A. T.

Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 1/105

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 2/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 3/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 4/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 5/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 6/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 7/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 8/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 9/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 10/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 11/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 12/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 13/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 14/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 15/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 16/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 17/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 18/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 19/105
 We need to write three differential equations for this system. The circuit that represents the
motor has an inductor, which is a dynamic element. So we will have one differential equation for
the motor. The motor torque rotates the gear, which moves together with the massless cart. We
should write the Newton's law for the motion there. Finally the mass m can move back and forth,
which requires its own Newton's law be written as a third differential equation.

Since mass m can move along a straight line it has one degree of freedom. The linear motion
of the massless cart and the rotation of the gear are connected. They cannot move
independent of each other (unless the gear slips, which we assume does not happen). This
means the motion of the massless cart and the gear has only one degree of freedom together.
Mechanically the system has two degrees of freedom.

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 20/105

 Here I just assumed that the force F_L acts in the direction shown in the picture above. We don't
know which way it acts and it doesn't really matter. Its direction depends on whether the spring k_2
is compressed or expanded and whether the damper b_2 is getting expanded or compressed. As
long as every term in our equations is consistent with our assumption the equations will be valid.

The forces on the massless cart are:

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 21/105

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 22/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 23/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 24/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 25/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 26/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 27/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 28/105
 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

Complex Variable
𝜎: 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 Im 𝑠 plane
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔, 𝑗 = √−1,
𝜔: 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝜔 𝑠
|𝑠|
|𝑠| = √𝜎 2 + 𝜔 2
𝜔
∠𝑠 = tan−1 ∠𝑠
𝜎 𝜎 Re
𝑠̅ = 𝜎 − 𝑗𝜔 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝑠𝑠̅ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔)(𝜎 − 𝑗𝜔)
= 𝜎 2 − 𝑗𝜎𝜔 + 𝑗𝜎𝜔 − (𝑗𝜔)2
= 𝜎 2 + 𝜔2 (𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
A complex number contains twice the information compared to a real number since it has two parts. The
two parts of a complex number can be expressed as the real and imaginary parts (𝜔 and 𝜎) if you use the
Cartesian coordinates as shown in the figure above. Or equivalently the same complex number can be
expressed in polar coordinates using magnitude and angle (|𝑠| and ∠𝑠).

Complex Function
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺𝑥 + 𝑗𝐺𝑦

is a function with a complex argument 𝑠. In general the value (output) of a complex function will be a complex
number as shown above. Here both 𝐺𝑥 and 𝐺𝑦 are real.

Example:
1
𝐺(𝑠) = , 𝑠1 = 𝜎1 + 𝑗𝜔1
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
1
𝐺(𝑠1 ) =
(𝜎1 + 𝑗𝜔1 )(𝜎1 + 𝑗𝜔1 + 1)
(𝜎1 − 𝑗𝜔1 )(𝜎1 + 1 − 𝑗𝜔1 )
= 2 2 2
⏟ 1 + 𝜔1 )((𝜎1 + 1)2 + 𝜔1 )
(𝜎
𝐴 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)
𝜎1 (𝜎1 + 1) − 𝜔12 −𝜎1 𝜔1 − 𝜔1 (𝜎1 + 1)
= +𝑗
⏟ 𝐴 ⏟ 𝐴
𝐺𝑥 𝐺𝑦

Let 𝑠1 = 1 + 𝑗, i.e., 𝜎1 = 1, 𝜔1 = 1:
(1 + 1) − 1 −1 − (1 + 1)
𝐺(𝑠1 ) = 𝐺(1 + 𝑗) = 2
+𝑗
(1 + 1)((1 + 1) + 1) 10
1 3
= −𝑗
10 10
Im 𝑠 plane Im 𝐺 𝐺 plane
1+𝑗

Re 1 3
−𝑗 Re 𝐺
10 10

𝐺(𝑠) is a single valued function since it maps any point on 𝑠 plane to a single point on 𝐺(𝑠) plane. Reverse
is not true! 𝐺(𝑠) = ∞ ⇒ 𝑠 = 0 & 𝑠 = −1.

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 29/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

Analytic Function
A complex function 𝐺(𝑠) is said to be analytic if 𝐺(𝑠) and all its derivatives exist.
Example:
1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = −1
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.

Singular Points (Poles)

Points in the 𝑠 plane at which the function is not analytic are called singular points (poles). At poles 𝐺(𝑠) or
its derivatives approach infinity. A pole at 𝑠𝑖 is said to have multiplicity 𝑟 if
lim [(𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖 )𝑟 𝐺(𝑠)] ≠ 0
𝑠→𝑠𝑖
≠∞
Example:
10(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)2
10(𝑠 + 2)
lim [(𝑠 + 3)𝐺(𝑠)] = lim [ ]=∞
𝑠→−3 𝑠→−3 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)

10(𝑠 + 2) 10
lim [(𝑠 + 3)2 𝐺(𝑠)] = lim [ ]=−
𝑠→−3 𝑠→−3 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) 6
Hence 𝑠 = −3 is a pole of order 2 (multiplicity 2)
𝑠=0 is also a pole (𝑟 = 1)
𝑠 = −1 (𝑟 = 1)

Zeros of a Function
If a function 𝐺(𝑠) is analytic at 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑖 and
1
lim [ 𝐺(𝑠)] ≠ 0
𝑠→𝑠𝑖 (𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖 )𝑟
≠∞
then 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑖 is a zero of multiplicity 𝑟.
Example:
10(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)2
has a zero at 𝑠 = −2 with 𝑟 = 1. For large 𝑠
10
𝐺(𝑠) ≅
𝑠3
Hence 𝐺(𝑠) has four poles at 𝑠 = 0, −1, −3, −3 and one zero at 𝑠 = −2 and three zeros at 𝑠 = ∞.

Laplace Transformation
 Many common functions (step, sinusoidal functions, exponential functions, …) of a real valued
argument (e.g. time) can be transformed into algebraic functions of complex variable 𝑠. The new
function of 𝑠 will still be representing the original function of 𝑡, but expressed in a different

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 30/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

mathematical form. This is in a way similar to explaining the same thing in a different language.
Suppose that a certain subject is to be explained. This can be done in different languages and it may
be easier to do that in a particular language if for example that language has a richer vocabulary in
that subject. So if you use that language you can explain that topic using fewer words.
 Differentiation and integration can be replaced by algebraic operations in the complex plane (linear
differential equations can be transformed into an algebraic equation in a complex variable 𝑠. As you
will see later on this makes things (system analysis) a lot easier.
Define
𝑓(𝑡): a function of time 𝑡 such that 𝑓(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 < 0
𝑠: a complex variable
ℒ: an operational symbol for Laplace transformation
𝐹(𝑠): Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡)
Then the Laplace transformation of 𝑓(𝑡) is given by
∞

ℒ [𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0

provided that there exists a real positive 𝜎 such that

∞

∫ |𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 < ∞ (𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑)

0

Example: Unit step function

∞
𝑢(𝑡)
∞ 1
1 1 1 1 1
ℒ [𝑢(𝑡)] = ∫ 1𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [− 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ] = − ∞ − (− 0 )
𝑠 0 𝑠 𝑒⏟ 𝑠 𝑒⏟
0 =0 =1
1 𝑡
=
𝑠
Note that the condition above is satisfied (existence of Laplace transform)
∞
1 −𝜎𝑡 ∞ 1 1
∫ |𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 = [− 𝑒 ] = 0 − = − < ∞
𝜎 0 𝜎 𝜎
0

for any real positive finite 𝜎.

Example:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 , 𝑡≥0
We encounter exponential function very frequently in system analysis. As we already saw in several
examples in class, if you release a spring mass damper system from some initial condition, the output
response will have an exponential function. Depending on the value of the damper constant there may be
oscillations or not, but the exponential function will always be there if there is damping. So let’s see what
the Laplace transform of the above exponential function is:

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 31/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

∞ ∞
∞
−𝑎𝑡 −𝑠𝑡
1 1
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ [𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [− 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 ] =
𝑎+𝑠 0 𝑠+𝑎
0 0

The result is a complex rational function with a simple pole at −𝑎.

Euler’s Theorem:

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
Also

𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑗 sin 𝜃

Then
1 𝑗𝜃
cos 𝜃 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2
1
sin 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2𝑗
Example:
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑓(𝑡) = {
𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
where 𝐴 and 𝜔 are constants.
∞
𝐴
ℒ [𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡] = ∫ (𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 )𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝑗
0
∞
𝐴
= ∫ (𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 − 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑗𝜔)𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
2𝑗
0
∞
𝐴 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑗𝜔)𝑡 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑗𝜔)𝑡
= [ − ]
2𝑗 −(𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔) −(𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔) 0
𝐴 1 1
= [0 − 0 − ( − )]
2𝑗 −(𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔) −(𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔)
𝐴 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔
=
2𝑗 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝐴𝜔
= 2
𝑠 + 𝜔2
The result is again a complex rational function with two poles at ±𝑗𝜔 and no zeros.
Similarly
𝐴𝑠
ℒ [𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡] =
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
Again there are two poles at ±𝑗𝜔, but this time there is also a zero at the origin.
Note that in practice we almost never take the integral to find the Laplace transform of a function. Instead
we use Laplace transforms of common functions from Laplace transform tables and Laplace transform
properties. But still you need to know the definition, because I may ask you to find the transform of a function
directly using the definition in the exam .

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 32/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

Inverse Laplace Transformation

𝑐+𝑗∞
1
𝑓(𝑡) = ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
𝑐−𝑗∞

where 𝑐 is a real constant greater than the real parts of all the singularities in 𝐹(𝑠).

Important Properties of Laplace Transform

1. ℒ [𝑘𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑘𝐹(𝑠)
2. ℒ [𝑓1 (𝑡) ± 𝑓2 (𝑡)] = 𝐹1 (𝑠) ± 𝐹2 (𝑠)
𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
linearity
}
3. ℒ [ ] = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − lim 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0) (differentiation)
𝑑𝑡 𝑡→0

𝑑 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2

𝑑𝑓(𝑡) 𝑛−3
𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ[ ] = 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) − lim [𝑠 𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑠 + 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑠 + ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑡→0 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1
= 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−3 𝑓 ′′ (0) − ⋯ − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0)
𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
4. ℒ [∫0 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏] = (integration)
𝑠
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡𝑛
𝐹(𝑠)
[∫ ∫ ∫ … ∫ 𝑓(𝜏𝑛 )𝑑𝜏𝑛 … 𝑑𝜏3 𝑑𝜏2 𝑑𝜏1 ] =
𝑠𝑛
0 0 0 0

5. Time shift

𝑓(𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑓(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡) In this course we use one

sided Laplace transform,
where we take the integral
in the definition from 0 to
𝑡 +∞. So we assume that
the function to be
transformed is defined in
𝑇 that range. To make sure

𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇) that this is the case we

multiply the function with
unit step function as
shown here.

ℒ [𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)] = 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)

where
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ [𝑓(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)]
Note that in general we omit 𝑢(𝑡) with the assumption that 𝑓(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 < 0.

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 33/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

∞ ∞
−𝑠𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)
0 0
∞

∫ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0
∞
𝑡−𝑇 =𝜎
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜎
𝑇
∞
𝑡=𝑇 ⇒ 𝜎=0
= ∫ 𝑓(𝜎)𝑢(𝜎)𝑒 −𝑠(𝜎+𝑇) 𝑑𝜎
𝑡=∞ ⇒ 𝜎=∞
0
∞
−𝑠𝑇 ∫
= 𝑒⏟ 𝑓(𝜎)𝑢(𝜎)𝑒 −𝑠𝜎 𝑑𝜎
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝜎 0
−𝑠𝑇
=𝑒 𝐹(𝑠)
6. Initial value theorem:
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→0 𝑠→∞
7. Final value theorem:
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

Provided that 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) is analytic on the imaginary axis.

Example:
10
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠(3𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 7)
10
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) = : 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0 7
Example:
𝜔
𝐹(𝑠) = , ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = lim sin 𝜔𝑡 → 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 ± 1, 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞

𝐹(𝑠) has two poles on the imaginary axis, 𝑠1 = +𝑗𝜔, 𝑠2 = −𝑗𝜔, thus FVT is not applicable. If we apply FVT:
lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) = 0
𝑠→0

which is WRONG!

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 34/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

8. Complex shifting:
∞
−𝑎𝑡
ℒ [𝑒 𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1
0
∞

= ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , 𝑎 + 𝑠 = 𝑠̅
0 f(t)
= 𝐹(𝑠̅ )
e-at
= 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)
e-atf(t)
𝑎𝑡
ℒ [𝑒 𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎)

0
9. Real convolution: 0

ℒ [𝑓1 (𝑡)] = 𝐹1 (𝑠), ℒ [𝑓2 (𝑡)] = 𝐹2 (𝑠) Proof of commutative property:

Convolution integral: 𝜏 = 𝑡 − 𝜏̅ ⇒ 𝑑𝜏 = −𝑑𝜏̅

𝑡
𝜏 = 0 ⇒ 𝜏̅ = 𝑡
𝜏 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝜏̅ = 0
𝑓1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑓2 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑓2 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑡 0
0
𝑡 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑓2 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = − ∫ 𝑓1 (𝜏̅)𝑓2 (𝑡 − 𝜏̅)𝑑𝜏̅
= ∫ 𝑓1 (𝜏)𝑓2 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 0 𝑡
𝑡
0
= 𝑓2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑓1 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝜏)𝑓2 (𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
0
ℒ [𝑓1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑓2 (𝑡)] = 𝐹1 (𝑠)𝐹2 (𝑠)
Very useful in finding the inverse Laplace transform!
(This is an example that many complex operations in time domain correspond to simpler operations
in Laplace domain. We have two functions, 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡). In time domain we take the convolution
integral of these two functions. This operation is equal to simply multiplying the Laplace transforms
of these two functions.)
Example:
𝑎 1 𝑎
𝐹(𝑠) = =
𝑠(𝑠 + 𝑎) ⏟
𝑠 𝑠⏟+ 𝑎
𝐹1 (𝑠) 𝐹2 (𝑠)
𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
ℒ −1 [𝐹1 (𝑠)𝐹2 (𝑠)] = 𝑓1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑓2 (𝑡)
𝑡

= ∫ 𝑢(𝜏)𝑎𝑒 −𝑎(𝑡−𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
0
𝑡
−𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑢(𝜏)𝑒 𝑎𝜏 𝑑𝜏
= 𝑎𝑒
0
𝑡
−𝑎𝑡
𝑒 𝑎𝜏
= 𝑎𝑒 ( ) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑎 0

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 35/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

How Laplace Transform Makes System Analysis Easier

Let’s remember how we do system analysis on the following flow chart:

Linear
Dynamic
System
Use laws of physics

ℒ
Linear ODE’s Algebraic
Take Laplace transform
equations

ℒ
Classical External inputs Algebraic
techniques techniques
𝑓 (𝑡 ) 𝐹 (𝑠 )

ℒ −1
Response in Response in
time Take inverse Laplace transform 𝑠 domain
domain
In the class on the mass spring damper system we found the response to step input force. Remember that
the solution was pretty difficult to get (I just showed the end result in class) even for this simple system with
the simple input function. This was an example of going straight down from the left column following the
red arrows. By using Laplace transform we can get to the same result more easily (follow the green path).
Example: Let’s go back to the previous example. Find the response of the spring mass damper system to
initial conditions:
𝑑𝑦
𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝐵𝑦̇ + 𝐾𝑦 = 0, 𝑦(0) = 𝑦0 , | = 𝑦̇ 0
𝑑𝑡 0
Take the Laplace transform of the above equation:
ℒ {𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝐵𝑦̇ + 𝐾𝑦} = 𝑚ℒ {𝑦̈ } + 𝐵ℒ {𝑦̇ } + 𝐾ℒ {𝑦} = 0 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦)
Then using the differentiation property we get
ℒ {𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝐵𝑦̇ + 𝐾𝑦} = 𝑚(𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑦0 − 𝑦̇ 0 ) + 𝐵(𝑠𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐾𝑌(𝑠) = 0
= (𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑚𝑠𝑦0 − 𝑚 − 𝑦̇ 0 − 𝐵𝑦0 = 0
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑚𝑠𝑦0 + 𝑚 + 𝑦̇ 0 + 𝐵𝑦0
𝑚𝑦0 𝑠 + 𝑚 + 𝑦̇ 0 + 𝐵𝑦0
𝑌(𝑠) =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 36/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

Note that the above function is a complex rational function with two poles at the roots of the denominator
polynomial:

−𝐵 ± √𝐵2 − 4𝑚𝐾
𝑠1,2 =
2𝑚
and a zero at
𝑚 + 𝑦̇ 0 + 𝐵𝑦0
𝑧1 = −
𝑚𝑦0
Response to initial conditions can be found by taking the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑌(𝑠):
𝑦𝐼.𝐶. (𝑡) = ℒ −1 {𝑌(𝑠)}
We will do the Laplace inversion later. To find the response to external forcing we again take the Laplace
transform of the original ODE, this time with 𝑓(𝑡) on the right hand side, but with zero I.C.’s:
ℒ {𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝐵𝑦̇ + 𝐾𝑦} = ℒ {𝑓(𝑡)}
Using the linearity and differentiation properties we get
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
1
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
Obviously the result depends on the input force applied. We need to take the Laplace transform of the input
applied and insert it into the above 𝑌(𝑠) expression and then take the inverse Laplace transform as before.
If 𝑓(𝑡) is the unit step function, we already know from a previous example that
1
ℒ {𝑓(𝑡)} =
𝑠
Therefore
1 1
𝑌𝐸.𝐹. (𝑠) =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑠
and
1
𝑦𝐸.𝐹. (𝑡) = ℒ −1 { }
𝑠(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)
The good thing here is that if we want to compute the response of the system to a different input function,
all we need to do is to just take the Laplace transform of that function and obtain 𝑌(𝑠) by simply inserting
𝐹(𝑠) into the above function. For example let
𝑓(𝑡) = sin(𝑎𝑡)
Then from a Laplace transform table we get
𝑎
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠2 + 𝑎2
𝑌𝐸.𝐹. (𝑠) then becomes
𝑎
𝑌𝐸.𝐹. (𝑠) =
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 37/105

 Middle East Technical University Department of Aerospace Engineering
AEE 383 Lecture Notes Fall 2013 Dr. Ali Türker Kutay

We can then invert the above function. This is much easier than solving the system differential equation in
time domain with the sinusoidal input.

Transfer Function
For a general input function the response in 𝑠 domain can be found as
1
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
⏟ 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑚𝑠
=𝐺(𝑠)
= 𝐺(𝑠)𝐹(𝑠)
Note that the function 𝐺(𝑠) depends on the physical properties of the system (values of 𝑚, 𝐵, and 𝐾) and
does NOT depend on input applied or the initial conditions of the system. This function is called the transfer
function of the system. In general transfer functions always depend on only the physical properties of the
system. For linear time invariant (LTI) dynamic systems transfer functions are always complex rational
functions. In the most general case a transfer function will have the following form:
𝑏̅0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏̅1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + 𝑏̅2 𝑠 𝑚−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏̅𝑚
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑎̅0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎̅1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎̅2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎̅𝑛
𝑏̅ 𝑏̅ 𝑏̅
𝑠 𝑚 + ̅1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ̅2 𝑠 𝑚−2 + ⋯ + ̅
𝑏̅0 𝑏0 𝑏0 𝑏0 𝑚
=
𝑎̅0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎̅1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎̅2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎̅𝑛
𝑎̅0 𝑎̅0 𝑎̅0
𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + 𝑏2 𝑠 𝑚−2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚
=𝛼 𝑛
𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑏̅0 𝑏̅𝑖 𝑎̅𝑖
where 𝛼 = , 𝑏𝑖 = , and 𝑎𝑖 = . For real physical systems 𝑚 is always ≤ 𝑛.
𝑎̅0 𝑏̅0 𝑎̅0

10

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 38/105

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 39/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 40/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 41/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 42/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 43/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 44/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 45/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 46/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 47/105
 Example: Consider the spring mass damper system with 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔, 𝐵 = 2 𝑁/(𝑚/𝑠), and 𝐾 =
4 𝑁/𝑚. Find the position of the mass when a step force with magnitude 1 𝑁 is applied when the
mass was originally at rest.
1
Input applied: 𝑈(𝑠) = 𝑠

System equation: 𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝐵𝑦̇ + 𝐾𝑦 = 𝑢

Transfer function:

(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌(𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = 2
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾

Response to input applied:

1 1
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑈(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 𝑚𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
1
=
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4)

Poles of the system:

𝑠1 = 0
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −2 ± √4 − 4 × 4
𝑠2,3 = = = −1 ± √3𝑗
2𝑎 2

So,

𝐾1 𝐾2 ̅̅̅
𝐾2
𝑌(𝑠) = + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 1 + √3𝑗 𝑠 + 1 − √3𝑗

1 1
𝐾1 = lim =
𝑠→0 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4 4
1 1 1 −6 + 2√3𝑗
𝐾2 = lim = = =
𝑠→−1−√3𝑗 𝑠(𝑠 + 1 − √3𝑗) (−1 − √3𝑗)(−2√3𝑗) −6 + 2√3𝑗 48
−6 − 2√3𝑗
̅̅̅2 =
𝐾
48

Then

1 −6 + 2√3𝑗 −6 − 2√3𝑗
𝑌(𝑠) = + +
4𝑠 48(𝑠 + 1 + √3𝑗) 48(𝑠 + 1 − √3𝑗)
Taking the inverse transform

1 −6 + 2√3𝑗 (−1−√3𝑗)𝑡 −6 − 2√3𝑗 (−1+√3𝑗)𝑡

𝑦(𝑡) =+ 𝑒 + 𝑒
4 48 48
1 𝑒 −𝑡 −√3𝑗𝑡 √3𝑗𝑒 −𝑡 √3𝑗𝑡
= − (𝑒 + 𝑒 √3𝑗𝑡 ) − (𝑒 − 𝑒 −√3𝑗𝑡 )
4 8 24

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 48/105

 1 𝑒 −𝑡 √3𝑗𝑒 −𝑡
= − (2 cos(√3𝑡)) + (2𝑗 sin(√3𝑡))
4 8 24
1 𝑒 −𝑡 √3
= − (cos(√3𝑡) + sin(√3𝑡)) , 𝑡 ≥ 0
4 4 3

Another way is to keep the complex terms as a second order fraction:

1 𝐾1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵
𝑌(𝑠) = = + 2
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4) 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 4
1
𝐾1 = from before. Then
4

1 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4 + 4𝐴𝑠 2 + 4𝐵𝑠 (4𝐴 + 1)𝑠 2 + (4𝐵 + 2)𝑠 + 4

𝑌(𝑠) = = =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4) 4𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4) 4𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4)

1
4𝐴 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 = −
4
1
4𝐵 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵 = −
2

So

1 1 1 𝑠+2
𝑌(𝑠) = = −
𝑠(𝑠 2
+ 2𝑠 + 4) 4𝑠 4 (𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4)
1 1 𝑠+2
= − ( )
4𝑠 4 (𝑠 + 1)2 + 3
1 1 𝑠+1 1 √3
= − ( + )
4𝑠 4 (𝑠 + 1) + 3 √3 + 1)2 + 3
2 (𝑠

1 1 𝑠+1 1 √3
= − +
4𝑠 4 ⏟ + 1) + 3 √3 ⏟ + 1)2 + 3
(𝑠 2 (𝑠
→𝑒 −𝑡 cos(√3𝑡) →𝑒 −𝑡 sin(√3𝑡)
( )
−𝑡
1 𝑒 √3
𝑦(𝑡) = ℒ −1 {𝑌(𝑠)} = [ − (cos(√3𝑡) + sin(√3𝑡))] . 𝑢(𝑡)
4 4 3

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 49/105

A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 50/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 51/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 52/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 53/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 54/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 55/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 56/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 57/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 58/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 59/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 60/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 61/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 62/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 63/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 64/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 65/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 66/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 67/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 68/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 69/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 70/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 71/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 72/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 73/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 74/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 75/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 76/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 77/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 78/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 79/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 80/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 81/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 82/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 83/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 84/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 85/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 86/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 87/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 88/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 89/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 90/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 91/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 92/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 93/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 94/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 95/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 96/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 97/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 98/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 99/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 100/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 101/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 102/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 103/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 104/105
A. T. Kutay AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes page 105/105