Social Movements in India: Meaning, Features and Other Details!

A social movement is a mass movement and a collective attempt of people to bring about a

change, or to resist any change. The concept central to any social movement is that people

intervene in the process of social change, rather than remaining mere spectators or passive

participants in the ebb and flow of life.

People seek to become proactive actors in altering the course of history. In order to achieve their

aim of making a difference to the world they live in, they either initiate or become a part of

collective action. Individuals consciously act together with a sense of engagement in a common

enterprise.

Social movements possess a considerable measure of internal order and purposeful orientation. It

is, in fact, this organization that strengthens the movement to challenge the established

institutions. A social movement can be described more or less as a persistent and organized effort

on the part of a relatively large group of people to bring about or resist change. However, the

number of persons participating is not the criteria for describing any movement as a collective

action. The movement must have a leader to guide and execute the plan of action and possess the

power to sustain the movement. Social movements, however, are different from pressure groups

or institutional movements. Institutional movements are highly organized, permanent, and

primarily occupation-based. Social movements are spontaneous and need not be issue-specific.

Meaning and Definitions of Social Movements:

Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new order of life. They

have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive their motive power on one hand from

dissatisfaction with the current form of life, and on the other hand, from wishes and hopes for a

new scheme or system of living. —Herbert Blumer. A movement is not merely a perpetuated

crowd, since a crowd does not possess organizational and motivational mechanisms capable of
sustaining membership through periods of inaction and waiting. Furthermore, crowd mechanisms

cannot be used to achieve communication and coordination of activity over a wide area, such as

a nation or continent.

A social movement is a collectivity or a collective enterprise. The individual member

experiences a sense of membership in an alliance of people who share his dissatisfaction with the

present state of affairs and his vision of a better order. —Encyclopedia Britannica

Movements are something that people create to press for social change. Sociological definitions

of movements stress on qualities such as collective and innovative behavior, the shifting and

fluid boundaries of movement membership, and the willingness of members to disrupt order a

little or a lot.

Social movements are generally seen as phenomena of the modern era and industrialized society
whether located in the “First” world or not. Industrialization and urbanization, technological
advancements, and ongoing democratization have allowed people to push for change
collectively, and question the legitimacy of the existing order. Social movements can be defined
as collective challenges based on common purposes.

It is a collective enterprise acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in society. It

is made up of a group with indefinite and shifting membership. In general, the leadership of such

movements is determined by informal response of the members rather than by formal procedures

that legitimize the authority. Gerlach and Hine have identified five key factors, which are

operationally significant, and become the basis of a true movement.

The five key factors are:

i. Any social movement involves a group or collectivity, comprising different units, segmented

on the basis of personal, structural, or ideological ties ii. The group includes individuals
committed to the cause, who use their preexisting, significant social relationships to convince

others to join the movement.

iii. For any movement to become successful there should be commitment to the movement. It

also involves a separation, in a significant way, from the established order. The efforts of others,

or one’s own experience bring forth a new set of values and induce changed patterns of behavior

in individuals.

iv. The result is the emergence of an ideology, which codifies values and goals, and provides a

conceptual framework by which goals maybe interpreted. The ideology also motivates change,

defines opposition, and provides a basis for the unification of a segmented network of groups.

v. Real or perceived opposition from a society at large or from that segment of the established

order, within which the movement has arisen, is also an important aspect of any social

movement. In fact, it is this opposition that unifies the varying segments involved in a social

movement.

A social movement arises when there emerges an issue or a set of issues that affect a significant

proportion of people in some way or the other. Gradually, these issues start gaining importance

and result in mass participation of people and in collective action. According to Smelser,

“Collective movements refer to collective efforts to modify norms and values, which frequently

(but not always) develop over longer periods of time.”

There are significant differences between collective action and movements. Forms of collective

action such as riots, revolts, and revolution involve violent group outbursts. Some collective

actions (crowds and riots) are generally unstructured and short-lived, whereas rebellion,

revolution, and movements are more structured.

A riot is defined as an outbreak of temporary but violent mass disorder, which breaks out

suddenly, carries fire and fury against a target or group, and dies in a short period, leaving behind

death and destruction. Riots are an index of general unrest within the society. Revolt refers to a

mass insurrection, or an uprising by some sections of society against the authority. It is an

organized act of rising against, or breaking away from the established system of authority.

Rebellion refers to an opposition by the masses against the authority, not against persons or

groups. Rebellion is confined to the efforts on the part of a portion of the state to overthrow the

authority. Revolutions are highly organized political movements with a widespread public

participation and designed to overthrow the regime or dissolve the state. Revolutions are

generally accompanied by extensive violence. Revolution signifies the revolt of all sections of

the society and their participation in the total dismantling of the state.

All social movements are collective actions, but all collective actions need not necessarily be

social movements. A social movement may lead to, or transform itself into a revolution. A social

movement may or may not be a mobilization of people against the state or system of governance,

and may or may not involve violence.

Social movements generally mobilize members or participants to seek redressal of a grievance,

or to struggle for specific goals and objectives. They often involve only a particular section of a

population and manifest themselves only in a part of society. Social movements refer to a

sustained and continuous collective action over a long period of time. Social movements

generally aim at and result in change.

Features and Causes of Social Movements:

Features: Some of the features of social movements are as follows i. The sense of belonging
and group consciousness is very important for a social movement. Such consciousness can be
brought about through active participation of the group members.
ii. Social movements lead to the creation of an entirely new social, economic, and political order.

iii. Most of the social movements tend to develop a new set of ideas, which become obligatory

for the members of the group to adopt and follow.

iv. It is obvious that the social movements involve collective action rather than individual action.

v. Social movements may be organized or unorganized.

vi. Social movements may be peaceful in nature or they may also turn violent.

vii. The aim of a social movement is to bring about or resist social change in the society.

viii. The life of the social movement is not certain. This is because it may continue for a long

period or it may die out soon.

Causes:

According to Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva (p. 285), social movements do not just happen. It is

social unrest which gives rise to a social movement.

The social unrest may be caused by the following factors:

i. Cultural Drifts:

The society undergoes constant changes. The values and behavior are changing all the time in

civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift, most people develop new ideas. To get these

ideas operative in the society they organize a movement.

The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread of mass

education, the removal of untouchability, the equality of opportunity for both the sexes, and the

growth of secularism are some examples of cultural drift.

ii. Social Disorganization:

A changing society is, to some extent, disorganized because changes in different parts of the

society do not take place simultaneously. One part changes more rapidly than the other, thereby

producing numerous lags. Industrialization has brought about urbanization which in turn has

caused numerous social problems.

Social disorganization brings confusion and uncertainty, because the old traditions no longer

form a dependable guide to behavior, and individuals become rootless. They feel isolated from

society. A feeling develops that the community leaders are indifferent to their needs. Individuals

feel insecure, confused, and frustrated. Confusion and frustration lead to social movements.

iii. Social Injustice:

When a group of people feel that injustice was done to them, they become frustrated and

alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social movements. The feeling of

social injustice is not limited to the miserable poor. Any group, at any status level, may come to

feel itself the victim of social injustice.

The wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice when faced with urban property ceiling law—or

high taxes—intended to benefit the poor. Social injustice is a subjective value judgment. A social

system is unjust when it is so perceived by its members. Thus, social movements occur whenever

such kind of social situation arises. In a stable and well-integrated society, the chances for social

movements are very rare.

It is understood that people living in such a society are contented and satisfied. In a disorganized

and continuously changing society, social movements occur more frequently, as most people are

dissatisfied with the existing conditions. Lack of social justice also makes people dissatisfied and
paves the way for social movements. Modern society is more afflicted with social movements

than the earlier societies.

Various Theories of Social Movements:

There are basically five theories that describe the rationale of the people undertaking a joint-

action. Various opinions are expressed with regard to the cause of social movements. One set of

observers is of the view that the roots of any movement are found in social misery, social, and

economic deprivation.

Another set of observers is of the opinion that the widespread discontentment and oppression are

the causes for social movements. It is also stated that the conditions for living in a society are

becoming intolerable which prompt people to take part in social movements.

The following is a brief explanation of each of the approach theories:

i. Mass Society Theory:

William Kornhauser advocated the Mass Society Theory in 1959. He suggested that mass society

is impersonal, industrialized, and highly bureaucratized. Socially isolated people who feel

personally low join movements, where they feel they can achieve something. The emptiness felt

by such people is filled by social movements as they bring about a sense of belonging.

He also observed that in a society where the social ties are weaker, there are more chances of

social movements. Sociologist such as Dough McAdam explained that the main reason for

people to risk their lives in social movements is their strong desire to set right the wrongs and to

overcome the injustices. They also try not to isolate themselves as they are firmly rooted in

families and communities (Henslin, p. 609).

ii. Deprivation Theory: According to this theory, people deprived of things deemed valuable in
the society—whether money, justice, status, or privileges— join social movements with the hope
of redressing their grievances. This theory was well explained by Karl Marx. He stated that
excessive capitalistic exploitation leads to impoverishment of the working classes, which
compels them to overthrow their oppressors. However, Karl Marx recognized that abject misery
and exploitation do not necessarily result in revolutionary fervor.

He pointed out that the suffering of the under-classes, whom he labeled the Lumpen-proletariate,

can be so intense and their resulting alienation can be so massive that all social and revolutionary

consciousness are dead (Vander Zanden, p. 375). Karl Marx also explained another type of

deprivation called relative deprivation, which is a situation where people believe that they are

being deprived of what is rightfully theirs.

It is a perceived disadvantage arising from some specific comparison. In such situations, people

believe that they must join movements based on their evaluation of what they think they should

have in comparison to what others have. However, this theory, which gives an insight into the

origin and development of revolutions, also holds a surprise. Improving conditions result in a

desire for even better conditions.

This craving for more and more can also spark off revolutions. Another explanation for the

theory of relative deprivation is through the “rise and drop” of J Curve hypothesis as explained

by James Davies. He contends that revolutions are likely to take place when a prolonged period

of social and economic betterment is followed by a period of sharp reversal. “People fear that the

gains they achieved with great effort will be lost, and their mood becomes revolutionary.”

iii. Resource Mobilization Theory:

The proponents of this theory claim that it is always necessary to know the forces that energize

and activate a social movement. They emphasize the factors such as the availability of resources

for pursuing particular goals and the system of interpersonal relationships. It is considered

important to have substantial resources for the success of any movement.

These resources include human labor, money, infrastructure and communication facilities, access

to mass media, and a positive public image. People are seen to participate in social movements

not as the result of deprivation, but as a response to a rational decision-making process, whereby

they weigh the costs and benefits of participation (Zanden, p. 380).

In many cases, resources and organizations outside the protest group are crucial in determining

the scope and outcome of collective action. External support is essential for the movement of the

poor. Most of the time, the success or failure of the social movements is determined by the

political factors in which they get entangled.

iv. Structural Strain Theory:

Neil Smelzer developed one of the most influential theories about social movements. The

Structural Strain Theory identifies the following factors which encourage the development of

social movements (Macionis, pp. 619 and 620):

1. Structural Conduciveness:

Social movements arise when people start thinking that their society has some problems, which

may include economic, social, cultural, or political problems.

2. Structural Strain:

When the needs or expectations of people are not met, they begin to feel a sense of relative

deprivation. In Eastern Europe, the pro- democracy movements gained popularity because of the

perception of the people that their standard of living was far lower than that of the people of

Western Europe.

3. Growth and Spread of an Idea:

In order to form a well-organized social movement, there should be a clear statement of a

problem, its causes and the solution(s) to the problem. Confusion regarding the problem or
suffering will make people express their dissatisfaction and disillusionment in an unorganized

way, i.e., through rioting.

4. Precipitating Factors:

There may be overt and underlying discontent, which could be transformed into a collective

action by a specific event.

5. Mobilization for Action:

Once people share a common concern regarding a public issue, they become ready to take action.

This could take the form of protest, marches, rallies, and demonstrations, distribution of leaflets,

public meetings, and alliances with sympathetic organizations.

In Poland, the success of the Solidarity Movement encouraged the people of Eastern Europe to

agitate for change. As reform movements gained strength, the pace of change also increased.

Change, which took a decade in Poland, took only months in Hungary and weeks in other

Eastern European countries.

6. Lack of Social Control:

The response of the politicians, officials, the police, and the military determine the success or

failure of any social movement. When the state’s intervention is swift and aimed at crushing a

movement, it may not succeed in its endeavor.

An example of such handling of any movement is the way the pro-democracy movement was

crushed in China. However, Gorbachev adopted a policy of non-intervention in Eastern Europe,

which resulted in the success of the democratic movements and brought about a widespread

change.
v. New Social Movements Theory:

The changing character of social movements is addressed by a recent theoretical approach. This

theory emphasizes the distinctive features of social movements in post-industrial societies of

North America and Western Europe.

Today’s movements are international in nature and focus on global issues such as environment,

global ecology, the consequences of war and terrorism, and so on. These movements focus on

cultural and social change, not merely on economic change. These movements have the support

of the middle class unlike the earlier movements, which had the strong support of the working

class.

Thus, the above-mentioned theories give us an understanding as to what the reasons are that

instigate people to join various social movements. These movements help people to relate the

individual to the larger society and make them aware of social concerns. It is through these
movements that the governments get to know the needs and demands of the people in both

general and specific terms.

Social movements may be classified on the basis of purpose and interest, such as linguistic,

religious, sectarian, caste, peasant, workers, tribal, ethnic, women’s, environmental, civil rights,

and human rights movements.

On the basis of their organization or strategies adopted, they can be classified into moderate and

militant, peaceful or violent, and constitutional and unconstitutional movements. With respect to

the demands or goals, movements can be reformative, revolutionary, resistance, revivalist, and

expressive movements.