Chemistry Notes

Chapter 6

1. Energy: capacity to do work

2. Energy can be transferred through work, but an also be transferred through heat
3. Heat: the flow of energy caused by temperature difference
4. Heat and work are how objects exchange energy
5. Thermal energy: energy associated with temperature of an object
6. Chemical energy: the energy associated with the relative positions of electrons and nuclei in
atoms and molecules. It is also a form of potential energy.
a. Can move things
7. System and surrounding:
a. System is what is happening
b. Surrounding is outside of what is happening out of the system
8. Units for energy
a. Joule
b. 1 calorie = 4.184J the amount of energy to bring 1 g of water up 1 degree C
c. 1 Cal = 1000 c
9. First Law of Thermodynamics
a. The total energy of the universe is constant
b. Internal energy (E) of the system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the
particles that compose the system
c. E is a state function
i. The value depends only on the state of the system, not on how the system
arrived at that state
ii. The value of change is a state function is always the difference between its final
and initial values
iii. dE = Efinal – Einitial
iv. In a chemical system dE = Eproducts – Ereactants
v. C + O2 > CO2
1. If dEsystem < 0, dEsurrounding > 0
vi. dHreaction = heat of reaction
d. if the reaction is reversed
i. CO2 > C + O2
ii. dEsystem = Eproduct – Ereactant
iii. E product > Ereactant
iv. Endothermic reaction
v. System takes in heat from the surrounding
10. Q > 0 the system gains thermal energy
a. Q is heat
11. W > 0 work done on the system
12. W < 0 work done on the surrounding
13. dEsystem > 0 energy flows into the system
14. dEsystem < 0 energy flows out of the system
15. dE = q + w
a. CH4 + 2O2 > CO2 + 2H2O + heat
i. Releases heat
ii. Pushes out because it creates gas
1. Does work
16. For a system, q and w varies based on the situation, but dEsystem won’t change
17. Quantifying heat
a. Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy within a sample of matter
b. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy
c. Thermal energy always flows from matter at higher temperature to lower temperature
d. Thermal equilibrium – when the two objects reach the same temperature, so there is no
additional net transfer of heat
18. Q = C * dT
a. Heat capacity: measure of the system’s ability to absorb thermal energy without
undergoing a large change of temperature
b. The higher the heat capacity of a system, the smaller the change of temperature for a
given amount of absorbed heat
c. Heat capacity: the quantity of heat required to change the temperature by 1 degree C
i. Units: J/C
19. Heat capacity is an extensive property, it depends on the amount of material
20. Specific hear capacity (Cs): the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the
substance by 1 degree. This is intensive because it does not depend on the amount
a. For pure substance
21. Molar heat capacity: heat required to raise 1 mole of the substance by 1 degree
a. 10g Au, C= 1.3 J/C
b. 5 g Au, C=0.65 J/C
c. 1g Au, Cs = 0.13 J/C
22. How much heat is absorbed by penny as it warms from the temperature of the snow, which is -
8.0 C to the temperature of your body, 37.0 C? assume the mass of penny is 3.10 g, and Cs Cu =
0.385 J/gC
a. Q = m * Cs * dT
b. (3.10)(0.385)(37 – (-8.0))
c. 53.7 J
23. Thermal energy transfer
a. Heat transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature
b. Heat lost = -heat gained
c. Qa + Qb = 0
d. Qa = -Qb
e. Ma * Ca * (Tf – Ti) = -(Mb * Cb * (Tf – Ti))
24. A block of copper of unknown mass has an initial temperature of 65.4 C. The copper is
immersed in a beaker containing 95.7 g of water at 22.7 C. When the two substances reach
thermal equilibrium, the final temp is 24.2 C. What is the mass of the copper block. Cs Cu =
0.285 j/gC.
a. Qlost = -Qgained
 b. M1C1dT1 = M2C2dT2
c. Copper is giving heat and water is taking heat
d. QCu = McuCcudTcu lost
e. QH2O = Mh2oCh2odTh2o gained
f. Qcu = -Qh2o
g. Mcu(0.385 J/gC)(24.2 – 65.4) = -(95.7g)(4.184 J/gC)( 24.2 – 22.7)
h. Mcu = 37.9 g
25. Work: pressure-volume work
a. Heata is associated with temperatue cyange
b. Work is associated with volume change
c. W = force acting through a distance
i. W = F * d
d. Pressure = Force/Area
e. So work = PxAxD = pressure x change is volume
f. Since work is done on the surrounding, w for the system = -PdV
26. To inflate a balloon, you must do pressure-volume work on the surroundings. If you inflate a
balloon from a volume of 0.100L to 1.85L against an external pressure of 1.00 atm. How much
work is done ( in joules)?
a. W=PdV = (1.00 atm)(1.85 – 0.100L) = 1.75 L * atm
b. Wsystem = pushing
i. -1.75 L * atm
c. 101.3 J = 1 L * atm
d. -1.75 (L * atm) * 101.3 J/(L * atm) = -177.3 J
27. Measuring dE for chemical reactions constant volume calorimetry
a. dErxn = Qv + W if there is no change in volume, w = 0 then dE = Qv
b. We use calorimetry: measure the thermal energy the reaction (system) and the
surroundings exchange by observing the change in temperature of the surroundings
c. System -> surrounding
d. Bomb calorimeter: measure of energy for combustion reactions at constant volume
e. For the calorimeter, Qcal = CcaldT using heat capacity instead of specific heat capacity
because the mass of calorimeter won’t change. So the capacity is measured as a whole
f. dE = Q for bomb calorimeter. Constant volume for combustion reactions
i. the cup that surrounds the explosion is the surrounding
ii. Q = Ccal * dT
28. When 1.010 g of sucros (C12H22O11) undergoes combustion in a bomb calorimeter, the
temperature rises from 24.92 C to 28.33 C. find dE for the combustion o the sucrose in KJ/mol
sucrose. The heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter, determined in a separate experiment is
4.90 KJ/C
a. Ti = 24.92 C
b. Tf = 28.33 C
c. Qrxn gives heat
d. Qsurr picks up
e. Qrxn = -Qsurr = -Ccal * dT
i. –(4.9 KJ/C)(28.33 – 24.92C)
 ii. -16.71 KJ from 1.01 g sucrose
f. 1.01 g -> -16.71 Kj
g. 1 mol -> ?
h. 1 mol C12H22O11 = 342.34 g/mol
i. 1 mol C12H22O11 * 342.34 (g/mol) * -16.71 (KJ/1.01 g) = -5720.5 KJ/mol
29. When 1.550 g of liquid hexane (C6H14) undergoes combustion in a bomb calorimeter, the
temperature rises from 25.87 C to 28.13 C. Find the energy for the reaction in KJ/mol hexane.
The heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter is 5.73 KJ/C
a. Ti = 25.87 C
b. Tf = 38.13 C
c. dTsurr = 12.26 C
d. Qrxn = -Qcal
i. –(5.73)(12.26)
ii. -70.2 KJ by 1.550 g hexane
e. -70.2 KJ / 1.550 g C6H14 * 86.14 g / 1 mol C6H14 = -390 KJ/mol
f. 1 mol C6H14 produces 3901 KJ in rxn
30. Enthalpy
a. The heat evolved in a chemical reaction at constant pressure
b. Enthalpy H = sum of its internal energy and the product of it’s pressure and volume
i. H = Etot + PV
ii. Looking from system’s perspective
1. dH = dE + PdV
2. PdV = -W because it’s work done of the surrounding
3. dH = dE – W
a. Q + W – W
4. dH = Q at constant pressure
c. heat under constant pressure
i. dH = Q
d. lighters are usually fueled by butane. When 1 mol of butane burns at constant pressure,
it produces 2658 KJ of heat and does 3 KJ of work. What are the values of dH and dE for
the combustion of 1 mole of butane.
i. dE = Q + W
1. -2658 KJ + (-3KJ)
2. -2661 KJ
ii. dH = Q at constant pressure
1. -2658 KJ
e. If dH > 0, endothermic process. Take heat from the surroundings
f. If dH < 0, exothermic process, releases heat to the surroundings
g. dHrxn = enthalpy of reaction of heat of reaction is an extensive property. The more
substance, the more heat
h. So dHrxn is for the stoichiometric amount of reactant
i. For the reaction: combustion of 1 mole propane. 2044 KJ of heat is produced
i. C3H8 + 5O2 -> 3CO2 + 4H2O
ii. dH = -2044 KJ
 iii. C3H8 + 5O2 -> 3CO2 + 4H2O + 2044 KJ
1. Exothermic creates heat
iv. 1 mol C3H8 produced 2044 KJ
v. 5 mol O2 / -2044 KJ
vi. 2 mol C3H8 = 2(2044 KJ)
31. An liquid propane tank in a home barbeque contains 13.2 Kg of propane. Calculate the heat KJ
associated with the combustion of propane reaction
a. 1 mole C3H8 = 2044 KJ
b. 13.2 Kg C3H8 * 10^3 g / 1 kg * 1 mol C3H8 / 44.08 C3H8 * -2044 KJ / 1 mol C3H8
i. -6.12 * 10^5
32. 36
a. A +2B -> C dH1
b. 2A + 4B -> 2C dH2 = 2H1
c. C -> A + 2B dH3 = -dH1
i. A + 2B -> C dH1
ii. C -> 2D dH4
1. A + 2B -> 2D dH1 + dH4
2. Hess’ Law
33. 37
a. Look for: C(s) + H20(g) -> CO(g) + H2(g) dHrxn = ?
b. First reaction: C(s) + 02(g) -> CO2(g) dH1 = -393.5 KJ
c. Second: 2CO + )2 -> 2CO2 dH2 = -566.0 KJ
d. Third: 2H2 + )2 -> 2H20 dH3 = -483.6 KJ
i. C + 02 -> CO2 dH1
ii. -third / 2
1. H2O -> H2 + ½O2 -dH3/2
iii. -second/2
1. CO2 -> Co + 1/2O2 -dH2 / 2
iv. Final
1. C + H2O -> CO + H2 dH = -393.5 - (-483.6)/2 - (-566) /2
2. dH = 131.3 KJ

Chapter 7

1. the quantum-mechanical model explains how electrons exist and behave in atoms
2. electron behavior determines much of the behavior of atoms
3. it helps us understand and predict the properties of atoms that are directly related to the
behavior of the electrons
4. the nature of light
a. light is a form of electromagnetic radiation
i. composed of perpendicular osclillating waes, one for the electric field and one
for the magnetic field
ii. all electromagnetic waves move at the speed of light
5. waves
 a. amplitude
i. height of the wave
ii. measures intensity of waves
b. wavelength is the distance between waves
c. frequency
i. the amount of waves that pass a point in a given period of time
1. number of waves = number of cycles
2. 1 Hz = 1s^-1
3. Frequency = speed of light / wavelength
6. Electromagnetic spectrum
a. Shorter wavelength means higher energy (higher frequency)
b. Visible light comprises only a small fraction of all the wavelengths of light – called the
electromagnetic spectrum
c. High-energy electromagnetic radiation can potentially damage biological molecules
d. Radio waves have the lowest energy
e. Gamma rays have the highest energy
7. The photoelectric effect
a. It was observed that many metals emit electrons when a light shines on their surface
i. This is the photoelectric effect
b. In experiments it was observed that there was a minimum frequency needed before
electrons would be emitted
i. This is the threshold frequency
ii. Regardless of intensity
c. It was also observed that high-frequency light from a dim source caused electron
emission without any lag time
d. Einstein proposed that the light energy was delivered to the atoms in packets, called
quanta or photons
e. The energy of a photon of light Is directly proportional to its frequency
i. Inversely proportional to its wavelength
ii. Planck’s Constant (h) is 6.626 E -34 J * s
iii. E = h*c/wavelength
8. One photon at the threshold frequency gives the electron just enough energy for it to escape
the atom
9. When irradiated with a shorter wavelength photon, the electron absorbs more energy that is
necessary to escape
10. This excess energy becomes kinetic energy of the ejected electrons
a. Kinetic Energy = Ephoton – Ebinding
b. KE = hv – phi
11. Atomic Spectroscopy
a. When atoms or molecules absorb energy, that energy is often released as light energy
b. When that emitted light is passed through a prism, a pattern of particular wavelengths
of light is soon that is unique to that type of atom or molecule – the pattern is called an
emission spectrum
i. Non-continuous
 ii. Can be used to identify the material
1. Flame test
12. Bohr’s model
a. The electrons travel in orbits that are at a fixed distance from the nucleus
b. Stationary stated
c. Therefore the energy of the electron was proportional to the distance the orbit was
from the nucleus
d. Electrons emit radiation when the “jump” from an orbit with higher energy down to an
orbit with lower energy
i. The emitted radiation was a photon of light
ii. The distance between the orbits determined the energy of the photon of light
produced
13. Wave behavior of Electrons
a. De Broglie proposed that particles could have wave-like character
b. De Broglie predicted that the wavelength of a particle was inversely proportional to its
momentum
c. Because it is so small, the wave character of electrons is significant
d. Wavelength = h / (mass * velocity)
14. Uncertainty principle
a. When you try to observe the wave nature of the electron, you cannot observe its
particle nature – and vice-verse
i. Wave nature = interference pattern
ii. Particle nature = position, which slit it is passing through
b. The wave and particle nature of the electron are complementary properties
i. As you know more about one you know less about the other
c. Heisenberg stated that the product of the uncertainties in both the position and speed
of a particle was inversely proportional to its mass
15. Schrodinger’s Equation
a. His equation allows us to calculate the probability of finding an electron with a
particular amount of energy at a particular location
b. Solutions to Schrodinger’s equation produce many wave functions
c. A plot of distance vs the wav function squared represents an orbital, a probability
distribution map of a region where the electron is likely to be found
16. Solutions to the Wave function
a. Calculations show that the size, shape, and orientation in space of an orbital are
determined to be three integer terms in the wave function
i. Added to quantize the energy of the electron
b. Principle Quantum Number (n)
i. N is an integer that determines the overall size and energy of an orbital
ii. N = 1, 2, 3 ….
c. For one electron (hydrogen atom)
d. With Rydberg’s equation, we can figure out the energy at each level
17. Quantum Mechanical Explanation of Atomic Spectra
 a. Each wavelength in the spectrum of an atom corresponds to an electron transition
between orbitals
b. When an electron is exited, it transitions from an orbital in a lower energy level to an
orbital in a higher energy level
c. When an electron relaxes, it does the opposite
d. Lower energy is more stable
e. Bigger gap means greater energy
i. Means shorter wavelength
ii. Means higher frequency
f. dE = Efinal – Einitial
i. going from one level to another, we can use Rydberg’s equation
18. Angular Momentum Quantum Number, I
a. The angular momentum quantum number determines the shape of the orbital
b. l can have integer values from 0 to (n-1)
c. Each value of l is called by a particular letter that designates the shape of the orbital
i. S orbitals are spherical
ii. P orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots
iii. D orbitals are mainly like four balloons tied at the knot
iv. F orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knot
19. L = 0, the s orbital
a. Each principal energy level has one s orbital
b. Lowest energy orbital in a principal energy level
c.

Chapter 8

1. Mendeleev
a. Order elements by atomic mass
b. Saw a repeating pattern of properties
c. Periodic Law – when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass,
certain sets or properties recur periodically
d. Put elements with similar properties in the same column
e. Used pattern to predict properties of undiscovered elements
f. Where atomic mass order did not fit other properties, he re-ordered by other properties
2. Electron Configuration
a. An electron configuration for an atom shows the particular orbitals that are sccupied for
that atom
b. For H, the configuration
c. Electrons generally occupy the owerst energy orbitals available
d. But H is the simplest case, we need more description other that