SOGEC - CP

CATHODIC PROTECTION TRAINING

MANUAL-MODULE 8

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 INTRODUCTION
Specialized Oil and Gas Engineering Company is a major supplier of cathodic
protection services which includes Engineering, Material
supply,Installation,commissioning,monitoring and maintenance in accordance with the
standards and requirements of Major oil and gas, petrochemical and energy sector customers
across the middle east.
This training manual is intended to improve the technical competency and knowledge
of new CP technicians and engineers working with SOGEC CP.

This training manual is prepared as nine modules.

1. BASIC ELECTRICITY

2. CORROSION BASICS

3. CATHODIC PROTECTION BASICS

4. REFERENCE ELECTRODES (HALF-CELLS)

5. TYPES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

6. METHODS OF CABLE CONNECTION TO STRUCTURE

7. INSTALLATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

8. FIELD MEASUREMENT AND TESTING OF CP SYSTEMS

9. PRECOMMISSIONING AND COMMISIONING OF CP SYSTEMS

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 MODULE 8
CP SYSTEM FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND TESTING
8.1. INSTRUMENTATION
The CP engineer/technician must have a sound basic knowledge of the variety of test
instruments used in CP work and he must know how to use them effectively in the field. Only
with such knowledge can engineers/technicians obtain reliable and meaningful data. The CP
engineer/technician will routinely employ not only common electronic multimeters but also
very specialized instrumentation. Manufacturers operating manuals shall be strictly followed for
the efficient operation of instruments.
. Always remember that test equipment should be handled and maintained in top working
condition. This is essential for optimum results when conducting field tests and surveys. Even
the most sophisticated instrumentation is of no value if used incorrectly or improperly
maintained.
Meter manufacturers as well as corrosion specialty suppliers offer many accessories to be
used with CP test equipment. Wire reels, for instance, are indispensable for many test
applications. They can be configured in many ways, dependent upon wire gage and length of
cable. The integrity of the insulation must be maintained for accuracy, as ‘skinned’ insulation
can compromise many measurements if the copper wire becomes shorted to other structures, or
to earth. Meter manufacturers also offer a variety of test leads, carrying cases, and
complementary accessories, such as temperature probes. These usually plug directly into the
meter and will accommodate the variety of conditions encountered by a CP technician.
Insulated leads and test clips are always recommended, especially if higher current or voltage
applications are encountered. Custom-made leads and connectors can also be fabricated to suit a
particular situation.
8.1.1. Major CP Instruments
The major testing instruments used in CP includes,
• Voltage measuring instruments-High impedance Volt meter, Multimeter.

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• Current measuring instruments-Clamp meter, Ammeter, Milli voltmeter (across
Calibrated shunt), swain meters.

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• Resistance/ /conductance measuring instruments- Ohm meter(Multimeter),Four pin
Resistance meters (analogue/Digital),Geonics EM 31,Geonics EM 34

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• Insulation testing instruments – Megger

• Isolation Flange testing instruments-RF flange Tester

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• Coating breakdown testing instruments-Holiday detectors

• Reference electrodes-(Described in module 4)

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• Cable/pipe locators

• Timers/interrupters

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• GPS

• Data logger

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8.2. Safety
o Cathodic protection personnel are responsible for obtaining appropriate work permit
and associated gas test results from the operations foreman in all classified areas
before starting any job.
o Appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), such as safety glasses, safety
shoes with electrically insulated soles, etc., shall be worn. Use rubber mats, rubber
gloves, or both, when test leads are used near high voltage AC power lines. Fall
restraining devices shall be used when working on the top of structures such as
storage tanks.
o Appropriate safety precautions must be followed when making electrical
measurements, and include:
o a. Use properly insulated test lead clips and terminals to avoid contact with
unexpected hazardous voltages. Test clips should be attached one at a time each time
a connection is made. A single hand should be used to make the connection, in a well
balanced body position, while the other hand should be free from resting on any
surface.
o b. Use caution when long test leads (100 meters or longer) is extended near
overhead high voltage AC power lines, since hazardous voltages can be induced into
the test leads. Use rubber mats, rubber gloves, or both, when making measurements
if induced AC potentials over 15 volts are measured on pipelines near high voltage
AC power lines.
o c. Use caution when stringing test leads across streets, roads and other locations
subject to vehicular traffic.
o d. Use caution when making tests at electrical isolation devices. Appropriate voltage
detection instruments or voltmeters with insulated test leads should be used to
determine if hazardous voltages exist before proceeding with tests.
o e. Personnel must be knowledgeable and qualified in electrical safety precautions
prior to installing, adjusting, repairing or removing impressed current protection
equipment.
o f. Testing should be avoided when thunderstorms are in the area. Remote lightning
strikes can create hazardous voltage surges that travel along the pipe under test.
o g. Inspect excavations and confined spaces and ensure they are in a safe condition prior
to entering. This includes testing for gas, as discussed above. Follow all appropriate
client Work Permit procedures

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8.3. Field measurements and testing
Different types of field measurements and testing in CP Includes,
1. Voltage , Current and efficiency of power supply(TR or solar)
2. Structure to soil potential measurement(On/Instant off potential)
3. Anode current and resistance measurement
4. Bond current measurement
5. Isolation testing between structures
6. Soil Resistance/Resistivity test
7. pH
8. Holiday Testing (cables & coating repair)
9. Insulation resistance testing(TR, Cables)
10. Continuity testing
8.3.1. Voltage, Current and efficiency of TR

• Before touching the rectifier, measure the case voltage-to-ground and de-energize
it from the AC supply, if hazardous. Alternately, test the case with a voltage alert
type of instrument that indicates a hazardous voltage with a light.
• Inspect the rectifier mounting and case for damage. Confirm that the rectifier case
is properly grounded. Listen for unusual sounds such as arcing or high vibrations.
Note the operating temperature of the rectifier.
• Look for signs of high temperature such as discoloration of copper terminals or
arc burns on the panel. Do not touch while energized or still hot.
• Record the TR nameplate data or confirm that previous information is still
accurate.
• Manufacturer Name
• Manufacturer Date
• AC input voltage
• Transformer Rating
• Serial number
• Shunt rating
• Record the present DC output settings.
• Measure the DC output voltage using a portable digital meter and DC output
current using a digital clamp meter. If it is a constant voltage rectifier determine
the transformer secondary AC voltage (coarse-to-fine tap volts AC). If the DC
voltage is less than one-half of the secondary AC voltage, then one-half waving is
suspected.
• Calibrate the TR panel voltmeter and ammeter either by adjusting to the correct
value or recording the discrepancy. Determine the voltmeter’s accuracy by
comparing the meter’s reading to a portable voltmeter.

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 • The panel ammeter’s accuracy can be determined by comparing the ammeter’s
reading to that calculated from the millivolt reading obtained across the calibrated
shunt. If using the calibrated shunt, measure the millivolt drop across the shunt
terminals with a digital millivolt meter. Convert the millivolt reading to amperes
using the shunt rating.
I = V x MF
where
MF - Multiplication Factor (A/mV of shunt)
I - calculated ampere output (amperes)
V -Measured voltage drop across shunt (millivolts)

• Find the DC volts between the positive and negative terminals with the TR
temporarily off. This voltage, referred to as back EMF, will be used in calculations
to determine anode bed resistance.
• Anode to electrolyte resistance can be calculated using the formula,
(E DC − BackEMF )
Ra =
I DC
Where,
Ra - Groundbed resistance (ohms)
EDC - DC voltage output (volts)
IDC - DC current output (amperes)
Back EMF -open-circuit DC voltage between anodes and structure (galvanic
difference between steel and carbon in coke breeze backfill ) measured
with rectifier off and in this case normally between 1.0 and 2.0 V.
• A continuous or very rapid increase in resistance over time indicates anode
deterioration. A close interval potential survey can be completed over shallow
anodes. An increase in the voltage gradient will indicate an operating anode.
• The rectifier efficiency can be calculated using the following Equation. Note that
the following Equation is an approximation as the power factor is not considered
in the AC watts

V DC I DC
Eff = x100
V AC I AC
Where
Eff - efficiency (%)
VDC - DC voltage output (volts)
IDC - DC current output (amperes)
VAC - AC voltage input (volts)

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 IAC - AC current input (amperes)
• With the power off, carefully inspect for thermally hot terminals. In addition to
looking for bum marks, melted mounting boards, and so on, use the back-of-the-
hand method to sense heat. This involves placing the back of your hand in close
proximity to the components in an attempt to sense whether heat is emanating
from the component. Care must be taken to ensure that this is done without
actually touching the component to avoid burns.
• If it is an oil-cooled unit, the oil level and clarity of the oil of oil-immersed units
is to be recorded. If the oil level is low, then it must be noted and Oil top up
required. If the components of the rectifier cannot be easily seen through the oil
because it has become murky, the oil needs to be replaced.
• The condition of vents of air-cooled units must be clear and screens in place. This
shall be recorded.
• During a rectifier inspection, a structure-to-electrolyte potential must be taken near
the rectifier both to confirm proper polarity of the rectifier connections by an
electronegative change in potentials when the rectifier comes on and to note the
level of protection on the structure. This should also be completed as part of the
rectifier monitoring and rectifier inspections.
• Using the GPS take the coordinate of the TR and mark it on the drawing.
• All details shall be recorded in an approved format.

8.3.2. Structure-to-Electrolyte Potentials

The definition of a structure-to-electrolyte potential, otherwise referred to as a Pipe-to-
electrolyte, pipe-to-soil, tank-to-electrolyte, or structure-to-soil potential is:
“The potential difference between the metallic surface of the structure and electrolyte
that is measured with reference to an electrode in contact with the electrolyte.”
A structure-to-electrolyte potential is a measurement taken with the voltmeter connected in
parallel in the circuit. The external circuit resistance of this measurement is high, so a high-
input resistance voltmeter is required to avoid “shunting” too much current from the
structure and therefore achieving inaccurate measurements. In addition, as previously
discussed a reference electrode, often referred to as a reference cell, and is used to make
contact with the soil.
Potential measurements are a common means for determining if adequate protection
has been achieved. With the application of current from the electrolyte onto a structure, a
potential change with respect to the electrolyte will occur. The potential change is a
reflection of polarization. Measurements are made to determine whether one of the
cathodic protection criteria is met. According to the NACE standards, voltage drops other
than across the structure-to-electrolyte boundary must be considered in order to assess the

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 effectiveness of a CP system using fixed potential measurements. Several methods are
used to consider these voltage drops:
o Minimizing the distance between the reference electrode and the surface of the
structure.
o Measuring the potential when the current flow is interrupted (instant-off potential).
o Measuring the formation of polarization or decay of polarization of the structure
when the current is energized or disconnected.
o Installing external CP coupons in the vicinity of the structure to replicate a coating
holiday.
Advantages of the structure-to-reference potential method are that it is relatively
straightforward and potential measurements comply with standard criteria. Disadvantages
are that all sources of CP current must be interrupted simultaneously, stray currents will
affect the readings, polarized potentials of structures with direct-coupled galvanic anodes
cannot be obtained, and surface potential measurements actually measure average
potentials. The averaging of the actual structure-to-electrolyte potentials means that
surface measurements might not detect small corrosion cells that are not being
cathodically protected.
8.3.2.1. The Potential Measurement Circuit and Measurement Error
The intent of the potential measurement is to determine the structure potential (Ep)
accurately at the test location. The measurement circuit can be approximated by the
electrical circuit in Figure
.

It is the true potential difference (Etrue) between the pipe and reference electrode that
ideally should appear across the meter terminals. Because the meter circuit is a series
circuit, the magnitude of the voltage drop that appears across the meter will be
proportional to the ratio of the meter resistance to the total meter circuit resistance.
For the measurement circuit, Kirchhoff’s voltage law applies and the true potential
difference is equal to the sum of the voltage drops around the series circuit.

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 Etrue = ImRt
Etrue = Im [Rtl,1 + Rtl,2 + Rtl,3 + Rp,e + Rr,e + Rm]
Etrue = Vtl,1 + Vtl,2 + Vtl,3 + Vp,e + Vr,e + Vm
Vm = Etrue – [Vtl,1 + Vtl,2 + Vtl,3 + Vp,e + Vr,e]

Let Vcirc equal all voltage drops in the circuit except for the meter voltage drop
Vm = Etrue – Vcirc
Etrue = ImRt and Vcirc = ImRcirc
Rt – Rcirc = Rm

Hence, the amount of voltage (Vm) that appears across the meter compared to the true
potential difference (Etrue) is proportional to the ratio of the meter resistance (Rm)
compared to the total resistance.
The voltage across the voltmeter approaches the true potential as the meter resistance
becomes much greater than the other resistances in the measuring circuit. High
resistances in the measuring circuit, other than across the voltmeter, should therefore be
avoided.
Reference electrode contact resistance can be a source of error when the reference is
placed on dry soil, well drained gravel, crushed stone, frozen ground, asphalt, or
concrete. To minimize this error, the contact conductance can be improved by wetting the
area around the reference. In extreme cases, a hole can be drilled from the surface to a
depth of permanent moisture and the reference placed in the hole, or an electrolytic
bridge can be created between the reference and earth.
High measurement circuit resistance can also occur as a result of broken test leads, test
lead connection resistances, and pipe resistance to earth if the pipeline is short and well
coated.
When measuring a pipe-to-soil potential, it may not be immediately apparent that a
high circuit resistance is present. If the voltmeter has an input resistance selector switch
the existence of a high resistance in the measurement circuit can be identified by
switching to a lower or higher input resistance. If the potential indicated by the voltmeter
differs significantly (i.e., more than 10%) between the two input impedances then there is
a high resistance in the measurement circuit. Further by knowing the two input
resistances and their corresponding measured voltage, the true potential can be calculated
using Equation ,

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8.3.2.2. IR Drop Error Determination and Correction
Potential measurements often include errors caused by IR drops, particularly in the
electrolyte. Furthermore, the magnitude of IR-drop errors must be determined and
appropriately compensated for when measuring and evaluating field data. Accordingly,
there are a number of common methods of determining and correcting for IR drop:
o Interrupt the current and measure the potential before significant depolarization
occurs (often called the “instant off” potential).
o Place the reference electrode close to the exposed metal surface of the structure
being measured. On a coated structure the reference must be placed next to a
coating fault (holiday).
o Place the reference electrode at remote earth to include maximum IR-drop error
and then subtract this error from potentials measured with the reference located
nearer the structure.
In some situations, the IR-drop error can be neglected if the current and/or the
resistance of a current path that is a function of the path’s cross-sectional area, resistivity,
and length, are small. Before neglecting the IR drop, the magnitude of IR drop should be
determined in order to verify its insignificance.
8.3.2.2.1. Current Interruption
An effective method of eliminating IR-drop errors is by making the current zero there by
making the IR product equal to zero. Typically, zero IR drop is achieved by temporarily
interrupting the flow of current and instantly reading the structure potential. This potential
must be read quickly since the structure will begin to depolarize with time.
However, there may be significant spiking of the potential due to inductive and capacitive
effects associated with the interruption of the cathodic protection current. The “instant-off”

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 potential should be measured after this spiking has decayed, but before significant
depolarization of the structure has occurred.
To measure the “OFF” structure-to-electrolyte potential, all sources of current influencing
the area under investigation must be interrupted. This can be accomplished by installing a
current interrupter in all current sources influencing the system in the area under
investigation. The interrupters are essentially a mechanical or electronic relay connected to a
very precise chronometer. Multiple units can be synchronized to cycle in unison, allowing
multiple current sources to be interrupted simultaneously, effectively removing all current
from the structure at the same instant. With no current flowing, the voltage drops go to zero
and the measured potential is the polarized potential of the pipeline.
8.3.2.2.2 .Reference Electrode near the Structure
To minimize the IR-drop error associated with the electrolyte, the reference electrode
should be positioned as near to the structure as possible. This may not eliminate all IR drop.
When dealing with underground piping or tanks, the ideal position of the electrode would be
at the bare structure surface or at a coating holiday. There are times, however, when the
electrode is purposely placed at some distance from the structure. Inside water storage tanks,
the electrode should be positioned as close to the wall of the tank as possible. The same is
true for waterfront and offshore structures; the electrode should be as close to the piling as
possible. In moving water, the electrode may swing about, so some structures are equipped
with guide wires or perforated plastic ducts to restrict the movement of a portable electrode.
For on-grade storage tanks, data are frequently taken around the periphery of the tank. This
may not yield accurate data about the potentials under the tank bottom, particularly if the
anodes are in a ring around the tank or the tank is large in diameter. Stationary reference
electrodes under the tank bottom yield the best data. Alternately, if a perforated plastic tube
is installed under the tank and filled with water, a reference electrode can be pulled through it
and potentials measured at intervals underneath.
8.3.2.2.3. External CP Coupons
Evidence that cathodic protection is working can be obtained by using coupons of the
same metal as that of the protected structure.
External CP coupons can be used to monitor cathodic protection criteria. This is
particularly useful on well-coated structures where few coating holidays exist. The
coupon serves as a surrogate holiday and polarizes to the same structure potential.
8.3.2.2.4. Reference Electrode at Remote Earth
With the reference electrode remote from the structure, the potential reading includes the
maximum total IR-drop error when the current is applied. Accordingly, by identifying the
maximum value between a reference electrode placed at the pipe surface and a remote
reference electrode, this value can be subtracted from subsequent structure-to-electrolyte
potential readings as long as the current density and path resistivity remain relatively
constant. When constant conditions are present, this technique would probably result in
overcorrection of the potential reading, thus erring on the safe side.
8.3.2.3. Structure to soil potential Measurement procedure

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 o The theory is to measure an unknown potential by relating it to a known
reference electrode.
o In soil and fresh water conditions the copper/copper sulfate reference electrode
should be used.
o In salt water conditions the silver/silver chloride reference electrode must be
used.
o A high input impedance voltmeter must be used to prevent erroneous readings.
The voltmeter must have a minimum of 10 mega-ohms input resistance under
normal conditions. Under rocky or very dry conditions the voltmeter should have
up to 200 Mega ohms input resistance.
8.3.2.3.1. Meter Connection
While using digital meters
o Connect negative lead to reference electrode.
o Connect positive lead to structure. Do not use a current carrying conductor for
meter connection.

8.3.2.3.2. Protection Criteria

Described in module 3

8.3.2.3.3. Potential Measurement steps

The porous plug of the portable electrode is placed such that it is in contact with
the moistened electrolyte (soil) and at closest possible distance from the structure. A
digital meter should indicate a negative reading, which indicates structure is negative

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 to the reference electrode. If the meter reading is fluctuating, this may indicate either
bad contact with the electrolyte or with the structure. An induced AC effect also
indicates a fluctuating reading.
o Keep the multi meter in DC 2V or in mV range.
o Place the tip of the portable reference electrode close to the structure. Use
permanent reference electrodes for potential measurements, if available.
o Make sure the reference electrode tip is having proper contact with the
electrolyte (soil). In dry electrolytes pour water at the tip contact area to reduce
the resistance of the cell to the electrolyte.
o Record the potential that is displayed directly on the multi meter (Note polarity,
magnitude, unit and type of electrode).
Different type of structures may be required different methodology for the potential
measurements.
The following table helps us to understand the measurement of potentials for the different
types of structures.

STRUCTURE POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT LOCATIONS

• At all permanent reference electrodes
PIPELINES • Over the pipeline at all test stations
• At all permanent reference electrodes.
ON GRADE • Next to the tank at four equally spaced locations
STORAGE TANKS around the tank circumference
• Every 2m inside the monitoring duct (if
available).
• At all permanent reference electrodes
UNDERGROUND • Over the center and each end of the tank.
STORAGE • Over each end of the feed/return piping.
TANKS
• Over the manhole, fill pipe & vent pipe.

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 ISOLATED • Each side of all dielectric couplings without
STRUCTURES moving the reference electrode.
If the potential difference between measurements
on each side of a dielectric coupling is less than
10 millivolts, verify its integrity using an
isolation flange tester

ALL • Over the foreign line at all points where it

STRUCTURES crosses the protected structure.
WITH FOREIGN • Over the foreign line where it passes near by the
LINE anode bed.
CROSSINGS
• Over the protected structure on each side of all
ALL casings.
STRUCTURES • Over each end of the casing on all casings.
WITH CASED Note: If the casing is shorted or partially shorted
CROSSINGS to the pipeline, and the potentials over the pipeline are
depressed, raise notification.

• At all permanent reference electrodes.

WATERFRONT • Adjacent to the structure.
STRUCTURES • At other test points identified in maintenance
manuals or past surveys

• at test points identified in the maintenance

OTHER manual or other past surveys
STRUCTURES

8.3.2.3.4. Polarized (Instant OFF) Potential Measurements

A portable current interrupter shall be connected in series with the negative / positive main
drain cable at the T/R unit. The portable interrupter shall be set to 4 sec ON & 1 sec OFF
cycle. The interrupters should be synchronized by GPS/Manual. Built in interrupter shall be
used wherever available.

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8.3.2.3.4.1. Using a Data Logger with Current Interrupters
o The interrupter shall be installed in series with the transformer rectifier unit.
o The readings are directly recorded using the data logger.
o The best polarized reading is selected once the data is uploaded in the computer.
8.3.2.3.4.2 .Sources of error
o The accuracy of the reference electrode used can be a source of erroneous
readings.
o Check the accuracy of the reference electrode (half-cell) used to take potential
measurements. To determine the accuracy of a reference electrode multiple
reference electrodes must be used. Use one reference electrode, which is not
used in the field, to check against other reference electrodes.
o A valid reference electrode must be used to take all potential measurements.
Temperature also affects the potential of the reference cell.
o Direct sunlight also affects the potential of the reference cell.
o IR is error present when current is flowing. Recognize that all “ON” readings
contain this error.
o Anode gradient field is present when current is flowing. Recognize that all “ON”
readings taken in the gradient field of an anode contain this error.
o When the reference electrode is not in good contact with the electrolyte error
will result in a low reading. Use water to lower contact resistance or select
higher input impedance. If reading changes, select even higher input impedance.
Continue until no change in reading occurs. Use formula to calculate
approximate reading if required.

8.3.3 .Anode current and resistance measurement

8.3.3 .1.Anode current
Anode current shall be measured at the anode junction box for each CP systems. Anode
current measurements may be made by an ammeter or a clamp-on ammeter or calculated by
measuring a millivolt drop across a calibrated shunt or known resistance.

8.3.3 .1.1. Use of Shunts

A shunt is an accurately calibrated, low-resistance device. The principle is to measure a
voltage across the resistance of the shunt and then calculate the current. An ammeter is, in fact,
a voltmeter that measures a millivolt drop across a shunt, but the scale of this meter is
calibrated such that it will read in amperes.

Shunts come in different forms, but in all cases, the material between two specific contacts
is the portion that is calibrated. In the case of the wire shunt, the millivolt readings must be

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taken between the two protruding pins. The inside small bolts on the remaining shunts are the
contacts for the millivolt reading.

Note that the negative polarity in the reading indicates that the meter leads are connected
in reverse; that is, the positive lead is actually connected to the negative side of the shunt, and
the negative (common) terminal is actually connected to the positive side of the shunt.

The current of each circuit at the junction boxes shall be measured across the shunt
provided inside the junction box. Using a multimeter(in the millivolt range), measure the mV
drop across the shunt and convert the reading to Amperes in accordance with the shunt rating.

8.3.3 .1.2. Direct Current Clamp-On Ammeter

Where shunts are not available in the anode circuits, the anode current shall be measured
directly by using an appropriate DC clamp-on meter (mA range).

Set to the mid ampere scale, if not an auto ranging type. Clamp the coil around a single
conductor, with the positive side of the coil toward the positive of the power source. If the
reading is not positive, then confirm that there is not another power source.

Adjust the scale to the closest range for the measurement. Reverse the coil and confirm
that the values are similar. An average of the two readings is often close to the true value.
Record the current direction, value, and units (amperes or milliamperes).

8.3.3 .2.Anode resistance

8.3.3 .2.1.Using DC output voltage and Anode current
o Measure the TR DC output volts between the positive and negative terminals
and DC output current with the TR ON.
o Measure the DC volts between the positive and negative terminals with the TR
temporarily off. This voltage, referred to as back EMF, will be used in
calculations to determine anode bed resistance.
o Anode to electrolyte resistance can be calculated using the formula(assuming
other circuit components resistance are negligible),
(E DC − BackEMF )
Ra =
I DC
Where,
Ra - Groundbed resistance (ohms)
EDC - DC voltage output (volts)
IDC - DC current output (amperes)
Back EMF -open-circuit DC voltage between anodes and structure (galvanic
difference between steel and carbon in coke breeze backfill measured
with rectifier off and in this case normally between 1.0 and 2.0 V.

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 o A continuous or very rapid increase in resistance over time indicates anode
deterioration. A close interval potential survey can be completed over shallow
anodes. An increase in the voltage gradient will indicate an operating anode.
o Instead of TR output current, using individual anode current in the above
formula will give individual anode resistance.
8.3.3 .2.1.Using 3 pin method
A four pin resistance meter shall be used. Connect C1 and P1 binding post to the anode
cable being measured using separate lead. Connect C2 to a pin driven to the soil far enough
away from the anode under test so as not to influence the reading .100 ft should be typical for
a ground bed installed 15 to 20 ft deep. Connect P2 to a pin 62% of the distance from the
object being tested to the C2 pin. Balance and read on the actual way.

8.3.3 .2.1.Using 2 pin method

A four pin resistance meter shall be used. In two pin method, first establish a low
resistance ground connection remote from the Anode and connecting it to one of the terminal
of the two- pin resistance meter. Two pin resistance meter can be a Nilsson 400 or any other
four-pin resistance meter makes, having four terminal C1,C2,P1,P2 with C1 shorted to P1
and C2 shorted to P2, effectively creating two terminal meter. The other (combined) terminal
of the meter is connected to the Anode tail cable, so that the resistance can be measured.

8.3.4. Bond current measurement

The resistance bond check is an operational check of two metallic structures connected
with some type of semi-conductor or resistor, to ensure that the structures affected by the bond
are maintained at proper levels and interference is mitigated. This bond may include reverse
current switches, diodes, resistors, or other protective devices whose failures would jeopardize
structure protection.

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 These bonds may be between different sections of a protected structure, or may be
between a protected structure and any other metallic structure (unprotected or protected with a
different cathodic protection system). This is a non-interrupted check and the potential
measurements should be compared to previous ON cycle potential measurements taken at the
same locations. Current measurements are normally taken using a calibrated shunt. Other
methods include using a clamp-on meter (milli amp range) or disconnecting and measuring in
Series using a low input resistance ammeter. Note potential of all structures and current flow
through all circuits (including direction).
8.3.5. Isolation Flange/Joint testing
There are many methods to check the integrity of an isolation flange. Do not use an
ohmmeter to measure resistance of an installed Dielectric.
8.3.5.1. Using insulation tester (Megger)/ 4 pin Resistance meter
This test can only be done when the joint spool is not welded to the pipe line or one
side is only welded to the pipe line. Connect the leads of megger/ 4 pin resistances meter (C1
P1 shorted and C2 P2 shorted) to the two sides of isolation joint and measure the value. If this
is a high resistance value (preferably greater than 1 Mega ohms), the joint is good.
8.3.5.2. Potential testing fixed electrode
Measure pipe to soil potentials on both sides of the isolating joint with reference
electrode placed at the same location. If the two potential measurements are significantly
different (over 10 mV), the dielectric is good.
8.3.5.3. Potential swing test at isolation locations

Interrupt the rectifier with a suitable on/off cycle. Reference electrode positions shall be
the same for both sides. During the ON & OFF cycle, Potential “swing” test shall be carried

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out for the Isolating Joints /flanges by measuring pipe-to-soil potentials at both protected and
unprotected side. Measure polarized pipe to soil potentials on both ‘sides of the isolating joint,
(“OFF” Potential).Measure pipe to soil potentials on both sides of the isolating joint (“ON”
Potential).Record the potential results. If the potential swing are significantly different (over
10 mV), the dielectric is good.

The figure shows the process for the potential swing test.

8.3.5.4. Using Isolation Flange Tester (radio frequency tester)

The isolation flange tester (radio frequency tester) gives an accurate indication of the
specific dielectric being tested because of its wave length, the strength of the signal and use of
the “skin effect” .The fault in the dielectric is indicated by visually/a beep sound .

8.3.5.4.1. Model 601 Above-Ground Insulation Checker

Principles of Operation
The Model 601 above-ground insulation checker is an instrument for locating electrical
shorts occurring between adjacent (normally insulated) pipe sections in a (potentially)
complex pipe network. The DC resistance of metallic pipe is so small that it is virtually
impossible with conventional DC measuring systems to accurately determine where adjacent
pipes are shorted together. The issue can be particularly difficult when other pipes are

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(electrically) interconnected with the pipe under study, since additional short circuits can be
present that are indistinguishable, by conventional DC measuring devices, from a short circuit
at the insulator of interest.
The Model 601 insulation checker circumvents this issue by applying a radio
frequency signal across the insulator of interest, rather than a DC source of energy. Radio
frequency electromagnetic signals do not travel through a pipe (conductor) in a uniform
fashion (as would a DC current) but, rather, they ride completely on the surface of the pipe
which leads to a relatively high AC Resistance for the pipe, in contrast to a low DC
Resistance. This phenomenon is known as the “skin effect”.
The Model 601 unit utilizes this phenomenon by applying a radio frequency signal across
normally insulated adjacent portions of a pipe via two probes. Since the effective AC
Resistance of the pipe system will be large (due to the skin effect), any electrical shorts that
may be present around the pipe system, that would impact a DC measurement, will have little
effect on the Model 601 measurements (the pipe system will appear as an “open circuit” to the
AC source, compared to appearing as a short circuit to a DC source).
Consequently, only the effective AC Resistance of the material (normally an insulator)
appearing directly between the probes will be a factor with regard to the output of the Model
601 insulation checker. Thus, the Model 601 unit can distinguish between insulation “shorts”
and shorts associated with interconnected piping.
As mentioned above, it is the effective AC Resistance of the material appearing between
the probes that affects the output of the Model 601 unit. In the case of a perfect insulator (non-
conductor), the AC Resistance will be high and, in the case of a leaky insulator, the AC
Resistance will be relatively low. The Model 601 unit assesses the AC Resistance level by
detecting the magnitude of the RF voltage appearing between the probes. A large value for the
RF voltage will suggest a large AC Resistance value and a small RF voltage value will
indicate a relatively-small AC Resistance.
The RF voltage appearing across the probes is determined by a built-in detector circuit that
is tuned to the same frequency as that of the RF oscillator and the RF voltage is rectified
internally to produce a DC voltage. It is this DC voltage that dictates the needle position on the
meter scale. Consequently, the needle’s location on the meter will reflect the level of AC
Resistance for the material appearing between the probes. For a perfect insulator, the needle
will be fully to the right on the scale (reflecting a large value of AC Resistance) and the needle
will move to the left hand side of the scale when lower AC Resistances are detected. Again,
lower AC Resistances would indicate the presence of non-perfect (leaky) insulators (ionically-
conducting materials) or metallic shorts.

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 Because of the skin-effect discussed above, it is possible to locate a shorted bolt in a
normally insulating flange using the Model 601 unit, even though the bolt being examined
may or may not be the only shorted bolt in the flange.
Note: The Model 601insulation checker cannot be used to check the condition of a buried
flange from remote test leads. However, the Model 702 insulation checker can be used to
check the quality of insulation in buried flanges and carrier pipe/casing systems.
8.3.6. SOIL RESISTIVITY TESTING
8.3.6.1. Purposes
Soil resistivity is one factor that can determine the corrosivity of an environment.
Resistivity is also essential in the design of cathodic protection systems.

Electrolyte resistivity and pH are two of the factors that determine the corrosivity of an
electrolyte. Electrolyte resistivity is a measure of the ability of the electrolyte to support
electrochemical corrosion, and electrolyte pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the
electrolyte. Both influence the corrosion rates of metals placed underground or that are
submerged. Resistivity and pH are not the only factors affecting corrosion since total acidity,
aeration, moisture content, soil type, soil permeability and composition, and heterogeneity
play a role in determining the corrosivity of a given soil. Because of the natural heterogeneity
of soil, there is no single value of soil resistivity that represents a particular site. Instead, for a
given site a range of values are measured and calculations made to determine the “layer”
resistivities.
8.3.6.1. Measurement Techniques
Various means of measuring electrolyte resistivities are used. These include the Wenner
Four-Pin Method as described in ASTM Test Method G57, Collins Rod, and electromagnetic
induction methods.
Wenner Four-Pin Method
The four-pin resistivity method developed by Wenner involves the use of 4 pins driven
into the ground .Current is applied to the outer pins, and the voltage drop between the inner
pins is measured.

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 The resistivity is a function of the current, voltage drop, and spacing of the electrodes
(which is equal to the depth of the test). The current is usually applied using an instrument that
supplies alternating current; otherwise, polarization effects occur at the electrodes that can
alter the reading. If a DC current is used, “instant” current and potential measurements must be
taken. Stray earth currents can also affect the readings if these effects are not separated from
the data.

Instruments can use current generated from batteries by a vibrator (e.g., Vibroground or
Nilsson), or current generated by hand cranking (e.g., Meggar). The Nilsson uses a voltage of
12 V and a frequency of 97 Hz and the Vibroground uses a voltage of 100 V and 97 Hz. The
LEM is an automated, microprocessor-controlled instrument and uses a range of frequencies
(50 to 128 Hz) and 48/20 V.

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 The first step is to determine the resistance in Ω between the center pair of pins. Using
the commercially available equipment detailed above, the resistance is indicated directly by
the soil resistance meter. Resistivity is then calculated using the following formula:
ρ = 2π a R
Where:
ρ = Resistivity, Ω-cm
π = Constant Pi (3.1416)
a = Spacing, cm
R = Resistance, Ω
Or, if spacing is measured in feet, with the resistivity still in Ω-cm, use the following
formula:
ρ = 191.5 a R
ρ = Resistivity, Ω-cm
a = Spacing, ft
R = Resistance, Ω
For example,

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 If the resistance reading from the meter is 8 Ω at a pin spacing of 3.048 m (30.48
cm), then the average resistivity to an approximate depth of 3 m is
ρ = 2 x π x 304.8 cm x 8 Ω = 15,320 Ω-cm
or, similarly if the resistance reading is 8 Ω at a pin spacing of 10 ft, then the average
resistivity to a depth of 10 ft is
ρ = 191.5 x 10 ft x 8 Ω = 15,320 Ω –cm
If the line of soil pins runs closely parallel to a metallic structure, the presence of the
structure may cause the indicated soil resistivity values to be lower than is actually the case.
This is because a portion of the test current will flow along the metallic structure rather than
through the earth. For this reason, this situation should be avoided. When taking soil resistivity
measurements along a structure, it is good practice to place the line of pins perpendicular to
the structure, with the nearest pin no closer than 15 ft from the structure.
Layer Resistivity Calculations
The resistance, R, at each given spacing (S), is the resistance from ground level to a
depth equal to the spacing of the two inside pins.

Using the Wenner Method, the soil resistivity, whether average or layer, is determined
by above Equations
When calculating average resistivity, “R” is the resistance measured and “a” is the
spacing of the pins. In determining layer resistivity, the resistance “R” for the layer can be
calculated based on Barnes Layer Analysis which assumes the layers are in parallel and ‘a’ is
the thickness of the layer. Begin with the parallel resistance formula:

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 If there are only two parallel resistances then:

Therefore, based on the above illustration and equations, the following is true if the
measured resistances are R1, R2, and R3 with respect to spacings S1, S2, and S3.
Ρ1 avg = 2πS1R1 (191.5 S1 R1)
S1 layer = S1
R1 layer = R1
ρ1 layer = 2πS1 layerR1 layer (191.5 S1 layer R1 layer)
ρ2 avg = 2πS2R2 (191.5 S2 R2)
S2 layer = S2 – S1
R2 layer = (R1 R2)/(R1 – R2)
ρ2 layer = 2πS2 layerR2 layer (191.5 S2 layer R2 layer)
ρ3 avg = 2πS3R3 (191.5 S3 R3)
S3 layer = S3 – S2
R3 layer = (R2 R3)/(R2 – R3)
ρ3 layer = 2πS3 layer R3 layer (191.5 S3 layer R3 layer)
The results of sample soil resistivity calculations shown below that may be derived
from data acquired using the Wenner Method and the Barnes Layer calculations.

The “Resistivity Average” data in Table is calculated below.

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 Ρ ave = 2 π a R
ρ ave 1 = 2 π x 159.1 cm x 10 Ω
= 10,000 Ω-cm
Or in feet
ρ ave 1 = 191.5 x 5.22 ft x 10 Ω
= 10,000 Ω-cm
ρ ave 2 = 2 π x 318.1 cm x 7.4 Ω
= 14,795 Ω-cm
Or in feet
ρ ave 2 = 191.5 x 10.44 ft x 7.4 Ω
= 14,795 Ω-cm
ρ ave 3 = 2 π x 477.3 cm x 3.1 Ω
= 9,295 Ω-cm
Or in feet
ρ ave 3 = 191.5 x 15.66 ft x 3.1 Ω
= 9,295 Ω-cm
The “Layer Resistance” and the “Resistivity Layer” data in Table 6.3
are
calculated as follows:
ρ 1 layer
ρ 1 layer = ρ1ave as they are the same layer of soil.
Ρ 2 layer
ρ 2 layer = 2πS2 layerR2 layer (with S2 layer in cm)
Where
S2 layer = S2 – S1
= 318.2 cm – 159.1 cm
= 159.1 cm
Or
= 10.44 ft – 5.22 ft
= 5.22 ft
and

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 R2 layer = (R1 R2) / (R1 – R2)
R2 layer = (10.4 Ω x 7.4 Ω) / (10.4 Ω – 7.4 Ω)
= 25.65 Ω
ρ 2 layer = 2πS2 layerR2 layer
= 2 π x 159.1cm x 25.65 Ω
= 25,641 Ω-cm
Or if in feet
ρ 2 layer = 191.5 S2 layer R2 layer
= 191.5 x 5.22 ft x 25.65 Ω
= 25,641 Ω-cm
ρ 3 layer
ρ 3 layer = 2πS3 layerR3 layer (with S3 layer in cm)
where
S3 layer = S3 – S2
= 477.3cm – 318.2 cm
= 159.1 cm
Or in feet
= 15.66 ft – 10.44 ft
= 5.22 ft
and
R3 layer = (R2 R3) / (R2 – R3)
= (7.4 Ω x 3.1 Ω) / (7.4 Ω – 3.1 Ω)
= 5.33 Ω
ρ 3 layer = 2πS3 layer R3 layer
= 2π x 159.1cm x 5.33 Ω
= 5328 Ω –cm
Or if depth in feet
ρ 3 layer = 191.5 S3 layer R3 layer (with S3 layer in ft)
= 191.5 x 5.22 ft x 5.33 Ω
= 5,328 Ω-cm

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 Soil/Electrolyte Box
Another method of measuring resistivity does not rely on contact with the ground at all.
Soil or electrolyte box measurements of resistivity involve placing water or a soil sample in a
container having electrodes. These electrodes are then connected to a power supply and a
voltage measuring device, and the resistance of the soil between two potential electrodes is
measured. There are two different methods of preparing the soil for testing using this
measurement technique. ASTM G51 provides a method for testing the soil in the as-received
state and saturated with ground water, distilled water, or tap water. AASHTO T288 calls for
drying the sample, sieving it, and then adding water. The measurement is made in a specially
designed box having two electrodes. All of these methods measure a “minimum” resistivity of
a relatively small soil sample that may not represent the in-situ soil in terms of compaction,
pressure, temperature, permeability, or moisture content. These test methods should not,
therefore, be expected to replicate field measurements.
A soil/electrolyte box, shown in Figure, can be made or a commercial model purchased.
The commercial models are usually a clear, plastic box constructed with end plates for current
input and pins through the side for potential measurements. The formula for resistivity is:

If a soil box is constructed such that the cross-sectional area and the length are equal, then
the calculated value of resistivity would equal the measured resistance. That is,
If L=A
Then ρ=R
But ρ = soil resistivity (Ω-cm)
R = resistance from test (Ω).

Some commercially available soil boxes are sized for this straight one-to-one
conversion but remember the units for resistance (Ω) and resistivity (Ω-cm) are different.
Without the correct units the result is incorrect.

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8.3.7. Measuring pH
Electrolyte pH can be measured in several ways. For liquids, pH (litmus) paper or a pH
meter may be used. For soils, a pH meter may be used, or a filtrate may be made from distilled
water and a soil sample and the pH measured with litmus paper, a pH meter, or a pH test kit.
Note that a pH meter uses a glass electrode with a rather fragile glass bulb on the bottom. Care
must be taken when using these instruments not to break the electrode bulb.
Soil pH may also be measured using an antimony electrode and a copper-copper sulfate
electrode. The antimony electrode consists of a slug of antimony metal in the bottom of a
nonmetallic tube. The slug is connected to a terminal on the top of the tube. It is important to
keep the antimony shiny and bright. Use fine non-metal bearing sand paper or emery cloth for
cleaning. Do not use steel wool or other metallic abrasive since particles of metal may become
embedded in the antimony and affect the reading.

The antimony electrode and copper-sulfate reference electrode are placed close together
with the electrode tips in the soil and connected to a voltmeter. It does not matter which cell is
connected to which terminal of the meter since it is the potential between the two electrodes
that is of interest. Take care not to get any copper sulfate on the antimony slug. There is a
scale on the side of the antimony electrode that is calibrated in mV and pH. Once the potential
difference between the two electrodes is obtained, the pH can be determined from the scale.

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8.3.8. Holiday Testing
It shall be necessary to conduct holiday testing of cables and coating repair locations.
Several types of holiday detectors are suitable for field use at the pipeline construction
site. The most common ones are usually battery operated and equipped with some type of
pipe/cable-encircling electrode. The electrode is arranged so that the ring/probe may be pushed
or rolled along the cable/pipe by the operator, allowing the electrode to sweep all portions of
the coating surface.
The holiday detector should be operated in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. The coating inspector should be sure the operator has been trained properly and is
using the equipment correctly. Some practical operating procedures that apply to any type of
holiday locator include the following.
o Use only adequately charged batteries in battery-operated models.
o Use detectors that are set to operate at a voltage suitable for the coating being
applied.
Thick coatings require a high voltage to spark through at defects. On the other hand, too
high a voltage may break down thin film coatings such as tapes or other thin plastic coatings.
Verify periodically that the detector is operating properly. This may be done by
purposely making a coating defect (such as a pinhole made with a knife) and passing the
detector over the hole. Failure to detect the hole properly indicates the need for prompt
corrective adjustment. During production work, verification should be made at least twice a
day and at such other times as the inspector may suspect poor performance.
Keep the contact electrodes clean. A buildup of coating material on electrodes may
interfere with efficient detection or even prevent it entirely. This possibility is greater with
some materials than others. Where found to be a factor, keeping the electrodes clean of the
insulating coating material must be insisted on.
Maintain a good ground. To be complete, the detector circuit must contact the earth,
with a trailing ground wire for example. This trailing wire should be checked for damage daily
(or whenever faulty detector operation is suspected) and replaced or repaired if faulty.
8.3.9. INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTING
Insulation tests shall be carried out at the pre-commissioning stage and prior to the
energizing of TR and cables.
IR testing shall be carried out by applying a d.c. voltage from an insulation tester at
voltage levels given below .For correct comparative interpretation of test data, subsequent IR
tests should be carried out at the same voltage level as the initial test.
In order to protect the semiconductor part, TR DC terminals shall be shorted prior to the
insulation testing.TR input and output terminals shall be isolated from connected cables.
Cables shall be isolated from equipments prior to conduct cable insulation resistance testing.

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 8.3.10. Continuity testing.
This test shall be conducted to ensure the structure or cable continuity. Ohm meter
(multimeter) or 4 pin resistance meter (in 2 pin mode) shall be used for this testing.

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8.4.TROUBLESHOOTING IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS

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