-
ble with butt-contacted cylindrical capacitor charges cannot develop. With time, the field
sections [113]. Higher inductances are distribution rather changes to a steady-state
achieved by stacking flat capacitor sections. In DC distribution, in which the field stress at the
this respect, windings with strip contacts are foil edges is reduced by the slightly more con-
less favorable than windings with butting ductive impregnating gap, Figure 2.4-30 (bot-
contacts. The two contact strips of a winding tom). The impregnating gaps thus acts like
must not be displaced laterally against each protruding (semiconductive) extensions of the
other, because the wound metal foils then form electrode providing a resistive grading. Owing
a coiled arrangement, in which the resultant to this, for pure DC voltage stress, signifi-
currents flow in the circumferential direction cantly higher field strengths are permissible
and cause a strong axial magnetic field. In the than for AC voltage.
case of a non-displaced arrangement of the
A critical stress occurs at the foil edges for os-
cillating discharges, Figure 7.3-2. At the time
2
Back-swing of the voltage back-swings, a dielectric dis-
1.4
(polarity reversal) placement field occurs with heavy stresses at
10 % the edges. Moreover, the polarity of the foil
1 edge at the maximum of the back-swing is op-
posed to the polarity of the space charges in
40 %
0.7 the impregnating gap. Partial discharges occur
80 % in the form of surface discharges, which erode
0.5 the insulating materials. The service life of the
E/E 0 capacitor is thus determined by the number n
n of capacitor discharges until erosion break-
down, Figure 7.3-3. The service life is not only
10
5
10
6 7
10 dependent on the magnitude of the field
strength, but also on the intensity of the back-
Figure 7.3-3: Service live of an impulse capacitor swing. A low circuit damping leads to an os-
as a function of field stress and back-swing. cillation with large amplitude, long duration
7.3 Typical Insulation Systems for Impulse Voltages 585

and severe erosion. Owing to this, the service factors are higher permittivity (stress reduction
life is shortened, Figure 7.3-3. A reduced ser- at edges for transient stress), higher conduc-
vice life is also caused by a rise in the fre- tivity (stress reduction at edges for steady-state
quency and temperature. stress), higher viscosity (resistance to gas for-
mation during alternating electromechanical
Note: In impulse capacitors stressed for a stress) and the behavior during partial dis-
longer duration, the eroding effect of surface charges, Section 5.4.4. Also the replacement of
discharges at the electrode edges can be seen paper, which is sensitive to partial discharges,
in a border of wax-like decomposition prod- by more resistant polymeric films effects an
ucts (X-wax) on the surface of the solid insu- increase in the service life.
lating materials. The final erosion breakdown
occurs at the edge of the metallic foil and, de-
pending on the dissipated energy, burns a
larger or smaller hole in the dielectric, Figure 7.3.4 Barrier Systems
7.3-4.
Pressboard or transformerboard in oil trans-
The service life of impulse capacitors is often formers are used for subdivision and for in-
specified for a back-swing ratio Vˆ 1/Vˆ 0 = 40 %. creasing the strength of oil gaps in case of AC
Stronger back-swings can drastically shorten voltage, Section 7.1.3.3, and for the insulation
the service life for equal field strengths, Figure of the applied voltage in case of DC voltage,
7.3-3. Deviation from other nominal data Section 7.2.3.2. In the case of an impulse volt-
(voltage or respectively, field strength, fre- age, as with AC voltage, the stress is applied
quency and temperature) can also lead to sig- to the oil gaps. Hence, the effect of barriers
nificant variations in service life. must be seen here too as an increase in
strength owing to the subdivision of oil gaps.
Lifetime characteristics mark a specific confi-
dence level. This implies that for the stress The course of the breakdown processes was
given by the characteristic a breakdown prob- determined with high-speed shadow image
ability still exists, e.g. 1%, 10% or even 50% photography in a point-to-point electrode ar-
depending on the specification for the charac- rangement (r = 50 μm, s = 12 mm) with barri-
teristic. ers (d = 2 mm) [310], [285]:

In order to increase the service life, edge field Primary streamers occur independently of the
strengths can be reduced with molten metal barriers as a result of local field stress en-
foil edges (laser-cut) or with folded edges. Im- hancements in oil at the positive and at the
pregnation with castor oil increases service negative point electrodes, Figure 7.3-5 (top).
life by a factor of 10 when compared to a min- The occurrence of primary streamers and sec-
eral oil-impregnation. In this case, the positive ondary streamers in oil was described in Sec-
tion 3.4.1. They transfer charge to the barrier
surfaces and lead to the deposition of saponi-
Polymeric film fied oil, but do not yet lead to thermal damage
or of the cellulose.
capacitor paper
Erosion breakdown
Note: In the laboratory experiments, streamers could be
released only at the point electrodes, but not electrode-
Erosion tracks
free between two barriers [310].

Metallic layer The development of far-reaching tertiary

(electrode foil) streamers leading directly to breakdown is
prevented by the barriers. Instead, a (likewise)
Figure 7.3-4: Unwound dielectric of an impulse ca-
acitor with erosion tracks and erosion breakdown.
high-current partial discharge, a so-called
586 7 APPLICATIONS

“microdischarge”, is noticed. It leads to the

V̂ V̂
discharge of the capacitance between point
electrode and barrier surface and it transfers Constant Voltage
the potential of the point electrode to the bar- voltage rise
test test
rier surface, Figure 7.3-5 (top). This results in
a considerable increase in the dielectric
strength, since the inception of microdis-
charges, in contrast to tertiary streamers in a
free oil gap, does not yet immediately lead to Threshold for microdischarges
breakdown, Figure 7.3-5 (bottom).
n n
Note: As a rough estimation, if it is assumed that a ca-
pacitance of 0.2 pF (A = 50 mm2, s = 5 mm) charged up Figure 7.3-6: Constant voltage tests and voltage rise
to 100 kV is discharged, a charge turnover of at least 20 tests show the damage of barriers owing to repetitive
nC and an energy dissipation of 1 Ws results. discharges above the threshold for microdischarges
(schematic) [285].
The charge transferred to the barrier surface
spreads in the form of a circular surface dis- the inception voltage for microdischarges
charge and leads to thermal damage of the V̂ md50% , Figure 7.3-5 (bottom), or when the
topmost paper layers. A breakdown occurs barrier is eroded owing to repetitive stress
only when the peak voltage V̂ greatly exceeds with microdischarges.

Repetitive voltage stresses with constant peak

Barrier value give rise to lower breakdown voltages
Primary
streamer
than stepwise increased individual stresses
(step test) [285], Figure 7.3-6. This shows that
+ repetitive stresses above the inception thresh-
Positive +
old for microdischarges lead to the erosion of
point + + ++ Microdischarge
cellulose.
electrode +
+
Furthermore, it is noticed that the integration
of barriers leads to a considerably smaller dis-
persion of breakdown voltage when compared
Surface discharge
to a free oil gap [285], and this can be ex-
Probability plained by the reduced oil gap width and by
Primary streamer the changed breakdown process.
Secondary streamer
Tertiary streamer
1 Note: It is possible that also the strength increasing ef-
fect of barriers for AC voltage is based on reduced dis-
persion for the breakdown voltage of narrower oil gaps,
Micro Break- Figure 3.4.2-6.
Streamer
0.5 discharge down
probability
probability probability As a consequence, the following is adhered to:
Barriers provide a strong increase in the di-
electric strength against individual impulses
0.2 0.8 1 1.2 V̂ / V̂ md50% even above the threshold for pre-discharges.
Repetitive stresses can damage and erode the
barriers if pre-discharges (microdischarges)
Figure 7.3-5: Charging of barrier surfaces by so-called
microdischarges (top). Probabilities for the occurrence occur. This is applicable also for test stresses.
of streamers, microdischarges and breakdowns as a Therefore, repeat tests must normally be per-
function of the peak voltage [310]. formed with reduced test voltages. For infor-
7.4 Other Applications 587

mation about the permitted number of im- nomical protection measures can be devised
pulses above the pre-discharge threshold, a with which the risk of damage is reduced to
service life characteristic is necessary, cf. also the acceptable residual risk.
Section 7.3.3.3.
In order to reduce the risk in a systematic pro-
cedure, the lightning protection zone concept
(LPZ concept) was developed, in which the re-
7.4 Other Applications sidual risk continuously decreases from the
outermost zone LPZ 0 to the inner zones LPZ
High voltage engineering provides indispensa- 1, 2, … . For a high protection requirement,
ble technologies which in the first place offer even possibly rare but high-current lightning is
solutions for important tasks in many areas of taken into consideration (hazard level / light-
engineering. In the following sections, some ning protection level I), for a lower protection
examples are described in brief. requirement, a design for frequently appearing
lightnings with lower intensity is adequate
(hazard levels / protection levels II, III and
7.4.1 Lightning Protection IV), Table 7.4.1-1. That means, depending on
the hazard level that is dealt with, the compo-
Lightning discharges are discussed from the nents of lightning protection must be designed
viewpoint of discharge physics under Section for the lightning current parameters stated in
3.2.7.3. However, they have considerable as- the table.
sociated risks, and therefore require an effec-
Table 7.4.1-1: Maximum lightning current parameters
tive lightning protection. and non-exceedance probability.
Lightning protection level
I II III IV
LPL
7.4.1.1 Ensuring EMC
First impulse current Î / kA 200 150 100
Strictly speaking, the objective of lightning T1 / μs 10
protection is to protect persons, systems and
buildings against the effect of lightning dis- T2 / μs 350
charges, in this respect lightning protection is Qimpulse / C 100 75 50
also a topic of high voltage engineering. It is
related to the effects of direct lightning im- W/R = ³ i2dt / MJ/: 10 5.6 2.5
pact (LEMP Lightning Electromagnetic Pulse) Subsequent current Î / kA 50 37.5 25
and the indirect effects of a distant event that T1 / μs 0.25
can be coupled via electromagnetic fields or
via lines or the ground. The measures that T2 / μs 100
must be taken here for ensuring electromag- di/dt / kA/μs 200 150 100
netic compatibility (EMC) must also be
Long-duration current
planned with regard to other interference Qlong / C
200 150 100
sources and depending on the protection re-
quirements. This includes switching opera- Tlong / s 0.5
tions and system perturbations, electrostatic Non-exceeding probability
discharges, nuclear electromagnetic impulses for the above mentioned pa- 0.99 0.98 0.97
(NEMP) as well as transmitters. rameters in %

Lighting protection concepts should be devel- In the standards, four lightning protection clas-
oped on the basis of a risk analysis[478]. It ses I, II, III and IV are specified, which are
must quantify the existing risk, so that eco- dependent on the corresponding hazard classes
588 7 APPLICATIONS

and to which strict construction rules apply. A complex system, also the necessary positions
distinction must be made between class-de- of air terminations are thereby obtained by un-
pendent rules (rolling sphere radius, mesh rolling the “rolling sphere” on ground. All the
size) and class-independent rules (conductor contact points between sphere and grounded
cross sections, materials). The following in- structures must be protected by an air termina-
formation is rather exemplarily and should tion device. Small radii (20 m) are adopted for
help in understanding such specifications, but high protection requirements and larger radii
they cannot be a substitute for thorough study (30, 45, 60 m) for lower requirements, Table
of the standards [478], [479]. 7.4.1-2.

In the following sections the classic measures Table 7.4.1-2: Minimum lightning current parameters,
of lightning protection are first explained. A appropriate lightning sphere radii and probabilities for
distinction is made between the external light- exceeding minimum peak values.
ning protection, which leads the lightning cur- Lightning protection level
I II III IV
rent on a defined path, and the internal light- LPL
ning protection against the effects of currents, Smallest peak value Î/kA 2.9 5.4 10.1 15.7
fields and overvoltages. Subsequently, the in-
Radius of rolling sphere r/m 20 30 45 60
tegration of these measures into a lightning
protection zone concept is explained. Probability for exceeding the
above mentioned 99 97 91 84
smallest peak value in %

7.4.1.2 External Lightning Protection

A frequently used simplification for low air
The external lightning protection system of termination devices below 20 m is a conical
an object includes an air termination system protection zone under a protection angle D, in
with down leads and a grounding system [192] which it is assumed that the intersection areas
[478]. of the conical and original protection zone
coincide, Figure 7.4.1-1:
An air termination system is an exposed
conductor arrangement, from which an upward d r ·d r 2 r -h
leader is formed against the descending light- Į = arctan ( + 2 - 2 arccos )
h h h r
ning stroke. The upward leader connects with
a downward leader coming from the head of with (7.4.1-1)
the descending leader (connecting leaders),
Figure 3.2-43. Under this, a final breakdown d = r 2 - (r - h)2
distance r = 20 to 45 m breaks down.
For r = 20 m and h =10 m, the frequently used
According to the “geometrical-electrical value of
model”, the head of the descending leader
D = 45°
comes close to the ground or the air termina-
tion system up to the distance r, Figure 7.4.1- is obtained.
1. From this point, connecting leaders develop
downwards to the ground or to the air termi- Note: For high-rise buildings, a lateral strike can even
occur below the tip, according to the geometrical elec-
nation system respectively. In the vicinity of trical model. The concept of a protection angle of is no
the air termination system, a protected zone is longer applicable.
formed, from which (with high probability) an
upward leader will no longer start, since it is in Roof ridges are protected by a lightning con-
the field shadow. This protection zone can be ductor that lies above the ridge, Figure 7.4.1-2.
determined by unrolling a so-called “rolling Inclined roof areas and flat roofs must be pro-
sphere” with the radius r, Figure 7.4.1-1. In a tected by meshes. On applying the rolling
7.4 Other Applications 589

sphere, there must be no contact with the un-

Air termination system
derlying roof. A mesh width of 5 m x 10 m
without significant elevation above the roof
surface is often considered as sufficient, Table
7.4.1-3. A rectangular block-shaped protected
zone can be formed under large flat roofs with Down lead
air terminal rods arranged at regular intervals.
Metallic parts (roof gutters, roof windows)
must be connected to the air termination sys- Grounding system
tem; projecting units (chimneys, antennae) (Ring earth electrode)
must be protected by additional air terminal
Figure 7.4.1-2: Meshed construction of an external
rods. lightning protection system for a building including
roof gutters and down pipes (schmatic example).
For determining the position of air termination
devices, there are the methods described
above, i.e. the Table 7.4.1-3: Mesh method
Lightning protection level
I II III IV
x rolling sphere method and the therefrom LPL / Hazard class
derived Radius of rolling sphere r/m 20 30 45 60
Mesh width w/m 5 10 15 20
x protection angle method according to Eq.
(7.4.1-1) A low-inductance path of the lightning current
to ground is important. In simple cases, 20 m
and additionally the
is considered as the maximum distance be-
x mesh method. For this, the roof and in high tween direct down leads to the earth [193].
buildings even the side walls, are covered However, it is avisable here to lead the down
with meshes that must be selected such that leads at least via all the roof corners and edges
the smaller the rolling sphere radius is as- of the building, in order to protect the building
sumed the tighter the mesh must be chosen, under a low-inductance cage (“Faraday cage”)
Table 7.4.1-3. with the best possible meshing, Figure 7.4.1-2.
Note: An optimal meshing is possible in a reinforced
Geometric locations of the des- Descending concrete construction by bonding all the reinforcement
cending leader discharge head, stepped leader steel mats to each other and by including them in the
from which an downward con- discharge lightning protection system before grouting.
necting discharge
can emerge Note: High voltage transmission lines are protected by
overhead ground wires. The overhead line towers act as
r r
down leads to ground.

Final break-
The down leads are connected to the ground-
r down distance ing system. In the best case, it consists of a
r Air termination rod
large area foundation earth electrode, i.e. the
D D
Conical pro-
steel reinforcement of the concrete foundation
tection zone is used as a ground electrode. Another option
h is the provision of a ring earth electrode as a
closed ring around the building. When using
2d single earth electrodes there is the risk of
Protection zone according to the asymmetrical rise in potential, which can be
geometrical electrical model
reduced by a ring circuit laid around the
Figure 7.4.1-1: Definition of protection zones in the building, however. A maximum possible
vicinity of an air termination rod (lightning rod). symmetrical conduction of the current over
590 7 APPLICATIONS

multiple down leads causes partial compensa- building installations must be ruled out with
tion of the magnetic field components in the direct electrical connections (i.e. by equipo-
building and reduces the magnitude of induced tential bonding) or sufficient distances (sepa-
overvoltages. ration distance for building protection and
safety distance in the lightning protection zone
Note: The grounding system must be electrically sepa- concept). The necessary minimum distances
rable from the down leads at inspection joints in order
to periodically check the earthing resistance. The elec-
increase with increasing loop area between the
trical contact of different metals present in the earth proximity point and the equipotential bonding
leads to electrochemical corrosion of the less noble bar. For high rise buildings, therefore, multiple
metal. If necessary, a permanent electrical isolation by equipotential bonding is provided at different
isolating spark gaps must be provided. levels.

b) Overvoltage Protection
7.4.1.3 Internal Lightning Protection
Unfortunately, the measures of equipotential
a) Equipotential Bonding bonding cannot eliminate overvoltages com-
Internal lightning protection systems require pletely. Therefore, electrical equipment and
at least an equipotential bonding in the systems normally need an additional overvolt-
basement of the building to prevent hazardous age protection. One problem in this context is
potential differences between the lightning that protective devices which can lead high
protection system and the installations of the lightning currents respond comparatively
building in case of a lightning stroke. The slowly (coarse protection), and that electronic
equipotential bonding includes the mutual and protective devices which respond very quickly
low-inductance electrical connection of the (fine protection) can be destroyed by high
external lightning protection system, of all impulse currents. Thus, an according coordi-
metallic pipes (heating, water, gas) and also of nation is necessary, Figure 7.4.1-3.
all electrical wiring systems. Note: Lightning current arresters respond to over-
voltages and are capable of conducting lightning cur-
Note: These connections need only to be ef- rent. However, as spark gaps, they represent only a
fective in case of a lightning stroke. They can coarse protection, since owing to impulse voltage-time
be realized by direct galvanic contact if possi- characteristics, significant overvoltages above the static
ble, via isolating spark gaps if electrochemical sparkover voltage is possible; Section 3.2.4.2. Sensitive
devices must be additionally protected by an electronic
corrosion must be considered or via lightning fine protection, for example, by a protective diode SD,
current arresters if operational voltage differ- which responds quickly and for defined low voltages,
ences are present. Figure 7.4.1-3. However, it is important here that coarse
protection and fine protection are activated in a time-
In large buildings, an equipotential bonding
network that provides an interconnection in v dyn
all three spatial directions is necessary. In this v
way, inductive impedances and the potential
Spark gap
differences attributed to them are reduced to ignites v1 v2
the lowest possible values.
v1 Coarse Filter Fine
In case of large spatial extent of conductor protection protection
loops in the building, high overvoltages can be v2
induced by the quickly varying magnetic fields PD responds
t
of the lightning currents. Especially flashovers
owing to induced voltages and potential in- Figure 7.4.1-3: Coarse protection (spark gap) and
creases at neighboring points between the fine protection (protective diode PD) with low-pass
external lighting protection system and the filtering (schematic).
7.4 Other Applications 591

staggered manner. This can be achieved with so-called room shield, and device shield). All lines and
“energetic decoupling”. That means, a dynamic volt- pipes that enter through a shield are directly
age drop vdyn between the coarse protection and the fine
included into a local equipotential bonding
protection, which significantly delays the voltage rise at
the fine protection v2, must be ensured using filter ele- system with mutually coordinated lightning
ments (e.g. longitudinal inductances and transverse ca- current and surge arresters. This basically re-
pacitances). As a result, the overvoltage v1 can activate sults in effective protection against the direct
the coarse protection even before the voltage at the fine effect of lightning current, against the pene-
protection and at the elements to be protected achieves tration of magnetic fields and against line-con-
values that are too high.
ducted overvoltages [192], [194], [195], [196],
[478]. Example: As an example, Figure 7.4.1-
7.4.1.4 Lightning Protection Zone Concept 4 shows the protection of electronic systems in
a simple building: Here, LPZ 0a is the abso-
Modern lightning protection concepts for im- lutely unprotected volume in which a direct
portant and sensitive systems, for example, for stroke of lightning is possible. LPZ 0b is the
computer centers, subdivide the volume to be volume that is not captured by the rolling
protected into several lightning protection sphere owing to the air termination system;
zones (LPZ) with different safety standards, and no direct lightning strike is therefore to be
Figure 7.4.1-4. Under the external lightning expected in this volume. Nevertheless, this
protection system, closed shields are used for volume is exposed to field influences without
demarcation of the zones (building shield, protection. LPZ 1 is the so-called protected

LPZ 0a
Lightning current unprotected volume

Rolling sphere Air termination system

Building
Separating distance

LPZ 1
protected volume

Fields Safety distance

Down lead
Shield (screen)

LPZ 2 LPZ 0b
protected volume
Overvoltages for electronic systems

Electricity, telecommuni-
cation, water, gas, ....
Equipotential Equipot.
Supply networks bonding bonding
Grounding system
Foundation ground electrode

Figure 7.4.1-4: Lightning protection zone concept (schematic example).

592 7 APPLICATIONS

volume. A separation distance must be main- power technology with water insulated inter-
tained from the building envelope or the exter- mediate storage devices and traveling wave
nal lightning protection arrangement respec- lines, [14], [15], [40], [42], [43], Section
tively, which protects against flashovers owing 6.2.3.7 d), Section 5.4.5 and Section 2.6.3.3.
to induced voltages and potential increases.
The necessary separation distance always in- The storage of energy, especially in capacitors
creases with the height of the building. Since with high pulse loading capacity is discussed
here LPZ 1 is not enclosed by a shield, elec- in Section 7.3.2 and 7.3.3.
tronic systems are not yet adequately pro-
tected. LPZ 2 then provides an often adequate Triggering of impulse generators is carried out
protection for electronic systems with an en- for low voltages and currents with power
closing shield, with the equipotential bonding electronic switches or switching tubes (thyra-
arrangement for the supply lines and with an trons). High voltages and high currents require
internal safety distance. If the building and electrically or laser-optically ignited switching
thereby LPZ 1 should be provided with a spark gaps, Figure 6.2.3-5. Here, low jitter is
closed shield, for instance if a new building is important for the synchronization of multiple
designed, even and hence LPZ 1 can be used generators [108], [139], [140], [190], Section
for the operation of electronic devices that are 6.2.3.7 d).
insensitive to interferences and LPZ 2 for the
operation of interference-sensitive equipment. The measurement of fast-transient impulses
requires very broadband sensors and dividers,
[145] ... [154], cf. Section 6.3.3, 6.3.4 and
6.3.7.
7.4.2 Pulsed Power Technology
In the following sections, various civil appli-
7.4.2.1 Impulse current circuits cations, i.e. non-military applications, of
pulsed power technology for various purposes
Impulse current circuits include a voltage are presented.
source, usually a capacitive energy storage de-
vice, a circuit-breaker, pulse forming elements
and a load, Figure 7.4.2-1. There are also spe-
7.4.2.2 Acoustic Shock Waves
cial devices for triggering and measurement.
Acoustic shock waves in liquids can be used
Different designs of impulse circuits are al-
for medical applications (e.g. lithotripsy), for
ready described in Sections 2.6.3.3 (traveling
example, or for high-speed material trans-
wave generators) and 6.2.3 (generation of im-
forming, Figures 7.4.2-2 and 7.4.2-3. For this
pulse voltages). Extreme impulse powers up to
purpose, storage capacitors of several 100 pF
the terawatt range are possible using pulsed
are charged to a few 10 kV and connected via
a triggered switching spark gap to another
water spark gap at the focal point of an ellipti-
Source Storage Switch Pulse Load cal reflector. The impulse energy is partially
forming
transformed in water into the energy of an
acoustic shock wave and focused on the object
arranged at the second focal point. The object
or the patient must be protected against the
Constant Triggering electrical effect of the high voltage impulse by
current a grounded screen grid. In the case of repeti-
charging Measurement Measurement tive operation, energy storage capacitors have
only a limited service life and must be regu-
Figure 7.4.2-1: Impulse generator (schematic). larly replaced, Section 7.3.3.
7.4 Other Applications 593

Note: Shock waves can also be generated with electro- 7.4.2.3 Pulsed Particle Beams and Laser
mechanical converters via a membrane. Another alter- Beams
native is lithotripsy by ultrasound.
Very high pulse power can be transferred onto
In medicine, acoustic shock waves are used
the surface of a target in an very short time
for fragmenting kidney stones, urethral calcu-
and extreme states of materials can be
lus gall stones and bile-duct stones as well as
achieved using pulsed particle beams of elec-
for treating calcifications in the shoulder, for
trons or ions or using laser impulses.
tennis elbow and calcaneal spur. Moreover, it
was also ascertained that shock waves help the
Applications include testing deformation
blood circulation and the healing of bone
mechanisms in nanocrystalline materials and
fractures and necroses of the femoral head
in monocrystals or testing the bonding strength
[353].
of protection layers and functional layers on
In the case of medical shock wave therapy, the material surfaces with high-energy impulses.
positioning of patients, the focusing of shock
For this purpose, for example, pressure im-
waves (with a focus of a few mm) and the
pulses are generated with the help of proton
triggering of many repetitive impulses are car-
beams (1.7 MeV particle energy, 50 … 60 ns
ried out under continuous X-ray monitoring,
pulse duration, 55 kJ beam energy) or laser
Figure 7.4.2-2. Fragmented stones can be
impulses (Nd:YAG, 50 J, 7 ns pulse duration).
flushed through the discharge paths of the
The effect of the impulses can be investigated
urethra or bile ducts; crumbled calcaneal de-
by the measurement of speed profiles at the
posits must be dissolved in the body.
reverse side of the target by laser-doppler ve-
locimetry or by follow-up examinations of mi-
crostructures by electron microscopy and X-
Triggering Positioning ray diffractometry [354].

Another application is the surface modification

of materials with pulsed electron beams (150
to 350 keV particle energy, a few 10 μs pulse
Water duration). For adequate beam energy density
(3 … 20 J/cm²), metallic and ceramic surfaces
Pulse generator Body can be melted to the penetration depth of the
Reflector tissue electrons (approx. 100 μm) with a single im-
X-ray observation pulse. Owing to the underlying cold material,
extremely rapid chilling (quenching) takes
7 9
Figure 7.4.2-2: Focusing acoustic shock waves for place with a rate of change of 10 to 10 K/s.
lithotripsy / fragmentation of kidney stones (sche- This results in amorphous or nanocrystalline
matic). surfaces with improved hardness, abrasion re-
sistance and corrosion resistance. The ad-
vantage here is that relatively large areas of up
to several 100 cm² can be treated. Moreover,
thin foils can be fused on the surface of the
material and alloyed as thin layers in the par-
ent metal to improve corrosion properties
[358], [359].

The pulsed electron beams are thus generated

Figure 7.4.2-3: High-speed material transformation in so-called vacuum diodes, in which the cath-
using shock waves (schematic). ode is covered with carbon fiber bunches. The
594 7 APPLICATIONS

high voltage impulse extracts the electrons better adjusted and can be carried out repeti-
from it by explosive field emission. tively.

Furthermore, there are other applications of It is also advantageous that the electrical
high power impulses, e.g. for generating breakdown proceeds along the grain bounda-
mega-gauss fields or for pumping impulse la- ries and material boundaries, so that a signifi-
sers, including the excimer laser. cantly better separation of different compo-
nents is effected than for a mechanical crush-
ing (selective fragmentation). Even the reflec-
7.4.2.4 Electrodynamic Generation of tion of acoustic shock waves at inhomogenei-
Nanocrystalline Materials ties, such as enclosures, grain boundaries or
material boundaries, generates tensile stresses
Thin wires can be explosively broken down in the material compound, which cause the
into very small particles with diameters of less fragmentation preferentially at the inhomoge-
than 80 nm using high pulsed discharge cur- neities. In this way, fragmentation with a high
rents. Depending on the gas atmosphere, oxi- degree of selectivity is achieved.
dic, nitridic or metallic nanopowders are
formed, which are separated from the gas The breakdown through a solid body requires
stream by centrifugal force separators and embedding in a dielectrically strong liquid to
electrostatic filters. Larger quantities of nano- prevent breakdown in gas along the surface of
powders require repetitive wire explosion sys- the body to be fragmented. The breakdown
tems (e.g. 1 Hz repetition rate and 4 kJ pulse strenght (impulse voltage-time characteristic)
energy for 227 mm long wires). of many liquids increases with decreasing
stress duration (i.e. increasing pulse rate of
The nanopowders can be used for manufac- rise) more steeply than that of most of the
turing elastic or conductive ceramics. Sintera- solids, Figure 7.4.2-4. As a result, with rapidly
ble bodies (green compacts) result from mag- rising impulses, breakdown of the solid body
netic pulse compression with pressures of up can be initiated prior to the breakdown of the
to 105 bars, by which the pressed parts are insulating liquid. This is applicable even for
compressed to 80% of their theoretical density. water, Section 5.4.5, which is well suited on
Subsequent sintering is carried out with mm practical grounds and which even contributes
waves [354]. to the displacement of the field in the solid
body owing to its high permittivity. Since the
voltage stress occurs only as a short impulse,
7.4.2.5 Electrodynamic Fragmentation the self-discharge time constants are not im-
portant here, Section 5.4.5.
Electrodynamic fragmentation of composite
materials is carried out with the help of pulsed This technology is now available even for in-
high voltage breakdowns through the non- dustrial applications [354], such as for the re-
conductive solid to be broken down [362]. If cycling of concrete (breaking down into
an impulse energy of 10 to 300 J/cm is depos- gravel, sand and cement powder), for the anal-
ited within a few μs in the initial plasma chan- ysis of steel fiber concrete, for the analysis,
nel, which is only a few 10 μm wide, temper- metal separation and heavy metal immobiliza-
4 4
atures of around 10 K and pressures up to 10 tion of slags from waste incineration plants,
bar result. The effect of the breakdown is for the removal of contaminated concrete
thereby comparable with a chemical explosion structures as well as for low-contamination
in a borehole, whereas the temperature of the milling of various solids. Further, mono-min-
spark channel is about 10 times higher and its eral fractions can be obtained from crystalline
radial expansion is about 10 to 100 times multi-minerals such as feldspar, quartz and
larger. Moreover, the energy release can be mica from granite, zircon from tonalite or
7.4 Other Applications 595

platinum minerals from chromite ore. This re- called electroporation, microorganisms are
sults in extensive applications for extraction of killed or the contents of cells are released.
precious stones, for the analysis of stones and Since the cells are always present in more or
for the preparation of laboratory samples. less conductive suspension, the field stress can
When compared to conventional mechanical be applied for only a very short period in the
crushers, there are numerous advantages, for form of an impulse. The energy requirement
example, clean surfaces, high yield and low for the opening of cells is at a minimum for
damage to the available target particles, dust- pulse durations between 100 ns and 2 μs [360],
free production or detachment of morphologi- [361].
cally intact fragments.
Note: The cell wall is generally made of so-called lipid
molecules, which have a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic
side.
7.4.2.6 Electrohydraulic Fragmentation
It is assumed that hydrophilic pores, which are
In the case of slowly rising impulses, the liq- suitable for material exchange, at first develop
uid breaks down first, Figure 7.4.2-4. The en- as hydrophobic pores depending on tempera-
ergy must then be transferred to the material to ture and membrane potential. If their radius
be broken down by a hydraulic pressure surge. attains a first critical value, they immediately
Therefore, this is known as electrohydraulic transform into hydrophilic pores, whose radius
milling or electrohydraulic fragmentation. increases further under the effect of the elec-
tric field stress. If the radius attains a second
critical value rcrit under the effect of the pulsed
7.4.2.7 Electroporation in Biological Cells
field, the pore opening is irreversible and the
Pulsed electric field stresses of 1 to 100 kV/cm cell dies.
can lead to irreversible pore openings in the Short term impulses have the potential for se-
membrane of biological cells without the oc- lective influencing of biological processes
curance of a breakdown. As a result of this so- with different time constants and thereby even
for selective disruption of organelles within
the cell.
Vd
One application is the disruption of plant cells
Fast Slower
with low energy consumption, i.e. without
impulse rise impulse rise conventional extraction at high temperatures,
e.g. for the processing of sugar beets. Since
heating is not necessary, plant ingredients can
in principle be obtained with care and with
high purity [361]. Making fruit juice or
Solid
“pressing” grapes is feasible in this way. Fur-
Impulse voltage-time ther, methods have been developed for treating
characteristics waste water contaminated with bacteria with
Water the help of strong pulsed fields [354].
Breakdown Breakdown For the purposeful opening of cell membranes,
of the solid of the liquid the cells are brought into a spatially non-uni-
form electric field, in which the cell movement
500 ns t
is controlled by dielectrophoresis (transport
Figure 7.4.2-4: Different impulse voltage-time char- and spatial separation of different biological
acteristics of solid and liquid media enable the im- material components under the effect of elec-
pulse breakdown of the solid. tric field forces). The cell membrane is opened
596 7 APPLICATIONS

by the application of a high voltage impulse in

the microsecond range [384]. Electrical
impulse circuit
Example: For pressing wine by electroporation, a Ellipsoidal mirror Impulse lamp
method was developed in which the mash between
Rogowski-electrodes (with a largely homogeneous Coherent
field) represents an electrolytic load for an impulse volt- light Laser material Mirror
age generator. Breakdowns were largely prevented by a
pressure of 3.4 bars. The impulse increases within about electrical
impulse circuit
0.5 μs to the peak value of 5.3 kV/mm, the wave tail
Coherent
half-value time is about 1.2 μs. For a repetition rate of light Mirror
19 Hz and 5 impulses per filling of the reactor, a spe-
Gas discharge pipe
cific energy requirement of 89 kJ/kg and a temperature
increase of 19 K resulted [473].
Figure 7.4.3-2: Optically pumped solid-state laser
or liquid laser and gas-discharge laser for impulse
operation (top and bottom, schematic).
7.4.3 Light Technology and Laser
Technology Short flashes of high radiation power or tem-
perature require large currents that are re-
Short-duration light impulses and laser im- stricted by the inductance of the discharge cir-
pulses have an extensive technical application cuit. If necessary, it must be designed with low
spectrum, for example, for photo flashes, inductance, e.g. as a coaxial construction.
hardening of resins, material processing, cut-
ting, drilling, soldering, welding, inscribing or Impulse lasers can generate coherent light of
triggering of spark gaps. Laser impulses of the extreme power densities. The principle of a la-
highest power up to the GW range and TW ser (light amplification by stimulated emission
range, with short durations in the ns range, are of radiation) is based on the excitation of at-
necessary also for basic investigations on non- oms in which higher energy levels are occu-
linear optics, for testing matter in extreme pied by electrons and lower ones are left va-
states or for nuclear fusion experiments. cant (population inversion). The spontaneous
transition of an electron to a lower energy
Flash units for short-duration photography level with the emission of a photon stimulates
and for the optical pumping of lasers include a equivalent tranitions for other excited atoms
gas discharge lamp, to which the voltage of a resulting in coherent emission with equal wave
capacitor bank is applied, Figure 7.4.3-1. On length, equal phase and equal direction. For
closing the switch S, ignition takes place. The strengthening the stimulated emission, the la-
charging of the auxiliary capacitor generates a ser medium is arranged between two mirrors
high voltage impulse via the ignition trans- in an optical resonator, from which only a
former, which leads to pre-discharges within small fraction of the coherent light is decou-
the Xenon discharge pipe and triggers the pled, Figure 7.4.3-2. As a result of the impulse
main discharge [197]. operation, the population inversion and radia-
tion power can be steeply increased.

Energy Typical laser materials for high pulse powers

storage are ruby crystals doped with chromium, Y-Al
capacitor garnets (YAG laser), neodymium (Nd) glasses
Xenon and CO2 gas. In the case of CO2 lasers with
low-pressure
S
gas discharge transversal electrical excitation, a pulsed high
Ignition
transformer lamp current discharge takes place in CO2 gas under
high pressure.
Figure 7.4.3-1: Flash unit with impulse lamp.
7.4 Other Applications 597

Here, the objective of high voltage engineer- ample, for computer tomography or for radio-
ing includes depositing the energy required for graphical examination of welded seams. De-
establishing population inversion in a laser pending on the energy of the radiation quan-
medium in the shortest time possible. Since tums, accelerating DC voltages of a few 10
this relates to raising electrons to higher ener- kV up to several 100 kV are necessary.
gy levels, it is referred to as “pumping” and
“pumping energy” respectively. In extreme Vacuum breakdown in the X-ray tubes must be
cases, pulse power generators are necessary as prevented by high vacuum, adequately dimen-
drivers. sioned insulator interfaces and smooth elec-
trode surfaces, cf. Section 3.7. A balanced-to-
Note: High powers and short impulses in the ns range earth voltage halves the voltage stress to
(giant pulse laser) can even be achieved with quality ground, Figure 7.4.4-1. Cathode heating in-
switching (Q-switch). For this, the oscillation of the op-
tical resonator is delayed up to very high population in-
creases the number of emitted electrons. Ro-
versions by de-tuning the mirror. Q-switching of the tating anodes help with a better heat dissipa-
resonator mirror takes place mechanically by rotation, tion [67].
electro-optically, electro-acoustically or chemically and
releases the stored pump energy as a giant laser impulse
[197].
7.4.5 Electrostatic Particle
Precipitation, Ionization
7.4.4 X-ray Technology
Electrostatic particle separation depends on the
X-rays result from the bombardment of a pos- charging of insulating or conductive particles
itive electrode (anode) with high-energy elec- by corona discharges at an emission electrode.
trons in a vacuum tube (X-ray tube), Figure Under the effect of electric field forces, the
7.4.4-1. During this, electrons from low energy particles (disregarding fluid-dynamic pro-
states or from the inner atomic orbitals of the cesses) approximately follow the field lines
anode material are set free. Transitions of free and deposit on a surface, Figure 7.4.5-1. Thus,
electrons to unoccupied and very low energy defined layer thicknesses can be achieved by
states lead to the emission of high-energy X- means of the electric field distribution. Typical
ray radiation quantums according to a high operating voltages lie at a few 10 kV.
energy difference [24], [25].
Important applications are the vacuum metal-
X-ray radiation is an indispensable aid for lizing of glass and ceramics, photocopiers,
medical and technological diagnostics, for ex- electrostatic powder coating and spraying.

X-rays -
Beryllium window Corona discharge
Heated cathode (C)
-V /2
Anode drive e C E
Ground potential

+V /2
Bushing
Stator Vacuum tube
A with rotating
anode (A) + + + + + + + + +
According to [67]
Figure 7.4.4-1: X-ray tube (example, schematic). Figure 7.4.5-1: Deposition of charged particles.
598 7 APPLICATIONS

For example, spray pistols with integrated DC Note: Corona discharges and surface dis-
voltage cascades are used for the specific charges can be used even for the ionization of
coating of surfaces [16]. gases, e.g. in ionizers for ventilation system
technology and for treating room air or for
In electrostatic precipitators, flue gas clean- generation of free radicals, such as in chemi-
ing is performed by precipitation of particles. cal reactors for generating ozone or for the
The gas flows between grounded plates with a treatment of waste water.
flow gap of approx. 20 to 40 cm. Corona wires
(barbed electrodes) at a distance of about 10 to
20 cm are present in between. Because of the 7.4.6 Spark Plug
higher breakdown strength and in order to
achieve a high efficiency, operation is gener- With the high voltage magnetic ignition (mag-
ally with negative DC voltage and close to the neto), Robert Bosch solved “the problem of
breakdown limits. During operation, electrons problems” in 1902 (quotation from Carl Benz)
and negative ions are attached to the particles during the development of high-speed com-
and pull them by means of the electric field bustion engines. In the magneto, the current
forces to the grounded plate electrode. Dusts that is flowing through an inductance (ignition
deposited on the plates are regularly knocked coil) is interrupted, owing to which a high
off. switching overvoltage occurs, Figure 7.3-1
The degrees of separation of electrostatic pre- (right). Today, the impulse is generated elec-
cipitators are heavily dependent on the corona tronically with the help of an ignition trans-
arrangement and on the voltage. Depending on former.
the type of dust, a voltage with maximum de- The ignition impulse is passed through the
gree of separation exists. Exceeding this leads grounded engine block via a suitably insulated
to intensified back coronas of deposited dust spark plug, Figure 7.4.6-1. Therefore, inter
in the flow gap, the degree of separation de- alia it is also a bushing.
creases and a breakdown can be initiated.
Highly resistive dust layers, across which large In a spark gap, the ignition impulse leads to
voltage difference build up for DC voltage, are breakdown which is the ignition spark initiat-
the cause. They lead to partial discharges and
partial breakdowns in the dust layer.
Electrical contact
Better separation results are possible with a
pulsed voltage supply with pulse widths in the
ms range, since particles can be charged higher Contact bolt
at a given mean voltage value owing to a Ceramic insulator
higher peak voltage magnitude [136], [198]. of Al oxide
Additionally, short-duration voltage stress
leads to a lower mean charging current. Owing Stainless steel
housing
to this, a smaller voltage drop in the highly re-
sistive dust layer is built up and reduced back Series resistor made
corona occurs. of glass-metal ceramic
Gas gap
Degrees of separation of electrostatic precipi-
tators are in excess of 99% under optimal con- Spark gap with
ditions and depending on the particle size. center electrode
However, a separation minimum occurs for and earth electrode
respirable diameters < 1 μm and further im- Figure 7.4.6-1: High-performance spark plug, photo
provements are investigated [197]… [201]. Robert Bosch GmbH.
7.4 Other Applications 599

ing the ignition of the air-fuel mixtureat an ex- thermally-resistive aluminum oxide. It enclos-
actly defined moment and at an exactly de- es a motor side center electrode made of a
fined location. The energy dissipated in the contact pin and an erosion-resistant electrode
spark and the associated electromagnetic dis- made of a nickel-yttrium alloy with a noble
turbances are determined by an integrated se- metal point (platinum or iridium). The center
ries resistor and by the capacitances given by electrode, along with the earth electrode
the geometry. welded to the housing, which likewise carries
an erosion-resistant noble metal inlay, forms
In the past years, the spark plug has developed the ignition spark gap.
from the classic standard product to a highly
technological system component, which along Note: For a rapid and dependable ignition as well as for
with the ignition system must be aligned pre- the maximum possible flammability range, a spark po-
cisely with the thermodynamic processes in sition extending deep into the combustion chamber (this
refers to the position of the ignition spark gap in the
the combustion chamber of the respective combustion chamber) has proven advantageous [329].
motor [328], [329], [330]. Only in this way The design of the spark plug must thus be suitable for
can the high electrical, thermal, and the increased mechanical and thermal stresses that occur
mechanical stresses occurring during operation without any loss in durability. Therefore, an elongated
be coped with and the high requirements for housing is used against vibrations and copper cores are
used in the electrodes against increased temperature.
low emissions, economical operation as well
as reliable and continuous operation over long
periods are satisfied. This results in a steadily The insulator body additionally encloses a
increasing number of different spark plugs. special resistor material mixture made of glass
particles, which are coated with conductive
The construction of a spark plug can be seen and non-conductive phases and are fused with
from Figure 7.4.6-1: the fundamental compo- the insulator body. This results in long-term
nent is the ceramic insulator made of highly stable resistance values, even for alternating
thermal stresses during operation. The electri-
cal contact to the contact pin (bottom of fig-
ure) and to the contact bolt (top of figure) is
effected by a conductively set contact material
mixture. The insulator body is clamped in a
housing of stainless steel. The dimensions re-
sult from the threaded hole provided in the
motor.

The construction of the spark gap is im-

portant for a reliable ignition, Figure 7.4.6-2.
For pressures above 10 bars and temperatures
at 1000 °C, the gas densities are multiple times
the usual atmospheric values that are generally
observed in air. Ignition voltages in the 30 kV
range are therefore necessary for distances in
the mm range, especially for a cold motor, cf.
Section 3.2. After the electrodes are heated,
the ignition delay is reduced owing to thermi-
onic emission of electrons from the cathode.

Ignition delay can also be reduced by creepage

Figure 7.4.6-2: Air spark gaps (bottom left) and
creepage spark gaps (bottom right), Photo Robert spark gaps, Figure 7.4.6-2 (bottom right). This
Bosch GmbH. results in the additional advantage that soot
600 7 APPLICATIONS

deposits on the insulator surface, such as those While manufacturing the spark plug, the in-
that can occur for short-trip operations in the sulator made of aluminum oxide mass is first
partial load range of the combustion engine, pressed, polished and pre-heated. After in-
are burnt away around the center electrode. stalling the center electrode, the firing process
Thus, the build-up of a surface shunt resistor, takes place, during which the insulating mate-
which could short circuit the ignition voltage, rial is sintered. Finally, the insulator is lettered
is avoided [329]. and glazed. The contact pin, the contact ele-
ment, the resistor element and the contact bolt
From the perspective of high voltage engi- are assembled and finally the insulator is fired.
neering, the aluminum oxide insulator forms After the assembly of the insulator in the
a creepage configuration, Section 3.2.6. The housing with the welded-on earth electrodes,
gas gap between the insulator and the housing the electrode distance is adjusted.
must be designed in such a way that for the
pressures and temperatures that occur in the Spark plugs are manufactured in large quanti-
combustion chamber, the discharge inception ties of millions per day using highly automated
voltage is higher than the breakdown voltage production processes. In this respect, spark
of the spark gap. Specific minimum diameters plugs are different from so many other high
are necessary for this. At the outdoor side, voltage engineering products that are manu-
flashovers can be prevented by adequately factured only as single units or only on a small
large insulator lengths and diameters. scale.

In the radial direction, the ceramic insulator is

stressed with very high field strengths. These
stresses must be reduced by an appropriate 7.5 Superconducting Equipment
geometrical design and must be withstood by
especially developed high-tech ceramics. Pa-
7.5.1 Superconductivity
rameters here are material composition, parti-
cle size, forming pressure and burning temper-
At very low temperatures, i.e. at the so-called
ature.
transition temperature or at the critical tem-
The design of the spark plug is not only de- perature, many materials change to the super-
termined by electrical stresses but also by re- conducting state, i.e. they lose their electrical
petitive thermal and mechanical as well as by resistance, Figure 7.5.1-1. For a long time,
oxidative and chemical stresses. Temperature only materials with transition temperatures TC
variations in the cylinder between 100 and that were only slightly above the absolute zero
1000 °C, temperature gradients along the spark of tempeerature were known, e.g. TC is about
plug between 1000 and approx. 100 °C, as 9 K for NbTi or approx. 18 K for Nb3Sn
well as pressure surges up to 100 bars owing (LTSC or LTS: low-temperature supercon-
to the explosive combustion must be withstood ductivity).
over a long period of time. Additionally, ero-
sion of electrodes and chemical changes of the Physically, superconductivity is described by
surfaces owing to oxidation or fuel residues the formation of so-called Cooper pairs, in
must be considered. Despite this, service lives which electrons with opposite spin and oppo-
of 60000 to 100000 km are possible today. site impulse pair up via vibrations of the
atomic lattice (phonons) and can be in motion
The thermal design of the spark plug must also together in the material in a highly ordered
ensure that the surface temperature is not too state of the electron gas without resistance.
high, in order to prevent so-called pre-igni-
tions, i.e. untimely self-ignitions (glow igni- However, on exceeding the critical tempera-
tions), and self-ignition damage to the motor. ture TC, the critical magnetic flux density BC
7.5 Superconducting Equipment 601

or the critical current density JC, adequate en- ordered state is destroyed. All these three pa-
ergy for breaking the pairs is provided and the rameters are dependent on each other, i.e. for
high magnetic field strengths, the critical tem-
perature and the critical current denstity re-
R Ohmic resistance duce. The existence range of the supercon-
ducting state can therefore be specified by a
Normal conductivity three-dimensional state surface, Figure 7.5.1-2.
Superconductors must be operated at an oper-
Superconductivity ating point below this transition surface. Loss
of superconducting state is referred to as so-
called “quench”.
Transition temperature Critical temperature
However, visions of no-loss energy transmis-
T T
C sion and energy storage were at first economi-
Figure 7.5.1-1: Superconductivity.
cal only in very few applications, since liquid
helium with a boiling temperature of 4.2 K
was necessary for the cooling of the supercon-
ductor, and this can be provided only with the
Magnetic B
flux density Normal conductivity
expenditure of much energy and at the related
B costs. Nevertheless, the development of pro-
C totypes and niche applications has provided
important technological experience.

The discovery of high-temperature super-

Superconductivity
T conductivity (HTSC or HTS) in the year 1986
C was a decisive moment: new oxide ceramic
materials with transition temperatures around
T
100 K now allow the utilization of liquid ni-
J Temperature trogen LN2 as the cooling medium with a
C
J Current density boiling temperature of 77 K at drastically re-
duced energy requirement for cooling. Many
Figure 7.5.1-2: Existence range of superconducting new energy technology applications suddenly
state. appear to be economically feasible in the fore-
seeable future. Superconductivity, therefore, is
a key technology which requires special insu-
lation systems.

Superconductivity results from the interaction

of conduction electrons, grid structure and
thermal agitation of the atomic lattice, Figure
7.5.1-3: While applying an electric field, not
only a drift movement of individual electrons
occurs, but also the fully ordered “electron
grid” is set in motion in the direction of the
field and effects an incomparably higher cur-
rent [24]. The lossless nature of the current is
explained by the fact that it is not possible to
Figure 7.5.1-3: Formation of Cooper pairs through
scatter out individual cooper pairs. Either all
lattice deformation. the pairs pass onto a new state or none do.
602 7 APPLICATIONS

The magnetic field is completely displaced material (generally, copper) on electrical and
from an infinitely highly conductive material mechanical grounds. Superconductors and
(Meißner-Ochsenfeld effect in so-called type I normal-conducting matrix material thus form
superconductor). So-called type II supercon- parallel current paths. As a result of the volt-
ductors, which also include high-temperature age induction at the inductance of the con-
superconductors, allow the penetration of the ductor, a reactive voltage drop occurs (for ex-
material by the magnetic field in the form of ample, for alternating current or while apply-
spatially delimited flux tubes (flow quantiza- ing an external voltage with the objective of
tion). These flux tubes are areas with a nor- current variation or field variation in a super-
mal-conducting state within the superconduc- conducting coil), which also drives a current
tor that are surrounded by superconducting through the parallel normal-conducting current
ring currents. These ring currents limit the paths and causes ohmic losses.
normal-conducting areas and shield them from
the superconducting areas. Thus, only a pure direct current can be trans-
mitted completely free of loss. The develop-
Note: Even type I superconductors show this effect, but ment of superconductors with low losses in
to a distinctly lower extent, since this state is almost alternating fields is therefore of great signifi-
skipped during the increase in temperature before they cance.
become normal-conducting.

These flux tubes must be suitably anchored

(e.g. at the grain boundaries of the material, 7.5.2 HTSC Conductor Materials
lattice defects or foreign atoms) to avoid
movement under the effect of the Lorentz High temperature superconductors (HTS or
force associated with energy dissipation. HTSC) include a complex layering of insulat-
ing and superconducting layers based on bis-
Losses in superconductors occur not only muth compounds or yttrium compounds, Table
owing to the migration of the flux tubes, but 7.5-1. For high current carrying capacity, the
also owing to hysteresis phenomena and eddy transition at the crystal boundaries of the poly-
currents in the surroundings of the supercon- crystalline structure is important. Moreover,
ductor for AC currents and for changing cur- current carrying capacity is heavily aniso-
rents or magnetic fields respectively. tropic. During manufacture, an optimal orien-
tation of crystals is achieved by texturing in
Furthermore, the superconducting filaments order to avoid weak spots for current transport
are stabilized with normal-conducting matrix [336]. For operation close to the critical tem-
perature, critical current densities of HTS are
today even lower than those of LTS. However,
Table 7.5-1: Typical values of HTS according to [337]. for operation distinctly below the transition
TC JC BC temperature, again higher current densities and
Material
K A/mm² T flux densities (sometimes up to 200 T) are
possible.
Bi Bismuth Wires,
Bi-2212 90 100 0.2 too high Ceramic HTS are non-conducting at higher
Bi-2223 110 100 0.1 AC losses
temperatures. Therefore, they must be embed-
Y Yttrium Not available ded in a highly conductive matrix (e.g. in sil-
Y-123 90 1000 20 in adeaquate ver), which includes approximately 70 to 75 %
(YBCO) size of the cross-section and which carries the cur-
rent on losing the superconducting state.
Normal
Cu Copper < 10 conductor, Manufacturing technically applicable wires is
for comparison possible by the opit method (oxide powder in
7.5 Superconducting Equipment 603

tube), Figure 7.5.2-1: the oxide powder is

fused in silver tubes and drawn into wires. HTS powder in silver tubes
Several bundled wires are then drawn into a
multifilament wire, rolled to a few mm broad b = 3.2 mm
tape conductor and finally annealed. The pro-
portion of superconductor to the conductor Silver matrix with HTS filaments
cross-section today is up to 30%. Thus, tech- d = 10 mm
nical current densities of about 80 A/mm2 (in
comparison to about 10 A/mm2 for copper Bundling, Rolling,
Drawing
pressing annealing
wires) are achieved. An increase in the current
density by about one order of magnitude is the
aim for economic reasons [336], [202]. Figure 7.5.2-1: Manufacturing HTS tape conductors.

Note: Very high current densities can be achieved with Also, support structures are necessary against
the coating method, whereby substantially mono-crys- magnetic forces.
talline HTS films are deposited on previously texturized
substrates. Owing to this, the occurrence of weak cou- Technological development is thus oriented
pling points at the crystal boundaries is largely prevent- towards the manufacture of HTS in longer
ed. On including the base material, technical current
densities of 100 A/mm² (Ibad method: ion beam assisted
lengths, with higher current carrying capacity,
deposition) and 1000 A/mm² respectively (Rabits lower AC voltage losses and better processa-
method: rolling-assisted biaxially- textured substrate) bility.
are achieved. The coating methods are, however, avail-
able only in laboratory scale and for small components
[336].
7.5.3 Insulation and Cooling with LN2
For YBCO (yttrium-barium copper oxide),
conductors have been manufactured until now High temperature superconductors can be in-
only in small lengths and in linear form. For sulated and cooled with liquid nitrogen LN2
longer and more flexible conductors, therefore, with a boiling point of 77 K. The electric
the poorer properties of bismuth-based super- strength of LN2 is discussed in detail in Sec-
conductors must be accepted or LTS conduc-
tion 5.4.6. It is especially important that alt-
tors must be used and the temperatures must
hough LN2 is an equally good insulation me-
be reduced to a few K.
dium like insulating oil, the formation of ther-
The HTS conductors are very brittle and must mal gas bubbles owing to alternating current
not be stretched (maximum about 0.1%). This losses or a quench cannot be ruled out.
results in increased restrictions on pro- Note: For superconducting magnets, high voltages oc-
cessing, i.e. twisting or transposing has until cur especially in the event of a rapid discharge of the
now only been possible on a laboratory scale. coil triggered by a quench. As a result of rapid current
variations and field variations, also eddy currents are
Note: The aim are advanced YBCO tape conductors induced in the structural materials. The heat converted
using a wet-chemical coating method on texturized sub- here, therefore generally requires re-cooling and stabili-
strate bands (Ni, NiW, Cu), so-called “coated conduc- zation over several hours for large coils.
tor”. Transposing was successfully achieved on a labor-
atory scale by punching out meandering single conduc- A decrease in the strength resulting from bub-
tors from YBCO tape conductors and subsequent ble formation in LN2 is more distinct for im-
stranding [452]. pulse voltages than for AC voltages and DC
voltages, since the high impulse voltage
A mechanically more robust design is obtained strength of the liquid phase is lost, so that the
if the multifilament tape conductor is provided impulse voltage strength and the AC voltage
with a covering of silver-magnesium alloy. strength converge at the lower level. The loss
604 7 APPLICATIONS

of strength owing to gas bubbles is, however, duced by an additional insulation, the so-called super
less dramatic as compared to insulating oil: insulation.
Owing to lower permittivity Hr = 1.44, the field
The cooling can take place actively by a suita-
displacement is weaker, and owing to low
ble cooling unit (with LN2 tank for buffering
temperature, the gas density and strength are
approximately increased by a factor of 3.8. short-duration thermal output peaks) or pas-
Therefore, the strength of the gaseous nitrogen sively by evaporation of an adequately large
at 77 K should form the basis for dimension- LN2 supply that must be regularly supple-
ing. mented. Even the second option can be eco-
nomical, if the nitrogen used is prepared on a
Note: Partial discharge inception field strengths for large scale.
solid insulating materials under LN2 are specified for
impregnable materials as 7 to 10 kV/mm and for GFK Basically, it must be noted that the thermal in-
materials (depending on the quality) as 2 kV/mm, 2 to 5 put power occurring in the low temperature
kV/mm (wound) and 4 to 7 kV/mm (impregnated)
[350].
range remains small to the maximum possible
extent, as the electrical power of the cooling
Cooling of superconducting components can unit necessary for the heat transport is greater
take place as bath cooling in a cryostat with by a factor of 20 to 25 at 77 K than the thermal
liquid cryogen. The cooling medium here is input power, and increases more steeply than
also the insulating medium. The cryostat is by 1/T (at 20 K by a factor of 100 and at 4.2 K
made of a thermally insulated receptacle (e.g. by a factor of 500).
double-walled with vacuum insulation) and a
thermally insulated cover with connections for The thermal input power occurring at low
the cooling circuit and bushings for the electri- temperatures results from the AC conductor
cal connections, Figure 7.5.4-4. An alternative losses, heat flux through the thermal insulation
is once-through cooling, in which the con- (can be kept comparatively small) and from
ductor is cooled by the internal channels. In heat flux through the conductors of the electri-
this case there is a vacuum outside the con- cal connections.
ductor for thermal insulation. Therefore, the
electrical insulation must also be considered as
vacuum insulation. 7.5.4 Applications
Note: The double-walled insulation receptacle has an Superconducting operating equipment, owing
internal cold wall and an external hot wall separated by
the vacuum gap. Heat transmission by radiation is re-
to still very high costs, will not replace the
available equipment of electrical power engi-
neering, but rather supplement them in the
form of special applications, since partially
Converter they offer properties that cannot be achieved
with conventional technologies. In the fol-
Intermediate lowing section, some potential areas of appli-
circuit cation are described.
Direct DC
Coil protection
converter
SMES 7.5.4.1 SMES Superconducting Magnetic
Grid Energy management Energy Storage

Magnetic energy storage allows much higher

energy densities than capacitive storage.
Figure 7.5.4-1: Principle of superconducting Ohmic heat losses in the coils, which until
magnetic ernergy storage (SMES).
7.5 Superconducting Equipment 605

now had complicated the practical application,

can be avoided today by the use of supercon- Inductive FCL
ductivity. Systems made of He-cooled low- Iron core
temperature superconductors have already
been in use since approximately 1990. They Primary winding
help in providing an active power seconds re-
serve and in the compensation of reactive
power and can thereby protect sensitive loads
for a short period against voltage dips or help
in the equalization of network load of consum-
ers with heavily fluctuating power consump- Cryostat with secondary wind-
tion. The magnetic storage device is charged ing made of a HTSC cylinder
via rectifiers and supplies energy to the net-
work via converters in series or parallel to the
load [370], Figure 7.5.4-1. Mobile systems
with rated power of 3 MW, which protect Resistive FCL
much larger drives by supplying inrush cur- with long
rents to them, are described as an example LN2
bifilar HTSC
[338]. Studies have shown the feasibility of 50 conductors
MW to 100 MW SMES with an energy con-
tent of 2 to 3 MWh and access times in the ms
range [202]. However, today’s systems are still
significantly smaller with energy contents of Thermal insulation
approximately 2 to 5 MJ or 0.5 to 1.5 kWh re-
spectively. SMES can help to achieve or to Figure 7.5.4-2: Superconducting fault current lim-
improve the supply quality in networks, even ter (FCL), inductive and resistive principles (top
without direct network extension. In the case and bottom).
of intermittent loads, the network is protected
against undesirable system peturbations. The An inductive FCL consists of an iron core at
SMES is reloaded during the load-free pauses. ambient temperature, a normal-conducting
primary winding that carries the current and a
simple short-circuited superconducting sec-
7.5.4.2 Fault Current Limiter, Switch ondary winding in its own cryostat [340]. In
the case of a high fault current on the primary
There are high expectations for the supercon- side, the high current that is transferred to the
ducting fault current limiter (FCL) that is al- secondary winding causes a quench and the
ready present in field tests. On exceeding a current limiting impedance is also transformed
critical current, they change immediately from to the primary side. This principle could al-
the superconducting to the normal-conducting ready be implemented with the available mate-
state. Owing to this, a resistance is built up rials in 1996 as a 1.2 MVA/ 10.5 kV prototype
which restricts the critical value of the short- [341]. The dimensions and weight as well as
circuit current to an acceptable value within the cooling time until renewed operation
the ms range. The current can be interrupted readiness are problematic here.
by a weaker circuit-breaker. It is therefore pos-
sible to extend the networks and simultane- A resistive FCL consists of a superconductor
ously prevent the rise in short-circuit currents. at high voltage potential carrying load current
There are two basically different concepts for or short-circuit current directly [202]. A high
fault current limiters [339], [340], Figure short-circuit current leads to a quench and to a
7.5.4-2: rise in resistance, whereby the current load of
606 7 APPLICATIONS

the quenched superconductor can be reduced Superconducting cables can transfer about four
by a parallel resistor. Simple assembly, low times higher power for a comparable space
reactance and the expected scalability for high requirement than normal-conducting cables.
powers are advantageous in this type of con- Therefore, they are especially suitable for the
struction. However, until now sufficiently long replacement of old cable sections in case of
superconductors have not been available. The increasing power requirement without the re-
worldwide first resistive current limiter (10 quirement for additional space. Owing to this,
MVA/ 10 kV) was therefore put into operation utilization of higher voltage levels with the
only in 2004 [342]: The superconducting ele- corresponding transformation units can possi-
ments are made of BSCCO-2212 material, bly be avoided. In a demonstration experiment,
which was processed into melt-textured, ap- the option of a transmission of 100 MVA at 24
proximately 30 cm long tubes by a centrifugal kV as an alternative to transmission at 120 kV
casting process. By cutting out a bifilar coil, a will be shown. In this case, the dielectric is at
conductor length of 5.4 m is achieved. A Cu- ambient temperature and the conductors are
Ni layer provides thermal and electrical stabi- internally cooled [344].
lization and homogenization of the limitation
effect for the whole conductor length. For each The first HTSC cable system, which transmits energy in
phase, 30 elements are connected in series. a public network, was installed as three single-conduc-
tor cables (30 kV, 2 kA, 104 MVA) in 2001 in Copen-
Tests have proven the reduction of the current hagen [383].
peak value from 18 to 7.8 kA. As the next
step, development of a FCL for the 110 kV The single cable is made of flexible stainless steel sup-
level is planned. porting pipe, through which the LN2 cooling medium
flows. The HTSC bands are helically wound around the
Note: In principle, superconducting fault current limit- supporting pipe and they are cooled only internally. On
ers are switches which are actuated by the magnitude of the outside, there is thermal insulation by an internal
the current. Switching between normal-conducting state and external steel pipe, both of which are at high volt-
and superconducting state is also possible by the mag- age potential. In the intermediate space, a so-called su-
nitude of an external magnetic field, Figure 7.5.1-2. per insulation is present, in which the convection, ther-
Magnetically controlled superconducting switches mal conduction and thermal radiation are minimized by
were used on an experimental scale for DC/AC con- vacuum and by thin polymeric films with vapor depos-
verter, i.e. as a new kind of converter principle for high ited aluminum.
voltage DC transmission HVDC [343].
The electrical insulation is set up in a conventional
manner with a conductor screen, dielectric and insulator
screen and is at ambient temperature. Even the cable
7.5.4.3 Cables terminals correspond to the usual construction type. The

Superconducting cables play a key role in the

original vision of “lossless” energy transmis-
sion. Therefore, they were implemented quite Thermal insulation
early as prototypes with classic low-tempera- Outer tube (ambient)
ture superconductors and He cooling/ insula- Vacuum space
tion, but the high cooling requirements and the Inner tube (cold)
LN2 external cooling
associated high costs led to a severe damping
of expectations. When using high-temperature LN2 internal cooling
superconductors, the cooling requirements and HTSC conductor
Electrical insulation
costs are significantly lower. Despite this, their
HTSC conductor
utilization is not viewed as a basic alternative
but as a supplement to the existing network: d = 350 mm
they do not make the high voltage levels
superfluous, but only increase the power
Figure 7.5.4-3: Concept of an 110 kV / 1000 MVA
transmitted. HTSC cable with LN2 cooling [202].
7.5 Superconducting Equipment 607

cooling medium is passed via insulation units (potential 7.5.4.5 Transformers

separators) into the high voltage conductor.
The design of superconducting transformers is
Studies deal with the transmission of 1000 generally similar to the design of conventional
MVA at 110 kV, Figure 7.5.4-3 [202]. The transformers. The limb assemblies are main-
LN2 cooling of three cables laid together in a tained in the cryostats at or below the boiling
tube takes place inside the inner conductor and point of nitrogen (77 K). LN2 thus acts as a
outside the outer conductor. HTSC tape con- cooling medium and an insulation medium. At
ductors are wound helically around the inner least for large transformer ratings, it is useful
conductor supporting pipe and around the in- to operate the iron core outside the cryostats at
sulation. ambient temperature, in order to avoid that the
Advantages of the concept here are a high iron losses must be removed via the cooling
transmission capacity at relatively low voltage system with a high energy requirement, Figure
and a small space requirement. 7.5.4-5.

Owing to higher current densities and smaller

7.5.4.4 Motors, Generators conductor volumes respectively, supercon-
ducting transformers can be designed with
Synchronous generators and synchronous smaller windings and shorter iron cores, and
motors can already be implemented with low- thus can be of lighter construction. Owing to
temperature superconductors [345], [346]. For low temperatures, no ageing of the dielectric is
this, only the DC excitation circuit is imple- to be expected, even for longer overloads.
mented with superconductors on a cooled ro- However, drastically reduced losses (about
tor. The stator windings are not (yet) designed 30% of normal losses) and a weight reduction
to be superconducting owing to higher losses of approximately 50% are given priority, and
in the alternating field. cost advantages are expected for ratings above
40 MVA.
The high magnetic flux densities of about 5 T
generated by the rotor as compared to approx.
1 to 2 T for conventional systems is a great a) Traction transformers
advantage. It allows large reductions of vol-
A conventional single-phased traction trans-
ume and weight. Moreover, the losses fall
former for 15 kV/ 16.7 Hz today contributes
from approximately 1% to about 0.5%. Fur-
more than 10 % to the total mass of a railcar
ther, the synchronous reactance of the genera-
and is thereby a significant factor for accelera-
tor can be reduced and this would have a posi-
tion capacity and for rail wear. Another factor
tive effect on power system stability.
is the frequent demand for a space-saving un-
Note: Another aspect is the theoretical option to gener- derfloor construction. The current densities
ate even higher voltages directly in the generator [345]: and the magnetic flux are increased up to tech-
The high magnetic flux densities would lead to the satu- nically aceptable limits for space-saving and
ration of the iron of the stator teeth between the con- weight-saving reasons; therefore winding tem-
ductor rods. The teeth can therefore be dispensed with
peratures can be up to 175 °C. Here, the ohmic
and the space would be utilized for other windings. This
means that, similar to a transformer, turn would be adja- heat losses and hysteresis losses are so large
cent to turn and the interturn insulation could be that the efficiency of a traction transformer is
weaker. Between the windings, however, the entire of the order of 90%. As a result, it generates
voltage must be insulated. Outside the windings, a almost half the total losses of the train system.
frame of laminated magnetic material is present for
Superconducting traction transformers with
closing the magnetic circuit. The turns must be ade-
quately insulated against these frames. All the materials almost halved volumes and weights, as well as
within this frame are non-magnetic (air-core princi- efficiencies of more than 99%, are therefore
ple). particularly attractive.
608 7 APPLICATIONS

The construction of a superconducting trac- stants of the cooled system. For a “hot core”,
tion transformer corresponds to that of a con- shorter periods of 7 h are assumed than for a
ventional one: two parallel limb assemblies “cold core” with approximately 17 h [351].
with parallel connected HV windings are ar-
ranged on a horizontal two-limb core, Figure b) Line transformers
7.5.4-4. If requests are made for a special flat
construction, e.g. for underfloor use in local Line transformers can be designed in such a
rail systems, then it can be necessary to place way that they remain in the superconducting
the entire transformer including the core in a state up to twice the nominal power. That is,
common cryostat (“cold core”), as e.g. in a 15 even at high overload, superconducting opera-
kV/ 1.1 MVA prototype [351]. Thereby, alt- tion is possible and no thermal ageing of the
hough the entire iron losses must be “pumped” dielectric occurs. However, increased losses
with the help of LN2 cooling plant to the am- and cooling capacities must be accepted.
bient temperature level at the expense of ener-
gy, the total losses are lower by a factor of 12 Note: While using a hot core according to Figure 7.5.4-
than for the especially unfavorable conven- 5, the losses can still be approximately halved, com-
tional traction transformers. If the installation pared to a conventional transformer which already has
very low losses.
environment in the railcar permits, it is rec-
ommended, especially for high powers of 4.6
Inrush currents must be limited such that the
MVA for high-speed trains or 7.5 MVA for
superconductivity is preserved. In the case of
locomotives, to use “hot core” at ambient tem-
short-circuit currents, the superconductor may
perature and to operate the windings in sepa-
indeed quench, but the thermal capacitance of
rate cryostats [351].
the windings must be adequately dimensioned
to prevent thermal damage. Unfortunately,
It is proposed that windings are operated at
there is no immediate switch-on readiness (as
67K in a sub-cooled state, losses are removed
with a conventional transformer), as the
via forced LN2 cooling and gas bubble for-
windings must first be cooled down to the su-
mation in the transformer is prevented. If there
perconducting state, possibly even for hours. It
is a failure of the traction power supply and of
is therefore recommended to operate a super-
the cooling system respectively, the readiness
conducting transformer in parallel with a con-
for operation must be maintained for a long
ventional transformer: The former carries the
period of time by the large thermal time con-
usual operating currents and excess currents at
lo loss and without ageing and the latter only
preserves the immediate re-switching readi-
Supply lines and connections ness in the event of a short circuit. It can thus
be designed to be weaker.
External tank (hot)
Note: It is also conceivable to integrate the current lim-
Internal tank (cold)
iting effect of a fault current limiter into the transformer,
cf. Section 7.5.4.2.
HV and LV wind- LN2
ings (horizontal)
Prototypes for medium voltage distribution
at 67 K transformers [349] are made of several single
Vacuum layered windings on GRP cylinders with dif-
ferent diameters, whereby the insulation is
Horizontal core formed by LN2-filled gaps. Studies are being
carried out on larger transformers, e.g. 30
MVA/ 138 kV [347] and 240 MVA/ 400 kV
Figure 7.5.4-4: Superconducting traction trans- [348].
former with cold core (schematic).
7.5 Superconducting Equipment 609

z
Gas-cooled core Insualting cover
with bushings and S GN2
connections
bubbles
W

W
LV

S Spacer with cooling channels

C C C C
W Winding LN2
LN2 I I II LN2 I
circulation
C: HTSC conductor
HV
I: Winding insulation
terminal
M
HV r
Development view Radial section

Figure 7.5.4-6: Superconnductig disc winding with

spacers and LN2/ GN2 insulation (concept).

evacuated cryostat made of GRP

cause of the high current densities (up to 39 A/mm2).
Normal-conducting winding with Therefore, the conductors must be mechanically rein-
tap changer connections forced, e.g. by hard-soldered steel strips. The conduc-
tors remain in contact with the radial cooling channels
on their upper side. LN2 is passed in a circuit from in-
side to outside. Thermal gas-bubbles can be formed at
Figure 7.5.4-5: Concept of a superconducting high the conductor surfaces and immediately rise upwards at
voltage transformer (schematic). the outer side. Insulation between the windings and to
the outside is formed by adequately wide LN2 gaps. The
Example: For a 400 kV transformer, it is proposed to windings are supported in the radial direction against
design the high voltage winding as disc winding in internal and external support tubes by radial ribs and
which the spacers will receive the forces in the axial and clamped in the axial direction between pressure rings.
radial direction [348], Figure 7.5.4-6. HTSC conductors For each limb assembly, a double-walled evacuated
allow very narrow windings of small radial extent be- cryostat is provided, Figure 7.5.4-5.
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9 INDEX

Alkali aluminium silicate 307 Arrester 363, 591

A Alkali glass 308 gas-filled lightning 177
Alkali oxide 308 metal-oxide 187
Absorber 545 All-film dielectric 102, 314, 339, spark gap 187
AC circuit-breaker 210 538 valve-type 187
AC conductivity 278, 431 Alternative insulating gas 304, Arrhenius equation 281, 293
AC test 199 305 Arrhenius relationship 348
AC test voltage Aluminium oxide 307, 544, 599 Aspect ratio 124
requirements 376 Aluminium oxide porcelain 307 Assembly quality 507
AC voltage 236, 362, 379, 403, Aluminium silicate 307 Atmospheric humidity 302
566 Aluminium-composite layer Atmospheric standard conditons
damped 379 sheath 501 197
generation of 367 Aluminum foil 96 Atomic polarization 274
induced 368 Aluminum hydroxide 320 Attachment 169
Accelerator 320, 321 Aluminum oxide 307, 319, 330 Attachment coefficient 166, 171,
Accessories 497 Aluminum silicate 337 177
Accompanying gas 456 Ambient temperature 248 Auger process 223
Accreditation 356 Amine 318 Autoclave 550
Accuracy class 358 Amorphous areas 241 Auxiliary arm according to
Acetylene 456 Ampere’s law 9, 10 Wagner 428
Acid 335 Amplitude spectrum 469 Auxiliary cylinder 95
fatty 341 Analogy D- and J-field 75, 99 Auxiliary power 422
Acidity 534 Anhydride 318 Avalanche 166
Acoustic diagnostics 467 Annealing 265 Avalanche discharge 165
Acoustic shock wave 592 Anode fall 163, 209 Avalanche head 180
Acrylic glass 317 Anode glow 163 Avalanche propagation time 181
Activated carbon 340 Anti-fog shed profile 206 Avalanche tail 180
Activation energy 281 Apparent charge 436, 439 Axial-field contact 546
Active current 282 Apparent conductivity 556, 558
Adhesive 317, 322 Applications 1 B
Adhesive joint 322 Applied AC voltage test 531
Admittance function 469 Approximation function 122 Back corona 598
Adsorption coefficient 472 Aramide 315, 354, 514, 515 Back swing 394, 529
Advancing angle 326 Aramide paper 315, 354 Background field
Aerosol 401 Arc column 209 non-uniform 227
Ageing 157, 231, 240, 246, 349, Arc discharge 161, 206, 208 uniform 230
489, 533 Arc extinction 210 Background noise level 250,
mineral oil 335 Arc plasma 541 425, 441
Ageing diagnosis 478, 481 Arc resistance 465 Back-swing 396, 529, 585
Ageing product 280 Arc-back 542 Balanced condition 428
Ageing stability 335 Arc-extinguishing properties 541 Ball lightning 215
Air 80, 178, 182, 302, 304 Arcing chamber 543 Bandage measurement 484
Air bubble 239, 253 Arcing horn 364 Barium titanate 80
Air capacitance 8 Arcing model 542 Barrier 104, 202, 231, 235, 345,
Air density 192, 404 Arcing-chamber circuit-breaker 476
Air gap 84 540 for DC voltage 282, 521
Air humidity 197, 404, 558 Area effect 154, 224 insulating 84
Air pressure 197 natural ester fluid 341 task of 520
Air termination system 588 Arithmetic mean value 144, 148, Barrier conductivity 482
Air-blast circuit-breaker 540 380 Barrier system 110, 519, 585
Air-core principle 607 Armour 497, 575 dielectric diagnosis 481
Air-fuel mixture 599 Aromatic compound 335 for DC voltage 564
Alcohol, bivalent 342 Aromatics 233 Base curve 395
Basic gas quotients 456

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2018

A. Küchler, High Voltage Engineering, VDI-Buch,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11993-4
632 9 INDEX

Bath cooling 604 of air 178 operating field strength 500

Bath-tub curve 286, 347 of gases 216 paper-insulated 498
oil conductivity 294 of liquids 216 PVC 499
Bedding 497 of solids 216 superconducting 606
Beechwood veneer 519 technical 215 three-phase 70
Bellow 519, 539 Breakdown time 187 XLPE 499
Bellow expansion joint 544 Breakdown voltage 141, 160, Cable entrance fitting 112, 324,
Belt generator 385 169, 189, 194, 461 329, 502
Belted-type cable 498 definite 150 water insulated 342
Benzyl neocaprate 339 minimum 150, 177 Cable fault locating 468, 470
Bergeron method 134 Breaking capacity 398 Cable fittings 502
Best-fit curve 157 Breaking gas 306 Cable generator 138, 398, 551
Bewley’s lattice diagram 133 Breakover voltage 243, 244, 245 Cable joint 112, 324, 504
Binding agent 309, 351 thermal 244 Cable measuring coach 378
Biodegradability 341 Bridge circuit 435 Cable oil 335
Biphenyls, polychlorinated 337 Bridge measurement 442 Cable paper 351
Birefringence, induced 408 Brownian motion 81 Cable run 157
Bismuth 602 Bubble 97, 344 Cable sheath 313
Bisphenol A 318 Bubble effect 239 Cable sheath current 426
Bitumen 550 Buchholz protector 488 Cable shield 426
Black mica 309 Buchholz relay 454, 459, 512 Cable systems, testing 505
Blank 307 Buffer gas 306 Cable termination 502
Blast wave 229 Bunch discharge 188, 193 Cable test termination 342, 374
Bleaching clay 337 Bundle, conductor 46 Cable transformer 514, 552
Blocking impedance 434 Burst generator 400 Calender 351
Blocking state 381 Busbar insulation 111 Calibration 357, 417, 437, 438,
Blowing 542 Bushing 3, 87, 111, 112, 243, 441
Blue jet 212 321, 490, 507, 512 UHF diagnosis 453
Blumlein generator 139 ageing 491 Calibration factor 438
Board 513 capacitively graded 508 Camera, infrared 467
Boiling temperature 306 design 510 Capacitance 5, 8
Boltzmann transport equation dielectric diagnosis 481, 483 coefficient 70
295 epoxy resin 243 cylinder-to-plane 64
Bonding agent 328, 550 fast transients 136 cylindrical capacitor 35
Booster capacitor 560 geometrically graded 508 eccentric cylinders 67
Booster sheds 573 HVDC 103, 571 geometrical 291
Borda profile 47, 112 resin-bonded paper 93, 491, graphically determined 43
Borosilicate glass 308 511 high-frequency 291
Boroxide 308 resin-impregnated paper 93, multi-layer arrangement 89
Boundary condition 81 511 parallel-plate capacitor 38
Boundary Element Method 114, resin-impregnated synthetics reflection at 132
116 512 sphere gap 57
Boundary potential 121 without field grading 203 spherical capacitor 33
Boundary-area grading 510 Bushing capacitance 434 to ground 70
Breakdown 83, 160, 166 Bushing core 351 two conductor line 61
by erosion 92 Butting contact 538 working 67
electrical 241 Bypass 426 Capacitance measurement 426
intrinsic 222, 224 Capacitance per unit length 127
thermal 224, 242 C Capacitance variation 491
weak-link 222, 224 Capacitive coupling 68
Breakdown field strength 178 C6K ketone 305 Capacitive field 13, 17
Breakdown measurement 461 Cable 24, 36, 111, 128, 133, 497 Capacitive field grading 112, 508
of boards and films 462 ageing 499, 500 Capacitive grading 571
of liquids 462 DC voltage 497, 576 Capacitive load 371
on other test objects 462 double-shielded 428 Capacitive reactive power 367
Breakdown probability 155 flexible 501 Capacitive voltage distribution
Breakdown strength HVDC 102, 575 20
ideal 215 mass-impregnated 498 Capacitive voltage divider 415
natural ester fluid 341 oil-filled 499 Capacitive voltage rise 371
on-site test 506
9 INDEX 633

Capacitor 15, 25, 537 space 12, 38 Collision probability 170

compressed-gas 412 Charge carrier depletion 431 Combined stresses 114
energy storage 26, 105 Charge carrier diffusion 554 Combined test 397
for DC voltage 554, 560 Charge carrier drift 554 Combustion engine 598
impulse 26, 105, 249 Charge carrier injection 332 Comparative tracking index 465
mixed dielectric at DC 100, Charge difference method 431, Compensated ohmic voltage
102 433 divider 413
parallel-plate 8, 37 Charge rate 437 Compensation capacitor 236,
spherical 32 Charge separation 385 243, 537
Capacitor bank 155, 397 Charge Simulation Method 48, Compensation condition 413
Capacitor dielectric 87, 238 114, 115 Complex comparator 429
DC voltage 560 Charging current 477 Complex permittivity 284
Capacitor foil edge 238 Check measurement 403 Composite insulator 105, 206,
Capacitor inductance 538, 584 Chemical analysis 454 308, 328, 511, 573
Capacitor insulation 18, 20, 39, Chemical bond 174 Compressed gas 198, 304
93, 95 Chemiluminescence 215 Compressed gas-blast circuit-
Capacitor paper 351, 538 Chi-squared distribution 153 breaker 211
Capacitor voltage transformer Chlorinated hydrocarbon 240, Compressed-air circuit-breaker
420 305 540
Cap-and-pin insulator 308 Chlorine 174 Compressed-air energy store 542
Carbon black 313, 326 Chopped-wave lightning impulse Compressed-gas capacitor 412,
Carbon dioxide 304, 456 voltage 27, 529 417, 429, 539
Carbon monoxide 456 Chopping spark gap 187, 391, Compressibility 323
Carrier frequency 537 404 Concrete 595
Carrier gas 305, 306 Chopping time 386, 529 Condition assessment 487
Cartesian coordinates 8, 39 Chopping under SF6 187 Conditioning 180, 265, 544
Cascade arrangement 370 Chromite 595 Conductance 99
Cascade, Greinacher 381 Chubb-Fortescue 423 Conduction band 241
Cascading 374 Circuit inductance 584 Conduction field 6, 14, 99
Cascading of reactors 376 Circuit-breaker 209, 210, 306, measurement 74
Casein glue 519 540 Conductive particle 54
Cast resin 311, 317 Circular law Conductivity 6, 15, 76, 77, 99,
Casting compound 323 first 9, 10 106, 209, 218, 221, 277, 279,
Castor oil 80, 323, 585 second 9, 10 294, 348, 429, 432, 553, 585
Cast-resin coating 90 Clamping force 468 apparent 277, 431, 556, 558
Cathode dark space 163 Clausius law 170 field strength dependence 281
Cathode fall 209 Cloud plot 444, 445 initial value of 431
Cathode glow 163 Cloud-to-cloud lightning 212 temperature dependence 281
Cavity 83, 97, 238, 257 Cloud-to-ground lightning 212 time dependence 281
Cell, biological 595 Cluster 449 Conductivity gradient 571, 575
Cellulose 80, 231, 232, 234, 280, CO2 compressed-gas circuit- Conductivity in gases 277
345, 350, 513, 536 breaker 541 Conductivity in liquids 277
ageing 460 CO2 laser 596 Conductivity losses 283, 285
decomposition 456 Coarse grading 508 Conductivity ratio 482, 567
Center frequency 441, 448 Coarse protection 186, 591 Conductor 13, 15, 90
Central electrode 599 Coated cylinder 90 tubular 36
Central value 144, 157 Coated electrode 91 Conductor bundle 46, 70
empirical 144 Coated sphere 91 Conductor screen 497
Centrifugal casting method 606 Coating 90, 235 Confidence interval 144, 148,
Ceramics 281, 306, 600 Coating method 603 357
Certification 356 Coffee percolator 221 Conformal mapping 44
Chalk 320 Cohesion 223 Connecting leader 213, 588
Characteristic (line) impedance Cold-shrinking technique 325, Connection 583
127 504, 505 Consecutive avalanche 181
Characteristic current ratio 482 Collision Conservation equation 543
Charge elastic 169, 223 Conservation of momentum 169
apparent 436 Collision cross section 166 Constant-current charging 384
measurable 437 Collision ionization 160, 165, Constant-voltage test 158, 246
real 435 169, 207, 220, 221, 223 Constitutive relation 10, 12, 79
634 9 INDEX

Construction material 315 Coupling device 434 Current probe 424

Contact 583 Covariance 158 Current ratio, characteristic 482
Contact angle 326 Crack 83, 92 Current source converter 564,
Contact material 599 Creepage 311 576
Contact noise 260, 261, 262, 442 Creepage arrangement 94 Current transformer 420
Contact pin 599 Creepage configuration 462, 502, Current zero crossing 542
Contact resistance 495 550, 600 Curvature 47
Contact strip 538 Creepage current 198, 204 Curve fitting 271, 447, 480
Continuity equation 9, 10, 30 Creepage discharge 200 Cyclic test 465
Continuous load 533 Creepage discharge inception Cycloaliphatic resin 318
Contour accuracy 317, 324 voltage 508 Cylinder
Contraction force 519 Creepage distance 328 coated 90
Control capacitor 365 Creepage flashover 204 eccentric 66
Convergence 167, 246 Creepage path 205, 465, 522 Cylinder-to-cylinder 60
Converter 548 Creepage path extension 519 Cylinder-to-plane 64
magneto-optical 411 Creepage spark gap 600 Cylindical section capacitor 538
Converter hall 561 Creepage stress 235 Cylindrical capacitor 34
Converter transformer 110 Creepage surface 93, 111, 164, Cylindrical coordinates 8, 39
Cooling 209, 492, 542, 604 199 Cylindrically symmetric field 34
Cooling agent 305 at DC voltage 579
Cooling air analysis 492 Creeping discharge 94, 164 D
Cooling circuit 512 Creeping spark 202
Cooling shrinkage 319 Crepe paper 93, 321, 511 Damped AC voltage 379
Cooling system 489 Crest duration 388 Damped capacitive divider 415
Cooling water 549 Critical damping 415 Damping 394, 415
Cooper pair 600 Critical field efficiency factor Damping resistance 390, 392
Coordinates 188, 198 Dark-current discharge 218
Cartesian 39 Crookes dark space 163 Davis, Bowdler and Standring
Cylindrical 39 Crossed-ring-core transformer 423
Spherical 39 421 Daylight UV camera 453, 467
Coordination-withstand voltages Cross-linked polyethylene 313 DC bushing 563, 573
360 Cross-linking 310, 317, 324, DC cable 575
Co-polymerization 310 325, 500 paper-insulated 576
Copper ethyldiamine 349, 461 Cryostat 604 plastic-insulated 576
Cord, flexible 324 Crystal 241 DC capacitor 560
Core lamination 16 Crystal impurity 241 DC circuit-breaker 210
Core stack 546 C-tan G-measuring bridge 427 DC conductivity 277, 278, 293,
Core-and-coil assembly 525 Cube algorithm 117 431, 432, 556
Corner 46 Cumulative distribution function DC corona 250
Corona discharge 129, 160, 164, 142, 149 DC current resistance 269
188, 192, 250, 385 Cumulative frequency 145 DC field
Corona inception 192 Cumulative frequency multi-layer arrangement 99
Corona shielding 549 distribution 148 DC potential
Corona wire 598 Cumulative frequency polygon measurement 406
Corona, dewdrop 328 142 DC resistance 291
Corona, water drop 206 Cumulonimbus 386 DC voltage 15, 99, 106, 236,
Correlation 157 Curl field 5, 6, 8 379, 403, 404, 566
Correlation analysis 158 Curl line 5 chopped 580
Corrosion 495, 590 Current 5 polarity reversal 110
Corrosive sulphur 335 Current amplification 167, 169 requirements 378
Corrugated aluminum sheath 501 Current chopping 542, 544 DC voltage measurement 413
Corrugated board 519 Current comparator 429 DC voltage strength 553
Cosine-rectangular voltage 378 Current density 6, 603 DC voltage stress 22
Couching 351 critical 601 DC voltage test 378
Coulomb gauge 119 Current displacement 14, 16 Debye approach 269
Coulometric method 455 Current limitation 160 Decomposition gas 456
Coupling capacitance 70 Current measurement 424 Decomposition product 337, 543
Coupling capacitor 434, 537 Current measuring resistance 424 De-conditioning 265
Coupling circuit 418 Current measuring shunt 424 Decoupling, energetic 591
Defect 199, 257
9 INDEX 635

Defect code 457 Dielectrophoresis 596 Dissipation factor 242, 272, 282,
Deflector 112, 329, 502, 504, Differential operator 39 283, 285, 336, 485
508 Diffusion 293, 296, 538 negative 484
Deformation of winding 529 Diffusion barrier 497 Dissipation factor correction 428
Degassing 334 Diffusion current 294 Dissipation factor measurement
Degassing column 334 Dioxin 337 426
Degree of polymerization 349, Dipole 78 Dissipation factor variation 492
350, 461, 534 Dipole field 78 Dissipation losses 12
Degree of separation 598 Dipole moment 173 Distance effect 154, 224, 231,
De-ionization 210 Direct voltage 15, 99 235
Del operator 39 Directional breakdown 241 Distortion-free line 129
Delamination 246, 257 Directional coupler 494 Distribution function 150, 357
Delta 39 Directional coupler technique cumulative 142, 149
Densified laminated wood 519 443, 447, 507 empirical 142, 146, 147
Density function Directional microphone 442, mathematical 143, 147
Weibull distribution 150 454, 467 Weibull distribution 150
Depolarization 433 Dirt deposit 203 Distribution list 145
Depolarization current 271, 294, Disc winding 516 Distribution of el. energy 1
432, 472, 477 Discharge Distribution test, statistical 143
Depolymerization 248 arc 161 Distribution type
Descending leader 213 avalanche 165 test of the 148
Design insulation level 526 corona 160, 164 Distribution, statistical 142
Detachment 92 creeping 164 Ditolylether 339
Deterioration product 280, 536 electrical 456 Divergence 39, 167
Dew 203, 206 glow 160 Diverter switch 517
Dew point measurement 480 in gases 159 Dodecyl benzene 339
Dewdrop corona 328 in liquids 217 Dolomite 319
Diagnosis 426 in non-uniform fields 188 Double layer 219, 220, 331
Diagnostics in solids 240 Double refraction
acoustic 467 non-self-sustained 159 induced 408
dielectric 470 self-sustaining 160 Double-exponential distribution
visual 467 space-charge-dominated 160, 153
Diagonal algorithm 117 181 Double-layer winding 549
Dibenzyl toluene 339 space-charge-free 160, 165 Down lead 589
Dielectric 17 surface 164 Downward leader 213
inhomogeneous 76 Townsend 160, 165 DP-value 461
multi-layer 478 Discharge capacitance 389, 392 Drawing rules 40
Dielectric at DC voltage 554 Discharge capacity 397 Drift 293, 296, 578
Dielectric cavity 98 Discharge current 271, 477 Drift compensation 412
Dielectric constant Discharge delay 183, 188 Drift current 294
relative 79 Discharge phenomenon 192 Drip-proof seal 519
Dielectric diagnosis 455, 470 Discharge time lag 183 Droplet 326
multi-layer insulation 478 Discharge voltage analysis 472 Drum generator 386
of bushings 481, 483 Discharge-voltage measurement Dry zone 206
transformer insulation 479 474 Dryer 334
Dielectric displacement density 6 Discharging resistance 392 Dryformer 552
Dielectric displacement field 99 Dischcharge Drying 334, 352, 481, 525, 536,
Dielectric heating 236, 275 streamer 181 538
Dielectric losses 81, 188 Disconnector 135, 540 Dry-type transformer 321, 514
Dielectric measurements 427, Discretization 120
461 Dislocation 241 E
Dielectric particle 98 Dispersion 81, 274, 463, 586
Dielectric properties Dispersion time Earth stray capacitance 539
HVDC insulation 555 statistical 253 Earthing resistance 590
Dielectric sphere 97 Displacement density 6 Eddy current
Dielectric strength at DC 553 Displacement field 6, 18, 99 numerical calculation 114
Dielectric system response 269, Disruption 595 Eddy current losses 16
293, 471 Dissipation 25, 81, 188 Eddy currents 14, 16, 524, 603
Dielectric test level 526, 527 Edge 256, 508, 510
Edge field 41, 47, 200, 238
636 9 INDEX

Edge field strength 95, 238, 339, Electron avalanche 165 Equivalent charge 56, 115
508, 510, 538, 585 Electron beam 593 magnitude 51
minimum 33, 35 Electron cascade 266 position 51, 61
Edge of metal foil 93 Electron conduction 277, 279 positioning 116
Efficiency Electron conductivity 77 Equivalent charge method 35, 48
voltage 390 Electron emission 264 Equivalent circuit 470
Efficiency factor 72 field 165 dielectric 298
E-glass 308 photoelectric 165 material 290, 298
Elasticity 323 thermionic 165 Maxwell’s 296
Elastomer 311, 317, 324, 501 Electron grid 601 non linear 294
Elasto-optic effect 411 Electronegative gas 173 polarization 290
Electric arc 161, 208 Electronegativity 173, 174, 305 thermal 488
Electric charge 5 Electronic charge transport 222 two-layer 296
Electric constant 6 Electroporation 26, 595 Equivalent radius 47, 70
Electric field 5, 119 Electrostatic charging 558 Equivalent thermal network 533
Electric field intensity 1 Electrostatic discharges 400 Erosion 28, 83, 164, 249, 465,
Electric field strength 1, 5 Electrostatic field 5, 7, 13, 17, 585
graphically determined 43 20, 44 breakdown by 92
Electric field stress 1 numerical calculation 114 Erosion breakdown 246, 511,
Electric flux density 6 Electrostatic generator 384 585
Electric influence 385 Electrostatic induction 385 Error rate 360
Electric strength 1, 4, 141 Electrostatic precipitator 400, Ester liquid 240, 338
of interfaces 84 598 natural 240, 340
Electrical breakdown 241 Electrostatic voltmeter 405 Esterification 341
Electrical conduction field 6, 20 Element 121 Ethene 311
Electrical displacement field 6 Elementary charge 5 Ethylene 311
Electrical machine 546 ELVE 212 Ethylene glycol 342
Electrical stress 22 Embedding 462 Ethylene-propylene elastomer
Electrical tree 313, 500 Emergency operation 533 502
Electrochemical breakdown 246 Empirical distribution function Euler number 36
Electrode 462 142 Evaporation method 455
coated 91 Empirical variance 145 Excimer laser 594
field force 98 Enamel-insulated wire 249, 547 Excitation transformer 374
hemispherical 54 Encapsulated-winding dry-type Exothermic reaction 319
insulated 231, 235 transformer 369 Expansion bellow 333, 539
shielding 31 Endoscope 467 Expansion cell 333, 539
spherical 30 Energetic decoupling 591 Expansion coefficient 333, 338
Electrode edge 94, 95 Energy Expansion tank 334
Electrode material 172, 177 maximum 97 Expectation value 148
Electrode surface 154, 180 maximum capacitive 33, 36 mathematical 144
uneven 54 stored 9 Expert system 445
Electrodynamic fragmentation Energy density 9, 97, 140, 537 Explosion 594
26, 594 Energy functional 119 External gas pressure cable 499
Electrohydraulic fragmentation Energy storage 582 External grading 104, 572
595 Energy storage capacitance 389 External insulation 363
Electrolytic conductivity 203 Energy storage capacitor 105, for DC voltage 572
Electrolytic tank 76 561, 583 External lightning protection 588
Electromagnetic compatibility Energy-band model 221, 281 External partial discharge 251
27, 397, 398, 425, 587 Enlargement, law of 153 Extinction voltage 365
Electromagnetic field 6, 8, 124, Entrance fitting 324 Extra high voltage 24
125 Epoxy resin 80, 83, 241, 243, Extraction 458
Electromagnetic wave 20, 114, 275, 280, 318, 330, 475, 511, Extraction method 455
125 519, 547, 550 Extreme value distribution 150
Electromotive force 10 Equal area criterion 185 Extremum determination 33, 35,
Electron Equilibrium condition 349, 459 91
first free 165 Equilibrium curve 349, 455 Extrusion 313, 500
primary 166 Equipotential bonding 590
Electron affinity 166, 171, 173, Equipotential line 7, 40 F
177, 305 Equipotential surface 7
Factory joint 576
9 INDEX 637

Failure gases 164 numerical 113, 123 Filter reactor 514

Faltenbalg 519 thermal 246 Fine grading 508
Faraday dark space 163 transient numerical 569 Fine protection 186, 591
Faraday effect 408, 410, 422, Field displacement 19, 82, 97, Finite Difference Method 114,
425 604 116
Faraday’s law 9 DC field 99 Finite Element Method 114, 119
Fast transients 21, 27, 29, 135, Field efficiency factor 48, 72 Fire point 338
186, 208, 386 critical 188, 198 Fireing, impulse generator 393
Fatty acid 341 Field emission 165, 172, 176, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 335
Fault current limiter 605 184, 208, 241, 264, 594 Fisher distribution 153
Fault gas 456 Field energy 119 Fittings 502
Fault location 400 Field equation 9 Flame ionization detector 460
FDS analysis 485 Field force Flame retardance 320
Feedback coefficient 172 electrode 98 Flash light 26
Feedback process 165 lateral pressure 98 Flash point 338, 341
Feedback to cathode 166 longitudinal tensile stress 98 Flash unit 596
Feldspar 307, 595 Field grading 110, 112, 365, 508, Flashover 164
Ferrite core 383 571 Flashover distance 203
Ferroelectric 80 at DC voltage 566, 579 Flashover voltage 203
Fiber 222, 224, 226, 232 capacitive 112 Flat section capacitor 538
Fiber mats 308 geometric 112 Flexibilizer 313
Fiber reinforcement 315 non-linear 112 Fluorcarbon 174
Fiber-bridge breakdown 98, 224, refractive 89, 112 Fluoride 543
232 resistive 112 Fluorinated hydrocarbon 305
Fibrous material 345 Field line 6, 40 Fluorine 174
synthetic 354 critical 523 Fluoro compounds 302
Fick’s law of diffusion 295 Field mapping 40 Fluoroketone 305
Field graphical 86 Fluoronitrile 305
capacitive 17 Field migration 552, 569, 572 Flux density
conduction 13, 14, 29 Field mill 408 critical 601
cylindrically symmetric 34, Field plot 6 Flux quantization 602
497, 521 Field plotter 76 Foam 323, 511
displacement 29 Field sensor 406, 416 polyurethane 574
electromagnetic 125 Field strength Fog 203
electrostatic 13, 14, 17, 44 electric 4 Foil winding 515
homogeneous 29, 37 Field strength dependence 276, Forbidden band 241
inductive 15 348 Force 5
Laplacian 114 Field strength limit 178, 181 electric field 98
magnetostatic 13, 14 Field strength profile 523 Formation delay 183
non-stationary 20 Field stress Formative area 185
non-uniform 39, 523 creepage path 522 Formative delay time 183
Poissonian 114 Field stress enhancement 48, 53, Formative time 236
potential 15 66, 92, 93, 95 Formative time lag 184
quasi-static 13, 17, 29 microscopic 85, 92 Foundation earth electrode 590
quasi-static electric 17 transient 108 Fourier transform 424, 429, 469
quasi-stationary 13, 17, 29 Field stress enhancement factor Fowler-Nordheim equation 296
radiation 125 264 Fragmentation 593
rotational symmetric 43 Field utilization factor 72 electrodynamic 594
space-charge-affected 38 Fieldmill voltmeter 408 electrohydraulic 595
spherically symmetric 31 Filament winding 308, 322 selective 594
static 13, 14, 29 Filament wound pipe 308 Fragmentation of gall stones 593
stationary 13, 14, 29 Filler 313, 319, 330, 351 Fragmentation of kidney stones
tangential 523 Film 593
three-dimensional 44 insulating 314 Free length of path 166
transverse 125 polymeric 15, 538 Free-jet circuit-breaker 540
two-dimensional 58 polypropylene 93 Frequency
uniform 37, 83 Filter 376, 425, 443 adjustable 375
Field calculation Filter charactristic 396 close to operating frequency
analytic 30 Filter material 536 375, 379
638 9 INDEX

test voltage 531 Gas-absorbing property 339 Graphical approximation 153

Frequency converter 375 Gas-evolving circuit-breaker 540 Graphical field mapping 86
Frequency dependence 272, 274, Gas-filled internal-pressure cable Gravitation field 6
285, 297, 377 499 Greenhouse potential 544
Frequency domain 13, 433, 471, Gas-in-oil analysis 337, 349, Greinacher cascade 381
483 454, 456, 488, 534 Greinacher multiplier 381
Frequency domain analysis 485 Gas-insulated line 70, 128, 304, Grid polarization 274
Frequency domain spectroscopy 501 Ground layer 490
433, 471 Gas-insulated switchgear 27, Ground microphone 468
Frequency response analysis 468 135, 186, 199 Ground stray capacitance 428
Frequency response measurement partial discharges 256 correction of the 428
469, 470, 485 Gas-solid interface 558 Ground wire
Frequency sensitivity Gas-to-liquid oil 335 overhead 65, 589
field grading 113 Gating 443 Grounding switch 540
Friction 385 Gaussian normal distribution 148 Grounding system 590
Front thunderstorm 211 Gaussian system 413 Guard-ring arrangement 429,
Front time 386, 396 Gauss's law 12, 30 431, 461
transformer testing 528 Geiger-Müller counter 167 Guard-ring bandage 484
Fruit juice 595 Gelling 319 Guard-ring electrode 474
Fuller’s earth 337 Generator 113, 546, 607 Guided gas-discharge 200, 202
Furane 534 diagnostics 551 Guided TEM wave 125
Furfuran derivatives 349 Generator mode sensor 408
Furfurol 534 Geometric field grading 112 H
FW-pipe 308 Geometric grading
at DC voltage 579 Half-wave rectifier 381
Geometric series 167 Halogen 174
G
Geometrical electrical model 588 Hamilton’s operator 39
Galvanic isolation 466 Getter 265, 545 Hard paper 511
Gamma distribution 153 Giant pulse laser 597 Hard porcelain 308
Gap 83, 92 Glass 308 Hardener 318
partial discharge inception acrylic 317 Hardening 311, 317
voltage 95 Glass beads 320 Hard-gas circuit-breaker 540
Gap width 235 Glass fiber 308 Harmonic 286
Garnet 596 Glass quality, simple 308 Harmonic distortion 242
Gas 80, 301 Glass transition temperature 275, Harmonic distortion, total 236
ideal 175 311, 317, 318, 323, 324, 331 Harmonics 24, 25
in oil 234 Glass-fiber reinforced plastic 92, Hazard level 587
liquefied 240, 342 308 Heat loss 571
Gas absorbing behavior 239, 335 Glaze 307 Heat removal capacity 343
Gas absorption capacity 239 Global thermal breakdown 245 Heat thunderstorm 211
Gas bubble 238, 333 Global warming potential 304, Heat transfer 548
thermal 342, 603 541 Heat transmission 604
Gas chromatograph 460 Glow discharge 160, 163, 192 Heat-shrinking technique 325
Gas concentration 457 Glycerin 80 Heaviside effect 14
Gas constant 171 Gradient 39, 552 Heavy metal immobilization 595
Gas cushion 333, 539 Gradient field 8 Helium 174, 178, 342
Gas density 170, 175 Grading liquid 601
Gas discharge 159 external 104 Hemicellulose 350
guided 200, 202 field and potential resp. 112 Hemisphere 72
manifestation 162 internal 104 Hemispherical electrode 54
masked 218 Grading capacitor 380, 537, 543 Heterocharge 294, 578
Gas discharge characteristic 160 Grading cone 112, 329, 502 HF-Transformer 383
Gas discharge lamp 596 Grading contour 509 High altitude electromagnetic
Gas impregnation 512, 539 Grading layers 508 pulse 399
Gas in oil 535 Grading ring 206, 519 High speed forming 26
Gas loss 304 Grading-layer edge 508, 510 High voltage 23
Gas mixture 178, 303 Grain boundary 241, 594 High voltage cable 128
Gas quotients 456 Granite 595 High voltage direct current 23
Gas sensor 488 Grape 595 High voltage generation 365
Gas volume 558 High voltage machine 548
9 INDEX 639

High voltage measurement Hysteresis 261 Induced AC voltage test 531

techniques 401 Induced double refraction 408
High voltage probe 415 I Induced optical activity 410
High voltage test field 365 Induced voltage 10
High voltage test laboratory 366 Ibad method 603 Induced voltage test 531
High voltage testing field 425 Ideal gas 175 Inductance 596
High-current transformer 397 Ignition coil 598 adjustable 374
Highest voltage for equipment Ignition condition 165, 168, 181 reflection at 132
23, 362, 527 Townsend 165 Inductance per unit length 127
High-frequency breakdown 187, Ignition delay 183, 253 Induction
236 Ignition delay time 236, 393 electrostatic 385
High-frequency capacitance 271, Ignition spark gap 599 law of 10
291 Ignition transformer 596 Inductive current converter 420
High-frequency high voltage 373 Ignition voltage 160, 174, 175, Inductive field 13, 15
Highly polymerized substance 252 Inductive voltage transformer
280 Image charge 49, 52, 56 419
High-performance polypropylene Immobilization 332 Inert gas 174, 177
thermoplastic elastomer 578 Impact ionization 160 Inertia 81
High-power impulse technology Impedance Influence, electric 385
267, 342, 399 characteristic (line) 127 Infrared camera 467, 495
High-pressure liquid intrinsic 129 Infrared-spectrometer 460
chromatography 461 wave 129 Inhibitor 335, 337, 341
High-pressure method 312 Impedance matching 130 Inhomogeneity 578
High-pressure oil-filled cable Impregnating bath 321 Inhomogeneous dielectric 76
499 Impregnating wick 15, 102, 314, Initial capacitance 271
High-temperature 538 Initial conductivity 278
superconducting cable 578 Impregnation 84, 333, 334, 352, Initial process 223
High-temperature 354, 538 Initial value 155
superconductivity 343, 601 Imprinting 220, 221 Injection 293, 296, 554, 557, 578
High-voltage DC transmission 1, Impulse capacitance 389 Injection of electrons 219, 221
553 Impulse capacitor 105, 249, 583 In-phase current 282
Hittorf dark space 163 Impulse circuit 389, 391, 592 Inspection joint 590
Hole 97 damping 394 Instability
Homocharge 294, 557, 578 inductance 394 numerical 122
Homogeneous field 37 Impulse current 396 thermal 236, 242, 284, 287
Homogeneous insulation 479 Impulse current circuit 592 Instrument transformer 419, 512
Hopping 221, 280 Impulse factor 183, 226 Insulating film 314
Hot spot 248, 456, 488, 491, 533 Impulse generator 21, 138, 398 Insulating glass 308
Hot-shrinking technique 504 Impulse laser 26, 594, 596 Insulating housing 369, 374, 376
Housing insulator 503, 512 Impulse voltage 403 Insulating liquid 333
HTV silicone 326 generation 386 synthetic 337
Humidification 203 lightning 386 vegetable 340
HVDC 1, 23 rectangular 398 Insulating material 13, 17, 301
HVDC bushing 103, 571 specification 386 profile of properties 22
HVDC cable 102, 575 switching 388 Insulating material test 461
testing 580 Impulse voltage divider 415 Insulating oil 335
HVDC insulation system 552 Impulse voltage test color 534
HVDC transformer 561 transformer 396, 527 dissipation factor 534
HVDC wall bushing 104 Impulse voltage-time usable dielectric strength 236
Hybrid-optical current characteristic 157, 186, 364, Insulating plate 94
transformer 422 594 Insulation 4
Hydrofluoric acid 319 Inception field strength 31, 36, Insulation coordination 24, 187,
Hydrogen 336, 456 253 238, 359
Hydrogen gas 493 Inception region 223 Insulation costs 2
Hydrogen sulphide 303 Inception voltage 31, 36, 62, Insulation level 362, 526
Hydrogenation 335 189, 202 standardized 362
Hydrolysis 246, 247 Inclined field 85 Insulation paper 280
Hydrophobia 105 DC field 100 Insulation resistance 20, 232,
Hydrophobicity 206, 326, 465 Inclined-plane test 465 429, 431, 455
Indirect method 48
640 9 INDEX

apparent 431 Ion screen 191 Laser technology 596

Insulation screen 497 Ionic conduction 277 Laser triggering 393, 401
Insulation sheet 547 Ionic drift 278, 294 Laser-cut 538, 585
Insulation system 4, 77 Ionization 160, 169, 598 Lateral capacitance 202
for AC voltage 497 collision 169 Lateral pressure 98
for DC voltage 552 Ionization by collisions 160 Lateral watertightness 501
for impulse voltage 582 Ionization coefficient 170, 171 Lattice network 112, 202, 397,
Integral coil 546 effective 166, 172 510, 517, 550
Integral equation method 114 Townsend’s first 166 Lattice polarization 273
Integral measurement 472 Ionization energy 165, 169, 170, Law of induction 10
Intensity, partial discharge 436 223 Layer 346
Interface 81, 92, 110, 164, 266, Ionization probability 171 Layer conductivity 205
503, 504 Ionizer 598 Layered arrangement 298
electric field force 98 Ionosphere 212 Layered dielectric 276
inclined to field 85, 100 IRC analysis 474, 500 Layered silicates 330
parallel to field 84, 100 Iridium 599 Lead casing 501
rectangular to field 82, 92, 99 Iron core 512, 524 Lead exit 519, 521
with silicone gel 330 Iron oxide 112 Lead glass 308
Interfacial polarization 100, 274, Irrotational field 8 Lead oxide 308
276, 296, 476 Isocyanate 323 Leader 189, 218, 220, 228, 231,
Interfacial problem 84 Isolating spark gap 590 582
Interfacial tension 534 Isolation 4 Leader discharge 164, 194, 202
Interference galvanic 466 lightning 213
conducted 442 Isomer 174, 305 Leader inception 203
electromagnetic 442 Isothermal relaxation current Leakage 129
suppression for partial analysis 472, 474 Leakage current 204, 364, 483
discharges 450 Leakage rate 304
Interference voltage measuring J Least square method 153
devices 440 Length effect 154
Interferences Jitter 393, 592 Lengthening of creepage path
impulse type 442 Joint 324, 329, 504 205
narrowband 442 Jumping particle 304 Lichtenecker’s law of mixtures
through free particle 442 276
through poor contact 442 K Lifetime 105, 246, 247
Interlayer insulation 515 Kaolin 307 Lifetime characteristic 154, 246
Intermediate storage 583 Karl Fischer titration 336, 454, Lifetime exponent 158, 247
Internal grading 104, 572 480 Lifetime stress relationship 157,
Internal insulation 363 Kerosene vapor 353 247
Internal lightning protection 588, Kerr effect 408 Lift-off field strength 304
590 Ketone 325 Lift-off voltage 199
Internal overvoltage 210 Ketone, C6K 305 Light detector 453
Internal partial discharge Key gas 456 Light source 400
at AC voltage 252 k-factor 396 Light technology 596
at DC voltage 254 Kidney stone 26 Light transmission 317
Interphase insulation 547 Kind’s equal area criterion 185 Light, speed of 21, 128
Interpolation 120 Kinetic energy 8 Lighting technology 163
Interstice 93, 462 Kraft paper 93 Lightning 21
Interturn fault 469, 529 Kreuger bridge 435 Lightning arrester 137
Interturn insulation 515 gas-filled 177
Interval estimation 144, 148, 153 L Lightning current 591
Interval length, critical 523 Lightning current arrester 590,
Intrinsic breakdown 222, 224 Laminated pressboard 519 591
Intrinsic charge carriers 294 Land cable 575 Lightning current parameter 214,
Intrinsic impedance 129 Laplace transform 106 587
Inverted winding 516 Laplace’s equation 39, 97 Lightning discharge 206, 211,
Iodine 455 Laplace’s operator 39 212
Ion 169 Laplacian field 114, 119 Lightning flash 214
Ion conductivity 77 Lardite 308 Lightning impulse 17
Ion emission 172 Large-number effect 154 Lightning impulse test 199
Laser impulse 593
9 INDEX 641

Lightning impulse voltage 25, Lossy line 129 two-conductor line 62

211, 236, 362, 386, 390 Low-frequency heating 353, 536 Maximum likelihood method
chopped-wave 529 Low-light amplifier 442, 453, 153
evaluation procedure 396 467 Maxwell’s equations 9, 124
Lightning impulse voltage test Low-pass filter 435, 548 Maxwell’s two-layer model 296
527 Low-pressure method 311 Mean degree of polymerization
Lightning protection 214, 587 Low-pressure oil-filled-cable 461
Lightning protection class 588 499 Mean free path length 170
Lightning protection zone Low-temperature Mean straight line 152
concept 587, 591 superconductivity 600 Mean value 144, 358, 463
Lightning strike 128 Low-temperature technology 342 arithmetic 144
Lightning stroke current 128 Low-voltage arm 417 Mean-square deviation 145
Lignin 350 Low-voltage motor 547 Measurable charge 437
Limb assembly 512, 519 LSR silicone 326 Measurement uncertainty 357,
Line Lubricating agent 316, 324 404
lossless 126 Lubricating paste 504 Measuring cable 21
pulse forming 401 Luminous effect 163 Measuring capacitor 537
Line charge 5, 35, 115 Measuring spark gap 402
Line charges, parallel 58 M Measuring system 357
Line generator 398, 401 Measuring tap 483, 490
Line parameters 127 Machine insulation 321 Mechanical field 119
Line termination 131 Magnesium dioxide 330 Median 144, 157, 463
Linear dielectric 554 Magnesium silicate 308 empirical 144
Linearity 412 Magnetic core 16, 25, 531 Medical engineering 26
Line-commutated converter 553, Magnetic energy storage 605 Medicine 593
578, 580 Magnetic field 119 Medium voltage 23
Line-to-ground insulation 362 Magnetic field sensor 421 Medium voltage cable 128
Line-to-line insulation 362 Magnetic flux 10 Mega-gauss fields 594
Lipid 595 Magnetic flux density 25 Meißner-Ochsenfeld effect 602
Liquefied gases 240 Magnetic ignition 598 Memory effect 294, 433
Liquid 333 Magnetic insulation 267 Mesh generator 121, 124
semi-conductive 76 Magneto 598 Mesh method 589
Liquid chromatography 349 Magnetomotive force Meshing 589
Liquid dielectric 554 law of 10 Metal foil 538, 585
Liquid insulating material 333 Magneto-optical converter 411 Metal foil edge 93, 95, 538
Liquid resin 318 Magneto-optical current Metal oxides 307
Lithotripsy 593 transformer 422 Metal parts, insulator 364
Lithotrisy 26 Magnetostatic field 13 Metal separation 595
Load capacitance 389, 392 Main discharge 213, 214, 218, Metal vapor plasma 264
Load capacity, cable 493 220, 229 Metallic foil edge 95
Load interrupter switch 540 Main insulation 3, 549 Metal-oxide arrester 137, 187,
Load transfer switch 517 Maintenance of value 535 365
Load, capacitive 371 Marx generator 391 Metal-vapor plasma 176, 544
Local field 35 Masked gas-discharge 218 Method of finite elements 246
Local thermal breakdown 245 Mass point 425 Method of Moments 114, 153
Location coefficient 159 Mass-impregnated cable 498, Mica 309, 550, 595
Lognormal distribution 153 576 Mica film 309
Long-distance/ high pressure Master database 142, 145 Mica paper 309, 550
breakdown 173, 176 Matching impedance 130 Mica splitting 550
Long-duration impulse current Material boundary 594 Mica tape 550
397 Material equation 10, 12, 79 Micanite 309
Longitudinal insulation 362 Material equivalent circuit 290 Microbubble 218, 223
Longitudinal tensile stress 98 Matrix 602 Microcavity 219, 223
Longitudinal watertightness 501 Matrix material 112 Microdischarge 586
Lorentz force 545 Maximum field strength Micro-field 223
Loss angle 282 coated conductor 91 Microphone 467
Loss factor 242, 282, 285 cylindrical capacitor 35 Microplasma 264
Losses, eddy current 16 eccentric cylinders 67 Microtips 264
Lossless line 126, 129 sphere gap 57 Microvaristor 112
spherical capacitor 33
642 9 INDEX

Microwaves 275 DC field 99 Non-linearity 348, 552

Midel 338 dielectric diagnosis 478 Non-linear-resistor-type arrester
Mineral oil 80, 231, 335, 513, plane 87, 89 365
585 spherical 90 Non-self-sustained discharge 159
Minerals 595 spherically symmetric 87 Non-stationary field 119
Minimization of field energy Multi-layer winding 515, 519 numerical calculation 114
119, 121 Multi-level converter 564, 580 Non-uniform field 39
Minimum breakdown voltage Multi-physics 114 discharges 188
177 Multiple reflections 132 Non-uniform rain 105, 572
Mirror charge 294 Multiple-extrusion 500 Non-uniformity, degree of 72
Mirror glass 308 Multiplier, Greinacher 381 Normal distribution 358
Mixed dielectric 276, 538 Multi-points PD measurement, Gaussian 148
Mixed distributions 153 synchronous 448 Normal field 82, 92
Mixed fields 28 Muscovite 309 DC field 99
Mixed voltage stress 23, 553 Normal force 519
Mixer tube 322 N Normal stress 82
Mixture gas 303 Nozzle 542
Mixture of substance 276 Nabla 39 N-type conduction 277
Modulation of light 412 Nanocomposite 330 Nuclear electromagnetic pulse
Moist film 326, 327 Nanocrystalline material 593 28, 125, 399, 587
Moisture 283, 454, 535 Nano-dielectric 330 Nuclear fusion 28, 140, 596
in oil 234 Nanofiller 330, 578 Null indicator 428
in paper 280, 478, 482 Nanoparticle 26, 330 Numerical field calculation 113,
relative 231 Nanopowder 594 123
Moisture adsorption 322 Nanosegmentation 332
Molded components 351 Nanostructuring 330
O
Momentum Naphthene 335
conservation of 169 Napier’s constant 36 Ohmic-capacitive divider 413
Monitoring 426 Natural ester 240 Oil
bushings 490 Natural ester liquid 340 chlorinated 240
circuit-breaker 496 Natural gas 335 mineral 335
composite insulator 495 Natural logarithm, base of 36 technically purified 226
gas-insulated switchgear 494 Negative glow 163 vegetable 240
on-load tap changer 490 Negative streamer 193 Oil circuit-breaker 540
overhead lines 495 Negative-sequence network 68 Oil circulation 521
rotating machines 492 Neighboring points, in lightning Oil condition 336
surge arrester 495 protection 590 Oil conductivity 476, 479, 482
transformers 488 Neodymium 596 Oil duct 476
XLPE cables and fittings 493 Neon 174 Oil exchange 481
Monitoring system 488, 512 Nernst-Planck equation 295 Oil expansion vessel 488
Mono benzyl toluene 339 Net 119 Oil gap 83, 235, 237, 517
Mono-ester 341 Network disturbance simulator Oil level 467
Mono-isopropyl-biphenyl 339 400 Oil model 295
Monomer 310 Network model 271 Oil pressure measurement,
Monte Carlo method 114 Neural networks 443 transient 468
Motor 113, 546, 607 Neutralization number 336, 534 Oil quality 232
Motor insulation 249 Nickel-Yttrium 599 Oil sample 454
Multi-channel PD measurement, Nitrogen 174, 304, 342 Oil-board barrier system 110
synchronous 448 liquid 601 Oil-board insulation 513, 517
Multi-dielectric arrangement 81 Noble gas 174 Oil-filled cable 498
analytical calculation 86 Node 119 Oil-filled DC cable 576
Multifilament wire 603 Node potential 120 Oil-impregnated paper 15, 280,
Multi-frequency PD Noise level 251, 254 287, 352, 511, 538
measurement, synchronous background 250 Oilostatic cable 499
448 Nomex® 315, 354 Oil-paper 243, 474
Multi-layer insulation 94, 120, Nominal voltage 24, 362 insulation 248
478, 479 Nomogram 457 temperature limit 489
cylindrical 89 Non-linear dielectric 554 OIP bushing 511
cylindrically symmetric 87 Non-linear element 528 Olefin 335
Non-linear field grading 112 Once-through cooling 604
9 INDEX 643

Online monitoring 459, 487 P Partial discharge kink 427

Online oil drying 537 Partial discharge measurement
Pancake winding 516
Online transfer function 470 334, 433
Paper 280, 345
On-load tap changer 333, 490, acoustic 454
aramide 315
512, 517 circuit 434
oil-impregnated 15, 243, 286,
On-site test 376, 387, 393, 506 device 438
352, 511
On-site test voltages 376 for DC voltage 262, 435, 444
resin-bonded 511
Open circuit 130 intereference-free 442
resin-impregnated 321, 511
Opening switch 583 optical 453
semi-conductive 75
Operating field strength 246, standardized 434
Paper machine 351
247, 346 Partial discharge measuring
Paper sample 455
Operating frequency 379 device 439, 440
Paper wrapping 91, 521
Operating stress 360 Partial discharge monitoring 493
Paper-insulated cable 498
Operating temperature 248 Partial discharge pattern
Paraffin 335
Operator, differential 39 phase-resolved 444, 445
Parallel cylinders 60
Opit method 603 Partial discharge resistance 324,
Parallel equivalent circuit 288
Optical activity, induced 410 330, 332
Parallel-plate capacitor 8, 37, 83,
Optical Rogowski coil 425 Partial discharge test 199
112
Optical waveguide 422, 425, 466 Partial pressure 306
capacitance 38
Optics 274, 596 Partial water vapor pressure 352,
edge field 41, 47
Optimization 33, 35 354
Parallel-plate line 399
technical-economical 360 Particle 97, 183, 224, 226, 256,
Parameter estimation 143, 144
Orbital 174 452, 536
Parameter, empirical 144
Orientation polarization 273, conductive 54, 238
Partial arc 464
274, 297 field stress enhancement 54
Partial breakdown 491
Oscillating voltage 379, 429 Partial discharge 28, 83, 92, 94,
jumping 304
Oscillation 395 Particle beam 593
160, 238, 249, 548, 581
superimposed 528 Particle content 534
at DC voltage 451, 554
Oscillatory voltmeter 408 Particle drift 226
cavity 258
Oscilloscope 418 Particle movement 199
contact noise 260, 261, 262
Ostwald-coefficient 459 Particle number 217
corona 258
Outdoor cable termination 502 Particle separation 597
evaluation scheme 260
Over dimensioning 360 Partition insulator 304, 519
external 251
Over dimensioning 360 Paschen minimum 177, 178,
in sevice 493
Over-compensation 414 265, 267
internal 164, 252
Overhang insulation 550 Paschen strength 267
interpretation 258
Overhead ground wire 65 Paschen test 268
phase relation 252
Overhead line 128, 133 Paschen’s law 163, 174
surface 258
lightning strike 128 Paste extrusion 316
Partial discharge diagnosis 443
multi-phase 67 Path length
analysis of impulse form 447
Overheating 456 mean free 170, 221
classic interpretation 443
Overlapping 519 Pattern identification 445
defect separation 448, 451
Overload 533 pd value 176
difficulties 446
Overshoot 394 PDC analysis 249, 432, 477, 555
for DC voltage 262, 444
transformer testing 528 Peak detection 423
method of localization 447
Oversizing 360 Peak time 25
pulse sequence analysis 446
Overvoltage Peak value 24, 25, 367, 386
statistical approach 444
external 25, 210, 211, 386 Peak value measurement 402,
synchronous multi-channel PD
internal 25, 386 423
measurement 447
transient 27, 386 Peaking operation 399
UHF ultra high frequency 452
Overvoltage protection device Pentaerythritol tetraester 338
Partial discharge energy 436
397 Percolation theory 220, 221, 229
Partial discharge extinction 253,
Oxidation stability 341 Permittivity 23, 76, 80, 82, 92,
439
Oxide layer 220 273, 461, 537, 567, 585
Partial discharge image
Oxygen 174 absolute 6
phase-resolved 258, 433
Ozone depletion potential 305 complex 81, 272, 284, 433
Partial discharge inception 94,
Ozone generation 598 frequency dependence 81
200, 258, 436, 439
of vacuum 6
Partial discharge intensity 436,
relative 6, 12, 79
439
644 9 INDEX

resultant 276 Poisson-Nernst-Planck equation Polynominal 122

temperature dependence 81 295, 557 Polypropylen lapped paper cable
Peroxide 313 Polarity effect 39, 189, 226, 229, 576
Pertinax 324 250, 402, 554 Polypropylene 280, 314, 330
Perturbation, power system 384 in liquids 221 Polypropylene film 93
p-factor 477 Polarity reversal 20, 28, 110, Polystyrene 314
Phase front 21 294, 553, 564, 567, 571, 578, Polysulfone 315
Phase plane 127 580 Polytetrafluoroethylene 316, 542
Phase position 439 for dielectric diagnosis 483 Polyurethane 323
Phase relation 260 Polarization 6, 76, 78, 106, 269, Polyurethane foam 574
partial discharge 252 273, 554, 556 Polyvinylchloride 80, 313, 499
Phase velocity 20, 21, 126, 129 atom 78 Polyvinylidenefluoride 316
Phase-fired control 564 by deformation 78 Population inversion 596
Phase-resolved pattern 258, 433, complex 272 Population, basic 142
444, 445 electric 12 Porcelain 3, 281, 306, 307
Phase-to-earth insulation 362 electron 78 Pore 323, 345, 595
Phase-to-phase insulation 362 interfacial 78, 100, 332 Positive column 163
Phasor diagram 284 lattice 78 Positive streamer 193
Phenolic resin 93, 323 losses 12, 81 Positive-sequence impedance 68
Phenyl-xylyl-ethane 339 magnetic 12 Positive-sequence network 68
Phlogopite 309 molecular 78 Pot life 318
Phosphatized layer 524 orientation 78 Potassium hydroxide 336
Photo effect 172 Polarization catastrophe 80 Potassium mica 309
Photocopier 598 Polarization current 271, 431, Potassium-aluminum double
Photoelectric emission 165 432, 472, 477 silicate 309
Photoionization 159, 165, 169, Polarization equivalent circuit Potential 5, 7
181 290, 291, 556 Potential coefficients 115
Phthalic anhydride 318 Polarization index 482 Potential difference 7
Pinch 545 Polarization losses 272, 283, 285 Potential field 8, 15, 114
Pipeline compression cable 499 Polarization spectrum 476 Potential free probe 407
Pipe-type cable 501 Polished electrodes 180 Potential grading 110, 112, 463,
Plane field 40 Pollution 221, 231, 326 508, 550
Plant cells 595 insulator 23 capacitive 3, 112, 504, 508
Plasma 209 Pollution flashover 84, 198, 203, for DC voltage 566
Plasmoid 215 326 geometric 112, 503, 508
Plastic, glas-fiber-reinforced 92 Pollution layer 201, 203, 572 non-linear 112
Plastic-insulated cable 475, 499, at DC voltage 104 refractive 89, 112, 508
576 conductivity 204 resistive 112, 342, 374, 504,
Plastics 309 Pollution severity 205 508, 550
Platinum 595, 599 Polyaddition 310 transformer 515
Plausibility check 40, 113, 124 Polyamide 315, 330 Potential separation 422
Plexiglas 317 Polyamide imide 315 Potential shifting 572
Plug-in cable connector 504 Polychlorinated biphenyls 337 Pour point 338, 341
Pockels effect 408, 409 Polycondensation 310 Powder coating 322, 598
Point 256 Polydimethylsiloxane 338 Power circuit-breaker 540
Point charge 5, 31, 35, 48, 49, Polyester resin 547, 550 Power electronics 236, 286
115 Polyesterimide 333 Power factor 283
Point electrode 189 Polyethersulfone 315 Power former 551
negative 191 Polyethylene 80, 241, 280, 311, Power loss 243, 289, 374
positive 189 330, 553 Power system perturbation 384
Point estimate 143, 144, 148 cross-linked 313, 324, 499 Power transformer 368, 512
Point of no return 231 Polyimide 315, 514, 515 Power-factor correction capacitor
Point-to-plane arrangement 185, Polyisobutylene 339 537
189, 192, 196 Polymer 310, 331 Pre-arc 204
Point-to-point arrangement 196 Polymer matrix 92 Precious stones 595
Poisson’s equation 39 Polymeric film 15, 93, 538, 585 Pre-discharge 188, 192
Poisson’s law 97 Polymerization 310 Preformed coil 549
Poissonian field 114 degree of 461 Press fit 504
Polymethyl methacrylate 317
9 INDEX 645

Pressboard 104, 231, 280, 282, Pumping 597 Receding angle 326
345, 346, 348, 351, 513, 585 Pyrex glass 308 Recombination 172
cap 519 Pyrolysis 456 Re-cooling 603
clamping ring 519 Recovery 205
cylinder 519 Q Recovery voltage 39, 100, 103,
disc 519 108, 210, 475, 540, 561
flange ring 519 Q-switch 597 Recovery voltage analysis 472,
shaped component 519 Qualification test 505 475, 479
spacer 519 Quality assurance 355 Rectangular impulse current 397
Pressure 170 Quality factor 375 Rectangular impulse voltage 398
Pressure chamber 542 Quality switching 597 Rectangular voltage 378
Pressure dependence 234 Quantile 144, 146 Rectifier 380
Pressure-gelation process 321 Quartz 307, 308, 595 Recurrent voltage 398
Primary electron 165, 166 Quartz glass 308 Reference capacitor 429
Primary streamer 220, 223, 227, Quartz porcelain 307 Refining 335
585 Quartz powder 319, 320 Reflection 129
Primer 328 Quasi-integration 439 surface of 49, 52
Probability graph paper 151 Quasi-static conditions 21 Reflection coefficient 130
Probability grid 148 Quasi-static field 13 Reflection diagram 133
Probability paper plot 147 numerical calculation 114 Reflections, multiple 132
Probability, withstand 155 Quasi-stationary conditions 21 Reflectometry 447
Probe Quasi-stationary field 13 Refraction 129
current 424 Quench 344, 601 Refraction coefficient 130
high voltage 415 Refraction index 274
potential free 407 R Refraction law 85, 86
Processing time 318 R.m.s. measurement 405, 422 for DC fields 100
Production quality 257 R.m.s. value 25, 367 Refractive field grading 112, 508
Program system 123 Rabits method 603 Regeneration 337
Proof tracking index 465 Rabus 423 Regression 157
Propagation mode 227 Radial-field cable 497 linear 159
Propagation time 17, 584 Radial-field contact 545 Regression coefficient 159
Propagation time measurements Radiation field 125 Regression curve 157
470 Radiation, ionizing 160 Regression line 159
Propagation velocity 227 Radicals 598 Regulating winding 517
Propagation-time decoupling 401 Radio interference meter 439 Re-ignition 136, 542
Propene 314 Radius of curvature 95, 192 Reinforced concrete 589
Propylene 314 Radius, equivalent 47 Relaxation current 271, 472
Protection angle 588 Raether’s ignition condition 181 Relaxation current analysis 472
Protection level 137, 363 Rail-gap 401 Relaxation time 284, 294
Protection zone 137, 364, 402, Rain 203, 327, 572 Remaining service life 426
588, 591 for HVDC insulators 328 Repeat test 535
Protective air-gaps 187 non-uniform 105, 328 Repetitive pulses 249
Protective diode 591 Random sample 142 Representative voltages 360
Protective gap 404 Random variable 142, 158 Required withstand voltage 360
Protective ratio 363 Random walk 114 Residual voltage 137, 364
Protective spark gap 364 Range 145, 582 Resin and hardener 318
Proton beam 593 Range of a discharge 194 Resin matrix 319, 322
Puffer circuit-breaker 542 Rapeseed oil 240, 340 Resin, phenolic 93
Pulp molding 315 Rare-earth elements 545 Resin-bonded paper 93, 323, 511
Pulp, wood 350 Raschig ring 334 Resin-bonded paper bushings
Pulsating field stress 563 Rate of occurrence 145 491
Pulsating voltage 553 Rate of rise 548 Resin-encapsulated transformer
Pulse forming line 401 Rated insulation level 526 419, 421
Pulse sequence analysis 446 Rated voltage 362 Resinification 335
Pulsed power 21, 26, 28, 140, Rated withstand voltage 361 Resin-impregnated paper 93,
267, 342, 400 Ratio 456 321, 324, 511
Pulsed power technology 592 Reaction shrinkage 319 Resin-impregnated synthetics
Pulses, repetitive 249 Reactive power 367, 374 512
Pulse-width modulation 580 Reactor 374, 514 Resistance line 161
646 9 INDEX

Resistance test to low-voltage, S Service life 584

high-current arc discharges SF6 compressed-gas circuit-
Safety 561
466 breaker 540, 541
Safety distance 590
Resistance to creepage 318 Shadow image 219, 220
Safety factor 360, 523
Resistance to tracking 318 Shadow image photography 226
Safety margin 144, 158
Resistive field grading 112, 508 Shape factor 205
Safety measures 366
Resistive grading 571 Shape memory 317, 324
Sand-blast electrodes 180
Resistive gradinng Shape stability 311
Sandwich winding 516
at DC voltage 580 Sheath 497
Saponification number 336
Resistive paper 75 Shed profile 4, 85, 205
Saturation 531
Resistive voltage distribution 20 Shield 266, 545, 591
with water 232
Resistivity 106 stranded-conductor 497
Saturation current 159, 277
Resistor material 599 Shielding electrode 31, 504
Scalar field 8
Resistor web 391 Shock wave 400, 592, 594
Scalar potential 8, 127
Resitive voltage divider 413 Shock wave therapy 593
Schering bridge 427
Resonace ratio 374 Short circuit 108, 130
Schottky emission 331
Resonance 371, 417 Short glass fibers 320
Schwaiger’s field efficiency
Resonance capacitor transformer Short-circuit current 397
factor 72
420 Short-distance/ low-pressure
Sealant 316
Resonance transformer 581 breakdown 173, 175, 176, 178
Sealing 324
Resonances, self 27 Short-range order 221
Secondary circuit 399
Resonant overvoltage 371 Shrink hole 83, 97
Secondary divider 415, 417
Resonator 596 Shrinkable sleeving 324
Secondary electron emission 266
Response behavior 397 Shrinkage 307, 319, 354
Secondary insulation 511
Response characteristic 412 Shunt 424
Secondary reaction 543
Response time 413 Shunt reactor 514
Secondary streamer 220, 227,
Return stroke 213, 214 Signal cable 128
228, 585
Ricinus oil 240, 323, 340 Signal level 426
Seconds reserve 605
Ring charge 115 Signal transmission 466
Seed oil 341
Ring circuit 590 Silane 325, 331
Selective fragmentation 594
Ring earth electrode 590 Silane glass primer 92
Selective measurement 474
RIP bushing 511 Silanization 308, 319, 322
Selectivity 377
Ripple 23, 380, 384 Silicic acid 338
Selector switch 517
Ripple factor 380 Silico-ketone 325
Self-blast circuit-breaker 542
Rise time 399, 413, 424 Silicon carbide 112, 365, 550
Self-discharging 20
Risk analysis 587 Silicon dioxide 308, 330
Self-discharging constant 76
Rod-to-plane arrangement 195 Silicone 325
Self-organization 331
Rod-to-rod spark gap 404 Silicone coating 573
Self-restoring insulation 362
Roebel bar 549 Silicone elastomer 85, 325, 330,
Self-sustaining discharge 160
Rogowski coil 420, 424 465, 501, 502, 511
Semi-conductive layer 497, 549
optical 425 Silicone elastomer sheds 206
Semi-uniform field 194
Rogowski electrode 47 Silicone gel 326, 330
Sensitivity 437
Rogowski profile 47, 112 Silicone grease 326, 327
Sensitivity check 453
Rolled laminated tube 324 Silicone liquid 240, 326, 327,
Sensor 452, 466, 469
Rolling sphere 588 337
electrically long 407
Roll-type capacitor 95 Silicone oil 326, 327, 337
electrically short 406
Rompe-Weizel spark resistance Silicone paste 105, 206, 326,
electro-optical 408
law 207 327, 338, 573
field 406
Room air 598 Silicone resin 325
magneto-optical 408
Root-mean-square deviation 145 Silicone rubber 105
potential-free 425
Rotating wheel dip test 465 Silicone rubber sheds 206
Separation 594
Rotationally symmetric field 43 Silicone shed insulator 511, 573
Separation distance 590
Rotor 546 Silver 602
Series equivalent circuit 288
Roughness 85 Similarity law 174
Series impedance 422
Routine test 362, 506 Single earth electrode 590
Series resistance 162
RTV coating 573 Single-component adhesive 322
Series resistor 402, 599
RTV silicone 326 Sinter material 545
Series resonance test system 367,
Ruby 596 Size 322
373, 506
RVM 475 Size effect 153, 224, 235, 242
Series, geometric 167
9 INDEX 647

Skin effect 14, 16, 129 Spherical surface 56 positive 193, 226
Slag 595 Spherically symmetric field 31 Streamer discharge 164, 175,
Slip-on cable joint 504 Spraying 598 180, 188, 193, 202
Slip-on cable termination 503 Spring energy store 542 Streamer formation time 184
Slot liner 547 Sprite 212 Streamer inception field strength
Slot wedge 549 Square algorithm 117 225
Slot-cell insulation 549 Square-wave pulse 138 Streamer propagation velocity
Sludge 335, 536 Square-wave test generator 581 194
Small-oil-volume circuit-breaker Square-wave voltage Streamer velocity 181
540 power loss 287, 581 Strength
Smoothing capacitor 381 Stability dielectric 4
Smoothing reactor 110, 514 thermal 284, 286 mechanical 315
Sodium sulphide 350 Stability limit of interstices 462
Soft paper 511 thermal 249 Strength recovery 542
Solar energy 2 Stabilization 189 Strength reduction 156
Solid dielectric 554 Stages of oil breakdown 219 Stress
Solid resin 318 Standard atmospheric conditions creepage 235
Solvent 455 404 cumulative 235
Solver 124 Standard capacitor 428, 539 electric 4
Soot deposit 600 Standard deviation 145, 148, 358 tangential 92
Soot particle 232 empirical 145 transient 583
Source region 223 Standardized test voltage 361 Stress cone 502
Sources of partial discharge 256 Standards 355, 357 Stress crack 319, 320
Soya 341 Star diagram 449 Stress inversion 575
Space 267 Static field 13 Stress, electrical 22
Space charge 5, 12, 38, 103, 180, numerical calculation 114 Strip contact 583
188, 189, 218, 220, 222, 294, Static fields 14 Strip line 129, 584
296, 552, 553, 557, 571, 575, Stationary condition 99 Strip winding 515
576, 585 Stationary conduction field 13, Structure-borne noise 454
Space factor 314, 339, 539 99 Structure-borne sound detector
Space-charge-dominated Stationary field 13, 14 467
discharge 160, 181 Statistical estimation techniques Student distribution 153
Spark conditioning 265 153 Sub-conductor 47
Spark discharge 206 Statistical methods 141 Submarine cable 575
Spark formation time 185, 207, Statistical size effect 184, 500 Subsequent strike 214
208, 364 Statistical time lag 183, 184 Suffocation hazard 303
Spark gap 342, 591 Stator 546 Sugar beet 595
Spark plug 277, 598 Stator impregnation 550 Sulphate pulping 350
Spark position 599 Stator winding insulation 111, Sulphur 174
Spark resistance 185, 207 113 Sulphur hexafluoride 166, 171,
Spark resistance law 207 Steady state 571 178, 182, 211, 302, 342, 512,
Spark-gap arrester 177, 187, 365 Steady-state conduction field 13, 539, 541
Sparking voltage 174 553 Sulphur, corrosive 335
Sparkover voltage 364 Steady-state field Summated charging voltage 392
Special test 362 numerical calculation 114 Sunflower 341
Specific voltage drop per unit- Steatite 308 Super insulation 604, 606
length 195 Step function generator 413 Superconducting cable 578
Speed of light 21, 128 Step response 269, 298 Superconductivity 342, 600
Sphere Step response measurement 398, application 604
coated 89, 91 412, 472, 477 cable 606
field stress enhancement 53 Stepped leader 213 energy storage 605
Sphere gap 54, 58, 74, 402 Stochastical independence 142 generator 607
capacitance 57 Stranding 501 high-temperature 601
Sphere in free space 31 Stray capacitance 8, 365, 380, losses 602
Sphere-to-plane 54, 57 393, 412, 416, 417, 428 low-temperature 600
Sphere-to-sphere 54 Stray inductance 371 motor 607
Spherical capacitor 32 Streamer 404, 582, 585 switch 606
Spherical coordinates 8, 39 in oil 218, 220, 226, 227, 228 transformer 607
Spherical electrode 30 negative 193, 226, 231 Superconductor
648 9 INDEX

type I and II 602 Synthetic resin 519 Thermal agitation 81, 275
Support insulator 420 Synthetic test circuit 398 Thermal balance 243
Support-type arrangement 93 Synthetics Thermal breakdown 188, 224,
Surface 110 resin-impregnated 512 242, 244, 245, 249, 282, 284,
bedewed 206 System of equations 121 287, 581
uneven 54 System response Thermal breakover voltage 244,
Surface charge 5, 101, 110, 296, dielectric 269, 272, 431, 471 245
552, 553 Thermal expansion 333
Surface charge density 6, 100 T Thermal field 119
Surface Charge Simulation Thermal field calculation 246
Method 114, 116 Tail time 25, 386, 388, 396 Thermal gas bubble 603
Surface discharge 94, 95, 164, Tanaka model 331 Thermal instability 242
194, 199, 200, 585, 586 Tangential field 84 Thermal ionization 159, 189,
Surface field strength DC field 100 194, 208
minimum 33, 35 Tangential field stress 522 Thermal stability 282
Surface ionization coefficient Tangential stress 82, 95, 523 Thermal stability limit 249
166, 172 Tank construction 369, 375 Thermal stability test 243
Surface leader discharge 202 Tap changer 512 Thermal stressing 533
Surface modification 593 Tap selector 517 Thermal time constant 489
Surface of reflection 49, 52 Tape conductor 603 Thermal transformer model 488,
Surface pressure 324 Tape-type resistor web 391 533, 534
Surface resistance 205, 430, 432, Tapping position 468 Thermal-conductivity detector
461 Target 140 460
Surface roughness 85, 180, 181, Taylor’s series 116 Thermionic emission 165, 208,
183, 221 Teflon® 316 599
Surface streamer 202 TEM wave 20 Thermoforming 351
Surface tension 220, 223 guided 125 Thermographic imaging 467,
Surge arrester 360, 363, 528, 591 Temperature 197 495
Surge capacitor 583 critical 600 Thermography 467, 495
Suspended matter 401 transformation 80 Thermoplastic 311
Suspended solid particle Temperature compensation 412 Thermoplastic elastomer 578
mechanism 98 Temperature dependence 233, Thermosetting material 317
Swelling 314, 315 275, 285, 291, 298, 348 Thermosetting polymer 311
Swelling powder 501 Temperature gradient 571, 575 Thickness effect 242
Swelling tape 501 Temperature limit 489 Thin wire 36
Switch disconnector 540 Temperature monitoring 488, Thin-film degassing 320, 334
Switch, superconducting 605 492 Thread measure 205
Switched-mode power supply Temperature profile 493, 495 Three-phase AC system 362
383, 580 Temperature resistance 306, 315 Thunder 214
Switching device 398 Tempering 319 Thundercloud 211, 386
Switching edge 581 TEM-wave 28 Thyratron 592
Switching frequency 287 Tensile stress 98 Thyristor 553, 564
Switching impulse 17 Tertiary streamer 220, 227, 228, Tight push fit 503
Switching impulse voltage 25, 586 Time constant 567
210, 362, 388, 391 Tesla transformer 373, 581 Time dependence 236
Switching impulse voltage test Test charge 6 Time domain 13, 269, 472, 483
530 Test circuit Time effect 154
Switching medium 342 combined 397 Time factors 236
Switching overvoltage 210 synthetic 398 Time lag
Switching rate 581 Test object capacitance 374 statistical 236
Switching spark gap 138, 592 Test point 116 Time of flight 294
Switch-on safety 542 Test reactor 514 Time of voltage collapse 183
Symmetrical components, Test termination 506 Time parameter 389
method of 68 Test transformer 367, 368, 419, Time to crest 25, 388
Synchronous multi-channel PD 512, 514 Time to half-value 25, 386, 388,
measurement 260, 263, 446, Test voltage 238, 361, 376 396, 529
447 Test voltage curve 396 Time-constant 20
Synthetic air 302, 304 Test voltage level 363, 527 Time-harmonic field 119
Synthetic insulating liquid 337 Testing power 375 Time-resolved analysis 447
Texturing 602
9 INDEX 649

Tip electrode Transient field stress U

sharp-edged 31, 36 enhancement 108
UHF diagnosis 452
Titanium dioxide 330 Transient oil pressure
calibration 453
Titration 336 measurement 468
Ultra High Voltage AC 365
Toepler pump 458 Transient process 99, 567
Ultra High Voltage DC 365
Toepler’s spark resistance law Transient stress 108
Ultrasound 454
207 Transients 27, 106, 568
Ultraviolet light 184
Tonalite 595 thermal-electrical 572
Under-compensation 414
Top-assembly current transformer Transistor 553, 564
Undulating field stress 563
421 Transit time 221, 278, 294, 559
Unevenness 54
Toroid 417 Transition process 19, 20, 568,
Uniform electric field 39
Toroidal line charge 115 571
Uniform field 37, 83
Townsend discharge 160, 165 Transition temperature 600
Uniformity, degree of 72
Townsend mechanism 165, 168, Transmission coefficient 130
175 Transmission line wave equations Universal-C-tan G-Measuring
Townsend’s second ionization 126 bridge 429
coefficient 166, 172 Transmission of el. energy 1 Up-and-down method 142
Toxic substances 303 Transmission of signals 466 Upper-atmospheric lightning 212
Toxicity 306 Transmission-line circuit 131 Upward discharge 66
Tracking 465 Transportation 333 Upward leader 213
Tracking flashover 205 Transposed conductor 549 User interface 123
Tracking resistance 318, 320, Transposing 603 Utilization factor 72
323, 332, 464 Transverse electromagnetic wave
Traction transformer 607 20 V
Transfer function 468, 529 Transverse field 125 Vacuum 334
online 470 Transverse stray capacitance 417 Vacuum breakdown 163, 176,
Transfer operation 399 Trap 221, 241, 281, 578 263, 597
Transformer 25, 512 Traveling wave 20, 27, 124, 126, Vacuum capacitance 269
ageing 489 401, 548 Vacuum casting 320
converter 563 Traveling wave line 127 Vacuum circuit-breaker 211,
current 420 distortion-free 129 540, 544
diagnosis 534 lossless 129 Vacuum field 78
drying 536 lossy 129 Vacuum impregnation 322
encapsulated-winding dry-type Traveling-wave generator 138, cast resin 321
369 592 Vacuum insulation 163, 604
gas-insulated 369, 514 Tree 313 Vacuum interrupter 305
hermetically sealed 337 Treeing 330 Vacuum metallization 598
high frequency 383 Trend analysis 426, 457 Vacuum pressure impregnation
impulse voltage test 396 Triangulation 454, 467 550
maintenance of value 535 Trichel impulse 191, 221, 250 Vacuum tube 544
manufacture 524 Tri-ester 341 Valence band 221, 241
overload duration 489 Triggering 390, 393, 401, 592 Valve tower 561
superconducting 607 Triple extrusion 313 Valve-type arrester 187, 365
temperature limit 489 Triple point 93, 266, 545 Van de Graaff generator 385
Tesla 373 Tubular conductor 36, 46 Van der Waals forces 311
test 367 eccentric 66 Vapor-phase 353, 536
voltage 419 Tungsten-copper 542 Vapor-phase method 525
Transformer bushing 566 Tunnel effect 221, 241, 264 Variance 145
Transformer insulation Turned-over winding 516 empirical 145
re-conditioning 481 Turn-to-turn fault 469, 529 Variation coefficient 145
Transformer model, thermal 488, Two-branch circuit 423 empirical 145
533 Two-component adhesive 322 Varnish 323, 547
Transformer oil 335 Two-conductor line 60 Vector potential 8, 114
Transformer testing 525 Two-layer arrangement Vegetable oil 340
Transformer winding 17, 128, at DC voltage 568 Velocity, streamer 181
136, 514 Two-layer model 296 Veneer 519
Transformerboard 231, 291, 513, Type test 362 Ventilation 598
585 Verdet constant 410
Transient field 119 Very low frequency 368, 378
650 9 INDEX

Vibration 548 in oil 224, 231 Window sensor 452, 495

Vinyl chloride 313 Water content 454, 474 Wire explosion 594
Virtual origin 387 in paper 280, 348, 476, 478, Wire, enamelled 333
Viscosity 318, 339, 341, 585 482 Wire, thin 36
Visual diagnostics 467 relative 534 Withstand probability 155
Visual evidence 158 Water drop corona 206 Withstand time 187
Visualization 445, 449 Water film 327 Withstand voltage 141, 150, 360
VLF test 377 Water insulation 401 conventional 362
Void 83 Water of crystallization 320 statistical 362
Voltage 5, 7 Water polluting category 338 Withstand voltage test 24, 362
Voltage controller 428 Water resistor 342 Wohlmuth’s two-limits
Voltage converter 514 Water sensor 494 distribution 153
Voltage divider 358, 412 Water tree 246, 313, 377, 500 Wollastonite 320
Voltage doubling circuit 381 Water vapor partial pressure 481 Wood 519
Voltage drop 209 Wave Wood pulp 350
Voltage efficiency 390 electromagnetic 20 Work function 177, 220, 264
Voltage overshoot traveling 124 Working capacitance 67
transient 569 Wave character 21 per unit length 70
Voltage reflection diagram 133 Wave impedance 21, 129 Working point
Voltage rise 463 Wave train 133 instable 161, 244
capacitive 371 Wavefront 21 stable 161, 244
Voltage source converter 553, Wavelength 18, 274 Worst case 567
564, 576, 578, 580 Weak-link breakdown 222, 224 Worst-case bandage 484
Voltage transformer 419, 514 electrode-area-related 225 Wrapped conductor 87
Voltage, definition of a 127 Weathering resistance 306
Voltage-time area 185 Weibull distribution 148, 150 X
Voltage-time characteristic 186 three-parameter 151
Voltage-time law 185 two-parameter 151 Xenon 596
Volume density of energy 9 Weibull parameters 151 XLPE cable 553, 576, 578
Volume effect 154, 224, 231, Wet fibers 224 X-ray bremsstrahlung 264
242 Wetting 203 X-ray technology 597
Volume resistance 430, 461 Wick for impregnation 15 X-wax 324, 336, 585
Volume, critically stressed 236 Wind energy 2
Volume-time characteristic 184 Winding 351 Y
Volumetric method 455 clamping 519 YAG laser 596
Vulcanization 325 disc 516 Yttrium 602
foils / tapes 515
W lightning impulse voltage 517 Z
multi-layer 515
Waiting time 334 resonances 517 Zaengl divider 415
Wall bushing 3, 563, 574 transformer 514 Zeolite 323, 536
HVDC 104 turned-over 516 Zero-sequence network 68
Waste water 595, 598 voltage distribution 517 Zinc oxide 112, 365
Water 80, 140, 275, 335, 341, Winding clamping force 468 Zircon 595
535, 594 Winding overhang 546, 551 Zone, interactive 331
de-ionized 240, 401 Winding technique 503