CHAPTER 4

FOUNDATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION –
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure which provides a base for the super-structure and
which transmit the loads of the structure to the ground are known as foundations or substructure. The solid
ground on which the foundations rest is called the foundation bed.
Objects of foundation: - foundations are provided for the following purposes:
1. To distribute the total load coming in the structure on a large area.
2. To support the structure
3. To give enough stability to the structures against various disturbing forces such as wind, rain, etc.
4. To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
It is desirable to visit the site of work and inspect the same carefully from the view point of
foundation details. The nature and thickness of strata of soil may be estimated by studying the excavation
details of nearby constructions or by examining the open side of a nearby well.
4.2 PURPOSE OF SITE EXPLORATION:
The purpose of site exploration is to assess the suitability of a site for a particular project or to
investigate the cause of failure of an existing structure. The primary objectives of soil exploration are:
 Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.
 Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent in their
horizontal direction.
 The location of the ground water table and fluctuations in GWT.
 Obtaining soil rock samples from the various strata.
 The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure, and
 Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.
The information gathered will be used as bases:
 For the selection of foundation.
 To decide on the depth of foundation.
 For the determination of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
 For the performance of settlement of the existing foundation.
4.3 SITE INVESTIGATION:
The subsoil exploration should enable the engineer to draw the soil profile indicating the sequence
of the strata and the properties of the soils involved. In general, the methods available for soil exploration
may be classified as follows:
1. Direct Methods: Test pits, Trial pits or trenches.
2. Semi-direct Methods: Borings.
3. Indirect Methods: Soundings or Penetration tests and geophysical methods.
This stage is the detailed investigation phase and it involves:
 Making test boreholes and /or test pits.
 Collecting soil samples.
 Conducting field tests.

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4.3.1 Test Pits:
 Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory
methods. Soils can be inspected in their natural condition.
The necessary soil samples may be obtained by sampling
techniques and used for ascertaining strength and other
engineering properties by appropriate laboratory tests.
 Test pits will also be useful for conducting field tests such
as the plate-loading test.
 Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths- up to
3m; the cost of these increases rapidly with depth. For greater
depths, especially in granular soils, lateral supports or braking
of the excavations will be necessary. Ground water table
may have to be lowered.
 Hence, test pits are usually made only for supplementing other
methods or for minor structures.
 
4.3.2 Boring:
Making or drilling boreholes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock samples from
specified or known depth is called “boring”. Soil borings are probably the most common methods of
subsurface exploration. The following are the various boring methods commonly used:
i) Auger boring  ii) Auger and shell boring 
iii) wash boring  iv) Percussion boring and 
v) Rotary boring  
1) Auger Boring
 Augers are used in cohesive
and other soft soils above
water table.
 They may either be operated
manually or mechanically.
 Hand Augers are used up to
depth of 6m.
   Mechanically operated
  augers are used for greater
depth and they can also be
used in gravely soil.
2) Auger and shell Boring
 Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge at
lower end can be used for deep boring.
 Hand operated rigs are used for depths up to 25m
and mechanised rigs up to 50m.
 Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clay, shells for
very stiff and hard clays.
 Small boulders, thin soft strata, or rock or cemented
gravel can be broken by chisel bits attached to drill
rods.
 

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 3) Wash Boring
 Is a fast and simple method for
advancing holes in all types of soils.
 Boulders and rocks can't be penetrated
by this method.
Steps:
 Driving a casing with hollow drilled rod
with sharp chisel or chopping bit
 Forcing water under pressure
 Resulting in Chopping and jetting action
 Forcing the cutting up ward and
reviewing the color of wash

4) Percussion Boring
 Soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of
heavy chisel or bit suspended by a cable or drill rod
 Water is added to the hole during boring, if not already
present.
 Suitable for advancing a hole in all types of soils,
boulders and rock. 

5) Rotary Boring
 Rotary drilling is a very fast method
of advancing hole in both rocks and
soils.
 A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of
the drill rods is always kept in firm
contact with the bottom of the hole.
 A water solution of bentonite, with
or without admixtures is
continuously forced down.
 The mud coming up wards bring the
cuttings to the surface. The method
is also known as mud rotary drilling. 

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4.3.3 Geo-physical methods
 They are used when
 The depth of exploration is very large
 The speed of investigation is of primary importance.
 These methods were developed in connection with prospecting of useful minerals and oils.
 The major method of geophysical investigations are:
 Gravitational methods
 Magnetic methods
 Seismic refraction method
 Electrical resistivity method
 Seismic refraction and electrical resistivity methods are the most commonly used for civil
engineering purpose

Seismic refraction method Electrical resistivity method

4.4 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS –
 The supporting power of a soil or rock is refer to as its bearing capacity.
 The ultimate bearing capacity is the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at
which the soil fails in shear.

a) General shear failure

b) Local shear failure

c) Punching shear failure

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 The bearing capacity of soil can be determined by:
The bearing power of soil can be determined by any one of the following two methods :
1) Method of loading
2) Method of dropping a weight.

Method of Loading (Plate load Test)

Method of dropping a weight

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4.5 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads:
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep Foundations
4.5.1 Shallow Foundations
 Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface. Generally where the
foundation depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing are known as shallow foundation.
 Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the
imposed loads.
 They are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill,
peat, alluvial deposits, etc.
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:
1) Spread footing
2) Grillage foundation
3) Combined footing
4) Strap Footing (Cantilever footing)
5) Mat or Raft foundation
1) Spread Footings: -
 Spread footings are those which spread the super-imposed load of wall or column over large area.
 Spread footings support either a column or wall.
 They are most widely used foundation types since they do not require special equipment and skill
for construction and are usually economical.
 Spread footings may be of the following types:

a) Isolated Footings
o These footings are sometimes known as column footings and are used to support the individual
columns, piers or other concentrated load.
o Most column footings are slab footings with two-way reinforcements and constant depth.

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b) Wall Footings (Strip Footings)
o Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-bearing wall, or if a line
of columns need supporting.
o A wall footing may have a base course of concrete may be entirely built up of one material , e.g.
bricks or stones.

2) Grillage Foundations
 They consist of steel or wooden beams arranged in layers at right angles to one another and
embedded in concrete.
 They are generally provided for heavily loaded steel column and used in locations where bearing
capacity of soil is poor.

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3) Combined Footings
 A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing.
 Footings of this type are most frequently used to support walls and columns, which are close to the
property line.
 Combined footings are essential whenever:
o The projections of columns are not possible on one side due to limited available space and
o When the spacing of two consecutive columns are close for isolated footing.
 The combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal load or
trapezoidal shape for unequal loads.

4) Strap Footings (Cantilever Footing)

 If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap footing.
 They serve the same function as combined footings by permitting a column load to be placed near
the edge of the footing.
 It is used where a large spacing between two columns create a situation where a continuous footing
is uneconomical due to the usage of large quantity of concrete.
 A rigid beam connects the two pads to transmit the unbalanced shear and moment from the
statically unbalanced footing to the second footing.

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5) Mat (Raft) Foundation
 A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath the structure and supports
all the walls and columns.
 It is used where:
o The allowable soil pressure is low,
o The building loads are heavy,
o The use of spread footings would cover more than half the area,
o The soil mass contains compressible lenses,
o The soil is sufficiently erratic so that differential settlement would be difficult to control.
 Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly compressible soils, by making the
weight of the structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated (Floating
Buildings).
 Raft foundation is not suitable:
o For steeply sloping sites where excavation would be excessive,
o To frame buildings with heavy concentrated loads where raft thickness and reinforcement
would be excessive.
 Rafts may be divided into three types, based on their design and construction
i. Solid slab system: is a solid reinforced concrete slab generally uniform thickness.
ii. Beam slab system: consists of up-stand or down-stand beams that take the loads of the walls
or columns and spread them.
iii. Cellular system: consists of top and bottom slab separated by and reinforced with vertical
cross ribs in both directions.

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4.5.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
 Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base
bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions,
 This is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level.
 Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to deeper, more competent strata at depth if
unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
Deep foundations are further classified into the following types:
1. Pile Foundation
2. Well foundation
3. Caisson foundation
1) Pile Foundation
 This is an element of a construction placed in the ground either vertically or slightly inclined to
increase the load carrying capacity of the soil.
 Pile foundations may be adopted:
i. Instead of raft foundation where no firm bearing strata exists at any reasonable depth and the
loading is uneven.
ii. When a firm bearing strata does not exist but at a depth such as to make strip or spread footing
uneconomical
iii. When pumping of sub-soil water would be too costly or timbering to excavations too difficult.

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  Classification of Pile Foundation
Piles commonly used in buildings are classified into the following types:
Classification based on basic design function Classification based on the materials used
A. End Bearing Piles A. Timber Piles
B. Friction Piles B. Precast Concrete piles
C. Combined and bearing & friction piles C. Cast in situ concrete plies
D. Cmpaction piles D. Steel piles
E. Composite piles
1. Classification based on basic design function
A. End bearing piles: Transfer load through water or
soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum.
 Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely
to hard strata.
 Multi-storied buildings are invariably founded
on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are
minimised.
B. Friction piles: are used to transfer loads to a depth of
a friction-load-carrying material by means of skin
friction along the length of the pile.
 Such piles are generally used in granular soil
where the depth of hard stratum is very great.
C. Combined end bearing and friction piles: Transfer
the superimposed load both through side friction as
well as end bearing.
D. Compaction piles: are used to compact loose
granular soils, thus increasing bearing capacity.

2. Depending upon the materials used in their production

Piles can be broadly classified as: Timber piles, reinforced concrete piles, steel piles and composite piles.
 Timber piles
Advantage
 Less expensive
 Can be made longer by joining individual piles
 Cutting of piles is very easy
 Can be driven quickly with lighter machine
Disadvantages
 Deteriorate by different actions
 Have lesser loading capacity
 Possibility of damage due to over driving
 Joining work is time taking and expensive

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  Precast concrete piles
Advantages
 Best concrete quality
 Reinforcement bars remain in position
 Concrete withstand loads after complete curing
 Convenient when driven through wet soil
 More suitable where part of length remain exposed
Disadvantages
 Heavy and difficult to transport
 Shocks of driving make them weaker
 Trimming is difficult

 Cast in situ concrete pile:

This is a concrete pile built in permanent location within a hole made for this purpose.
Advantages
 Avoid vibration caused by driving
 Underlying soil can be explored during the process
 Less wastage of material
 No time spent on curing
 Lighter equipment is required than driven piles
Disadvantages
 Quality of concrete may be compromised due to height
 Possible displacement of reinforcement
 Difficult to use under water 

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  Steel piles:
It may be of I-section or hollow pipe section.
 Because of small sectional area, steel piles are easy to drive.
 They are mostly used as bearing piles.
 It is usual to fill the tube with mass concrete to form a composite pile.

 UNDER-REAMED PILES
 Under reamed piles are bored and cast in situ concrete piles having bulb shaped arrangement near
base.
 The principle of this type of foundation is to anchor the structure at a depth where ground
movements due to changes in moisture content or consolidation of the poor strata are negligible.

 WELL FOUNDATION (CAISSONS)

 They are box like structure- circular or rectangular- which are sunk from the surface of either land
or water to the desired depth.
 They are much large in diameter than the pier foundation or drilled caissons.
 Well foundations are used for major foundation works, such as for:
o Bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes etc.

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 o Break waters and other structures for shore protection
o Large water front structures such as pump houses.
 Well foundations or caissons are hollow from inside, which may be filled with sand and are
plugged at the bottom.
 The load is transferred through the perimeter wall.
 Well foundations are not used for building.

 
Shape of well

 
Well Foundation
Questions
1. Explain the purposes for which sub-soil investigation is done.
2. In site reconnaissance what are the things we need to examine.
3. How do you decide the depth of exploration? Mention the recommended depth of exploration for
various types of foundations.
4. What do you understand by a trial pit? When do you adopt this method?
5. Explain in brief the various methods of boring for sub-soil exploration.
6. What do you understand by a bore hole? How do you maintain the details of various types of strata
obtained during boring?
7. Write a short note on sub-surface soundings.
8. What do you understand by geo-physical methods? Enumerate various methods used.
9. What do you understand by ultimate bearing capacity? Enumerate the different methods to
determine the bearing capacity of soil.
10. Explain in detail the plate load test for determining safe bearing capacity of soil.
11. Differentiate clearly between disturbed sample and undisturbed sample.
12. Discuss various functions served by foundations.
13. What are the requirements of a good foundation?
14. What are the causes of failure of foundation? What remedial measures would you adopt?
15. What do you understand by a ‘shallow foundation’? Draw sketches to show various types of
shallow foundation.
16. Differentiate between ‘strip footing’ and ‘pad footing’.
17. Explain with the help of sketches, the following (i) trapezoidal combined footing (ii) strap footing
(iii) mat foundation.
18. Explain the situations in which the pile foundation is preferred.
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 19. Classify various types of piles based on (i) function, (ii) method of construction and (iii) materials
and composition.
20. Differentiate between pile foundation and pier foundation. How does pier foundation differ from
caisson foundation?
21. Describe with sketches the method of setting out foundation trenches.
22. What do you understand by ‘timbering’? Explain with the help of sketches various methods
adopted for different types of soil.
23. Explain ditch sump, well point and deep well system of foundation dewatering with the help of
sketch.
24. What are the main causes of foundation failure? Enumerate those sites considered to be potentially
hazardous for foundation construction.

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