Topologies & Network Mediums

Submitted by: Saad Mateen Roll No:15091519-098

Assignment # 01

Submitted to: Mr. M Bilal Ahmad Janjooa

Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology

University of Gujrat
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Table of contents:
 Network Topology
i. Bus Topology
ii. Ring Topology
iii. Star Topology
iv. Mesh Topology
v. Tree Topology

 Network Medium
i. Twisted-Pair Cable
a) Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
b) Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
ii. Coaxial Cable
iii. Fiber-Optic Cable
iv. Wireless Communication

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Network Topology:
Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a network. It defines the way
different nodes are placed and interconnected with each other. Alternately, network topology
may describe how the data is transferred between these nodes.

Types:
I. Bus Topology
II. Ring Topology
III. Star Topology
IV. Mesh Topology
V. Tree Topology

I. Bus Topology
This structure is very popular for local area networks. In this structure or topology, a single
network cable runs in the building or campus and all nodes are linked along with this
communication line with two endpoints called the bus or backbone as show figure.

a) Working
By this type of topology, if one node goes faulty all nodes may be affected as all nodes share the
same cable for the sending and receiving of information. The cabling cost of bus systems is the
least of all the different topologies. Each end of the cable is terminated using a special
terminator.

b) Advantages
− Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and understand.
− Requires least amount of cable to connect the computers (nodes) together and therefore is less
expensive than other cabling arrangements.
− It's easy to extend, two cables can be easily joined with a connector, making a longer cable for
more computers to join the network.
− A repeater can also be used to extend a bus configuration.

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c) Disadvantages
−Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably because any computer can transmit at any
time. But networks do not coordinate when information is sent. Computer interrupting each other
can use a lot of bandwidth.
− Each connection between two cables weakens the electrical signal.
− The bus configuration can be difficult to find and can cause the whole networks to stop
functioning.

II. Ring Topology

This is yet another structure for local area networks. In this topology, the network cable passes
from one node to another until all nodes are connected in the form of a loop or ring. There is a
direct point-to-point link between two neighboring nodes (the Next and the Previous). These
links are unidirectional which ensures that transmission by a node traverses the whole ring and
comes back to the node, which made the transmission as shown in figure.

a) Working
Information travels around the ring from one node to the next. Each packet of data sent to the
rink is prefixed by the address of the station to which it is being sent. When a packet of data
arrives, the node checks to see if the packet address is the same as its own, if it is, it grabs the
data in the packet. If the packet does not belong to it, it sends the packet to the next node in the
ring. Faulty nodes can be isolated from the ring. When the workstation is powered on, it connects
itself to the ring. When power is off, it disconnects itself from the ring and allows the
information to bypass the node. The most common implementation of this topology is token ring.
A break in the ring causes the entire network to fail. Individual nodes can be isolated from the
ring.

b) Advantages
− Ring networks offer high performance for a small number of workstations or for larger
networks where each station has a similar workload.
− Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of networks. − Ring networks are
easily extendable.

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− Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in Ring topology because the tokens are data
packets that are re-generated at each node.

c) Disadvantages
− Relatively expensive and difficult to install
− Failure of one computer on the network can affect the whole network.
− It is difficult to find fault in a ring network.
− Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network.
− It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.

IV. Star Topology

Star topology uses a central hub through which, all components are connected. In a Star
topology, the central hub is the host computer, and at the end of each connection is a terminal as
shown in Figure.

a) Working
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub. A star network uses a
significant amount of cable as each terminal is wired back to the central hub, even if two
terminals are side by side but several hundred meters away from the host. The central hub makes
all routing decisions, and all other workstations can be simple. An advantage of the star topology
is that failure, in one of the terminals does not affect any other terminal; however, failure of the
central hub affects all terminals. This type of topology is frequently used to connect terminals to
a large time-sharing host computer.

b) Advantages
− It is more reliable (if one connection fails, it does not affect others)

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 − The center of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults and if one computer
fails whole network is not disturbed. Hub detects the fault and isolates the faulty computer.
− It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices, the problem can be easily
detected-It is easier to modify or add a new computer without disturbing the rest of the network
by simply running a new line from the computer to the central location and plugging it to the
hub.
− Use of multiple cable types in a same network with a hub.
− It has good performance

c) Disadvantages
− It is expensive to install as it requires more cable, it costs more to cable a star network because
all network cables must be pulled to one central point, requiring more cable length than other
networking topologies.
− Central node dependency, if central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
− Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch the network
traffic.

V. Mesh Topology
Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a well-
connected topology, every node has a connection to every other node in the network. The cable
requirements are high, but there are redundant paths built in. Failure in one of the computers
does not cause the network to break down, as they have alternative paths to other computers.

a) Working
Mesh topologies are used in critical connection of host computers (typically telephone
exchanges). Alternate paths allow each computer to balance the load to other computer systems
in the network by using more than one of the connection paths available. A fully connected mesh
network therefore has no (n-1) /2 physical channels to link n devices. To accommodate these,
every device on the network must have (n-1) input/output ports.

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b) Advantages
− Yield the greatest amount of redundancy in the event that one of the nodes fails where
network traffic can be redirected to another node.
− Point-to-point link makes fault isolation easy.
− Privacy between computers is maintained as messages travel along dedicated path.
− Network problems are easier to diagnose.

c) Disadvantages
− The amount of cabling required is high.
− A large number of I/O (input/output) ports are required.

VI. Tree Topology

The most common structure or topology known as Tree topology, Tree topology is a LAN
topology in which only one route exists between any two nodes on the network. The pattern of
connection resembles a tree in which all branches spring from one root.

a) Working
Tree topology is a hybrid topology, it is similar to the star topology but the nodes are connected
to the secondary hub, which in turn is connected to the central hub. In this topology group of
star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.

b) Advantages
− Installation and configuration of network are easy.
− The addition of the secondary hub allows more devices to be attached to the central hub.
− Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.

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− Faults in the network can be detected traces.

c) Disadvantages
−Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.
−More cabling is required when compared to the bus topology because each node is connected to
the central hub.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a
network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by
adding another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which
is most often used with star topologies.

References
Kartik Pandya “International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and
Management Studies” Network Structure or Topology [online] Vol 1,pp 22-27(2, July 2013)
Available: www.ijarcsms.com [Oct. 4,2017]

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Network Medium:
Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one
component to another.

i. Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are
twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. When
electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire.
When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the
exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also
cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect.
Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively provide self-
shielding for wire pairs within the network media. Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist:
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). The following sections discuss
UTP and STP cable in more detail.

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a) UTP Cable
UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires (shown in Figure). UTP cable is used
in a variety of networks. Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable ¥is covered by
an insulating material. In addition, the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.
Figure Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit
signal degradation caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI). To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of
twists in the wire pairs varies. UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how
many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable. UTP cable often is installed
using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector. The RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used
commonly to connect computers onto a local-area network (LAN), especially Ethernets.
Although UTP was once considered to be slower at transmitting data than other types of cable,
this is no longer true. In fact, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based medium today. The
following summarizes the features of UTP cable:
• Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps
• Average cost per node— Least expensive
• Media and connector size—Small
• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

b) Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and
wire twisting. Each pair of wires is wrapped in a metallic foil (shown in Figure). The four pairs
of wires then are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable. As
specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP reduces electrical noise both within the
cable (pairto-pair coupling, or crosstalk) and from outside the cable (EMI and RFI). STP usually
is installed with STP data connector, which is created especially for the STP cable. However,
STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

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Figure shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to install.
In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded,
the shield acts like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difficulty
with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is primarily used in Europe.
The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
• Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
• Media and connector size—Medium to large
• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)
When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in mind:
• The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local-area distances.
• These are the least-expensive media for data communication. UTP is less expensive than STP.
• Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards are adapted
to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.
ii. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire
made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of the cable, is a
copper conductor. Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of flexible insulation. Over this
insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts both as the second wire in
the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, can help reduce
the amount of outside interference. Covering this shield is the cable jacket. (Shown in Figure)

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Figure Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable supports 10 to 100 Mbps and is relatively inexpensive, although it is more costly
than UTP on a per-unit length. However, coaxial cable can be cheaper for a physical bus
topology because less cable will be needed. Coaxial cable can be cabled over longer distances
than twisted-pair cable.
For example, Ethernet can run approximately 100 meters (328 feet) using twisted-pair cabling.
Using coaxial cable increases this distance to 500m (1640.4 feet). For LANs, coaxial cable offers
several advantages. It can be run with fewer boosts from repeaters for longer distances between
network nodes than either STP or UTP cable. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a network so
that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable, and
the technology is well known; it has been used for many years for all types of data
communication.
The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:
• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
• Average cost per node—Inexpensive
• Media and connector size—Medium
• Maximum cable length—500 m (medium)

iii. Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two fibers encased in separate sheaths. If you
were viewing it in a cross-section, you would see that each optical fiber is surrounded by layers
of protective buffer material, usually a plastic shield, then a plastic such as Kevlar, and finally an
outer jacket. The outer jacket provides protection for the entire cable, while the plastic conforms
to appropriate fire and building codes. The Kevlar furnishes additional cushioning and protection
for the fragile, hair-thin glass fibers (shown in Figure). Wherever buried fiber-optic cables are
required by codes, a stainless-steel wire sometimes is included for added strength.

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The light-guiding parts of an optical fiber are called the core and the cladding. The core is
usually very pure glass with a high index of refraction. When a cladding layer of glass or plastic
with a low index of refraction surrounds the core glass, light can be trapped in the fiber core.
This process is called total internal reflection. It allows the optical fiber to act like a light pipe,
guiding light for tremendous distances, even around bends. Fiber-optic cable is the most
expensive of the four media discussed in this chapter, but it supports line speeds of more than 1
Gbps.
Two types of fiber-optic cable exist:
• Single-mode—Single-mode fiber cable allows only one mode (or wavelength) of light to
propagate through the fiber. It is capable of higher bandwidth and greater distances than
multimode, and it is often used for campus backbones. This type of fiber uses lasers as the light-
generating method. Single-mode cable is much more expensive than multimode cable. Its
maximum cable length is more than 10 km (32808.4 feet).
• Multimode—Multimode fiber cable allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the
fiber. It is often used for workgroup applications and intrabuilding applications such as risers. It
uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light-generating device. The maximum cable length is 2
km (6561.7 feet).
The following summarizes the features of fiber-optic cables:
• Speed and throughput—More than 1 Gbps
• Average cost per node—Expensive
• Media and connector size—Small
• Maximum cable length—More than 10 km for single mode; up to 2 km for multimode

iv. Wireless Communication

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to transmit data
between devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access
point, used for signal distribution (show in figure) to receive the signals from the access point, a
PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card (wireless NIC). Wireless signals are
electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer space and through a medium
such as air. Therefore, no physical medium is necessary for wireless signals, making them a very
versatile way to build a network. Wireless signals use portions of the RF spectrum to transmit
voice, video, and data. Wireless frequencies range from 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz
(GHz). The data-transmission rates range from 9 kilobits per second (kbps) to as high as 54
Mbps.
The primary difference between electromagnetic waves is their frequency. Low-frequency
electromagnetic waves have a long wavelength (the distance from one peak to the next on the
sine wave), while high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short wavelength.

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Some common applications of wireless data communication include the following:
• Accessing the Internet using a cellular phone
• Establishing a home or business Internet connection over satellite
• Beaming data between two hand-held computing devices
• Using a wireless keyboard and mouse for the PC

Reference
By Cisco Systems, Inc.. CCNA Self-Study: CCNA Basics (CCNAB)(Chapter8 Network media
Types) Published by Cisco Press Dec 16, 2002,pp107-115

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