PG Notes On Semiconductors (Part-3)

PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 3)
Physics Galaxy Notes

Semiconductors Part - 3
An Ultimate Tool to understand advanced High School Physics 60 Min
72
by ASHISH ARORA Sir
PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 3)

Transistor
A transistor is a two junction semiconductor device. It consists of three semiconductor sections, one sandwitched
between the other two similar sections. Thus in a transistor out of three sections, two are similar and one which is between
the two is different. There can be two types of transistors based on p-type and n-type semiconductors. These are
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(i) n-p-n transistor
(ii) p-n-p transistor
In n-p-n transistor between two p-types semiconductores, an n-type semiconductor is sandwitched as shown in figure-1(a)
n-type semiconductor is sandwitched between two p-type semiconductors as shown in figure-1(b).
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Figure 1
The three sections of a transistor are called emitter, base and collector and represented by symbols E, B and C respectively
on the terminals as shown in figure-1. Each section has a fundamental characteristic based on which transistor works in a
circuit. Lets discuss these fundamental properties of the sections of transistor.
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(i) Emitter
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It is one of the two similar types of sections of a transistor on either end of the two junction. It is named emitter because
it supplies or emits majority carries to the other parts of transistor. It is doped heavily relative to other sections so that it can
emit lot of majority carriers.
(ii) Base
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The middle section of a transistor is known as base. Base is a very thin region as compared to emitter or collector and it
is very lightly doped. As it does not contain large number of carriers, when emitter emits large number of majority carriers, it
can not accept more then a few carriers and allows most of these carriers from emitter to pass through it.
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(iii) Collector
Section on other side of base which collects most of the majority carriers emitted by emitter is called collector. Collector
is moderately doped and it collects the charge carriers through base. Generally in circuits collector base junction is reversed
biased.
Circuit Symbols of Transistors
Figure-2(a) & (b) shows the common circuit symbols used for a p-n-p and an n-p-n transistor. We can see the in circuit
symbol the middle wire is the base and to distinguish emitter and collector, in symbols emitter is denoted by an arrow. In a
p-n-p transitor arrow (which denotes direction of current) is from emitter to base and in an n-p-n transitor arrow is from base
to emitter.
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Figure 2
Working of a Transitor
When a transitor is used in a circuit its emitter base junction is kept forward biased and its base collector junction is kept
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reversed biased. Lets discuss working of a p-n-p transistor first then we’ll discuss about n-p-n transitor.
Working of a p-n-p Transistor in a Circuit
In a p-n-p transistor holes are the majority charge carriers. As shown in figure-3 we can see that by use of battery VEE.
The base emitter junction is forward biased due to which the majority charge carriers holes in p-type emitter move toward
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base and this constitutes the emitter current IE. As in emitter doping is high, lot of holes starts moving toward base and in the
base these holes tend to combine with the electrons as in n-type base electrons are in excess but as doping of base is very
light, quantity of electrons present there is very small as compared to the holes emitted by emitter in this region. Thus out of
all very few holes combine with electrons in base and constitute a very small base current IB.
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IC
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Figure 3
Majority of holes cross the thin region of base and enters in the collector region which is reversed biased. Here these
holes are attracted by the negative terminal (low potential) of the battery VCC and thus constitute collector current IC. By
conservation of charge we can say that emitter current splits into base current and collector current. By kirchoff’s junction
law we can write
IE = IB + IC … (1)
It is generally observed that collector current is slightly less then the emitter current. This is because about 2 to 5% of the
majority carrier emitted by emitter are absorbed by the base in form of base current.
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In case of p-n-p transistor as discussed above mainly current flows due to holes. Even there is a small current due to
electrons which move from base to emitter but as this current is very small for practical applications it is the hole current which
plays the important role in the operations of p-n-p transistor.
Working of an n-p-n Transistor
In an n-p-n transistor, electrons are the majority charge carriers and on forward biasing emitter base junction by battery
VEE as shown in figure-4, emitter emits lot of electrons toward base out of which few combines with the small number of holes
there to constitute base current IB and remain all electrons are collected by reverse biased collector which constitutes the
collector current IC and these are swept away by the positive collector voltage VCC. By figure-# we can see that in normal
operations current in n-p-n transistor are in opposite direction to that of a p-n-p transistor.
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Figure 4
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DC Current gains of a Transistor
DC current gains are characteristic constants for a transistor. For every transitor two current gains are defined. These are
(1) Base Current Amplification Factor
This is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current when constant dc current is flowing through the
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transistor. It is denoted by  or some times dc, given as

IC
= … (2)
IC
IB
Where IC is the collector current and IB is the base current.
(2) Emitter Current Amplification Factor

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This is defined as the ratio of collector current to emitter current when constant dc current is flowing through the
transistor. It is denoted by  or dc, given as
IC
= … (3)
IE
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Relationship Between  and 
We know for a transistor emitter current (IE) is the sum of the base current (IB) and the collector current (IC) given as
IE = IC + IB
Now from equation-(2) & (3) we can write as

IC IC
= IC +
 
1 1
or =1+
 
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
or = … (4)
1 

or = … (5)
1 
In normal operation of a transistor (base emitter junction forward biased and collector emitter junction reverse biased).
The definitions of  and  remains valid. It is also observed that the for large range of emitter current the value of  depends
on above section.
Transistor as an Amplifier
An amplifier is a device which increases the strength of a time varying signal. To increase the strength of a signal
amplifier extracts energy from an external source and add it into the signal to amplify the signal strength as shown in figure-5.
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Figure 5
From figure if we carefully analyze the input and output signals, we can see that amplifier does not change the frequency
of signal or time dependency of signal, only the amplitude or strength (intensity) of signal is increased.
A transistor can also be used as an amplifier in a circuit in a transistor when base emitter junction is forward biased,
resistance of base emitter junction decreases and a current flows and majority of current is passed on to base collector
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junction which is reverse biased and its resistance is high due to reverse biasing. When the current from low resistance is
transferred to the high resistance region of base collector region, here high potential drop takes place. This is the basic
function of a transistor due to which it can not as an amplifier. The word “transistor” used for this device is taken from
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“transfer” of “resistor” because in a transistor current from low resistance region is transferred to a high resistance region.
Now we’ll discuss how this function of transistor can be used in the application of transistor as an amplifier.
Basic Function of Transistor as an Amplifier

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When transistor is used as an amplifier, a weak signal voltage corresponding change in emitter current and almost the
same in the collector current as base current is negligible. In collector circuit a high load resistance RL is connected through
which this current flows and produces a high voltage drop. As the current variation is corresponding to the input signal, the
high voltage drop across the load resistance with also be a reproduction of input signal with relatively higher amplitude and
same time variation. Thus the input signal appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit.
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Transistor Connections as Amplifier
We have discussed that in an amplifier to the input terminals a weak signal voltage is applied and at the output terminals
the same time varying signal appear in amplified form. Thus for an amplifier two terminals are required for input and two
terminals are required for output, whereas we know that a transistor has only three terminals, emitter base and collector.
Hence to operate transistor as an amplifier, one terminal of transistor is made common to both input and output of the circuit.
A transistor can be connected in three ways. These are :
(i) Common Base Connection
(ii) Common Emitter Connection
(iii) Common Collector Connection
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Now before proceeding to the working action of a transistor, we’ll first discuss the basic, current voltage characteristics
of transistor in above connections.
Characteristics of Common Base Circuit of a Transistor
In common base circuit, as we’ve discussed that base will remain common to input as well as output terminals of circuit.
If a small varying voltage is applied to the input side i.e. in base-emitter circuit a corresponding variation appears on output
side i.e. in base collector circuit. Thus in a transistor used in common base circuit, input variation is applied in base and emitter
and output is taken across base and collector, hence base is common to both input and output.
Now first we’ll study how the current flowing in transistor terminals varies with the terminal voltages. For this, the circuit
is shown in figure-6 for a p-n-p transistor.
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Figure 6
Here the variable battery VEE supplies forward bias to the emitter base junction. Similarly the battery VCC supplies
reverse bias to collector base junction. Using the two voltmeters we can measure the corresponding emitter base voltage VBB
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and the collector base voltage VCB. In the emitter and collector branch, milliammeters are connected to measure emitter current
IE and collector current IC respectively.
In this circuit the electrical behaviour of the transistor can be described by the different current voltage relationship in
the circuit. These relationships are explained by the variation curves of current in the circuit with voltages and are called
characteristics of a transistor. For input and output connections here we discuss two characteristics input characteristics and
output characteristics, one by one.
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Input Characteristics
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Input characteristic curve in this circuit is the curve plotted between the emitter current IE and emitter base voltage VEB
at a constant value of collector base voltage VCB.
To plot this curve the collector base voltage VCB is kept fixed and emitter base voltage VEB is varied by using the variable
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battery VEE and the emitter current IE is measured corresponding to each value of VEB. The curve is plotted for IE against VEB
and the experiments is repeated for different fixed values of VCB. The input characteristic is shown in figure-7
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Figure 7
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In the above graph following points are useful to note down and keep in mind always.
(1) Below knee voltage, the emitter current is very small or transistor does not function below this cut off voltage.
(2) Beyond cutoff voltage, the emitter current increases rapidly even with small increase in emitter base voltage. This implies
that emitter resistance is very small.
(3) The emitter current does not depend much on collector base voltage.
(4) The input resistance is defined as
change in base emitter vo ltage
ri = correspond ing change in emitter current
V EB
or ri =
I E VC  constant
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Output Characteristics
The curve plotted between collector current IC and collector base voltage VCB at a constant emitter current IE represent
the output characteristic. For plotting output characteristic, the emitter current IE is kept fixed and the collector current I0 is
measured for different values of varying collector base voltage VCB, which varied by the variable battery VCC. Now for
different values of VCB, collector current IC is plotted and the graph is shown in figure-8.
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IC
Figure 8
Here the output characteristic of the common base connection has three regions under which the transistor is said to
operate. These are
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(i) Active Region
This is the mode of operation of transistor when base collector junction is reverse biased and base emitter junction is
forward biased. In this region the collector current is independent of collector voltage and it depends only on emitter current.
Generally in active region as we’ve already discussed the collector current is slightly less then or approximately equal to the
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emitter current and the same is shown in the graph in active region.
(ii) Cut off Region
This is a situation when both the junctions emitter base and collector base are reverse biased. In this region due to
reverse biasing almost zero emitter current flows and a negligible collector current flows due to minority carriers which we call
the collector leakage current.
(iii) Saturation Region
In this stage both the junctions emitter base and collector base are forward biased. In this situation even at VCB = 0,
collector current flows due to forward biasing of emitter base junction. In this region when collector base junction is forward
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biased i.e. p-type collector is made positive with respect to n-type base, the majority carrier holes which are coming from
emitter side are repelled by collector and hence if a small change is made in collector base voltage, it will result a sudden and
large change in collector current.
For output characteristic of common base connections of a transistor following point are important be kept in mind for
further analysis of transistor operations.
(1) Only in saturation region for VCB < IV, collector current varies with the collector base voltage (VCB) but in normal
operations, transistor is never operated in this region.
(2) In active region when VCB > IV, the collector current IC becomes independent of collector base voltage VCB and depends
on IE only. Almost full emitter current (slightly less) is passed on to the collector circuit. In most of the operations, transistor
is used in this region.
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(3) In output side of a transistor in common base connections, the output resistance is defined as ratio of small change in
collector base voltage to corresponding change in collector current, and it is given as
VCB
output resistance r0 =
I C
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We know that in active region (normal operations) of a transistor to produce a very small change in collector current, a
very high change in collector base voltage is required. Thus the output resistance is very high.
Characteristics of Common Emitter Circuit of a Transistor

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In common emitter connections, emitter is taken as a common terminal for input and output of the transistor. In a
transistor when used in common emitter connections the small input varying voltage is applied between emitter and base as
input terminals and corresponding output voltage is taken from collector and emitter as output terminals, hence in this case
emitter is common for both input and output terminals.
Now we’ll study how the current flowing in transistor connected in common emitter mode varies with the terminal
voltages.
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For this study purpose experimental setup circuit is shown in figure-9 for a p-n-p transistor. In the circuit the variable
battery VAB provides a forward biasing for emitter base junction. The voltmeter V1 measures the base emitter voltage VEB. The
microammeter A1 is used to measure the small base current IB. A variable battery VCC is connected between emitter and
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collector terminals to make collector reverse biased. Generally this battery is of higher emf then VBB, to make collector reverse
biased with respect to base. To measure collector emitter voltage a voltmeter V2 is connected and a milliammeter A2 is used to
measure collector current.
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Figure 9
In this common emitter connections of transistor again we’ll study the current-voltage variation behaviour of transistor
for both input and output sections, this we call input and output characteristics for common emitter connections.
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Input Characteristics
In common emitter connections of a transistor input characteristics curve is plotted between base current IB and base
emitter voltage VBE at a constant collector emitter voltage VCE. For plotting the input characteristic, the collector emitter
voltage VCE is kept fixed and the base emitter voltage VBE is varied by using the variable battery VBB. Now the current IB is
measured for each value of VBE and the curve of base current IB against base emitter voltage is drawn as shown in figure-10.
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Figure 10
There are some important points about this input characteristics students are advised to keep all these points in their
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mind.
(1) The characteristic is similar to a forward biased diode.

(2) The input resistance of common emitter circuit is defined as the ratio of small variation in emitter base voltage to the
corresponding charge in base current at a constant collector emitter voltage. It is given as
VBE
ri =
I B VCE  constant
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(3) The variation in base current with VBE is small after knee voltage as compared to the case of common base connections
because the input resistance in common emitter connection is high compared to the input resistance of common base
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connections.
Output Characteristics
In common emitter connections the output characteristics is plotted between collector current IC and collector emitter
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voltage VCE at constant base current IB. Using the battery VCC, the collector emitter voltage is varied and the collector current
IC is measured for each value of VCE. The experiment is repeated for different values of base current IB. The corresponding
curve obtained is shown in figure-11.
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Figure 11
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The output characteristic of common emitter connection is divided in three regions defined as
(i) Active Region
In this region the collector junction is reverse biased which emitter junction is forward biased. From graph we can see
that for low values of base current variation in IC with VCE is small while for large values of base current this variation
increases. As we can see that for large base current slope of graph is more as compared to low values of base current.
(ii) Saturation Region
When VCE ~  0 or for very small the charge in base current will not affect the collector current. In this state the transistor
is said to be saturated and it is operating in saturation region.
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(iii) Cut off region
In this state both the junction are reverse biased and for IB = 0, very small collector current flows due to the leakage of
majority carriers from emitter to collector through the base. This current is the leakage current and is denoted by ICEO.
There are some important points about the output characteristic for a common emitter connections. These are
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(i) For VCE above knee voltage in active region the collector current is given as
IC = IB
IC
where we’ve discussed that  = is constant for a transistor and here IC is the output current and IB is the input
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current hence  is also termed as common base current gain.
(ii) Output resistance for a common connection is defined as ratio of small variation in collector emitter voltage to the
corresponding variation in collector current, given as
VCE
Output resistance r0 =
I C I B  constant
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(iii) We’ve discussed that output characteristic of common base connection for a transistor are horizontal but from graph in
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figure-# we can see that the output characteristic for common emitter connection have considerable slope, this shows that
the output resistance for common emitter connection is less then that of common base connection.
(iv) In output characteristic above knee voltage as VCE increases IC is almost constant but for high values of base current IC
increases with VCE, this is because some the majority carriers emitted by emitter into the base, region are directly captured by
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collector which is reverse biased before electron hole combination takes place in base. This is called early effect in common
emitter connections.
Common Collector Connections of a Transistor * From (ABNT)

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Transistor as an Amplifier
We have discussed that a transistor can also be used as an amplifier. We’ve also discussed that an amplifier is a device
the energy required to amplify weak signals at input terminals is supplied by an external source. In case of transistor this
energy is supplied by the dC batteries used for biasing for its collector and emitter junctions. On the basis of different
connections of a transistor in a circuit, it can be used as an amplifier in three ways.
(i) Common Base Amplifier
(ii) Common Emitter Amplifier
(iii) Common Collector Amplifier
Here we will discuss common base and common emitter amplifier in detail. In common collector mode, a transistor rarely
used as an amplifier and that discussion is also beyond the scope of this book.
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Common Base Amplifier
In previous section we’ve analysed that in common base connections of a transistor, base terminal remains common to
both input and output connections. We’ve also discussed how transistor behaves on applying biasing voltage across its
junctions for a p-n-p transistor. An n-p-n transistor also behaves in the similar way except the direction of current are
opposite. In this section we’ll discuss working of transistor as an amplifier for both p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
Common Base Amplifier Using a p-n-p Transistor
Figure-12 shows the circuit of a p-n-p transistor used as an amplifier in common base mode. The input signal ei which is
to be amplified is connected in the emitter base side or in input section of transistor. The battery VEE is chosen such that
always the emitter base junction remains forward biased (VEE > ei). Due to this, the input resistance of transistor is very small.
The battery VCC in output section of transistor keeps the collector base junction reverse biased and due to this output
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resistance of transistor will be very high. Thus
r0 > ri … (6)
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Let IE, IB and IC are the emitter current, base current and the collector current respectively then these currents vary with
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variation in emitter base voltage due to signal voltage ei.
Here we can see that when ei increases from t = 0 in its positive half cycle from 0 to A. The voltage across emitter base
junction becomes
VEB = VEE + ei
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Thus the forward biasing of transistor increases, due to which current IE also increases, hence IC increases which results
a potential drop across load resistance PL which we take as the output voltage given as
Vout = IC RL
When ei changes from 0 to A, if IE change by IE and correspondingly if IC changes by IC, Vout will also increase from
point X to Y in the output signal shown in figure. Similarly when ei decreases from A to B in its half cycle it will correspond a
similar decrease in Vout from Y to Z in its positive half cycle.
Now the second half cycle of input signal is negative, due to this the forward bias of emitter base junction decreases as
now the emitter base voltage will become
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VEB = VEE – ei
Thus emitter current starts decreasing and collector current also, due to which at output terminal lower half cycle of
output voltage is produced.
Thus for a transistor used as a common base amplifier corresponding to positive half cycle of input signal, positive half
cycle of output is obtained and for negative half cycle of input, negative half cycle of output is obtained hence we can say
that when a transistor is used as an amplifier in common base mode the output voltage remains in same phase with the input
voltage.
Various Gains in Common Base Amplifier
a.c. Current Gain For Common Base Configuration
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We’ve discussed that in for a transistor dc current gain for common base connection is defined as
IC
dc =
IE
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Similarly we define a.c. current gain as the ratio of small charges in collector current to small changes in emitter current.
This is denoted by ac, given as
I C
ac = … (7)
I E GA
Resistance Gain
It is the ratio of effective output resistance to the input resistance of the transistor it is equal to RL/Ri.
a.c. Voltage Gain
It is defined as the ratio of small change in output voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by Av. If
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corresponding to a change in emitter current  IE, collector current changes by  IC, the change in input voltage applied to the
transistor is
IC
Vi = IE · Ri … (8)
The change in output voltage across load resistance is

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V0 = IC · RL … (9)
Thus the voltage gain can be given as

V0 I C RL
Av = = ·
Vi I E Ri
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 RL 
or Av = ac   … (10)
 Ri 
Thus for a common base amplifier
Voltage gain = ac × resistance gain
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a.c. Power Gain
It is defined as the ratio of small change in output power to the small change in input power. It is given as
Pout
power gain Pac = … (11)
Pin
(I C ) 2 RL
or Pac = … (12)
(I E ) 2 Ri
RL
or Pac = 2 × … (13)
Ri
Thus we can write
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power gain = 2 × resistance gain … (14)
or from equation-(12) we can rewrite as
 I C   I C RL 
Pac =  × 
 I E   I E Ri 
or power gain = current gain × voltage gain … (15)
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Common Base Amplifier Using an n-p-n Transistor
The circuit of a common base amplifier using an n-p-n transistor is shown in figure-13. The only difference in this case
is the direction of currents IE, IB and IC are opposite to the case of the amplifier in which p-n-p transistor is used. Another
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difference is, here the currents are mainly due to the electrons in the transistor as majority carriers whereas in case of a p-n-
p transistor currents were due to the holes as majority carriers.
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IC
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Figure 13
Here also by the similar analysis what we’ve used in case of a p-n-p transistor, we can say that the output voltage remains
in same phase with the input voltage.
All the different gains we’ve used for p-n-p transistor are also used with the same expressions for an n-p-n transistor.
Common Emitter Amplifier
In common emitter connections of a transistor we’ve discussed that emitter is common to both input and output section.
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In such an amplifier input signal which is to be amplified is applied in the input section between emitter and base of circuit and
amplified output signal is obtained across the load resistance in output section between collector and emitter. Now we’ll
discuss the common emitter amplifier for both p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
Common Emitter Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor
Figure-14 shows the circuit of a common emitter amplifier using a p-n-p transistor. Here we can see that emitter is common
to both input and output terminals. Using battery VBB, emitter base junction is forward biased. The emf of battery VBB is
adjusted according to input voltage ei so that always terminal ‘a’ is at lower potential then ‘b’ to maintain the forward braising
of emitter base junction during the variation of input signal voltage ei.
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Figure 14
Due to forward biasing the input resistance of the transistor is low. The collector junction is reverse biased by the battery
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VCC. In the above circuit, variation in low input signal produces variation in emitter current and hence in collector current and
voltage. These variations in collector voltage appear as amplified output voltage.
Let discuss the variation of output voltage with input variation. As shown in the figure the negative terminal of the
battery VBB is connected to the base of transistor through input signal. During the first half cycle of the input voltage this
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voltage increases from 0 to A which decreases the negative potential at base as base emitter voltage can be given during 0 to
A as
VEB = VBB – ei
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Thus the forward biasing of base emitter junction decreases and it will decreases the emitter current, correspondingly
current in collector circuit decreases which decreases the potential drop across the load resistance and the voltage Vout will
decrease from X to Y. Further when the input voltage in its positive half cycle decreases from A to B this will make potential of
base lower as ei = 0 at B, this increases the forward biasing of emitter base junction hence emitter current, as well as collector
current increases which increases the output voltage from Y to Z. Now for negative half cycle of input voltage further forward
biasing of emitter base voltage increases due to which emitter and collector current increases which results in positive half
cycle of output voltage.
Thus for a common emitter amplifier corresponding to positive half cycle of input voltage, in amplified output voltage
negative half cycle is obtained and corresponding to negative half cycle of input voltage, positive half cycle in amplified
output voltage is obtained. Therefore input and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier are out of phase with each
other or at a phase difference of 180º or  radians.
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Various Gains in Common Emitter Amplifier
(i) a.c. Current Gain
In common emitter connection of a transistor base current IB is taken as input current and collector current IC is taken as
output current. For this dc current gain (), which we’ve discussed earlier is given as
IC
dc = … (16)
IB
In the same fashion, a.c. current gain for this case is defined as the ratio of variation in collector current to the corresponding
change in base current, given as
I C
ac = I … (17)
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B
(ii) a.c. Voltage Gain
ac voltage gain for a common emitter amplifier is given as the ratio of small change in output voltage (VCE) to small
change in input voltage (VBE). Thus voltage gain is given as
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VCE I C R L
Av = V = I R
BE B i
RL
Av = ac × … (18)
Ri
Thus voltage gain = ac × resistance gain … (19)
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We know that ac > ac, thus voltage gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared to the common base
amplifier.
(iii) a.c. Power Gain
a.c. power gain is defined as the ratio of output signal power to input signal power, given as
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(I C ) 2 RL
Pac = … (20)
(I B ) 2 Ri
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RL
= 2 × R
i
Thus Power gain = 2 × resistance gain … (21)

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Now equation-(20) can be rewritten as

I C I C R L
Pac = I × I R … (22)
B B i
or Power gain = current gain × voltage gain … (23)

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(iv) Trans-conductance
It is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current (output current) to the small change in emitter base voltage
at a constant collector voltage. It is denoted by gm and is given as
I C
gm = … (24)
V EB VCE  constant
This can be rewritten as

I C I B
gm = ×
I B VEB
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or gm =  ×
Ri
VEB
as Ri = is the input resistance of transistor circuit.
I B
Common Emitter Amplifier Using an n-p-n Transistor
The circuit of common emitter amplifier using an n-p-n transistor is shown in figure-15. Again the basic difference in an
n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor is the majority carriers. In p-n-p transistors currents are mainly due to holes and in an n-
p-n transistor currents are due to electrons. Thus all currents in the circuit using n-p-n transistor are opposite to the case
when a p-n-p transistor is used.
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IC
Figure 15
Here we can also explain the opposite phase relationship between input signal and amplified output voltage. From circuit
we can see that during positive half cycle of input voltage, forward biasing of emitter base junction increases and it increases
the emitter as well as collector current. We can see that in load resistance collector current flows from terminal ‘d’ to ‘c’ hence
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if IC increases potential of point c or collector voltage decreases which results in negative half cycle at output terminals. Thus
output voltage is out of phase with the input signal voltage.
All the gains and trans-conductance we’ve defined for the common emitter amplifier using a p-n-p transistor are valid
with same expressions for an n-p-n transistor also.
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Oscillator
In previous section, we’ve discussed that an amplifier is a sort of energy converter. It takes energy from constant
supplies and use this energy to amplify ac input signal at the same frequency. But if there is no input signal in amplifier, no
energy conversion takes place or no output is obtained. On the other hand an oscillator is a device which does not require
any input. It provides a continuous ac output signal as long as dc supply is in the circuit or we can say that an oscillator
converts energy from a dc source to produce ac output signals. Figure-16 shows the basic block diagram of an oscillator.
Page 15
Figure 16
Thus electrically oscillator can be defined as a circuit which generates an ac output signal without any external input
signal or a circuit which transforms dc energy into ac energy at adjustable frequencies. Here we can point out one more
XY
deference between an amplifier and an oscillator. An amplifier takes energy from dc source and increase the energy of ac input
signal at the output amplified signal at the frequency of input signal whereas in an oscillator, the frequency as well as the
output power can be controlled by the oscillator.
Transistor as an Oscillator
LA
A transistor can also be used as an oscillator, which can produce undamped oscillations at the out put of circuit. The
circuit of oscillator using a p-n-p transistor is shown in figure-17.
GA
S
IC
Figure 17
The above circuit which is used as an oscillator is divided in three parts. These are
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(1) Tank Circuit

(2) Amplifier Circuit
(3) Feedback Circuit
PH
Let us first discuss these parts of oscillator circuits in detail, then we’ll discuss the working action of oscillator circuit
(1) Tank Circuit
The tank circuit consists of an L-C oscillation unit. An inductor coil with inductance L an parallel with a capacitor C. We
know that if some charge is given to this circuit, the charge as well as potential difference across the combination of L and C
oscillates simple harmonically with time whose frequency is given as
1
f=
2 LC
The capacitor used in tank circuit is a variable capacitor using which its frequency of oscillations can be changed. The
small oscillating potential difference developed across the tank circuit will behave as an input signal for the amplifier circuit.
Page 16
(2) Amplifier Circuit
This section of circuit is similar to the amplifier, we’ve discussed in previous section. It receives a.c. power from the dc
battery converts it into the ac power and amplifier the oscillations of tank circuit, which are applied at the input of amplifier.
A part of output energy is supplied to the tank circuit via mutual induction between coils LC and L.
(3) Feedback Circuit
This circuit supplies a part of the output energy from collector circuit to the tank circuit. When some energy from output
section is supplied to input section, this is called feed back mechanism. Here in output circuit transistor produces a phase
difference of 180º and the feed back circuit also produces a phase difference of 180º due to mutual induction. Thus the total
feedback energy is in phase with the input oscillations. This is called positive feedback.
XY
Working of Feedback Circuit
When the output current amplifier is passed through the coil LC, as being a time varying current, the magnetic flux
produced in this coil also changes with time. Due to the common soft iron core in the coil LC and L, this flux also passes
through coil L, due to its time varying nature an emf is induced in tank circuit, which deposits some charge on capacitor and
tank circuit starts oscillating. In this way by magnetic flux some energy from output circuit is transferred back to the input side
LA
of amplifier, which we call feedback energy.
Working Action of Transistor as an Oscillator
The circuit of transistor as an oscillator is again drawn in figure-#. When the circuit is switched on by closing the key k,
GA
A small collector current starts increasing in the circuit, this increasing current produces an increasing magnetic flux in coil LC
in the collector circuit. As this coil is coupled with the coil of tank circuit by core M, the same increasing flux also pass through
the coil L and induces an emf across the tank circuit, this we call feedback voltage. Due to this feedback voltage emitter base
voltage increases and hence also the base current and it further increases the collector current. This cycle continuous until
the collector current becomes saturated. By this time the capacitor C is also fully charged to the maximum emf of tank circuit.
When the current in collector circuit becomes saturated, no further increase in collector current takes place and not flux
from coil LC also becomes constant and no emf is now induced across tank circuit. In this stage the charged capacitor starts
S
discharging through the inductor coil L. This decreases the emitter base voltage and hence base current IB. Due to this
collector current also decreases and correspondingly the flux through coils LC and linked flux through coil L also decreases
and induces a feedback voltage in L in opposite direction.
IC
This further decreases the emitter base voltage, IB and IC. The cycle continues till collector reaches cut off. During this
time the capacitor C is again fully charged with opposite polarity. In this state the base current reaches its lower minimum
value and output also becomes at its lowest value. In this state when transistor is in cut off state, the oppositely charged
YS
capacitor again starts discharging through L. This start increasing the emitter base voltage again and also increases base
current as well as collector current. This again produces an increasing flux in LC and also the linked flux in L which again
induces a feedback voltage in L. This further helps in increase in emitter base voltage, IB and IC. This process continuous till
collector current increases to its saturation value.
In this fashion the potential difference across tank circuit or the emitter base voltage oscillates and also the collector
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current at same frequency. Thus the tank circuit here behaves as an input signal of amplifier which is amplified and available
as oscillator output. The frequency of output of oscillator will be at the same frequency at which the input is available that is
the frequency of tank circuit, given as
1
f= … (25)
2 LC
Page 17
Example 1
The base current of a transistor is 105 µA collector current is 2.05 mA.

(a) Determine the value of , IE and ,
(b) A change of 27 µA in the base current produces a change of 0.65 mA in the collector current. Find ac.
Solution
IC 2.05 10 3 A
(a) = =
IB 105 10 6 A
= 19.5
XY
IE = IB + IC = 105 × 10–6 + 2.05 × 10–3
= 0.105 × 10–3 + 2.05 × 10–3 = 2.155 × 10–3 A
= 2.155 mA

LA
= or 19.5 (1 – ) = 
1 
Solving we get  = 0.95.
I C 0.65 10 3 0.65
 10 3
(b) ac = = =
I B 27 10 6 GA 27
= 24.07.
Example 2
The current gain  of a transistor is 0.95. What would be the change in collector current corresponding to a change of 0.4 mA
in the base current in a common emitter arrangement ?
Solution
S
Given that  = 0.95.

IC
 0.95 0.95
We know that, = = = = 19
1   1  0.95 0.05
I C
Further  = I or IC =  IB
B
YS
 IC = 19 × 0.4 mA = 7.6 mA
Example 3
In a silicon transistor, the base current is changed by 20 µA. This results in a change of 0.02 V in base to emitter voltage and
PH
a change of 2 mA in the collector current.

(a) Find the input resistance and ac.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Solution
I C
(a) ac =
I B
Given that, IB = 20 × 10–6 A and IC = 2 × 10–3 A
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I C 2 10 3
 ac = = = 102 = 100.
I B 20  10 6
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Rt = = = 0.01 × 105
I B 20  10  6 A
= 1000  = 1 k.
(b) Voltage gain
Change in output current  load
Av =
Change in input current  input resistance
I C  R L (2  10 3 A )  (5 103 )
 Av = =
I B  Ri (20 10  6 A)  (1000 )
XY
= 500.
Example 4
A NPN transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across
LA
the load resistance of 800  connected in the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If current amplification factor is (25/26), determine
collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the internal resistance of the transistor is 200 , calculate the voltage gain and
power gain.
Solution GA
The circuit arrangement is shown in figure.
voltage drop across RL
Collector current IC =
RL
0. 8
= = 10–3 amp.
800
S
Now, VCE = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 volt.

IC
Current gain = I
IC
3
25 10
or = I
26 B
YS
26
 IB = × 10–3 = 1.04 × 10–3 amp.
25
2
RL 25 800 100
Voltage gain =  =    = = 3.846.
RC  26  200 26
PH
2 2
RL  25  800  25 
Power gain =  =   =   × 4 = 3.698.
RC  26  200  26 
Example 5
A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a resistor
of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We have for the collector current
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0. 5 5
LC = = mA
800 8
But, IE = IB + IC
 IB = IE – IC
IC I
or, IB = – IC = C (1 – )
 
0.5 1 – 0.96 0.5 0.04 5

=  =  = mA
0.8 0.96 0.8 0.96 8  25
= 26 µA.
Example 6
XY
(a) Find the input resistance, ac and the transconductance of the transistor.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
LA
Solution
(a) We have
I C 2 10 3
ac = = = 100
I B 20  106
GA
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Ri = =
I B 20  10 6
= 1 k.
 ac 100
Transconductance gm = =
Ri 1000
S
= 0.1 S
RL
IC
(b) Voltage gain = R × Current gain ac

i
5  103
= × 100 = 500.
1 103
YS
Example 7
In a NPN transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6 s. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base. Calculate the current
transfer ratio and current amplification factor.
PH
Solution
We known that current = charge/time.
The emitter current Ie is given by

10 19
Ne 10  (1.6  10 )
Ie = = = 1.6 mA
t 10 6
The base current Ib is given by
2
Ib =  1.6 = 0.032 mA
100
Page 20
In a transistor, Ie = Ib + Ic
 Ic = Ie – Ib = 1.6 – 0.032 = 1.568 mA

Ic 1.568
Current transformer ratio = I = = 0.98
e 1.6
Ic 1.568
Current amplification factor = I = = 49.
e 0.032
Example 8
A transistor is connected in common emitter (CE) configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a
XY
resistor of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor  is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We know that,
LA
 0.96
= = = 24
1   1  0.96
The collector current ic is given by
VC 0. 5 V
ic = = = 0.625 × 10–3 A
R 800  GA
ic 0.625  10 3
Further, iB =  =
24
= 26 × 10–6 A = 26 µA.
Example 9
A NPN transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier with a collector current of 4 mA. The terminal
S
of a 8V battery is connected to the collector through a load resistance RL and to the base through a resistance RB. The
collector emitter voltage VCE = 4V, base emitter voltage VBE = 0.6 V and base current amplification actor dc = 100. Calculate the
values of RL and RB.
IC
Solution
See figure
YS
Potential difference across, RL = 8V – VCE = 8V – 4V = 4V
Now, IC RL = 4V
4
RL = = 103  = 1 K
PH
4  10 3
Further, for base-emitter equation,
VCC = IBRB + VBE
or IBRB = Potential difference across RB
= VCC – VBE = 8 – 0.6 = 7.4 V

IC 4  10 3
Again IB =  = = 4 × 10–5 A
100
= 185 K.
Page 21
Example 10
A N type silicon sample of width 4 × 10–3 m thickness and length 6 × 10–2 m carries a current of 4.8 mA when the voltage is
applied across then length of the sample. What is the current density ? If the free electron density is 1022 m–3, then find how
much time does it take for the electrons to travel the full length of the sample ?
Solution
The current density J is given by
I 4.8  10 3 4.8 10 3

J= = =
A 3 
(4  10 )(25  10 )5
10 6
= 4800 A/m2
XY
The drift velocity vd is given by
J 4800
vd = =
ne 10 22  1.6  10 19
The time taken t is given by
LA
L 6 10 2
t= = = 0.02 sec.
vd 3
Example 11
GA
A NPN transistor is connected in common emitter configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across
the load resistance of 800  connected in the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If current amplification factor is (25/26), determine
collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the internal resistance of the transistor is 200 , calculate the voltage gain and
power gain.
Solution
The circuit arrangement is shown in figure.

S
voltage drop across RL

Collector current IC = RL
IC
0. 8
= = 10–3 amp.
800
Now, VCE = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 volt.
YS
IC
Current gain = I
B
3
25 10
or = I
26 B
PH
26
 IB = × 10–3 = 1.04 × 10–3 amp.
25
2
RL  25  800 100
Voltage gain =  =   = = 3.846.
RC  26  200 26
2 2
RL  25  800  25 
Power gain =  =   =   × 4 = 3.698.
RC  26  200  26 
Page 22
Example 12
A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration. The collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop across a resistor
of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96, find the base current.
Solution
We have for the collector current

0. 5 5
LC = = mA
800 8
But, IE = IB + IC
XY
 IB = IE – IC
IC I
or, IB = – IC = C (1 – )
 
0.5 1 – 0.96 0.5 0.04 5

=  =  = mA
LA
0.8 0.96 0.8 0.96 8  25
= 26 µA.
Example 13 GA
(a) Find the input resistance, ac and the transconductance of the transistor.
(b) The transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
Solution
S
(a) We have
I C 2 10 3
IC
ac = = = 100
I B 20  106
VBE 0.02 V
Input resistance, Ri = =
I B 20  10 6
YS
= 1 k.
 ac 100
Transconductance gm = =
Ri 1000
= 0.1 S
PH
RL
(b) Voltage gain = R × Current gain ac
i
5  103
= × 100 = 500.
1 103
Example 14
The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665 . A change of 15 µA in the base current produces a change of 2.0 mA in the
collector current. This transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5k. Find the voltage gain of
the amplifier.
Page 23
Solution
Voltage gain is defined as
change in output vol tage RL

voltage gain = change in input volt age =  ac  R
EB
Where ac = IC/IB, RL is the output resistance and REB is the input resistance.
Now RL = 5 k = 5000 ,
REB = 665  and
2.0  10 3
ac = = 133.3
XY
15  10 6
133.3  5000
Therefore voltage gain is = 1000.
665
Example 15
LA
In a silicon transistor, a charge of 7.89 mA in the emitter current produces a change of 7.8 mA in the collector current. What
change in the base current is necessary to produce the same change in the collector current ?
Solution GA
IE = 7.89 mA = 7.89 × 10–3 A
and IC = 7.8 mA = 7.8 × 10–3 A.

I C 7.8  10 3
We know that, ac = = = 0.9886.
I E 7.89 10 3
S
Example 16
In a silicon transistor, a change of 20 µA in the base current produces a change of 0.02 V in base to emitter voltage and a
IC
change of 2 mA in the collector current. (a) Find the input resistance, ac and transconductance of the transistor. (b) If the
transistor is used as an amplifier with a load resistance 5k, find the voltage gain and power gain of the amplifier.
Solution
YS
IB = 20 µA = 20 × 10–6 A,
VBE = 0.02 V
and IC = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A.

PH
(a) Input resistance is,

VBE 0.02
REB = I = = 1000 
B 20  10 6
I C 2 10 3
ac = I = = 100
B 20  106
The transconductance is
I C 2 103
g m = I = = 0.1 –1.
BE 0.02
Page 24
(b) The voltage gain is V,
RL 100  5000
ac × R = = 500
EB 1000
(because RL = 5 k = 5000 ). The power gain is
RL (100) 2  5000
ac2 × R = = 5 × 104.
EB 1000
Example 17
An npn transistor is connected in common-emitter configuration in which the collector supply is 8V and the voltage drop
across the load resistance of 800  connected to the collector circuit is 0.8 V. If the current amplification factor  is 25/26,
XY
determine the collector-emitter voltage and base current. If the input resistance of the transistor is 200, calculate the voltage
gain and power gain.
Solution
Figure shows the common-emitter npn transistor circuit.
LA
We know that
 25 / 26
= = = 25
1   1  25 / 26
It follows from the figure that VCC = V0 + VCE. The collector emitter voltage is
GA
VCE = VCC – V0 = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 V
Collector current is
V0 0. 8
IC = R = = 10–3 A = 1 mA
L 800
IC
S
Current gain  = I . Therefore, emitter current is

E
IC 1 mA 25
IC
IE = = = mA
 25 / 26 26
26 1
 Base current IB = mA – 1 mA = mA = 0.04 mA
25 25
If the input resistance is Ri, the input voltage will be
YS
Vi = Ri IB = (200 ) × (0.04 × 10–3 A) = 8 × 10–3 V = 8 mV

V0 0.8
 Voltage gain = V = = 100
i 8  10 3
PH
Also power gain = current gain × voltage gain

V0
=  × V = 25 × 100 = 2500.
i
Example 18
In an npn transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6 s. If 2% of the electrons are lost in the base, calculate the current
transfer ratio and the current amplification factor.
Solution
Page 25
Let n be the number of electrons entering the emitter in time t. If e the charge on an electron, then the emitter current is
ne
IE = .
t
Since 2% of electrons are lost in the base, the collector current is
0.98ne
IC =
t
0.02ne
and base current is IB =
t
IC 0.98 ne / t
 Current transfer ratio = I = = 0.98
E ne / t
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IC 0.98 ne / t
Current amplification factor = I = = 49.
B 0.02ne / t
Example 19
LA
An npn transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier with a collector current of 4 mA. One terminal
of an 8V battery is connected to the collector through a load resistance RL and to the base through a resistance RB. The
collector-emitter voltage VCE = 4 V, base-emitter voltage VBE = 0.6 V and the base current amplification factor dc = 100.
Calculate the values of RL and RB.
Solution
GA
Figure shows the simple npn transistor voltage amplifier
circuit. Given IC = 4 mA = 4 × 10–3 A, VCC = 8V, VCE = 4V,
VBE = 0.6 V and dc = 100.
IC
by definition, dc = I .
B
Therefore, base current is

S
IC 4mA
IB =  = = 0.04 mA
100
IC
dc
= 0.04 × 10–3 A.
It is clear from the circuit that
VCC = potential drop across RB + VBE = IBRB + VBE

YS
VCC  VBE (8  0.6)

 RB = = = 1.85 × 105 .
IB 0.04  10 3
From the circuit, it also follows that
PH
VCC = potential drop across
RL + VCE = ICRL + VCE

VCC  VCE (8  4)
 RL = = = 1000 .
IC 4  10 3
Example 20
An npn transistor is used in common-emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A change of 40 µA in the base current, brings about
a change of 2 mA in the collector current and 0.04 V in the emitter current. Find the (a) input resistance Ri and (b) the base
current amplification factor . If a load of 6 k is used, also find the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Page 26
Solution
Given, IB = 40 µA = 40 × 10–6 A,
IC = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A,
V BE = 0.04 V
and RL = 6 k = 6 × 103 .
VBE 0.04
(a) The input resistance is Ri = = = 1000 .
I B 40  10 6
2 10 3
XY
I C
(b) The base current amplification factor is  = = = 50.
I B 40  106
R L 50  6  10 3
In a common-emitter mode, the voltage gain is = = 300.
Ri 1000
LA
Example 21
For a transistor working as common base amplifier, current gain is 0.96. If emitter current is 7.2 mA, calculate the base current.
Solution GA
Here,  = 0.96 ; Ie = 7.2 mA
Ic
Now, = I
e
or Ic =  Ie = 0.96 × 7.2 = 6.91 mA
Also, Ie = Ic + Ib
S
or Ib = Ie – Ic = 7.2 – 6.91 = 0.29 mA

IC
Example 22
For a common emitter amplifier, current gain is 70. If the emitter current is 8.8 mA, calculate the collector and base current. Also
calculate current gain, wen transistor is working as common base amplifier.
YS
Solution
Here,  = 70 ; Ie = 8.8 mA
Ic
PH
Now, = I
b
or Ic =  Ib = 70 Ib
Also, 8.8 = 70 Ib + Ib
or 71 Ib = 8.8
8.8
or Ib = = 0.124 mA
71
Again, Ic = 70 Ib = 70 × 0.124 = 8.68 mA
Page 27

We know =
1 

 70 =
1 
70
or = = 0.986
71
Example 23
The base current of a transistor is 105 µA and collector current is 2.05 mA.
(a) Determine the value of , Ie and .
XY
(b) A change of 27µA in the base current produces a change of 0.65 mA in the collector current. Find ac.
Solution
Here, Ib = 105 µA = 105 × 10–6 A;
LA
Ic = 2.05 mA = 2.05 × 10–3 A;
Ib 2.05 10 3
(a) Now, = I = = 19.5
c 105 10 6
Also, Ie = Ib + Ic = 105 × 0–6 + 2.05 × 10–3
GA
= 2.155 × 10–3 A
Ic 2.05 10 3
Further, = I = = 0.95
e 2.155 10 3
(b) Here, Ib = 27 µA = 27 × 10–6 A;
Ic = 0.65 mA = 650 × 10–6 A

S
I c 650  10 6
Now, ac = I = = 24.1.
b 27  10 6
IC
Example 24
In a silicon transistor, a change of 7.89 mA in the emitter current produces a change of 7.8 mA in the collector current. What
YS
change in the base current is necessary to produce and equivalent change in the collector current ?
Solution
Here, Ib = 7.89 mA = 7.89 × 10–3 A;

PH
Ic = 7.8 mA = 7.8 × 10–3 A;

I c 7.8  10 3
Now, ac = I = = 0.9886
e 7.89 10 3
 ac 0.9886
We have, ac = 1   = = 86.72
ac 1  0.9886
I c
Also, ac = I
b
Page 28
I c
or Ib = 
ac
Here, Ic = 7.8 × 10–3 A; ac = 86.72
7.8  10 3
 Ib = = 89.94 × 10–6 A.
86.72
Example 25
In a silicon transistor, the base current is changed by 20 µA. This results in a change of 0.02 v in base to emitter voltage and
(a) Find the input resistance, ac and transconductance of the transistor.
XY
(b) This transistor is used as an amplifier with the load resistance 5 k. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier ?
Solution
For Ib = 20 µ A = 20 × 10–6 A;
LA
Vbe = 0.02 V and Ic = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A
(a) Input resistance
Vbe 0.02
= I = = 1,000 .
b 20  10 6 GA
I c 2  10 3
 = I = = 100
b 0.02
I c 2 103
g m = V = = 0.1 –1.
be 0.02
(b) RL = 5 k = 5,000 
Vce R L  I c 5000  2 10 3
S
Now, voltage gain = V = V = = 500.

be be 0.02
IC
Example 26
The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665 . Its base current is changed by 15 µA, which results in the change in
collector current by 2mA. This transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5 k. Calculate (i)
current gain ac (ii) transconductance gm and (iii) voltage gain Av of the amplifier.
YS
Solution
Here, Ib = 15 µA = 15 × 10–6 A;

PH
Ic = 2 mA = 2 × 10–3 A;
R in = 665 ; RL = 5 k = 5 × 103 
I c 2  10 3
(i) Now, ac = I = = 133.3
b 15 10 6
 ac 133.3
(ii) Transconductance, gm = = = 0.2 –1
Rin 665
(iii) Voltage gain, Av = gm RL = 0.2 × 5 × 103 = 1000.
Page 29
Example 27
A transistor is used in common-emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. When a signal of 24 mV is added to the base-emitter
voltage, the base current changes by 32 µA and collector current by 3.6 mA. The load resistance is 4.8 k. Calculate (i) the
current gain , (ii) the input resistance Rbe, (iii) the transconductance gm and (iv) voltage gain Av.
Solution
Here, when Vbe = 24 mV, Ib = 32 µA
and Ic = 3.6 mA

I c 3.6  10 3
(i) Now, = = = 112.5
XY
I b 32 10  6
(ii) The input resistance Rbe is given by
Vbe 24 10 3
Rbe = = = 750 
I b 32  10 6
LA
I c 3.6  10 3
(iii) Transconductance, g m = V =
be 24  10 3
= 0.15 S
(iv) Voltage gain,
RL  I c 4.8 103  3.6  10 3

Av =
Vbe
=
GA
24 10 3
= 720
Example 28
In the circuit shown in figure, the value of  is 100. Find Ib, Vbe and Vbc, when Ic = 1.5 mA. Is the transistor in active, cut off or
a saturation state ?
S
IC
YS
Figure #
PH
Solution
Here,  = 100 V, Vcc = 24 V; Ic = 1.5 mA = 1.5 × 10–3 A;

Ic
Now, =
Ib
Ic 1.5 103
or Ib =  = = 1.5 × 10–5 A
100
Let Vce, Vbe and Vbc be the respective potential drops across collector-emitter; base-emitter and base-collector junctions.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rc and collector-emitter junction, we have
Page 30
Vce = Vcc – Ic Rc
= 24 – 1.5 × 10–3 × 4.7 × 103
= 24 – 7.05 = 16.95 V
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rb and emitter-base junction, we have
Vcc = Vbe + Ib Rb
or Vbe = Vcc – Ib Rb = 24 – 1.5 × 10–5 × 220 × 103
= 24 – 3.3 = 20.7 V
XY
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed part of the circuit containing Rb, Rc and base-collector junction, we have
Vbe = Ib Rb – Ic Rc = 0
or Vbe = Ic Rc – Ib Rb
LA
= 1.5 × 10–3 × 4.7 × 103 – 1.5 × 10–5 × 220 × 103
= 7.05 – 3.3 = 3.75 V
The transistor is in a saturation state.

GA
* * * * *
S
IC
YS
PH
Page 31

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PG Notes Semiconductors (Part - 3)

Physics Galaxy Notes

PG Notes on Semiconductors (Part - 3)

Circuit Symbols of Transistors

Working of a p-n-p Transistor in a Circuit

Working of an n-p-n Transistor

(1) Base Current Amplification Factor

transistor. It is denoted by  or some times dc, given as

(2) Emitter Current Amplification Factor

Relationship Between  and 

Now from equation-(2) & (3) we can write as

Basic Function of Transistor as an Amplifier

Transistor Connections as Amplifier

Characteristics of Common Base Circuit of a Transistor

(i) Active Region

(ii) Cut off Region

(iii) Saturation Region

Characteristics of Common Emitter Circuit of a Transistor

(1) The characteristic is similar to a forward biased diode.

(i) Active Region

(ii) Saturation Region

Common Collector Connections of a Transistor * From (ABNT)

Common Base Amplifier Using a p-n-p Transistor

variation in emitter base voltage due to signal voltage ei.

Various Gains in Common Base Amplifier

a.c. Current Gain For Common Base Configuration

a.c. Voltage Gain

Vi = IE · Ri … (8)

The change in output voltage across load resistance is

V0 = IC · RL … (9)

Thus the voltage gain can be given as

Voltage gain = ac × resistance gain

Common Emitter Amplifier

Common Emitter Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor

(i) a.c. Current Gain

(ii) a.c. Voltage Gain

(iii) a.c. Power Gain

Thus Power gain = 2 × resistance gain … (21)

Now equation-(20) can be rewritten as

or Power gain = current gain × voltage gain … (23)

This can be rewritten as

Common Emitter Amplifier Using an n-p-n Transistor

(1) Tank Circuit

(1) Tank Circuit

(3) Feedback Circuit

Working Action of Transistor as an Oscillator

The base current of a transistor is 105 µA collector current is 2.05 mA.

= 0.105 × 10–3 + 2.05 × 10–3 = 2.155 × 10–3 A

Given that  = 0.95.

 IC = 19 × 0.4 mA = 7.6 mA

a change of 2 mA in the collector current.

Now, VCE = 8 – 0.8 = 7.2 volt.

We have for the collector current

0.5 1 – 0.96 0.5 0.04 5

(b) Voltage gain = R × Current gain ac

We known that current = charge/time.

The emitter current Ie is given by

 Ic = Ie – Ib = 1.6 – 0.032 = 1.568 mA