Eng 3 UST
Eng 3 UST
Eng 3 UST
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to express gratitude to the following for their roles in the completion of
this undertaking:
Firstly, to the Almighty God who is the source of all wisdom and knowledge and enabled
the putting together of ideas into this book;
Secondly, to the Dean of the Faculty of Pharmacy, Prof. Priscilla C. Torres, Ph. D., for
the encouragement to publish teaching materials;
Thirdly, to the professors and students of Academic Writing whose inspiration led to the
writing of this book;
And to all, who in one way or the other, helped in the success of the writing of this book.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
PREFACE
Nature
Characteristics
Principles
Qualities of an Effective Academic and Technical Paper
Genres in Academic and Technical Writing
Types of Technical Papers
Class Activities
Knowledge Check-up
Nature
Types of Research
Qualities of an Effective Research
Purposes of Research
Methods of Research
Literature Reviews
Evaluating and Critiquing Sources
Preparing a Preliminary Bibliography
Criteria for Thesis Output
REFERENCES
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PREFACE
This book is intended and designed to enable the higher education students in the
Pharmacy and Medical Technology programs to build effective academic and technical writing
skills. While there are many other materials and books on academic and technical writing, this
book has been developed in a manner that will appeal to the state of readiness of the target users
who are non-language experts and who are in the hard sciences like those stated above, who,
oftentimes are overwhelmed by the demands and expectations of the English and Research
professors.
It is hoped that this book will come in handy use in the undertaking and completion of the
students’ academic/ technical paper as well as research requirement.
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UNIT 1: UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF ACADEMIC AND
TECHNICAL WRITING
Academic and technical writing may be considered formal and scientific forms of
writing, which are characterized by its simple, formal language devoid of superfluous use of
words and lengthy sentence structures. Moreover, the choice of subject matter for academic and
technical writing is within the confines of the sciences such as the health and medical sciences
and their subsystems. The tone of the language in academic and technical is serious and clear to
the end that little or no difficulty in understanding the message is assured. Academic and
technical writing are the vehicles through which new developments in the sciences’ researches
are initiated, accomplished, validated as well as disseminated. Students’ exposure and
experiences in academic and technical writing provide them wide opportunities to develop
critical and analytic minds and the scientific art of presenting the results of their investigations.
Furthermore, their writing activities will lead them to explore the world of ideas in the libraries,
the web, and the environment.
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audience. Writing is instructional if it gives directions or procedures to be followed by his
audience. It is proposal if there is a suggested solution or possible solutions for a particular
problem. The text becomes persuasive if it convinces the audience to take an action, to change
the attitude, belief or opinion of the audience. If it requires formal suggestions and action to be
done for the benefit of humanity, recommendatory and action are required.
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Using Clear, Concise, and Concrete Words
According to William Strunk in Elements of Style, vigorous writing is concise. A
sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the
same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary
parts. This requires not that the writer makes all his sentences short, or that he avoids all details
and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tells something meaningful.
Using Strunk’s principles in writing, economy must prevail in academic and technical
writing. Technical papers should use clear, concise, and concrete words and phrases.
Consider the following examples:
Verbiage Efficient
12 midnight midnight
4 am in the morning 4 am
biography of his life biography
consensus of opinion consensus
each and every each
end result result
final completion completion
in spite of the fact that although
in the event that if
repeat again repeat
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aids and other specifications have to be considered as well. For citing references, the American
Psychological Association (APA) style is widely recommended.
The conceptual framework consists of concepts, constructs, or ideas which illustrate the
directions of the research with the use of schematic diagram, while the theoretical framework
includes the theory bases of the investigation.
The following are some examples of academic and technical writing papers:
1. Feasibility reports deal with the details of a study that show the potentials of understanding
a certain project.
2. Process discussion / process documentation, policies and procedures, user guides, system
documentation pertain to the description of a technical or scientific process with guidelines to be
followed in arriving at a system.
3. Progress reports refer to a concise presentation of the progress of a certain program or
project.
4. Letters, memos, and e-mails are formal communications outside and within office confines
that may be routinely disseminated on paper or through electronic mail.
5. Instructions are formal messages that provide directions to a target reader.
6. Research proposals and journal articles are formal and technical in form, tone, and
language that follow prescribed institutional formats.
7. Thesis paper treats of a specific topic that addresses problems of significance.
8. Definitions include expanded explanations of ideas using illustrations, comparison and
contrast, description, classification, analyses, and the like.
9. Description is a technical discussion on the aspects, particularities, and uses and functions
of a scientific object, equipment, process or system.
10. Bio-note is a capsule form of information on the highlights of the life of the researcher/s.
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Principles of Academic and Technical Writing
Audience
It must be remembered that the audience or reader of an academic and technical paper is
intelligent but he needs to be more informed about the topic of discussion. A writer must always
bear in mind the following questions:
. Who will read this manuscript/ masterpiece? Who will be the audience?
. What are the arguments presented in this paper?
. What responsibilities do I have to contribute a lot for the success of this paper?
Purpose
Any academic and technical paper has a reason for being written. Gerson and Gerson
(2006) emphasized “examining your purpose” in all your writing activities. Most of the time, it
answers three questions namely: Why is there a need for this paper? What does this paper offer
to its intended audience or reader? How is it going to be delivered? Thus, whatever objectives
you have as writer, you have to be guided by an outline. This serves as a guidepost for a focused
direction on what you are going to accomplish in your paper. It is good to consider the three
most important parts of your paper; namely, the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. Each main
topic has minor topics for its supporting details.
Using good grammar and proper mechanics of writing refer to the basics of subject-verb
agreement. The use of graphics, typography and layout of the technical paper is also taken into
consideration.
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Physical Appearance
The paper’s appearance must be neat and clean to be presentable. It must be devoid of
erasures or corrections and superimpositions. The writer must remember that the paper is not
only a manuscript but a masterpiece to be proud of after exhausting time and talent in writing.
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UNIT 2: DOING RESEARCH THE RIGHT WAY
Nature of Research
Doing research is like breaking through the frontiers of knowledge. It is exhausting all
possible sources of information in order to arrive at a thorough output in answering identified
problems. As the saying goes, when doing research you must not leave any stone unturned.
Research etymologically means “looking or finding again.” This implies that doing research is
not like working from a vacuum; the subject matter has its roots, that is, it has been inquired into
at some point in time which needs looking into again to which the undertaking proceeds. Such is
the nature of research that shows its character of depth and breadth. It is not merely surface work
but a comprehensive, detailed one. When students ask the number of references that they are
required, the answer given them is as many as possible.
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virtues of scholarliness and intellectual integrity. In descriptive research, ethical issues must be
met with equanimity.
Several ways are used to approach a research problem. In this chapter, the following
types of research are discussed: pure, applied, descriptive, correlation, explanatory, exploratory,
qualitative, and quantitative.
Applied research, on the contrary, attempts to influence the real world. It is conducted to
solve practical problems of the world or to improve human condition. Studies of this kind are not
done merely to acquire information or additional knowledge. A few examples of applied research
are:
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Correlation study is conducted to measure how associated or related two variables are.
The researcher investigates phenomena that already exist and determines if and in what way
those things are related to each other. This study aims to allow researchers to make a prediction
about one variable based on existing facts about another variable. One example of such is a study
of the relationship between the socio-economic status of families in one community and the
incidence of helminth infection. Another is a study on the different aspects of personality and life
events.
Explanatory research aims to answer the question “why.” This includes explaining things
in detail and not just mere reporting. In addition, explanatory research attempts to go above and
beyond descriptive research and identifies the definite reasons why a phenomenon occurs. For
instance, a researcher may want to find out what leads to the increase in number of HIV positive
among call center agents. Exploratory research is often conducted because a problem has not
been clearly defined as yet or its real scope is still unclear. It is considered an initial research and
would need more follow-up studies to establish veracity of data and to have more conclusive
results of the study. Exploratory research can draw on interviews and/or observations. This is
most employed by those in laboratories and those manufacturing medicines and equipment in
discovering which can guide them in creating more useful and therefore more marketable
products.
Other types of research include qualitative and quantitative studies. These two are
entirely different from one another. Qualitative research gathers information that is not in
numerical form; that is, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews, and observations. It
is deemed that qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative research simply
because some information from respondents can include personal opinions. In addition, analysis
of qualitative data might be challenging and thus require accurate description of participant
responses. Quantitative research, on the other hand, gathers data in numeric form. This type of
data can be used to create graphs and tables that will be much utilized in the discussion of the
results of the study. Moreover, quantitative research options are predetermined and a large
number of respondents are usually and most of the time involved. The sample size for a survey
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is calculated by statisticians to establish how large a sample size will be required from a given
population in order to achieve an acceptable degree of accuracy.
It has lately been noted, however, that qualitative and quantitative researches may be
jointly employed where both values render a significantly desired results.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
1. Choose a partner. Discuss what you understand about the nature of research. Ask how
you feel about doing research. Are you anxious to undertake a research? Ask what
researches you and your partner have read before.
2. Assignment: Divide the class into groups of five (5). Let them go to the library to find out
the researches available in their field of interest. Classify the researches availed of. On a
sheet of paper, write the title, author, year, and type of research.
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QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
To come up with a good research, there are a number of qualities that must be taken into
consideration. Initially, a good research must be systematic. This means that the study is
structured with precise and specific steps with a distinct set of rules. There must be order and
organization in the procedures to be undertaken in conducting the scientific investigation.
Next, a good research must be empirical. It implies that the study is related basically to
one or more aspects of a real situation; it must likewise deal with tangible and existing data that
provide a foundation to external validity of research results. Moreover, a good research is
analytical and critical which means going deeper into the details of the facts presented in the
study. The data collected in the process must be carefully evaluated to avoid inaccuracy. Another
quality of a good research is that it must be verifiable and replicable. This allows the study to be
confirmed by duplicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for conclusions.
Additionally, the use of tables, graphs, and illustrations must be done judiciously and
must not result in a clutter of data.
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
There are specific purposes why a research is conducted. One is to explore or gain some
familiarity with a particular topic. This enables the researcher to investigate an area or issue on
which little previous work has been done. In a community setting or in any scientific endeavor, a
study is carried out to determine whether or not a problem exists. Some researches, however,
have the purpose of description. This aims to gather information that elucidates relationships,
patterns, and links between and among variables. Likewise, this enables the researcher to gather
pertinent information, summarize, and map all data. Another purpose of research is speculative.
Sometimes a study is implemented strategically, where researchers take account of current
conditions and speculate as to their future implications to the community or to the entire
scientific process. For instance, the introduction of a specific method of bone marrow transplant
might raise implications for practitioners involved in its implementation. Research often has the
aim to explain. Explanatory research shows why certain relationships, patterns, and/or links
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occur. It enables the researcher to test and understand causal relations between and among
variables.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Comprehension Check:
A. Identify the following:
_________ 1. That quality of research which shows its organized character and
orderliness
_________ 2. That quality of research which is based on actual experiential observation
_________ 3. That quality of research which delves into the depth of a phenomenon
_________ 4. That quality of research that looks at things in all its perspectives
_________ 5. That quality of research that allows its questioning and duplication
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METHODS OF RESEARCH
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Give three topics that may be done using:
a. Descriptive method
b. Historical method
c. Experimental method
Descriptive Historical Experimental
1.
2.
3.
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STATISTICAL TOOLS
A variety of statistical tools is available for use in research. For the medical and allied
sciences, biostatistics is expected. Some of these software applications are simple and easy to
use, while others are complicated and frequently very specific for certain purposes. These
include SAS, SPSS, and Stata. However, various forms of survey data analysis can be done with
a spreadsheet program such as Excel, which is part of Microsoft Office. In a research that
involves analytical work, the most common operation is the comparison of data to quantify
accuracy and precision. There are a few simple convenient statistical tools such as t-test, F-test,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis. The importance of statistics is based on
arranging and simplifying data to allow some unbiased estimate as well as valid results, and to
show proof that an investigation is under control or that a change has occurred. It is likewise
important that the results of these statistical procedures are documented and can be recovered. As
with any kind of research, the nature of the study and of the data themselves will determine the
best statistical tool to use.
It is to be remembered, however, that mere statistical results presentation is not sufficient;
that the statistical data need to be discussed and analyzed and elucidated on their practical
meanings and implications.
Doing research work most often requires sound judgment about the implications of other
researchers’ evidence for one’s own working context. Whatever may be the nature of the study,
one essential thing to consider is that it must meet the common criteria of scientific method being
employed. It is worthwhile to consider some of the criteria for a successful research or thesis
output.
First, the purpose of the research must be precisely defined. It is important that common
terms which are used in a different context in the study or concepts that are not familiar to the
target readers are defined as well. Also, there must be a sharp focus that is supported by distinct
research questions.
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Second, the research method to be used should be explained step-by-step and in adequate
detail to allow another researcher to replicate the study for further development or improvement.
This is necessary so that there is continuity of what has already been accomplished. Practical and
organized arrangement for gathering evidence pertinent to the research question must be done.
Moreover, these methods must show that the study will take place in relevant field of
investigation.
Third, the research design should be thoroughly mapped to produce results that are
unbiased as much as possible.
Fourth, the researcher must give details with absolute honesty and accuracy.
Fifth, the analysis of data must be comprehensive to show their importance, implications,
and significance to the entire study.
Last, the conclusions of the study must be restricted to those validated by the research
data; that is, only those data generated from the investigation should be the bases for making any
conclusion. An effective concluding paragraph should provide closure for a research leaving the
reader/s feeling satisfied that a thesis has been fully explained and that the research questions
have been appropriately answered. Conclusions must be brief and straight to the point. They
should provide a restatement of the thesis, a summary of the researchers’ findings, and perhaps a
solution to the problem, if that is at all applicable.
A presentation of recommendations based on the conclusions arrived at should include
relevant areas for further investigation by researchers in the same field of interest.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Divide the class into groups of five (5). Each group chooses a leader. They are directed to go to
the library and browse through the theses and apply the criteria discussed. On the sheet below,
each member accomplishes the analysis of the theses he/she has read.
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COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Since research is an integral part of university coursework, students are provided the
opportunity to go through the research process in order to prepare them for more demands on this
undertaking in their professional life. It is now a regular policy in the universities and higher
education schools to require a research proposal and even a completed research paper as a partial
requirement for graduation. This is based on the consideration that a student’s language, library
and organizational skills that have been honed in the span of one’s course may be ably evaluated
in the presentation of the research paper.
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1.3. Objectives of the Study. This part presents the aims of the research and
provides the direction to which the research takes.
1.4. Scope and Limitations of the Study. This part of the research proposal
delineates what would be covered and how this would be covered in the study;
while the limitations treat of what would not be covered and why, such as
financial constraints, time constraints, etc.
1.5. Significance of the Study. This part is a clear discussion of the benefits of
undertaking the research, who will benefit, and how they will be benefitted.
1.6. Definition of Terms. This consists of an enumeration of terms which are
technical and even words that are common but assume an entirely different
meaning in their use in the research.
2. Review of Related Literature: This is the part of the research proposal which consists of
the discussion of relevant literature and studies that the researcher has read, analyzed, or
summarized and noted down in note-cards or index cards. It must be remembered to
always properly and completely write down the author, title of the material, publication
data that include place of publication, name of publisher and date of publication.
It is best to make notes either by summarizing what was read sometimes termed
Precis; or by paraphrasing, that is, saying the content of what was read in the writer’s
own words and sentence structure. If the ideas of the author that was read cannot be
better presented in the researcher’s words, then these ideas must be exactly quoted using
quotation marks and citing the pages where these are mentioned.
The presentation of the related literature may be done in thematic or topical
approach following the stated problems.
The review of related literature must not only be collected, collated, copied or
pasted, but should be an analysis, a critique, and a logical accounting of the studies
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previously done. It may also show the similarities and differences of what had been done
before to that which is being proposed to undertake in terms of coverage, research design,
treatment of data, etc.
The review must be well-documented; that is, sources of data must be
acknowledged.
3. Research Method. This part discusses the research design, the subjects of the research,
the procedures, the materials needed, the step-by-step process as well as the instrument(s)
used, the validation of the instrument(s), the try-outs of the instruments. If statistics are
needed, statistical tools must be discussed.
4. Front pages. A research proposal requires also the front pages such as Title page,
Abstract, and Table of Contents. The back pages include the References, Timetable of the
Research, Budgetary Requirements, and a write-up of the Author’s Profile, sometimes
referred to as Bionotes.
The title page follows the format required by the institution. Following is an example of the title
page.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Objective: To make a brief write-up of each of the reviewed related literature (no less than 10
materials of which at least seven are journals). Give an outline of Chapter 2 as guided by the
literature gathered.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Objectives:
1. To make a rough draft or outline on the proposed procedure for the research using an
illustration or schematic diagram.
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Abstract
This is a condensed form of the research proposal which should be about 70 to 80 words
that include the brief background of the study, the problem(s) intended to be addressed and
the research method to be used. At the bottom are the key words of not more than five words
which signal the coverage of the study. A sample abstract is found below:
ABSTRACT
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Abstract
Objective: To formulate an abstract based on the Introduction Chapter and Research Method. It
should contain keywords.
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Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Objective: To proposed plan of action for research showing the proposed budget and timeline.
Complete the tables.
A. Budget
PROPOSED BUDGET
Equipment/Supplies Local Travels (if any) Others Total Cost
Needed
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B. Timeline
Activity Proposal Gantt Chart
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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communities, diagnosed with crusted scabies can carry hundreds of mites (Heukelbach &
Feldmeier, 2006).
The clinical symptoms of scabies like vesiculopapular lesions with pruritus and
extensive scaling or crusting are the result of an adaptive immune response and usually
occur after sensitization (du Vivier, 2002). This explains the delayed onset of symptoms
in primary infestations. The immune response in scabies-infected patients is characterized
by mixed cellular infiltrates in the skin lesions and production of circulating antibodies
like IgG, IgA, and IgE (Roberts et al., 2005). An increased synthesis of various
inflammatory mediators like Interleukins 4,6,8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein
(MCP) are observed in both human and animal dermal cellular infiltrates (Roberts et al.,
2005; Arlian et al., 2003; Morgan & Arlian, 2010). Scabies mite as an allergen can
stimulate the migration of eosinophils, lymphocytes, and histiocytes into the infected area
as shown in skin biopsies (Heukelbach & Feldmeier, 2006). An increase in neutrophil
and macrophage levels in the cellular infiltrates of scabies-infected rabbits has been
reported (Arlian, 1994).
Scabies can be treated with oral or local agents. The commercially available
synthetic medicines like Crotamiton (Eurax ) and Permethrin (Kwell ) are expensive and
can impart various side effects like seizures, itching, and irritation (Vorou et al., 2007; du
Vivier, 2002). A natural alternative resource of medication for patients suffering from
scabies is Tinospora rumphii Boeri, also known as makabuhay vine. The lotion prepared
from the crude ethanolic extract of Tinospora rumphii Boeri exhibited excellent response
in 10 (33%) of patients, good response in 18 (60%), and fair treatment response in 2 (7%)
of the total patients (Llamasares, 2006). The efficacy of Tinospora lotion as an anti-
scabies therapy is comparable with Crotamiton Lotion as reported in parallel, double
blind clinical study (Llamasares, 2006). Moreover, in a clinical study performed by
Reyes-Marquez et al. (2008), the Tinospora lotion exhibits equal safety and efficacy as
the standard, 5 percent Permethrin lotion for the treatment of mild to moderate infestation
of scabies.
In spite of the clinical studies done on the Tinospora lotion proving its scabicidal
effect, its use is still limited due to lack of relevant studies regarding its
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immunomodulatory effect on the inflammatory mediators present during scabies
infection and study on the prediction of its shelf-life.
This research will deal with the determination of the immune cell types like
Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6, Interleukin-8 and monocyte chemottractant protein-1 in the
blood serum samples isolated from Sarcoptes scabiei-infected patients. This study
proposes to assess the clinical efficacy of 50 percent Tinospora lotion based on the
appearance of signs and symptoms like pruritus, erythema, papules and vesicles, pustules,
excoriations, erosions and ulceration in comparison with a positive control, 5%
permethrin lotion. It also aims to determine the clearance time, which is the number of
days from initial application of the treatment to the disappearance of the lesion of scabies
applied with 50 percent Tinospora lotion.
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specific inflammatory mediators normally expressed during scabies infection, as this will
affect the entire course of the infestation. The immunoregulatory activity will be
substantial evidence of the anti-scabies effect imparted by the Tinospora lotion.
This study intends to determine the immunomodulatory effect of the formulated
Tinospora lotion on scabies-infected patients and to predict its shelf-life.
This research seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the levels of the different cytokine expressed during the
treatment with Tinospora lotion in scabies-infected patients?
2. Will the Tinospora rumphii lotion up-regulate or down-regulate the
levels of the different inflammatory modulators like Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6,
Interleukin-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein in the blood serum samples
derived from patients?
3. What are the local side effects of the Tinospora lotion?
4. What are the clinical effects of the Tinospora lotion in scabies-
infected patients in terms of:
a. Clinical diagnosis
i. Pruritus
ii. Erythema
iii. Excoriations
iv. Papules, vesicles, pustules
5. How stable is the formulated Tinospora lotion in terms of:
a. Physical characteristics
i. Organoleptic – color, odor, texture
ii. Viscosity
iii. pH
iv. Density
b. Chemical, and
c. Microbial limit test
6. What is the shelf-life of the formulated Tinospora lotion?
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1.3. Objectives of the Study
The study aims to determine the immunomodulatory effect of the formulated 50
percent Tinospora lotion on scabies-infected patients. The following objectives are
pursued in order to obtain answers to the specific questions of the research study:
1. Determine the levels of inflammatory mediators like Interleukin-1,
Interleukin-6, Interleukin-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein in the blood serum
samples isolated from scabies-infected patients before, during and after treatment with
Tinospora lotion using sandwich ELISA.
2. Correlate the serum levels of cytokine in patients before, during and after
therapy with the clinical endpoints of Tinospora lotion.
3. Evaluate the clinical efficacy of the lotion as anti-scabies agent based on
the appearance of signs and symptoms like pruritus, erythema, papules and vesicles,
pustules, excoriations, erosions and ulceration.
4. Determine the local side effects of the Tinospora lotion like pruritus,
erythema and burning sensation.
5. Determine the stability and hence predict the shelf-life of the formulated
Tinospora lotion.
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The result of this study could contribute to the country’s economy and health,
since the Tinospora rumphii lotion provides a cost-effective source of medicine, and will
solve the alarmingly high prices of medications. This can increase the demand for herbs
and can give an alternative business opportunity to local farmers.
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Chemokines - a large family of homologues cytokines, which enhance motility
(chemokinesis) and promote the migration of leukocytes toward the source of the
chemokine (chemotaxis)
Crust - developed when serum, blood, or purulent exudates dries on the skin
surface. It may be thin-delicate and friable or thick and adherent
Cytokine Expression - the production of soluble molecules that mediate the
interaction among immune cells as a response to the presence of an antigen
Diapedesis - the process by which cells are capable of moving from the
circulating blood to the tissues by squeezing through the wall of a blood vessel
Endothermic - the absorption of heat by a sample
Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) - an immunoassay that
employs an enzyme label on one of the reactants
Erosion - a defect only of the epidermis, not involving the dermis. It heals
without scar formation
Exothermic - the release of heat by a sample
Formula - consists of the name and amount of active and inactive excipients
present in the product.
Formulation - the preparation of pharmaceutical products into various dosage
forms containing the active ingredient
Herbolario or herbalist - a person who is skilled in collection, harvesting and
use of medicinal plants as remedies to certain diseases
Humoral immunity - a protection from the disease resulting from substances in
the serum
Immunoglobulin or Ig - a glycoprotein found in the serum portion of the blood,
and is considered part of the humoral immunity; also known as antibodies
Immunoglobulin E - the least abundant and the most heat-labile Ig, which is
responsible for allergic reactions by binding unto the basophil and tissue mast cells by
means of specific surface protein receptors
Immunology - the study of the reactions of a host when foreign substances are
introduced into the body
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Immunomodulation - the adjustment of the immune response to a desired level,
as in immunopotentiation, immunosuppression, or induction of immunologic tolerance
Inflammation - the result of cellular and humoral mechanisms involved in the
overall reaction of the body to injury or invasion by an antigen or infectious agent
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) - a potent cytokine alarm which is first to react to any
allergen or stimulant in the host system
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) - a 26 kD cytokine, which is released in response to a
lipopolysaccharide; usually produced by mononuclear phagocytes, vascular endothelial
cells, fibroblasts and some other cells
Interleukin-8 (IL-8) - also known as monocyte-derived neutrophil chemotactic
factor; an inflammatory cytokine which is chemotactic for both neutrophils and T-cells
Macule - a circumscribed area of change in normal skin color without elevation or
depression and it is not palpable
Melting curve - represents the phase transition of the sample when subjected to
heat using the Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Monograph - a written treatise which includes the official title, scientific
synonyms, common names, morphological description, major constituents and the
specifications for the quality control of the plant material
Organoleptic - a term which refers to the descriptive evaluation by means of the
organs of sense and includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug (ocular), its odor
and taste, occasionally the sound or “snap” of its fracture, and the “feel” of the drug to
the touch
Papule - a superficial, palpable, solid lesion, generally considered less than 0.5 cm
in diameter
Parakeratosis - the abnormal formation of the stratum corneum in which the skin
cells retain their nuclei and this is due to increased rate of proliferation of skin cells
Plaque - a plateau-like elevation above the skin surface caused by repeated
rubbing of the skin
Pustule - a circumscribed, superficial cavity of the skin that contains a purulent
exudates that may be white, yellow, greenish-yellow, or hemorrhagic
40
Plasma cells - large, spherical or ellipsoidal cells with nucleus having heavily
clumped chromatin. Its main function is antibody production
Sandwich ELISA - makes use of a capture antibody on a solid phase, followed by
incubation with the patient’s antigen and the addition of an enzyme-labelled anti-
immunoglobulin after washing
Scabies - a contagious skin disease characterized by development of lesions,
vesicles and papules
Scaling - also known as desquamation, a process by which flakes of stratum
corneum or scales are produced as a result of increased rate of proliferation of epidermal
cells
Shelf-life (also shelf life) - the recommended time that products can be stored,
during which the defined quality of a specified proportion of the goods remains
acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions of distribution, storage, and display
Stability - the capability of a particular formulation, in a specific container or
closure system, to remain within its physical, chemical, microbiological, therapeutic, and
toxological specifications
Ulcer - a skin defect in which there has been loss of epidermis and the upper
papillary layer of the dermis
Vesicle - a circumscribed, elevated, superficial cavity containing fluid
41
PARTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER OR THESIS
The final manuscript of the research paper or thesis is prepared after the conduct of the
experiment or the survey for the descriptive research. With the needed data on hand, the
researcher has to analyze and discuss them clearly and comprehensively to address the questions
raised in Chapter 1 of the study.
The research paper or thesis is the printed results of the undertaking. Its format follows
the institutional requirements of which the main parts are the following:
I. Introduction
This includes those Chapters 1 (Introduction), 2 (Review or Related Literature) and 3
(Research Method) which were made in the proposal stage and therefore was expressed
in the future tense. This is changed into the past tense in the writing of the manuscript.
II. Body
This includes Chapter 4 which is titled Results and Discussion. This should be arranged
in the logical order following the statement of the specific problems. Here, the literature
review comes in most necessarily to show the relationships of the research results to
those in the previous literature and studies, that is, whether the research results confirm or
contradict those of previous results. It is important, therefore, that proper documentation
of sources must be needed.
III. Conclusion
This part consists of Chapter 5 entitled Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations.
The summary consists of a capsule form of the coverage of the research, the research
method, and the most important findings of the research.
The concluding part is a statement of what the findings generally imply. This would lead
to the presentation of the research undertakings that may be pursued by future
researchers.
42
Special Methods Used in Pharmaceutical Analyses
It is useful to know the special methods that may be used in pharmaceutical analyses.
Following is a summary presentation of these methods based on Jenkins’ Quantitative
Pharmaceutical Chemistry (7th ed.) by Adelbert M. Knevel.
43
WHITE HEAT 1200 – 1600˚C
Total Ash
Residue remaining after incineration
% Total Ash = (wt TA / wt Sx) x 100
= (wt. of residue after incineration / wt. of sample) x 100
Acid-Insoluble Ash
Part of the total ash which is insoluble in diluted HCl
Consists almost entirely of silica derived from the soil adhering to the drug
% Acid-Insoluble Ash = (wt AIA / wt Sx) x 100
= (wt. of acid-insoluble residue / wt. of sample) x 100
Residue on Ignition (also called Sulfated Ash
Expensive chemicals
Yields negligible amount of ash
Loss on Ignition
Technique which provides a means of determining the percentage of test material which is
volatilized and driven off under the conditions specified
% acid-soluble ash = wt. of total ash – wt. of acid-insoluble ash x100
wt. of sample
B. Water Determination
Drugs official in the USP and NF contain varying quantities of water
i. Water of crystallization
ii. Water in the adsorbed form
To ensure uniformity in the official drugs
Computation:
% H2O = (wt H2O / wt drug) x 100
Method of Determination
1. Gravimetric Method A (Gravimetric- Method III of water content determination in USP 27
For drugs containing no constituents other than water, volatile at 105˚C
% moisture = wt. of sample – wt of sample after drying to constant wt x 100
wt of sample
44
2. Gravimetric Method B
For drugs containing ether-soluble constituents volatile at 105˚C
Moisture content of drug = wt lost by the - wt of volatile ether-
Drug upon drying soluble extractive
3. Azeotropic Method (USP)
Xylene Method (US Forestry Service)
Moisture Method by Toluene Distillation (NF) – Method II of water content determination in
USP 27
For vegetable drugs containing 2% or more of moisture
Disadvantage – requires a comparatively large amount of drug
Toluene boils at 110-111˚C, boils with water, immiscible with water, and lighter than
water.
% moisture in the sample = vol. of water collected x 100
wt. of sample
45
Sample Problems:
Calculate the water equivalence factor of Karl Fischer reagent if a 180-mg sample of
Na2C4H4O6 . 2H2O required 15.00-mL of Karl Fischer reagent.
Calculate the percent moisture in aminosalicylic acid of 9.00-mL of Karl Fischer reagent,
having a water equivalence factor of 4.10, was consumed by a 5.100-g sample.
5. Dew Point Method
To determine water content in very low concentration
6. Electrolytic Hygrometric Method
Drugs with very low concentration of water
46
The alcohol dissolves the resins, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, styrene, benzaldehyde,
vanillin, esters, etc. contained in balsamic resin.
Alcohol-soluble extractive = [(wt of Sx – wt of moisture) – wt of insoluble residue]
Wt of Sx
3. Diluted Alcohol
Diluted alcohol-Soluble Extractives (DASE)
Intermittent agitation
4. Water (Ex. Assay of aloe)
Water-Soluble Extractives (WSE)
Intermittent agitation
5. Hexane
Drugs with fats and fatty oils – Hexane-Soluble Extractive (HSE)
% Hexane Extractive = wt of anhydrous residue x 100 = wt of extractive x 100
wt of Sx wt of crude drug
Crude Fiber Content
The residue, consisting chiefly of cellulose, that remains undissolved after successive
treatment with boiling acid and alkali
Important for detection of adulterants
Limitations on the amount of substance that is insoluble in a given solvent serve to check
the purity and identity of the drug
GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
% Crude Fiber = ( wt. of acid/base insol. residue – wt of ash after incineration) x 100
Wt. of ether insol. residue
Chemical Constants
1. Acid Value – [Acid number / Acidity index] = Saponification value – Ester value
• number of milligrams of KOH necessary to neutralize the free acids and saponify the
esters in 1 g of sample (fats, oils, waxes, balsams, and other subs. of complex
composition)
Acid value in mg = (mL x N)NaOH x M.W. KOH (56.11)
g Sx
• number of milliliters of 0.1-N NaOH required to neutralize the free acid in 10 g of sample
Acid value in mL = mL of 0.1 N NaOH x 10 g
Wt. of Sx
• DIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD
• presence of free acids due to the hydrolysis of esters and caused by chemical treatment,
by bacterial action or by the catalytic action of light and heat
48
number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acids and saponify the esters
contained in 1 gram sample
serves to aid in the detection of the presence of the glycerides of acids containing less
than 16 or more than 18 carbon atoms
indicate adulteration with unsaponifiable matter
inversely proportional to the mean molecular weights of the acids present
ALKALIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
Saponification value (S.V.) = (mLB.T. – mLA.T.)HCl x NHCl x KOH
Wt. of Sx
2. Ester Value - [Ester Number]
number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify the esters in 1-g of sample
important in the analysis of yellow and white wax – it serves to indicate the presence of
adulterants ( e.g. paraffin)
% Ester = (mLB.T. – mLA.T.)HCl x NHCl x M.W. ester/1000 x 100
Wt. of Sx
ALKALIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
SV = AV + EV
Unsaponifiable Matter
substances present in oils or fats that are not saponified by alkali hydroxides but are
soluble in ordinary fat solvents
PHYTOSTEROL – vegetable origin
CHOLESTEROL - animal origin
indicative of the quality and purity of the oil
GRAVIMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
% Unsaponifiable matter = wt. of residue x 100
wt. of Sx
4. Iodine Value - [Iodine Number]
number of grams of iodine absorbed under specified conditions by 100-g sample
quantitative measure of the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids present in a fat sample
49
serves to characterize fats and oils and to indicate whether they are pure or admixtures
serves as an aid to indicate in a definite manner the class to which an unknown fat or oil
belongs
when considered in conjuncture with saponification value, it serves as a means of
detecting adulteration
IODIMETRIC METHOD USING BACK-TITRATION (w/ Blank Test)
Classification of Oils
DRYING OIL (Linseed, fish oil)
• very high iodine value
• usually above 120
SEMI-DRYING OIL (cottonseed, sesame)
• intermediate iodine value
• between 100 and 120
NON-DRYING OIL (olive, almond)
• relatively low iodine value
• below 100
N.B.
In case of animal fats, iodine value is not very high, usually being less than 90.
50
5. Hydroxyl Value - [Hydroxyl Number] = mL of 1 N NaOH x 56.11
Wt. of Sx
number of milligrams of KOH equivalent to the hydroxyl content of 1-g of the sample
gives an indication of the identity and purity of fatty substances possessing alcoholic
hydroxyl groups
inversely proportional to the molecular weight
an abnormally low value is indicative of adulteration with higher M.W. alcohols or with
non-alcoholic fatty subs. (paraffin, petroleum oil, etc.)
INDIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD (w/ Blank Test)
51
Computation:
% by volume = mL CF1 + mL CF2
52
ASSAY FOR ALCOHOL CONTENT
alcohols present in volatile oils occur both free and combined as esters
establish the purity and value of an oil with respect to its content of alcoholic
constituents
determined by transforming the free alcohols into the corresponding acetates by
boiling the oil with acetic anhydride in an acetylization flask and then determining the
saponification value of the acetylized product
ACETYLIZATION FLASK
\
% corrected = % uncorrected x [1 – (Ester%/100 x M.W. Acetyl radical ]
M.W. Acetate
ASSAY FOR ALDEHYDE CONTENT
1. Bisulfite Method
form addition products with certain reagents
bisulfite addition product dissolve in water
non-aldehyde constituents as a water insoluble layer (residual layer)
CASSIA FLASK
2. Hydroxylamine Method
very small amounts of aldehydes
contain other constituents that form water-soluble addition products
INDIRECT ALKALIMETRIC METHOD (w/ Blank Test)
53
ASSAY FOR PHENOL CONTENT
volatile oils that contain phenols when shaken with solutions of NaOH diminish in
volume because of the ready solubility of the phenol constituents in the alkali
the non-phenolic portion of the oils remains undissolved (residual layer)
CASSIA FLASK
% Volatile Oil in Spirit = (vol. of oil & kerosene – vol. of kerosene) x 0.21
layer in div layer in div x 100
vol. of Sx (mL)
54
alkaloidal drugs and preparations derived from them constitute a relatively important
group of the official substances employed in modern therapy
as a class of medicinal agents, alkaloids are characterized by their high potency
are performed for purposes of standardization, proof of purity, commercial evaluation or
pharmacolegal purposes
methods of quantitative estimation
Gravimetric Method
Titrimetric Method – Volumetric
Spectrometric Method
Electrometric Method
Physiological Method
amount of alkaloids in crude drugs vary due to:
age of the plant when collected
season of the year when drug is harvested
soil and climate in which the drug is grown
conditions under which the drug is collected, dried and stored
amount alkaloids present in galenical preparations vary due to:
quality of drug employed
menstrum used in the extraction
amount of decomposition of the alkaloid during the process of extraction and of
storage
properties of alkaloids
free alkaloids – sparingly soluble in water; readily soluble in immiscible
solvents
alkaloidal salts – readily soluble in water ; sparingly soluble in immiscible
solvents
combine with acids to form salts
liberated from aqueous solutions of their salts by alkalies
form highly insoluble precipitates with a number of reagents
methyl red solution is the indicator of choice for alkaloidal titrations
55
Alkaloidal Test Solutions
Valser’s Reagent – HgI2 TS ; white ppt.
Wagner’s Reagent – I2 TS ; reddish or red-brown ppt.
Mayer’s Reagent – K2HgI4 TS ; white or slightly yellow ppt.
Steps in Alkaloidal Assay
Collection & Separation
Analysis
Types of Alkaloidal Assays
Proximate Assay – total of a class of plant principles [Total alkaloid]
Ultimate Assay – single chemical species
Assay of Belladona Leaf / Tincture
Acidimetric Method using Back-Titration Method
Each mL of 0.02-N acid is equivalent to 5.788-mg of the alkaloids of
belladonna leaf, calculated as hyoscyamine or atropine.
• Assay of Ipecac for Ether-Soluble Alkaloids
Acidimetric Method using Back-Titration Method
Each mL of 0.1-N H2SO4 is equivalent to 24.0-mg of the total ether-soluble
alkaloids of ipecac calculated as emetine.
Assay of Ephedrine Sulfate Injection
Acidimetric Method using Direct Titration (w/ Blank Test)
Each mL of 0.1-N HClO4 is equivalent to 21.43 mg of (C10H15NO)2 . H2SO4.
Assay of Aminophylline Tablets
Argentometric Method using Back-Titration Method
Each mL of 0.1-N AgNO3 is equivalent to 21.02-mg of C16H24N10O4.
Computation for Alkaloidal Assays
equivalent weight from given titer
concentration of alkaloid/s present
percentage
mg/tablet
mg/mL
56
percentage labelled amount/claim
= ( computed conc. / potency ) x 100
% labeled amt = [(mL x N)H2SO4 - (mL x N)NaOH ] x titre mg/N x ave. wt. of 1 tab. x 1000
mg/g
wt. Sx in g (used in the assay)
x 100
Label claim
On the other hand, some of the medical analyses that medical technologists use are the
following:
Examination of urine
Containers for the collection of urine should be wide-mouthed, clean and dry. If the urine
specimen has to be transported for any length of time it should contain an appropriate
preservative to prevent bacterial overgrowth or hatching of viable ova.
57
Random urine specimen
A random urine sample, taken at any time of the day, will enable the laboratory to screen for
substances, which are indicators of kidney infection.
The 24-hour urine specimen is collected in a clear 2-litre bottle with a stopper. On the first
morning the patient gets up and urinates; this urine is not collected. All the urine passed during
the rest of the day and night is collected in the bottle. The next morning the patient gets up and
collects the first urine of the morning in the bottle. The bottle should then be taken immediately
to the laboratory.
Measure the volume of urine with a measuring cylinder and record it.
While passing urine, the patient places an open container in the stream of urine and collects
about 20ml of urine. The container should be covered immediately.
The patient urinates the last portion of urine into an open container.
Collection of urine using a catheter must be carried out by a qualified physician or nurse. The
procedure is used for certain bacteriological tests, mainly in women. Usually, however, a
specimen collected in the normal way following thorough cleansing is acceptable for this
purpose.
Urine can be collected into a plastic bag with an adhesive mouth. The bag is fixed around the
genitalia and left in place for 1–3 hours, depending on the examination requested. Colostomy
bags can be used.
58
● Urine is normally clear straw-yellow in color. More concentrated urine may
appear dark yellow.
● The presence of blood cells or excess salts may make the urine appear cloudy.
● Pigments from bile substances may make the urine appear deep yellow or
brown.
● Urine can occasionally appear colorless. Report the appearance as:
— clear
or cloudy;
— colorless, pale yellow, deep yellow or brown.
Elevated erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin levels may occur in urine:
— after
heavy physical exercise;
— in vaginal tract infections;
— in parasitic infections (e.g.
schistosomiasis); — in acute glomerulonephritis;
— in acute cystitis or urethritis;
—
in patients suffering from certain tumors.
Blood cells are easily seen by microscopic
examination after centrifugation (see section 7.2.7).
Lysed erythrocytes can be detected
using a urine dipstick which has a segment for detection of blood. Urine dipsticks are
available for detection of a single substance (e.g. blood, glucose or protein) or for
detection of several substances (e.g. nitrite and leukocyte esterase).
Method
The
dipsticks are placed into the urine and immediately removed. They are then compared
with a comparison chart after an appropriate time that is also specified on the chart.
The color changes observed on the dipstick will give a semi-quantitative estimation of
the amount of substance present. This can be reported as negative, +, ++, +++, ++++ or
as an approximate value of the concentration of the substance tested for.
Dipsticks
must be stored according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Principle
● Colored indicator paper is dipped in the urine (or placed in a watch glass and a
few drops of urine are added to it).
● The paper is then compared with a standard control chart
giving the
corresponding pH value.
Materials (Fig. 7.1)
● Watch glasses
● Dropper
59
● Forceps
● Indicator paper of limited pH range: for the 5.0–7.0 range and for the 6.0–8.0
range.
The urine specimen must be tested within 1 hour of collection.
Method
1. Place a strip of universal indicator paper in a watch glass.
Let a few drops of fresh
urine fall from the dropper on to the paper (Fig. 7.2).
Alternatively, dip the test
paper directly into the urine in the receptacle.
2. Pick the strip of paper up with forceps.
Compare the color obtained with those
shown on the standard chart (Fig. 7.3). Read off the pH unit given for the color
that matches the test paper most closely.
3. According to the result obtained, select a strip of indicator paper for the corresponding
limited range. For example, if the pH is 6, use indicator paper for the range 5.0–
7.0. If the pH is 7 or more, use indicator paper for the range 6.0–8.0.
4. Repeat the test in another watch glass, using the paper for the corresponding limited
range. Read off the pH of the urine on the standard chart (Fig. 7.4), e.g. pH = 6.2
orpH=7.5.
The pH of urine is normally about 6.0 (range 5.0–7.0). Acid pH values (4.5–5.5)
are observed in some forms of diabetes, muscular fatigue and acidosis. Alkaline pH
values (7.8– 8.0) are common in patients with infections of the urinary tract and in people
on a vegetarian diet.
Fig. 7.1
60
Fig. 7.2
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.4
61
Fig. 7.5 Benedict method for detection of reducing
substances in urine
Determination of the pH of urine is useful for the identification of crystalline deposits (see
section 7.2.7, pages 245–248).
Some crystals are deposited only in acid urine, others only in alkaline urine. For example:
Except in very rare diseases, crystalline deposits in urine have no diagnostic significance.
Principle
Glucose is the most commonly found sugar substance in urine, particularly in diabetic patients
and patients suffering from chronic renal failure. Glucose is a reducing substance. It reduces the
blue copper sulfate in Benedict solution to red copper oxide, which is insoluble.
Lactose is also a reducing sugar and is occasionally seen in the urine of pregnant women.
● Test-tubes
● Test-tube rack
● Beaker or can
● Dropper pipette
● Graduated pipette, 5 ml
Method
62
2. Add eight drops of urine and mix well.
3. Boil over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp for 2 minutes (Fig. 7.5), or place the test-tube
in a beaker or can of boiling water for 5 minutes.
4. Place the test-tube in the test-tube rack and allow to cool to room temperature.
Examine the color change of the solution and any precipitate. Report the result as
shown in Table 7.1.
Glucose in urine can also be detected using a urine dipstick (see
section 7.2.2).
7.2.5 Detection and estimation of protein
Elevated protein levels are observed in the urine
of patients with:
— urinary schistosomiasis — chronic renal disease
Table 7.1 Reporting the results of the Benedict method for detection of reducing substances
in urine
However, orthostatic proteinuria, a form of functional proteinuria usually seen in young men,
which occurs on standing up and disappears on lying down, has no pathological significance.
Principle1
When trichloroacetic acid is added to urine containing protein, a precipitate is formed, which is
measured by turbidimetry. This reaction occurs with almost all proteins, including albumin and
globulins.
● Spectrophotometer
● Test-tubes
● Test-tube rack
● Centrifuge
● Mechanical rotator
63
● Sodium chloride, 0.85% solution (reagent no. 53)
Method
Collection of specimens
Random, timed or 24-hour urine specimens should be used (see section 7.1.1). No preservatives
should be added to the specimens. Specimens that are collected over 24 hours should be stored at
4–8°C during the period of collection, to prevent bacterial growth.
Collected specimens should be kept at 4°C until analysis. If analysis is likely to be delayed for
more than 24 hours, however, the specimens should be stored at -20°C.
Technique
1. Add 1.6 ml of the urine specimen to each of two test-tubes (test and test blank). Repeat the
process with the working standard and the control.
2. Add 0.4ml of trichloroacetic acid solution to all of the test-tubes and mix well. Leave to stand
at room temperature for 10 minutes.
4. Using the spectrophotometer, measure and record the optical density of the tests and blanks at
620 nm. The spectrophotometer should be set to zero with distilled water before any
measurements are taken. It should also be calibrated, as described below. The analytical
range of measurement using this method is 100–1000 mg/l.
Calculation
Calculate the concentration of protein in the urine specimen using the following formula:
where:
64
C = concentration of the calibration solution
Note:
● Because the amount of protein excreted in the urine may vary greatly, any
positive results should always be confirmed by repeating the test on one or more separate
samples.
The analytical range of this modified method is 25–700mg/l.
Protein in urine can also be
detected using a protein dipstick (see section 7.2.2).
7.2.6 Detection of ketone bodies
Normal urine does not contain ketone bodies. Acetone and
other ketone bodies
Principle
When sodium nitroprusside (sodium nitrosyl pentacyanoferrate (III)) is added to urine containing
ketone bodies, a purple color is produced.
● Test-tubes
● Test-tube rack
65
● Measuring cylinder, 10 ml
● Dropping pipette
● Acetic acid
● Ammonia. Method
1. Just before carrying out the test, place a sufficient number of sodium nitroprus- side
crystals into a test-tube to cover the bottom (Fig. 7.6).
2. Add 5ml of distilled water. Shake well until the crystals are almost dissolved. (Not all
the crystals are expected to dissolve as the solution is saturated.)
4. Add four drops of acetic acid to the urine, followed by 10 drops of freshly pre- pared
sodium nitroprusside solution. Mix well.
5. Holding the tip of the pipette against the side of the tube, let 20 drops (1ml) of
ammonia solution flow on to the surface of the liquid (Fig. 7.7).Wait for 5
minutes before reading — a positive result may be obvious before this time.
solution
66
Table 7.2 Reporting the results of the test for detection of ketone bodies in
If the result is positive (Fig. 7.8), a purple ring appears on top of the urine. If the result is
negative, no color change occurs.
Ketone bodies in urine can also be detected using a urine dipstick (see section 7.2.2).
67
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Objective: To present data gathered from the investigation. Present briefly the data following the
problems stated in the Statement of the Problem in Chapter 1. You may need to present tables or
graphs.
1.
2.
68
Class Activity:
Name: ___________________________ Year & Section: _____________________
Data Management
Objective: To be able to manage research data by graph/chart presentation together with the
appropriate label or heading. Using the given data, construct a graph/chart to summarize the
results.
69
UNIT 3: WRITING, PRESENTING, AND PUBLISHING
THE ACADEMIC/ TECHNICAL PAPER
The academic / technical paper must always be written based on the requirements of the
institution to which the writer is connected. Writing is expected to follow the proper rules of
grammar and technical writing. Sentence structure must be varied, that is, a mix of simple,
compound, and complex sentences. If possible, the use of compound-complex sentence structure
must be avoided.
The academic / technical paper output does not end only in the hands of the writer but
must be presented for dissemination, and more importantly, it must be published not only locally
but also internationally. This is to create its impact on the field to which the paper is classified.
The publisher to which the academic paper is submitted for publication must be
adequately studied and understood in order to aptly meet the requirements.
Documenting the research paper is very important as it provides not only reliability of the
research but also the clear evidence of intellectual honesty and scholarliness. By documenting
properly the research paper, intellectual justice is accorded to the sources of information, data
and ideas which the researcher has cited in the paper.
It is often the failing of a researcher to simply copy verbatim, that is, word for word,
those sentences and paragraphs that are deemed useful and handy in the writing of the research
manuscript. Plagiarism is the easier way to make their write-ups. And if they paraphrase or say
the ideas or information from their sources in their own words, they altogether do not
acknowledge anymore the original owners of the ideas and information.
Acknowledging authors, researchers, publishers and all the other sources of the ideas and
information that a researcher makes use of and is indebted to, perforce, be a must in research
writing.
In the medical and health-related disciplines, the American Psychological Association
(APA) is normally used. There are two applications; namely:
1. In-text citations – for citing references within the body of the technical / research report
2. References – for the separate sheets provided at the end of the paper
70
Using the APA citation requires page numbers for direct quotations and the “p.” notation
for single page and “pp.” for more than one page.
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
When writing the proposal and the final manuscript of the research paper, it is important
to acknowledge the ideas that are drawn from your readings of journals, books, researches, and
other sources of information. This is done through in-text citations or sometimes known as
parenthetical citation as the author’s last name and year of publication of the reference material
are enclosed in parentheses.
Following are some guidelines for in-text citations:
71
respectively. Pathobiology of acute coronary syndrome involves an unstable plaque with
superimposed thrombosis with complete occlusion of artery leading to myocardial
infarction. Medical management has a definite role in AMI management though even
with best thrombolytic agent complete revascularisation occurs only in 50% of cases
(Singh, 2010, p.72).
5. Two-Authors Citation
Candida glabrata causes significant medical problems in immunocompromised patients
(Kim & Cooper, 2001).
Kim and Cooper (2001) cite that Candida glabrata causes significant medical problems
in immunocompromised patients.
72
8. Author(s) with two or more works in the same year citation
Parker (2001b) cites that large numbers of people with HIV are co-infected with hepatitis
B and/or hepatitis C. Liver disease is now a leading cause of illness and death in those co-
infected people (Parker, 2001a, 2001c).
73
REFERENCES
The APA documenting system lists the references cited in the in-text citation under the
title REFERENCES in upper case centered on the paper and located after the last page of the last
chapter.
Classify and indicate the kind of reference used (e.g. books, journal articles, etc.)
Cite the reference list without quotation marks. Information provided should not be
italicized nor underlined.
Use the hanging indent style so as to make the source names and dates more prominent.
Example: BOOKS
Wood, P. (2007). Diversity: The invention of a concept in cardiology. San Francisco: Encounter
Books.
Navera, D. Clinical Development of Neurology. The New York Times. Retrieved December 11,
2005, from http://www.nytimes.com
It must be noted that no period is placed after a URL.
74
REFERENCE GUIDELINES FOR PRINT SOURCES
Note: for 3-6 authors, include all authors’ names. For more than six (6) authors, use only
first SIX names followed by et al.
Note: Arrange references by the same author chronologically with the earlier date
75
Note: Cite full name of the corporate author first. If author is also the publisher, use the
word Author as the name of the publisher.
76
13. Article in a Journal that Pages Each Issue Separately
Higgins, E.A. & Fish, Y. (2006). Training in community pediatrics: A national survey of
program directors. CPA: Community Pediatrics Administration, 26(3), 119-131.
It must be remembered to give the volume number and italicize the journal title. The
issue number must be in parentheses and not italicized.
ONLINE SOURCES
With the accessibility to the Internet becoming easier and cheaper, many researchers are
helped to facilitate information gathering with their computers.
77
Getting to Know the New Format
Doing research has gone a long way. Many fruits of research have benefitted mankind. In
the pharmaceutical and medical technology fields, results of researchers by the professionals and
students have brought about new knowledge and information that have influenced drug
manufacturing, marketing and use as well as the treatment of disease.
As in many cases, research writing has also been enriched not only with innovative
approaches but also formats and models. Recently, the research-by-article has been adopted by
some research institutions as an approach to encouraging the publication of research outputs. In
this approach or style of research writing, a broad subject matter may be done the “salami style”
where several topics are treated separately yet comprehensively. Breaking the broad topic into
two or three subjects brings about relevant and related concepts into holistic manner.
Since most research institutions require the publication of research output in international
journals, it is expected that the research-by-article style is the mode of the time. The writing of
the research-by-article follows the same principle and style of academic/technical and scientific
writing.
Following are the parts and characteristics of this new research style for the research
proposal:
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TYPE YOUR TITLE HERE. THE APA RECOMMENDATION
FOR TITLE LENGTH SHOULD NOT EXCEED 12 WORDS
A Thesis Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate School
University of Santo Tomas
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements of the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy
by
BRIDGETTE MADISON R. ANASTACIO
November 2013
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ABSTRACT
This section is limited to 100‐150 words (approximately 12‐15 lines), singly spaced and must
include at least four (4) keywords.
Keywords: solar systems, universe, aliens, space
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Prefatory Note (Optional) 1
1.0 The Problem Rationale 4
Introduction 4
Research Impediments 6
2.0 The Research Questions
2.1 Literature Review 7
2.2 Research Questions 22
3.0. The Research Methods
3.1 Methods and Materials 25
3.1.1 Standards, Reagents and Chemicals 26
3.1.2 Extraction (or Sampling) Procedure 27
3.1.3 Ethical Considerations (…If Applicable!) 32
3.2 Analysis
3.2.1 Instrumental Analysis 28
3.2.2 Data Interpretation and Calculations 29
References 33
Examples only! (remove those not applicable)
Appendix I: Permit to Conduct the Interviews 37
Appendix II: Request for Pertinent Data 38
Appendix III: Informed Consent for Research Participants 39
Appendix IV: Informed Consent for Research Participation
Recruited Concept Mapping Participants 40
Appendix V: Survey Questionnaires 41
Appendix VI: The Interview Protocol 44
Appendix VII: The Interview Protocol for Tutors/Reviewers 46
Appendix VIII: The Interview Protocol 47
Appendix IX: Concept Mapping Instrument 48
Appendix X: Documentary Analysis 49
Appendix XI: Timetable for Research 50
Appendix XII: Budget Proposal 51
Curriculum Vitae 52
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CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM RATIONALE
This chapter must be clear and logical in describing succinctly the trends in the field that
render the chosen topic problematic. This chapter must end with the delineation of the
research barriers or limitations of the study, (if possible, substantial, ethical, methodological,
and practical) that the candidate may come across in the conduct of the study. The last two
paragraphs must be devoted to research impediments (barriers) and limitations of the study.
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CHAPTER 2
THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This chapter includes all types of materials reviewed, conceptual literature which
came from books. Related studies both local and foreign consisting mainly of peer reviewed
journals. Your aim is to show how the present study relates to the existing knowledge and
previous studies in terms of both similarities and differences. The formal sub‐sections for this
chapter are;
2.1 Review of the Literature
Must be comprehensive in the light of the chosen variables with a view to surfacing the
research blankspots (unexplored area) and blindspots (conflicting areas in the literature).
2.2 Research Question/s (or Hypotheses)
A research hypothesis is the statement you created when you speculate upon the
outcome of a research or experiment. Every true experimental design must have this statement
at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment.
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CHAPTER 3
THE RESEARCH METHODS
This chapter must include details of your experimental methodology. Points to highlight
includes; Description of the following; (1) research design, (2) study site, (3) selection of
samples, (4) data/outcome measures , data collection procedure, (5) ethical consideration and
(6) data/mode of analysis; and Must be strongly supported by the appendices that contain
the instruments or corpus of data to be used. There are two formal sub‐sections (3.1 and 3.2)
which are;
3.1 Methods and Materials
3.1.1 Standards, Reagents, and Chemicals
This section must have detailed description of materials used.
3.1.2 Extraction (or Sampling or Synthesis) Procedure
This section can have either of the 3 titles depending on your research.
3.2 Analysis
3.2.1 Instrumental Analysis
This section must have detailed description of materials used.
3.2.2 Data Interpretation and Calculations
In this section you may include your statistical analysis, description of softwares etc. For
example (this was taken from Fouillen et al., Analytical Biochemistry 407 (2010) 34–43)…..
“MS and MS/MS data searches were performed using a local Mascot server (Mascot 2.2.0,
84
Matrix Science, London, UK) against the Swiss–Prot database (version 56.8, 410, 518
sequences). For MALDI–MS peptide mass fingerprinting, a mass tolerance of 50 ppm was
allowed”.
85
REFERENCES
Include all literature actually cited in chapters 1 to 3, arrange entries ALPHABETICALLY (NOT
NUMBERED); strictly use APA style entries. Sample entries for books, journals, book edition
and internet source are shown below in that order;
Baxter, C. (1997). Race equality in health care and education. Philadelphia: Ballière Tindall.
Gaudio, J.L., & Snowdon, C.T. (2008). Spatial cues more salient than color cues in cotton‐top
tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) reversal learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 441‐
444. doi:10.1037/0735‐7036.122.4.441
Hyde, J.S., & Delamater, J. (2008). Human sexuality (10th ed.) New York: McGraw‐Hill.
Research Initiatives. (n.d.). Retrieved January 11, 2007, from MIT, Comparative Media Studies
website, http://cms.mit.edu/research/index.php
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Appendix I
Timetable for Research
Research Objectives 2010 2011
Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
1. Writing of Proposal
2. Collection of Algal
Materials
3. Fractionation of
Polysaccharides
4. Collection of Blood and
Isolation of PBMCs
5. Cell Viability Assay
6. ELISA Assay for Cytokines
7. MRNA extraction
8. Chemopreventive assays
9. Data Collation/Analysis
10. Colloquium/Defense
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Appendix II
Budgetary Requirements
SOURCES OF EXPENSES Quantity Amount
(PhP)
Collection and Fractionation of
Polysaccharides
Collection of Sargassum 1 10,000
80% Ethanol 10 L 5,765.00
0.1M HCl 2 L 20
1.25M NaOH 2 L 210
cetyl pyridinium chloride 100 g 6000
99% acetic acid 1 L 390
99% ETOH 5 L 3600
Lyophilization 1 2500
28,485
Blood Collection and Isolation of PBMCs
vacutainer tubes 1 pack 700
Ficoll‐Hypaque gradient soln 2 packs 15,000
15700
Tissue Culture Reagents
L‐glutamine 100 ml 2,126.79
Penicillin‐Streptomycin 100 ml 1,745.54
Hepes Buffer 20 ml 1,600.89
Sodium bicarbonate 100 ml 859.82
Trypsin 0.25% EDTA 100 ml 977.68
MTT 1 g 7,366.07
DMEM 1 L 3,682
FBS qualified H1 100 ml 9,511.61
Std. TC flask 50 ml canted neck 2 packs 4,625
15 ml conical tube w cap poly 2 packs 4, 875
50 ml conical tube w/ cap pol 2 packs 4,968.64
Dulbeccos Phosphate Buffered 1L 2, 417
RPMI 1640 I L 5,372
Trypan Blue Reagents 100 ml 1,449
Freezing Medium DMSO Serum free 1 L 6,484
Sodium Pyruvate Soln 500 ml 902
DPPH reagent 1 g 7,238
Hep G2 Cell Lines 35,000
93,909.04
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Budgetary Requirements, continued
RNA Isolation and RT‐PCR reagents Quantity Amount
(PhP)
Trizol reagent 100 ml 14,241.07
RNAse Out Recom. Inhibitor 1 kit 12,473.21
RT‐PCR Mix Reactions 1 set 53,000.00
Agarose electro reagents 5,400
M Tris Buffer solution 7,168
Gel Pilot DNA loading dye 1 kit 2,880
Pipet tips yellow 1 pack 680
PCR tube 1 pack 2, 518
Gloves 1 pack 600
Tissues and cleaning reagents 500
99,460.28
ELISA KIT Reagents
IL‐6 Human antibody 1 kit 48,000
IL‐1 Human antibody 1 kit 48,000
TNF‐α Human Antibody 1 kit 48,000
144,000
TOTAL 381,554.32
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BIONOTES
Insert
your
picture
here
Limit to one (1) page !
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ORAL PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH/ TECHNICAL PAPER
1) The audience has to be kept interested during the whole presentation. Only a very
logically arranged presentation that is clear, concise, and to the point, will accomplish
this.
2) Too much material in the limited time allowed, or presentation of the material too rapidly
will overwhelm the audience.
3) The audience come from a broad discipline, therefore, a brief background in your
presentation is recommended.
4) Your enthusiasm will contribute much to the success of the presentation as does the
scientific content.
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MAJOR SECTIONS OF AN ORAL TECHNICAL PRESENTATION
Overview / Introduction
Here tell the listener what you will present in a very general overview. You should have a
ready outline that starts out with the background of the study, then the specific problems. This
must be brief and straight to the point touching on the related literature and studies and the gaps.
Discussion of Results
Give brief discussion to demonstrate validity of results such as previous experiences, test
problems, etc. Use questions such as:
What were the most important things you learned?
What assumptions were used?
Clean, crisp graphs and charts must be prepared but do not impress your audience with
fancy footage that may only confuse the audience. Significant results will stand on their own,
even if black and white.
Summary
You must recap your presentation. No new information should be presented in the
summary of the talk.
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4. Ask yourself “What important information do I want the listener to learn from this slide?”
This guideline is particularly important for Discussion of Results. Bullets should list
important concepts. Pictures, plots, and drawings are extremely useful to convey a lot of
information in small spaces.
5. Consider your audience. Consider their knowledge level as well as their interest level.
6. The items on slides should be readable by the audience. Ask yourself if there is too much
information. If the audience cannot read it, disregard it totally. You may, however,
consider putting it in the handout.
7. Regarding governing equations, most people know the equations and make a comment
only if there is something unique. Highlight issues of importance such as phase change,
special findings, etc.
In preparing for oral technical presentations, the following are basic guidelines to achieve
success.
Be Prepared
Nothing is more helpful to the success of an oral presentation than practice. Practice
allows the speaker to spot flaws in the presentation and eradicate them. It enables smoother
transitions from section to section instead of awkward stops and starts.
One should rehearse several times before the presentation. Going over the material
provides an opportunity to receive constructive comments from colleagues. Videotaping a
practice presentation can be valuable in identifying words or phrases that are difficult to say or
comprehend, nervous distracting mannerisms, and timing. Since the internal nervousness most
speakers feel during presentations is usually not seen externally, videotaping practice sessions
often gives the speaker added confidence.
Do Not Be Nervous
The key to an effective delivery is to convert nervousness into energy that injects
liveliness, enthusiasm, and animation into the presentation.
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Be Organized
Like a technical paper, you build a technical speech on the sequential layering of logic.
You are creating a path for the audience to follow. The fundamental organizing idea is to focus
on the topic and its implications rather than descent into the intricate detail that you find
fascinating.
Do Not Be Boring
Enthusiasm is contagious. If the speaker shows excitement for the topic, the audience will
listen attentively. Conversely, the audience will be bored if they perceive that the speaker is
bored. Listeners can absorb only a few points during a 20-to-30-minute presentation. Concentrate
on what is significant and avoid intricate mathematics or statistical validation.
Arrive early to check out the room and equipment. Check if there is a pointer and/or there
a microphone. Also determine where you will stand during the presentation.
Make sure the audience can see the slides. Talk to the audience and not to the wall.
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Speak clearly and loudly. Nothing is worse than not being able to hear a presenter. Take
your time and do a good job rather than trying to cover too much.
Make eye contact especially to validate if your audience is “getting” it. Determine if they
look lost and confused or interested.
Try to use transitions between slides. This makes for “smoother” presentation and saves
some time. This is also to keep the audience interested.
A pointer is not a toy. It is a tool. Waving the pointer around is annoying. Shut the
pointer off when not using it.
Do not run over the allotted time for your presentation.
In answering questions, be friendly and polite and not confrontational.
All in all, the message must be understood by the audience and the researcher’s
objectives are achieved.
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TRENDS IN RESEARCH IN THE FIELDS OF PHARMACY
AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Research is a continuing process that finds itself going beyond the frontiers of
knowledge. And with the unpredictability of events be it social, cultural, physical, medical,
environmental, and the like, concerns about these events and phenomena cannot be ignored.
Understanding research is now deemed the answer as it is very important such that educational
institutions must include it in their goals, objectives, and programs as a definitive component.
How would the world be without research? There would be little or no development or
progress in our lives and communities, at all. We would be in great trouble seeking alleviation
from pain, illnesses, ignorance and fear. It is from the results of research activities that certain
solutions to health, environmental, physical, and other social problems are made.
Mother Earth has become enveloped with problems that have puzzled mankind. There
have been attempts to address these problems by researches so that no unnecessary repercussion
may take place. Take the case of the penicillin and the other antibiotics which had prevented the
worsening of diseases and the occurrence of death. Thanks to the benefits of research. In fact
man’s life span has been lengthened by the results of research. It is also worthy to note that our
countryside has rich fauna and faura which have potentials for medicine formulations.
Indigenous communities have also some medical or health practices that have yet to be analyzed
and recorded through research. In the same way, studies may be pursued along bacteriology,
hematology, and other areas of medical technology to establish standards for best practices in
health and medical care.
In Pharmacy, on the other hand, development of natural products is a promising avenue
for pharmaceutical research on the face of the rising cost of synthetic medicines which are
mostly now imported from other countries such as Europe and India.
Since cancer, the dreaded disease and most ranking cause of death in the world, has
spread its tentacles to many a kind of people today, cancer therapy must be well and promptly
studied in order to come up with responsive drugs. In this context, the pharmacokinetics and
pharmacogenomics of drugs are worth undertaking. Moreover, the dosing of cytotoxic
chemotherapeutic drugs will now have to be determined through research as much as the
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pharmacologic and physiologic effects of drugs. Likewise, an economic evaluation of targeted
cancer interventions should be studied.
It is interesting to note the rise of Pharmacy in the communities of the country. It is now
significant to look into the emerging models in Community Pharmacy, Community Pharmacy
Practices, and Communication in Pharmacovigilance.
With the improvement of medical services and the promotion of healthful living, people’s
lives have become longer. Ageing has become also a great factor in pharmaceutical formulation
and compounding. Added to this matter is the research trend in ethnogeriartrics medication.
Other possible areas in pharmacy research are the following:
Current status of recombinant antibodies in cancer therapy
Ways toward individualized drug therapy
Specific receptors as promising targets for future drugs
Electropharmacological properties of the pulmonary vein myocardium
Antibiotics and the liver
Ambulatory Care Pharmacy Practice
Managed Care Pharmacy Practice
Tobacco Cessation Effects
Drug and dietary supplement development
Toxicology and Poison control
Isolation and Purification of Natural Medicinal Substances
As Clinical Pharmacy has become indispensable part of the medical and health practice,
pharmacy students must perform to be research-oriented and skilled.
In the field of medical technology, research trends are in the following areas:
Molecular diagnostics
Diagnostics of the emerging and re-emerging infections
Immune evasion mechanisms
Immuno-parasitology
Vaccine and immune serum preparation
Epidemiological studies of communicable and non-communicable diseases
Studies on the burden of disease assessment
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Clinical laboratory evaluation and development
Control and prevention analysis of clinically important intestinal parasites
Performance analysis of equipment and diagnostic kits
Clinical laboratory error management
The above list can go into a more lengthy proportion as a medical technologist continues to
delve into the deeper and wider expanse of the field and considering that the medical doctors are
more relying to a large extent on the medical technologists’ diagnoses and examinations of
patients’ health conditions, more than ever, research undertakings in the field must be explored.
As students of Medical technology, it is imperative that interest and skill in research work
be developed early on in the academic year of schooling.
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REFERENCES
Alamis, M., Villamarzo, P., & Ward, A.M. (2010). Academic Writing Skills. Manila,
Philippines: UST Publishing House.
Gerson, S. & Gerson, S. (2006). Technical Writing: Process and Product. 5th Ed.. New Jersey,
USA. Prentice Hall.
Knevel, A.M., & Diganzi, F. (1977). Jenkins’ Quantitative Pharmaceutical Chemistry. 17th
ed.New York, USA : McGraw Hill Book printed by Merriam Wenster Bookstore.
San Miguel, J., Barraqiuo, & Revilla, R. (2010). Smart Writing: An Essential Guide to College
Composition. Quezon City, Philippines. C & E Publishing, Inc.
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