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Development of Organic Composite Materials for Structural applications
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A composite is combination of two materials in which one of the materials, called the
reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other
materials called the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal,
ceramic, or polymer. Composites typically have a fiber or particle phase that is stiffer and
stronger than the continuous matrix phase and serve as the principal load carrying members. The
matrix acts as a load transfer medium between fibers, and in less ideal cases where the loads are
complex, the matrix may even have to bear loads transverse to the fiber axis. The matrix is more
ductile than the fibers and thus acts as a source of composite toughness. The matrix also serves to
protect the fibers from environmental damage before, during and after composite processing.
When designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than would each
individual material. Composites are used not only for their structural properties, but also for
electrical, thermal, tribological, and environmental applications. Composites are multifunctional
material systems that provide characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are
cohesive structures made by physically combining two or more compatible materials, different in
composition and characteristics. In the broader significance; the combination has its own
distinctive properties. In terms of strength to resistance to heat or some other desirable quality, it
is better than either of the components alone or radically different from either of them. The
composites are compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact that the individual
components retain their characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take
advantage only of their attributes and not of their short comings”, in order to obtain improved
materials. composite materials as heterogeneous materials consisting of two or more solid
phases, which are in intimate contact with each other on a microscopic scale. They can be also
considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic scale in the sense that any portion of it
will have the same physical property. The following are some of the reasons why composites are
selected for certain applications: High strength to weight ratio (low density high tensile
strength) High creep resistance, High tensile strength at elevated temperature, High toughness.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 1

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
1.2.1 According to the type of reinforcing material composites can be

classified as:
(1) Fibrous Composite: A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared
to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of
contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture
resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of
incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly
with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non-polymeric materials exhibit much
higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material,
are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of
polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and
stiffness.
(2) Particulate Composites: In particulate composites the reinforcement is of particle

nature. It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape. In
general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the
stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the
properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities,
improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion
resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage.
1.2.2 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:
(1) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
(2) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
(3) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

(1) Metal Matrix Composites: Higher strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are
offered by metal matrices. Metal matrix can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Titanium, aluminium and magnesium are the popular
matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. Because
of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of
applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables,
heat exchangers, structural members etc.
(2) Ceramic matrix Composites: One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix
composites is to increase the toughness. Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is
a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.
(3) Polymer Matrix Composites: Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. In
general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In
particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties
are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer
matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesn‟t require high temperature. Also
equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason
polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural
applications.
Two types of polymer composites are:
(a) Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
(b) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)
(a) Fiber Reinforced Polymer: Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of
fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix
glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers.
Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties
to the composites, and / or reduce the product cost.

(b) Particle Reinforced Polymer: Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and
glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous
materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the
matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix
1.3 HYBRID COMPOSITE
Hybrid composites are more advanced composites as compared to conventional FRP composites.
Hybrids can have more than one reinforcing phase and a single matrix phase or single
reinforcing phase with multiple matrix phases or multiple reinforcing and multiple matrix
phases. They have better flexibility as compared to other fiber reinforced composites. Normally
it contains a high modulus fiber with low modulus fiber. The high-modulus fiber provides the
stiffness and load bearing qualities, whereas the low-modulus fiber makes the composite more
damage tolerant and keeps the material cost low. The mechanical properties of a hybrid
composite can be varied by changing volume ratio and stacking sequence of different plies.
Reference to hybrid composites most frequently relates to the kinds of fibre-reinforced materials,
usually resin-based, in which two types of fibres are incorporated into a single matrix. The
concept is a simple extension of the composites principle of combining two or more materials so
as to optimise their value to the engineer, permitting the exploitation of their better qualities
while lessening the effects of their less desirable properties. As such, the definition is much more
restrictive than the reality. Any combination of dissimilar materials could in fact be thought of as
a hybrid. A classic example is the type of structural material in which a metal or paper
honeycomb or a rigid plastic foam is bonded to thin skins of some high-performance FRPs, the
skins carrying the high surface tensile and compressive loads and the core providing lightweight
(and cheap) structural stability. The combination of sheets of aluminium alloy with laminates of
fibre-reinforced resin, as in the commercial product ARALL is a related variety of layered
hybrid, and the mixing of fibrous and particulate fillers in a single resin or metal matrix produces
another species of hybrid composite. Some hybrids of current interest represent attempts to
reduce the cost of expensive composites containing reinforcements like carbon fibre by
incorporating a proportion of cheaper, lower-quality fibres such as glass without too seriously
reducing the mechanical properties of the original composite. Of equal importance is the reverse
principle that of stiffening a GRP structure with a small quantity of judiciously placed carbon or

aromatic polyamide fibre, without inflicting too great a cost penalty. In high-technology fields
the question of cost may be insignificant by comparison with the advantages of optimising
properties. In aerospace applications, a familiar purpose of using hybrids is to utilise the natural
toughness of GRP or of Kevlar-fibre-reinforced plastics to offset a perceived brittleness of
typical CFRP. From the designer's point of view the important aspect of using hybrids is that
provided there is adequate understanding of the underlying mechanisms of stiffening,
strengthening and toughening, they allow even closer tailoring of composite properties to suit
specific requirements than can be achieved with single-fibre types of composites.
1.4 NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
The wide range of processes used to produce reinforced plastics is partly new, and partly derived
from established methods of processing ordinary polymeric materials. The manner of combining
fibres and matrix into a composite material depends very much on the particular combination in
question and on the scale and geometry of the structure to be manufactured. The commoner
varieties of thermoplastic-based materials, like glass-filled Nylon and glass-filled polyacetal, are
made largely by the injection moulding of granules of material in which the chopped fibres and
matrix have been pre-compounded. The principal problem in such cases is that the flow of
material during moulding may be non-uniform, especially in moulds of complex geometry.
There may be regions in which the fibres are highly oriented and others where the degree of
orientation is almost nil, as well as variations in fibre content from place to place. Preferential
fibre orientation is often useful, but only if it can be adequately controlled. Some very
sophisticated recent developments in multiple live-feed injection moulding by Bevis and co-
workers have enabled the inventors to produce short-fibre filled thermoplastics with very well
aligned fibre arrays in different parts of a moulding with the result that the properties of these
materials can compete favourably with those of many continuous-fibre composites. Continuous -
fibre thermoset composites are produced by quite different methods. Cylindrically symmetric
structures such as pressure vessels, tanks, rocket-motor casings, centrifuge cylinders, and a
variety of pipes, can be made by winding fibres or tapes soaked with pre-catalysed resin onto
expendable or removable mandrels. Winding patterns may be simple or complex and may be
accurately calculated to resist a prescribed stress system. Variations in winding pattern or in the
combination of stresses subsequently applied to the structure will clearly change the extent to

which the fibres are loaded purely in tension or to which shear stresses are introduced between
separate layers of winding. After the resin has hardened the mandrel is removed and, if size
permits, the product may be post-cured at an elevated temperature. Extremely large vessels can
be made by this method, but these must usually be left to cure at ambient temperature. Since the
winding procedure can be closely controlled, a high degree of uniformity is possible in the fibre
distribution of filament-wound structures, but planes of weakness sometimes occur between
winding layers, especially if resin-rich pockets are allowed to form. An important feature of this
process is that after a structure has been designed according to well-defined principles based on
stress analysis of composite materials, the design software can be extended to provide
instructions to a computer or numerically-controlled winding machine to manufacture the vessel
to close tolerances. Large panels and relatively complex open structural shapes are easily
constructed by hot-pressing sheets of pre-impregnated fibres or cloth between flat or shaped
platens, or by vacuum autoclaving with the aid of atmospheric pressure to consolidate a stack of
„prepreg‟ sheets against a heated, shaped die. Woven reinforcements are particularly useful for
constructing shapes with double curvature since they can readily be „draped‟ over quite complex
formers, unlike unidirectional prepregs which may wrinkle because of their anisotropy. Pressing
must be carried out carefully to produce intimate association of the fibres in different layers, with
expulsion of trapped air (and of excess resin unless the prepreg is of the „zero-bleed‟ variety
containing no excess resin), and the time/temperature cycle must be controlled so as to ensure
final curing of the resin only when these conditions have been met. Higher fibre contents are
obtainable with non-woven laminates than with woven-cloth composites, and the characteristics
of the two types of material are quite different. The orientation of the fibres in the separate
laminations is varied to suit the specific load-bearing characteristics required of the laminate or
moulding. Although this is a common process and a great deal of experience has been
accumulated in its use, control of the autoclave cycle is sometimes difficult to establish since
there is a complex interaction between the kinetics of the resin cure, the resin curing exotherm,
and the externally applied pressure and temperature. For complex aeronautical and similar
structures, the relationship between computer-based design procedures and robotic or computer-
controlled manufacturing processes has considerably improved the production engineering of
composites. In particular, the construction of the stacked laminates ready for processing or
autoclaving may be carried out by a computer-controlled tape-laying machine which can lay up

components rapidly, accurately, and with minimum waste of raw materials. Such a system
permits of greater design flexibility than is possible in manual production and can consistently
produce parts of higher strength. Most other operations, including prepreg trimming, transfer
between operations, autoclaving, component trimming, and assembly can also be carried out
with a high level of software control. In the pultrusion process, tightly packed bundles of fibres,
soaked in catalysed resin, are pulled through a shaped die to form highly aligned, semi-
continuous sections of simple or complex geometry.
1.4.1 JUTE FIBER
Jute is a best fiber obtained from inner bast tissues of the plant stem. The fibers are bound
together by gummy materials (pectinous substances) which keep the fiber bundles cemented with
non – fibrous tissues of jute bark. These encircling soft tissues must be softened, dissolved and
washed away so that the fiber can be obtained from the stem. This is done by steeping the stems
–
organisms (mainly bacillus bacteria) decompose upon temperatures and the type of water used. It
has been found that the presence of higher the tenacity of fiber
Fig 1.4.1 Jute Fiber
In this research, a unidirectional type of fabric weave having a count of 20 x 12 (for yarns of
245 – 302 Tex) is investigated. 20 x 12 indicates 20 in number larger yarns in the wrap direction
and 12 in number smaller yarns in the weft direction per inch are used. Jute fiber is 100% bio-
degradable and recyclable and thus environmentally friendly. It is a natural fiber with golden and
silky shine and hence called The Golden Fibre. It is the cheapest vegetable fiber procured from
the best or skin of the plant's stem.
Table 1.4.1 Different Properties of Jute Fiber
Typical Properties High Strength High Modulus Ultra-High Modulus

Density (g/cm 3 ) 1.8 1.9 2.0 - 2.1
Young's Modulus 230 370 520 – 620
(GPa)
Tensile Strength 2.48 1.79 1.03 - 1.31
(GPa)
Tensile Elongation 1.1 0.5 0.2
(%)
It is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton, in terms of usage, global
consumption, production, and availability. It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and
ensures better breath ability of fabrics. Therefore, jute is very suitable in agricultural commodity
bulk packaging. It helps to make best quality Industrial yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. It is one of
the most versatile natural fibres that have been used in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-
textile, construction, and agricultural sectors. Bulking of yarn results in a reduced breaking
tenacity and an increased breaking extensibility when blended as a ternary blend. Unlike the
hemp fibre, jute is not a form of cannabis. The best source of jute in the world is the Bengal
Delta Plain in the Ganges Delta, most of which is occupied by Bangladesh. Advantages of jute
include good insulating and antistatic properties, as well as having low thermal conductivity and
moderate moisture regain. Other advantages of jute include acoustic insulating properties and
manufacture with no skin irritations. Jute has the ability to be blended with other fibres, both
synthetic and natural, and accepts cellulose dye classes such as natural, basic, vat, sulfur,
reactive, and pigment dyes. As the demand for natural comfort fibres increases, the demand for
jute and other natural fibres that can be blended with cotton will increase. To meet this demand,
some manufactures in the natural fibre industry plan to modernize processing with the Rieter's
Elitex system. The resulting jute/cotton yarns will produce fabrics with a reduced cost of wet
processing treatments. Jute can also be blended with wool. By treating jute with caustic soda,
crimp, softness, pliability, and appearance is improved, aiding in its ability to be spun with wool.
Liquid ammonia has a similar effect on jute, as well as the added characteristic of improving

flame resistance when treated with flame proofing agents. Natural fibers, often referred to as
vegetable fibers, are extracted from plants and are classified into three categories, depending on
the part of the plant they are extracted from. Fruit fibres are extracted from the fruits of the plant,
they are light and hairy, and allow the wind to carry the seeds. Bast fibers are found in the stems
of the plant providing the plant its strength. Usually they run across the entire length of the stem
and are therefore very long. Fibers extracted from the leaves are rough and sturdy and form part
of the plant‟s transportation system, they are called leaf fibers. When determining the properties
of natural fibers, one has to keep in mind that one is dealing with natural products with properties
that are strongly influenced by their growing Environment. Also the way the plants are harvested
and processed results in a variation of properties. Jute fibers are extracted from the ribbon of the
stem. When harvested the plants are cut near the ground with a sickle shaped knife. The small
fibers, 5 mm, are obtained by successively retting in water, see figure 3.3, beating, stripping the
fiber from the core and drying. Due to its short fibre length, jute is the weakest stem fiber,
although it withstands rotting very easily. It is used as packaging material (bags), carpet backing,
ropes, yarns and wall decoration.
Table 1.4.2 Comparing Different Properties of Natural Fiber
Property Jute Sisal Coir

Width (mm ) - 50-200 100-450
Density (gms./cc) 1.3 1.45 1.15
Volume Resistivity at 100 - 0.4-0.5 9-14
V
Micro-Febrile Angle 8.1 10-22 30-49
(degree)
Cellulose/Lignin Content 61/12 67/12 43/45
Elastic Modulus (GN/m2) - 9-16 4-6
Tenacity (MN/m2) 440-533 568-640 131-175
Elongation (%) 1-1.2 3-7 15-40

1.5 Advantages of natural fibre reinforced composites:
 Reduction in density of products.

 Acceptable specific strength, toughness and stiffness in comparison with glass
fibre reinforced composites.
 Ease of shaping into complex shapes in a single manufacturing process.
 Lower energy consumption from fibre growing to finished composites
 The manufacturing processes are relatively safe when compared with glass based
reinforced composites.
 Possibility of recycling the cuttings and wastage produced during manufacturing
and moulding.
 The production of natural fibres can be started with a low capital investment and
with a lower cost.
 Bast fibres exhibit good thermal and acoustic insulation properties.
1.6 Disadvantages of natural fibre reinforced composites:
 Lack of consistency of fibre quality, high level of variability in fibre properties depending
upon source and cultivars.
 Preparation of fibre is labour intensive and time consuming.
 Poor compatibility between fibres and matrix, which requires surface treatment of fibres.
 High moisture absorption, which brings about dimensional changes in composite
materials.
 Low density of bast fibres can be disadvantageous during composites processing
application because fibre tends to migrate to the surface rather than getting mixed with
matrix.
 Fluctuation in price depending upon the global demand and production.
 Problem of storing raw material for extended time due to possibility of degradation,
biological attack of fungi and mildew, loss in colour, and foul odour development.
 Lower resistance to ultra violet radiation, which causes the structural degradation of the
composites.

1.7 APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES
The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for following applications:
Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false ceiling, partition boards, wall,
floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile or pre-fabricated buildings which can be used
in times of natural calamities such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc. Storage devices: post-
boxes, grain storage silos, bio-gas containers, etc. Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc.
Electric devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc. Everyday applications: lampshades, suitcases,
helmets, etc. Transportation: automobile and railway coach.
1.8 NATURALLY AVAILABLE BINDERS
1.8.1 TAMARIND SEEDS
Tamarind seed is an underutilized byproduct of the tamarind pulp industry. Only a small portion
of the seed, in the form of tamarind kernel powder (TKP), is used as a sizing material in the
textile, paper, and jute industries. Though many applications of this seed are possible, there have
been hardly any other uses for it including using it as an additive in food formulations. The
excellent gelling cum adhesive characteristics of the decorticated seed powder can lead to several
applications in food and pharmaceutical industries which are evident by the number of research
papers as well as patent applications.
Figure 1.8.1 Tamarind Seed

The tamarind is a long-lived, medium-growth, bushy tree, which attains a maximum crown
height of 12 to 18 metres (40 to 60 feet). The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of
dense foliage. The tree grows well in full sun in clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a
high drought and aerosol salt (wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas) resistance. Leaves are
evergreen, bright green in color, elliptical ovular, arrangement is alternate, of the pinnately
compound type, with pinnate venation and less than 5 cm (2 inches) in length. The branches
droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures and is often pruned in human agriculture to
optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up. The tamarind does
flower, though inconspicuously, with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm wide
(one inch), five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks. Buds are
pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms. The fruit is an indehiscent
legume, sometimes called a pod, 12 to 15 cm (3 to 6 inches) in length, with a hard, brown shell.
The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidulous pulp. It is mature when the flesh is coloured brown or
reddish-brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods containing six to 12 seeds, whereas
African and West Indian varieties have short pods containing one to six seeds. The seeds are
somewhat flattened, and glossy brown. The tamarind is best described as sweet and sour in taste,
and is high in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins and, oddly for a fruit, calcium.As a tropical species,
it is frost sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind.
Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood. It is
harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree may be capable of producing up to 175
kg of fruit per year. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding, and air layering may be
used to propagate desirable selections. Such trees will usually fruit within three to four years if
provided optimum growing conditions.
1.8.2 Gum of Aegle marmelos
Gum is obtained from fruits of Aegle marmelos belonging to family Rutaceae. It was a native of
Australia and is also reported in India and Ceylon. This plant is a small, deciduous, smooth tree.
The spines are straight, strong, axillary and about 2.5 cm in length. The leaflets are 3 to 5 and
ovate-lanceolate, the laterals one being sessile and the terminal ones long petiole. The flowers
are 3 cm across and greenish-white. The fruit is nearly spherical about 10 to 14 cm in diameter.
The rind is grey or yellow and the pulp sweet, thick, aromatic, gelatinous and orange-colored.

Figure 1.8.2 Aegle marmelos gum fruit
The seeds are numerous, oblong and flat. Pulp contains carbohydrates, proteins, vitamin C,
vitamin A. Small unripe fruit is consumed with fennel seeds and ginger in decoction for piles.
The unripe fruit poultice is applied to inflammation, edema, constipation and jaundice. It were
used against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi dengue vector, cure scurvy and also used as
anti-hyperglycemic. The various gums were used as a tablet binder in pharmaceutical dosage
forms. Aegle marmeloes gum can be used as binding agent in tablet formulations and substituted
for more expensive binders. So natural materials can be extensively used in the field of drug
delivery because they are readily available, low cost ecofriendly potentially degradable and
compatible due to their natural origin. The popularity of new excipient research is growing
tremendously over the last few decades due to increasing demand for safe, economical and
functionally reliable substitutes for the existing synthetic ones. Binders are pharmaceutical
excipients that are commonly employed in tablet formulation to impact cohesion on the powder

mix and hence improve on flow properties. A one of the tree is widely found in Shivaliks &
Himalayas.
1.8.3 Plant gum
Plant exudate gums are known to contain varying amounts of proteinaceous materials .It Has
been suggested that the gum proteins may arise as contaminants when the exuding gums come
into contact with the stem of the tree.
An alternate suggestion that the proteins might be integral components of the gum as enzymes
involved in polysaccharide formation has not been verified. Neem gum occupies a special
position among plant gums in that, it contains about one-third of its weight as proteins , the
highest concentration reported for any plant gum.
Figure 1.8.3 Neem Plant Gum
Thus, neem gum is an excellent experimental material for the study of the biological activities of
proteins in exudate gums. In this paper, we report the presence of proteolytic activity in neem
gum. Preliminary data on the properties of the two protease fractions separated from the gum are
also presented. we can get different types of gum from different plant like mango tree, sap, bark,
plum tree.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
[1] NEHA S.VYAVHARE et.al: proposed the using tamarind kernel powder from
different areas in Thailand (Uthaithani, Ang Thong, and Nakhon Sawan) as a thickening agent
for printing polyester with disperse dye in comparison to the commercial tamarind kernel powder
from India as presently used in textile printing was examined. All tamarind kernel powder
samples presented high polysaccharide and protein contents. The obtained result indicated that
the properties as colour values, colour strength (K/S), overall fastness properties, handling, and
sharpness of printed polyester fabric were good to very good levels. Only slight differences were
observed between two places of tamarind kernel powder (Thailand and India) utilized for
thickening agent. Tamarind seed gum or tamarind kernel powder (TKP) is derived from the
seeds of Tamarindus indica Linn.
[2] School of Science and Technology, University of the Thai Chamber of

Commerce, (Bangkok): The effect of tamarind kernel powder (TKP, 0-2.7% w/w), gum
arabic (GA, 0-18% w/w) and maltodextrin (MD, 0-27% w/w) on droplet size, rheological
properties, ζ-Potential, encapsulation efficiency and the stability of W/O/W emulsions from
methyl gallate. The result shows that increasing GA and MD reflected to small droplet size. The
viscosity was directly related to GA, MD and TKP. The higher concentration of MD and GA
reflected to lower creaming layer. The higher encapsulation efficiency was found with increasing
the concentration of GA and MD. The results suggested that the novel combination of TKP, GA
and MD has a potential usage as wall material in phenolic encapsulation.
[3] Maninder Kaur et.al: Effects of addition of different levels of gums (xanthan,
carboxymethyl cellulose and locust bean gum) on the pasting properties of tamarind kernel,
potato and rice flour were studied by using Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA). Tamarind kernel
powder (TKP) varied significantly (P < 0.05) from rice and potato flours with respect to its
highest protein, ash and fat contents. The results of RVA analysis indicated that pasting
properties of flour/gum mixtures were dependent upon the concentration and type of the gums.
Peak, breakdown and final viscosity increased with increase in gum concentration in the

flour/gum mixture, but the effect was more pronounced for rice and potato flour than for TKP
which showed much lower viscosity responses to all of the gums. Among the three gums studied,
the increase in viscosity was significantly higher with addition of locust bean gum followed by
xanthan while the lowest was observed.
[4] Rohini S. Kharwade et al: In the present work, the binder is made by using Aegle
marmelos fruit gum as a binder was formulated. The preliminary evaluation of Aegle marmelos
gum showed that bulk density 0.42 ± 0.2 g/cm3 , tapped density 0.45 ± 0.3 g/cm3. Tablets were
subjected for evaluation of uniformity of weight, hardness, friability, drug content uniformity,
swelling behavior, release rate study, muco adhesive study, and tensile strength study.
Formulation was studied for drug additive interaction (FTIR). F4 is found to be optimized
formulation. The in-vitro drug release of F4 formulation exhibits complete release of Diclofenac
Sodium with non fiction first order release kinetic. The formulation F4 exhibited tensile strength
0.27 N with 10 hrs of muco adhesion.From the study it can be conclude that the Aegle marmelos
gum used as muco adhesive sustained release matrix tablet.
[5] Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, KLES’s College of

Pharmacy, Gadag: In the present work, we have formulated the oral tablets of paracetamol
by using Aegle marmelos fruit gum as a binder. The four different tablet formulations were
prepared by wet granulation method. The binder concentrations used in the formulation were 2,
4, 6 & 8 % w/w of cordia fruit gum; tablets were subjected for evaluation of hardness, friability,
drug content uniformity. Preliminary evaluation of granules showed that, 0.71 to 0.77 mm
granule size, 29.20 to 30.10º angles of repose and 22.1 to 12.7 % fines. Hardness was found to be
in the range of 7.1 to 7.4 kg/cm2 the percent friability was in the range of 1.50 to 0.75 %, and
tablet showed 97.46 to 98.96 % of labeled amount of paracetamol indicating uniformity in drug
content, 8 to 18 min disintegration time and more than 90% dissolution in 75 min. Tablets at 6 %
w/w binder concentration showed more optimum results as tablet binder. The Aegle marmelos
gum was found to be useful for the preparation of uncoated tablet.

[6] Dept. of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, RME’s College of

Pharmacy, Gulbarga: The objective of present investigation was to evaluate fruit mucilages
of Aegle marmelos (Bael) as a binder for pharmaceutical dosage forms. Natural gums are
economic, easily available and found useful as tablet binder. No significant work has been
reported on fruit mucilages of Aegle marmelos to use it as a tablet binder. Tablets were prepared
with fruit mucilages of Aegle marmelos and evaluated for tablet characteristics. Wet granulation
technique was used for the preparation of Paracetamol granules. The binder concentrations used
in the formulation were 2, 4, 6 & 8 % w/w. The evaluation of granules showed 0.43 to 0.71 mm
granule size, 26.15 to 30.15 º angles of repose and 20.1 to 12.3 % fines. Tablets were compressed
to hardness at about 5.1 to 6.5 kg/cm2. The evaluation of tablet showed 1.25 to 0.5 % friability,
11 to 15 min disintegration time and more than 90% dissolution in 80 min. Tablets at 6% w/w
binder concentration showed more optimum results as tablet binder. The fruit mucilages of Aegle
marmelos was found to be useful for the preparation of uncoated tablet dosage form.
[7] Joy Mazurek et al: This paper presents, Plant gums have been used in a variety of
applications such as in food emulsifiers, stabilisers, and thickeners, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
textiles, and in art. Plant gums have been used for centuries as binding media, to paint, write and
illuminate manuscripts and to apply metallic leaf decorations . Gums and other kind of
saccharide materials, such as honey, fig milk or starch, are known to have been used as binding
media, sizing agents or mummification materials since antiquity. Actually, carbohydrates are
contained in a variety of materials used as support, binders and varnishes in painted objects.
Wood and paper are common paint supports ,and carbohydrates, both free and bound.

CHAPTER 3
FORMATION OF COMPOSITES
The basic engineering properties of composite material can be determined by either experimental
stress analysis (testing) or theoretical mechanics(micromechanics).The micromechanics
approach utilizes knowledge of individual fiber and resin properties and the proportionality of
fiber to the resin lamina .A rule of mixture approach can be best used to drive the majority of a
composite lamina property. When fabricating a composite material and structure from dry fiber
and pouring the liquid resin on fiber, the correct ratio of weight of fiber and resin are required.
3.1 VOLUME AND WEIGHT RATIO OF JUTE COMPOSITE LAMINATES:
Area of jute sample =22×22=484sq.cms
3.1.1 Jute +tamarind powder + plant gum:
 Sample 1:
Weight of jute fiber=64.5gms=65% for 4 layers
Weight of tamarind + plant gum=34.73gms=35% for 4 layers
 Sample 2:
Weight of tamarind +plant gum=43gms=40% for 4 layers
 Sample 3:
Weight of tamarind + plant gum=64.5gms =50% for 4 layers
 Sample 4:
Weight of jute fiber =64.5gms=40% for 4 layers
Weight of tamarind + plant gum=96.75gms =60% for 4 layers

3.1.2 Jute +tamarind powder + gum of Aegle marmelos:
 Sample 1:
Weight of tamarind +gum of aegle marmelos=34.73gms=35% for 4 layers

 Sample 2:
Weight of tamarind + gum of aegle marmelos =43gms=40% for 4 layers
 Sample 3:
Weight of tamarind+ gum of aegle marmelos =64.5gms =50% for 4 layers
 Sample 4:
Weight of jute fiber =64.5gms=40% for 4 layers
Weight of tamarind+ gum of aegle marmelos =96.75gms =60% for 4 layers

3.2 HAND LAY-UP

Hand lay-up molding is used for the production of parts of any dimensions such as technical
parts with a surface area of a few square feet, as well as swimming pools as large as 1600 square
feet (approx. 150 m²). But this method is generally limited to the manufacture of parts with
relatively simple shapes that require only one face to have a smooth appearance (the other face
being rough from the molding operation). It is recommended for small and medium volumes
requiring minimal investment in molds and equipment.
Figure 3.2.1 Open Hand lay –up Process

The contact molding method consists of applying these elements successively on to a mold
surface: a release agent, a gel coat, a layer of liquid thermosetting Resin, of viscosity between 0.3
and 0.4 Pa.s, and of medium reactivity, a layer of reinforcement (glass, aramid, carbon, etc.) in
the form of chopped strand Mat or woven Roving, Impregnation of the reinforcement is done by
hand using a roller or a brush. This operation is repeated for each layer of reinforcement in order
to obtain the desired Thickness of the structure.

Figure 3.2.2 Cutting Jute Material into Square shape(22×22)sq.cms
Figure 3.2.3 Making Laminates using Open Hand Lay-up Process

Figure 3.2.4 Process during Laminates Preparing
Figure 3.2.5 Laminate after Hand lay up Process

3.3 FOOD COATING
3.3.1 STEPS INVOLVED IN FOOD COATING:
• Cut the specimen as per required dimension.
• Fix the specimen on two ends with help of hangers.
• By manual spray, spray Teflon on both side of specimen properly and leave for 2-3 hours.
• Hot air blasting: In this process pass the hot air (at 60-80 degree) is passed on the specimen in
hot air oven (curing).
• Inspected properly.
Applying Teflon coatings is a relatively easy process, using normal coating equipment and tech-
niques. This Fact Sheet provides general guidelines for proper application; where special
application techniques are required, the specific product Fact Sheet will indicate what deviations
from normal procedures are necessary. Normal industrial health and safety practices should be
followed when applying Teflon coatings. Ventilation and filtration systems should be
maintained; cleanliness and good housekeeping practices are essential to prevent damage to the
finish and for the safety of workers. Parts must have no unvented cavities which would cause
rupture when heated to the cure temperatures of these coatings. Particular items covered in detail
in the specific product Fact Sheets are: How to mix, particularly if the product is shear sensitive.
Whether the product needs to be diluted or thinned prior to use, and what solvent to use. Any
special application equipment recommended. Cure temperatures, and whether it is necessary to
force dry prior to curing. What primer to use with a particular top coat slightly above the final
cure temperature will prevent any oil or remaining surface contamination from volatilizing
during the cure step and forming blisters or discoloring. Most Teflon coatings require the
substrate surface be grit blasted or roughened to assure adhesion. In a few situations, such as
when the piece is completely encapsulated or there will be minor abrasion, the grit-blast step can
be eliminated if using resin- bonded Teflon. Zinc phosphate is commonly used to improve rust
resistance. The blast medium must be free of contaminants. Aluminum oxide is recommended.

3.3.2 MANUAL SPRAY
In most cases, compressed air and standard spray equipment are the most suitable for Teflon
coatings. The spray guns should be held perpendicular to the piece using a flat, rectangular
motion of the spray gun. “Whipping” the gun in an arc tends to make the wet film bubble and
will cause excessive beading on the edges of the part
fff
Figure 3.3.2 Spray Machine
Suction, gravity, or pressure-type spray equipment are all suitable for spraying Teflon coatings.
All spray equipment should be made from aluminum or stainless steel, or coated with Teflon.
Transfer lines should be chemically inert and solvent resistant (e.g., tubing coated with Teflon,
polyethylene, stainless steel). Airlines must be trapped to prevent oil or water from
contaminating the compressed air or the product. Normal distance from the gun to the part is 4–
12 in. (10–30 cm). If the gun is too close, the finish will look rippled. If it is too far, the spray
will be dry and rough. Reducing the atomizing pressure will help resolve both problems, too. The
finishes are fed to the guns through pressure pots with fluid pressures in the range of 5–8 psi
(0.5–0.6 kg/cm2).Where flat items are carried on a flatbed conveyor; the spray guns may
reciprocate transversely and spray continuously.

3.3.3 POWDER COATING
Teflon powder coatings are free-flowing powders that are applied with conventional
electrostatic powder equipment, with either spray guns or fluidized bed. The application voltage
and technique depends on the particular equipment, although the highly attractive nature of the
powder permits a wide range of application voltages. After one or two coats, the part may
become too insulated for subsequent coats of Teflon® powder to be applied electrostatically. In
this case, the part may be sprayed hot (hot flocked) as it comes out of the oven from curing the
previous coat. This requires adequate ventilation. Even the small amounts of decomposition
products of fluoropolymers which occur at bake temperatures may cause discomfort to people in
the area if the fumes are not vented to the outdoors and allowed to be diluted by the outside air.
Figure 3.3.3 Powder Coating Machine
3.3.4 CURE
Reaching and maintaining proper cure temperatures for a sufficient period of time to sinter, melt
flow, or set the film is one of the most important factors in achieving a finish that will perform at
its optimum. All temperatures mentioned in the Fact Sheets refer to metal temperatures, meaning
that the part must be placed in an oven set at a high enough temperature and for a long enough
time to allow the part itself to reach the recommended cure temperature. Ovens should be
calibrated at least twice per year, and thermocouples should be used on the parts. For coatings
that are primarily PTFE, PFA, and FEP fluoropolymers, no film formation will take place below

certain minimum temperatures. This means there is a limited, but practical, baking range for
PTFE, FEP, and PFA products mentioned in the Fact Sheet for the product.
Figure 3.3.4 Hot Air Curing
Teflon coatings contain organic binders in addition to the fluoropolymer resins. Cure time and
temperature are important considerations for these coatings also, but there usually is a greater
range of possible cure temperatures, resulting in varying film properties. Excessive bakes (time
and/or temperature) will degrade the auxiliary organic binder, causing discoloration, film
embrittlement, and loss of adhesion. Teflon coatings stratify during the cure process, so that the
fluoropolymer is more concentrated at the surface. The result of underbaking (or baking at the
lower end of the specified temperature range) will be limited stratification, as well as reduced
adhesion, hardness, corrosion resistance, and abrasion resistance.
3.3.5 OVEN

All commonly used types of industrial ovens are used for curing Teflon coatings. Teflon
coatings are not affected by the combustion products of coal gas or natural gas, so direct-fired
gas ovens may be used. Both batch ovens and high-production conveyorized ovens are used.
Conveyorized ovens must be carefully designed to give accurate and uniform temperature
control because maximum conveyor speed and minimum oven length are important economic
factors that operate to reduce dwell time. Ovens should be calibrated at least twice per year, and
thermocouples used on the parts themselves or in the oven at several locations, recognizing that
air temperatures are of little value except when based on experience with a given oven and oven
load over a period of time.
Factors that affect total bake time (including warm up):
• Time in oven
• Heat capacity of oven
• Mass and thermal conductivity of the substrate
• Air circulation
• Oven air temperature and/or radiant energy
• Percent of substrate covered by Teflon (insulator)
• Load of work in the oven
• Weight to surface area ratio
CHAPTER 4
TESTING
4.1 Tensile test
The hybrid composite material fabricated is cut into required dimension using a saw cutter and
the edges finished by using emery paper for mechanical testing. The tensile test specimen is
prepared according to the ASTM D638 standard. The dimensions, gauge length and cross-head
speeds are chosen according to the ASTM D638 standard. A tensile test involves mounting the
specimen in a machine and subjecting it to the tension. The testing process involves placing the
test specimen in the testing machine and applying tension to it until it fractures. The tensile force
is recorded as a function of the increase in gauge length. During the application of tension, the
elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied force
Figure 4.1.1 Tensile Testing Machine

Figure 4.1.2 Standard dimension for tensile testing (ASTM D638)
Figure 4.1.3 Laminate after Cutting required for Tensile Test
4.2 Compression Test
When an axial load (by definition, columns are subjected to compression axial loads) is applied
to a column, the column may fail because the stress in the column exceeds the yield stress of the
material. For practical columns, however, this is seldom the cause of failure. A large
compression load can cause the column to become unstable, resulting in a sudden lateral
deflection of the column. This bowing of the column is called buckling. The purpose of the Euler
buckling calculations is to compute the magnitude of the axial load that will create this instability
in the column. After the specimen is aligned horizontally between the two supports, all

measuring devices are adjusted for initial readings. The test started with an initial load and the
load was increased at an increment and the corresponding lateral displacement was recorded
instantly. The test continued until the maximum load was reached, the load was then released.
Figure 4.2.1 Compression Testing Machine
Figure 4.2.2 Specimen for compression testing

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Variation of Tensile strength
Tensile tests are carried out as per ASTM standards for Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant
gum. The percentage of the raw materials was varied at different levels and the results were
plotted. The tests conducted showed that as the percentage of jute was increased in the
composite, the tensile property increased exponentially. The results are shown in the table 5.1.1
and figure 5.1.1.
Table 5.1.1: Variation of Tensile strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in %)
Sl. No Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in % Tensile strength
1 40&60 372
2 50&50 460
3 60&40 599
4 65&35 657.1
700
600
500
Tensile strength
400
300
Tensile strength
200
100
0
40&60 50&50 60&40 65&35
Jute,Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in %
Figure 5.1.1: Variation of Tensile strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in
%)

Tensile tests are carried out as per ASTM standards for Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle
marmelos gum. The percentage of the raw materials was varied at different levels and the results
were plotted. The tests conducted showed that as the percentage of jute was increased in the
composite, the tensile property increased exponentially. The results are shown in the table 5.1.1
and figure 5.1.1.
Table 5.1.2: Variation of Tensile strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos
gum in %)
Sl. No Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos gum in % Tensile strength
1 40&60 313.8
2 50&50 362.9
3 60&40 578
4 65&35 627
700
600
500
Tensile strength
400
300 Tensile strength
200
100
0
40&60 50&50 60&40 65&35
Jute,Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos gum in %
Figure 5.1.2: Variation of Tensile strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos
gum in %)

5.2 Variations of compression strength

Compression tests are carried out as per ASTM standards for Jute, Tamarind seed powder &
plant gum. The percentage of the raw materials was varied at different levels and the results were
plotted. The tests conducted showed that as the percentage of jute was increased in the
composite, the Compression property increased exponentially. The results are shown in the table
5.2.1 and figure 5.2.1.
Table 5.2.1: Variation of Compression strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant gum
in %)
Sl.No Jute,Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in % Compression strength

1 40&60 1205.3
2 50&50 1210.2
3 60&40 1969.2
4 65&35 1995.7
2500
2000
Compression strength
1500
1000 Compression strength
500
0
40&60 50&50 60&40 65&35
Jute,Tamarind seed powder & plant gum in %
Figure 5.2.1: Variation of Compression strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & plant
gum in %)

Compression tests are carried for Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos gum. The
percentage of the raw materials was varied at different levels and the results were plotted. The
tests conducted showed that as the percentage of jute was increased in the composite, the
Compression property increased exponentially. The results are shown in the table 5.2.2 and
figure 5.2.2
Table 5.2.2: Variation of Compression strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle
marmelos gum in %)
Sl No Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos gum in % Compression strength
1 40&60 1154.3
2 50&50 1165
3 60&40 1313.2
4 65&35 1330
1350
1300
1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
40&60 50&50 60&40 65&35
Jute,Tamarind seed powder & aegle marmelos gum in %
Table 5.2.2: Variation of Compression strength (Jute, Tamarind seed powder & aegle
marmelos gum in %)

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
 Load v/s displacement curves were observed for various types of organic
composites with different percentages of fibres and different natural binders. It
was concluded that for 65% of fiber and 35% of natural binders gives maximum
tensile and compression strength
 The combination of different natural fibers found to give better mechanical
properties
 At first, proper fiber surface treatment should be developed and implemented
 Secondly, properties of composites are greatly depended on the volume
percentages of fibers and resin
 The quality at fiber matrix interface should be improved
 The current challenge is to make them cost effective
 The efforts to produce economically attractive composite components have
resulted in several innovative manufacturing techniques currently being used in
the composites industry

Scope of Future Work

 The present project focused mainly on Tensile and Compression properties. Other
mechanical properties can be tested for accurate requirement.
 Further, the properties of the composites can be enhanced by combination of other natural
binders
 The raw materials have to be treated for removal of any impurities before actual use

REFERENCES
[1] Neha S.Vyavhare Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha
[2] Maninder Kaur, corresponding author Kawaljit Singh Sandhu, and Jasmeen Kaur(aug.2013:)
[3] Rohini S. Kharwade, Neha S.Vyavhare, Sachin M. More, Manoharbhai Patel Institute of
Pharmacy ( Kudwa, Gondia, Maharashtra
[4] Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, KLES‟s College of Pharmacy, Gadag-

582101, Karnataka (India):
[5] Dept. of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, RME‟s College of Pharmacy, Gulbarga, Dept.
of Pharmaceutics, RME‟s College of Pharmacy,
[6] Analysis of plant gums by Joy Mazurek, Maria Perla Colombin:
[7] School of Science and Technology, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce,
(Bangkok):
[8] Dwain, M.A. hu, b., O‟Donnell, A., H.W., wool, R.P., 2004. All natural composite sandwich
beams for structural applications. Compos.struct63, 147 – 157.
[9] Shah A.N. Lacked sc. Mechanical properties of jute reinforced plastics. Fiber science and
technology 1981; 15:41 – 46.
[10] Aková Ing. Eva [2013], “Development of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites”,
Transfer inovácií, vol.25.
[11] Khan Md. Nuruzzaman, Roy k. Juganta, Akter Nousin, Zaman Haydar D.,IslamTuhidul
[2012], “Production and properties of short jute and short E-glass fiber reinforced polypropylene
based composites”, Open journal of composite materials,Vol.2,40-47.
[12] Ticoalu A., Aravinthan T. and Cardona F. [2010], “A review of current development in
natural fiber composites for structural and infrastructure applications”, Southern region
engineering conference, 1-5.

[13] Dash D., Samanta S., Gautum S.S. and murlidhar M. [2013], “Mechanical characterization
of natural fiber reinforced composite material”, Advanced material manufacturing and
characterization, Vol. 3(1), 275-280.
[14] Du Pont Teflon-Nonstick and Industrial Coating
[15] Doan T – T Loan, Madder E. Performance of jute fiber reinforced polypropylene. In: 7th
international ark – TV conference, September 28–29; 2004.Baden – Baden.
[16] John, k., Venkata Naidu, S., 2004a. Sisal fiber / glass fiber hybrid composites: impact and
compressive properties. J. Reins. Plats. Compos. 23(12), 1253 – 1258.
[17] Athijayamani, A., Thiruchitrambalam, M., Natarajan, U. and Pazhanivel, B. [2009], “Effect
of Moisture Absorption on the Mechanical Properties of Randomly Oriented Natural
Fibers/Polyester Hybrid Composite”. Materials Science and Engineering: A.Vol517: 344-353.
[18] Khan Md Nuruzzaman, Roy k.Juganta, Akter Nousin, Zaman Haydar D.Islam Tuhidul
[2012], “Production and properties of short jute and short E-glass fiber reinforced polypropylene
based composites”, Open journal of composite materials,Vol.2,40-47.

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Development of Organic Composite Materials for Structural applications

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 1

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

1.2.1 According to the type of reinforcing material composites can be

(2) Particulate Composites: In particulate composites the reinforcement is of particle

1.2.2 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

(1) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

(2) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

(3) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 2

Two types of polymer composites are:

(a) Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)

(b) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 3

1.3 HYBRID COMPOSITE

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 4

1.4 NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 5

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 6

1.4.1 JUTE FIBER

Fig 1.4.1 Jute Fiber

Table 1.4.1 Different Properties of Jute Fiber

Typical Properties High Strength High Modulus Ultra-High Modulus

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 8

Table 1.4.2 Comparing Different Properties of Natural Fiber

Property Jute Sisal Coir

Elongation (%) 1-1.2 3-7 15-40

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 9

1.5 Advantages of natural fibre reinforced composites:

 Reduction in density of products.

1.6 Disadvantages of natural fibre reinforced composites:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 10

1.7 APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

1.8 NATURALLY AVAILABLE BINDERS

1.8.1 TAMARIND SEEDS

Figure 1.8.1 Tamarind Seed

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 11

1.8.2 Gum of Aegle marmelos

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 12

Figure 1.8.2 Aegle marmelos gum fruit

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 13

1.8.3 Plant gum

Figure 1.8.3 Neem Plant Gum

[2] School of Science and Technology, University of the Thai Chamber of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 15

[5] Department of Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, KLES’s College of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 16

[6] Dept. of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, RME’s College of

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 17

3.1 VOLUME AND WEIGHT RATIO OF JUTE COMPOSITE LAMINATES:

Area of jute sample =22×22=484sq.cms

3.1.1 Jute +tamarind powder + plant gum:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 18

3.1.2 Jute +tamarind powder + gum of Aegle marmelos:

Weight of jute fiber=64.5gms=65% for 4 layers

Weight of tamarind +gum of aegle marmelos=34.73gms=35% for 4 layers

Weight of jute fiber=64.5gms=60% for 4 layers

Weight of tamarind + gum of aegle marmelos =43gms=40% for 4 layers

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJBIT Page 19