I.

Current Propagation
Surge Characteristics of a Buried SINUSOIDAL CURRENTS

T h e wire is assumed t o b e half buried*

Bare W i r e t h a t is, w i t h i t s axis i n t h e plane of t h e
e a r t h ' s surface, a n d t o b e i n perfect con­
t a c t with t h e e a r t h . I t is assumed t o
E. D. SUNDE
ASSOCIATE AIEE h a v e infinite length a n d negligible i n t e r ­
nal i m p e d a n c e . F o r t h e steep w a v e
fronts usually encountered, t h e a s s u m p ­
B U R I E D b a r e wires a r e frequently- interest. T h e p a p e r is divided i n four
used as grounds or counterpoises for p a r t s , t h e first dealing w i t h p r o p a g a t i o n tion of negligible i n t e r n a l i m p e d a n c e is
transmission-line towers a n d also as shield of a l t e r n a t i n g a n d square-front (unit step) permissible a n d simplifies t h e problem
wires for u n d e r g r o u n d rubber-covered c u r r e n t w a v e s i n wires of infinite length, considerably. D i s p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t s i n
telephone wires. Experience h a s verified t h e second w i t h surge i m p e d a n c e s u n d e r t h e air a r e neglected i n comparison w i t h
the effectiveness of such wires in reducing t h e s a m e conditions. T h e t h i r d p a r t con­ those i n t h e ground, a simplification which
insulator flashovers for direct strokes t o siders c u r r e n t p r o p a g a t i o n a n d surge i m ­ is permissible o n a c c o u n t of t h e c o m p a r a ­
transmission towers a n d b r e a k d o w n s of pedances for u n i t s t e p c u r r e n t a n d wires of tively large dielectric c o n s t a n t of t h e
underground rubber-covered wires d u e t o finite l e n g t h a n d t h e f o u r t h p a r t , i m p e d ­ ground.
surges. Q u a n t i t a t i v e relations between ances for surge c u r r e n t s of s h a p e similar t o As shown i n t h e p a p e r referred t o
surge characteristics of t h e wires a n d vari­ t h a t encountered i n case of lightning. a b o v e , t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of sinusoidal cur­
4

ous fundamental c o n s t a n t s a r e , however, I n o b t a i n i n g w o r k i n g formulas i t h a s r e n t s a n d potentials along t h e c o n d u c t o r

incomplete. Theoretical considerations been expedient t o m a k e certain approxi­ w h e n energized a t i t s m i d - p o i n t is n e a r l y
of surge characteristics a p p e a r t o h a v e mations n o t impairing t h e fundamental exponential, except for distances from t h e
been confined t o empirical approximations aspects of t h e problem. T h e s e formulas origin so large t h a t t h e c u r r e n t is i n a p p r e ­
of test r e s u l t s a n d d o n o t reveal t h e
1,2,3
show t h a t w h e n u n i t s t e p c u r r e n t e n t e r s ciable. F o r a c o n d u c t o r of negligible i n ­
relation t o f u n d a m e n t a l constants, such t h e m i d - p o i n t of t h e wire, t h e surge im­ t e r n a l i m p e d a n c e i n perfect c o n t a c t w i t h
as t h e e a r t h resistivity a n d dielectric pedance rises within a small fraction of a t h e ground, t h e c u r r e n t a t t h e d i s t a n c e χ
constant of t h e e a r t h . microsecond from zero t o a m a x i m u m from t h e m i d - p o i n t of t h e counterpoise is
In t h e following theoretical investiga­ value which d e p e n d s o n t h e dielectric con­ /(*,ΐω)//(0,*ω)=*- * Γ
(1)
tion, a previous s t u d y of t h e propagation s t a n t a n d t h e resistivity of t h e e a r t h .
of alternating currents along conductors F r o m this m a x i m u m v a l u e t h e surge i m ­ where 2/(0,٢ο) is t h e c u r r e n t e n t e r i n g t h e
with large leakage t o g r o u n d is extended 4
pedance decreases nearly inversely with counterpoise, a n d
to include t h e propagation of t r a n s i e n t im­ t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e t i m e u n t i l c u r r e n t
pulses, a n d t h e results a r e applied t o t h e reflected a t t h e e n d of t h e wire r e t u r n s t o Γ = - [ίω(1/ρκ-)-ίω)γ/ per meter
2

ν
calculation of certain cases of practical its mid-point. F r o m t h e n on t h e surge v — earth inductivity = μ- 1.256· 10~ β

i m p e d a n c e a p p r o a c h e s t h e leakage resist­ henries per meter

Paper 4 0 - 9 , r e c o m m e n d e d b y t h e A I E E c o m m i t t e e ance of a wire i n perfect c o n t a c t with t h e κ = earth capacitivity = €-8.858-10~ 12

on power transmission a n d distribution, a n d pre­

sented a t t h e A I E E winter c o n v e n t i o n , N e w York,
e a r t h , which is s o m e w h a t smaller t h a n farads per meter
Ν. Y . , January 2 2 - 2 6 , 1 9 4 0 . Manuscript sub­ t h e leakage resistance a s m e a s u r e d with ρ = earth resistivity in meter-ohms
mitted June 9, 1 9 3 9 ; m a d e available for preprint­
direct or low-frequency c u r r e n t . F o r cur­ ν = velocity of propagation =
ing December 6, 1939; released for final publication
March 14, 1 9 4 0 . r e n t s produced b y lightning t h e surge i m ­ meters per second
E. D . S U N D E is a m e m b e r of t h e technical staff, p e d a n c e is of a similar form a n d in satis­ €^>1 == dielectric constant of earth
Bell T e l e p h o n e Laboratories, N e w York, Ν . Y . μ = 1 = permeability of earth
factory a g r e e m e n t with m e a s u r e d imped­
1. For all numbered references, see list a t end of
paper. ances. T h e n o t a t i o n I(x iœ) is employed t o
y

indicate d e p e n d e n c e o n frequency, i n
order l a t e r t o e x t e n d t h e application t o
nonsinusoidal conditions.
possible with ground-fault neutralizers 2. FLASHOVERS ON TRANSMISSION LINES,
T h e a b o v e formula applies w h e n t h e
L. V. B e w l e y . ELECTRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G (AIEE
in t h e power-transformer neutrals. TRANSACTIONS), April 1936.
dielectric c o n s t a n t of t h e e a r t h is m u c h
T h e installed cost of t h e ground-fault greater t h a n t h a t of t h e air, a s is usually
neutralizers which p e r m i t s t h e single- 3. T H E EDISON LINE FROM BOULDER D A M ,
Harold Michener. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, t h e case. T h e dielectric c o n s t a n t of t h e
circuit line t o a p p r o a c h t h e double-circuit N o v e m b e r 1939.
e a r t h varies b e t w e e n wide limits, a n d i s
line in performance, is less t h a n five per
usually a b o u t 4 for d r y g r o u n d , while for
cent of t h e cost of t h e second line. 4. DIELECTRIC PHENOMENA IN HIGH-VOLTAGE
E N G I N E E R I N G (a b o o k ) , F . W . P e e k , Jr. w e t g r o u n d i t m a y v a r y from 10 t o 4 0 . 6

T h e successful suppression of t h e line- Correspondingly, t h e velocities of p r o p a -

to-ground arcing faults d e m o n s t r a t e s con­ 5. SOME E N G I N E E R I N G F E A T U R E S OF P E T E R S E N
gation v a r y b e t w e e n 0.7 a n d 0.2 t i m e s t h e
clusively t h a t ground-fault neutralizers COILS AND T H E I R APPLICATION, Ε. M. Hunter.
ELECTRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G ( A I E E TRANSACTIONS), velocity i n free space. O b s e r v a t i o n s o n
will function on 230-kv circuits with in- J a n u a r y 1937.
counterpoises h a v e i n d i c a t e d velocities
phase c o m p o n e n t s of c u r r e n t of t h e order
within these limits.
of 80 amperes.
T h e a b o v e expression for t h e p r o p a g a -
tion c o n s t a n t is obtained b y solving t h e
References following e q u a t i o n (reference 4, page 1340,
Discussion
1. P O W E R L I M I T S OF 2 2 0 - K V T R A N S M I S S I O N L I N E S ,
a p p r o x i m a t e formula)
Alex A. K r o n e b e r g a n d M a b e l Macferran. ELEC­
TRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G , November 1933. For discussion, see page 1176. Γ-[£(Γ)Ζ(Γ)] /« ι

1 9 4 0 , VOL. 5 9 Sunde—Surge Characteristics 987

where, in case of negligible internal im­ garded as a n ideal surge c u r r e n t , also r e ­ Hence:

Γ
pedance a n d perfect c o n t a c t between wire veals c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l characteristics
i(x,t)/t(0,t) = 1- ax(2<ira) ~ l / t
X
and ground: of w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n along b u r i e d wires.
For a unit step current t h e operational u- /* - du
z
e
azt/2u

G(T) ~ J* 1=
Qir)e Hv
iT
t
expression for t h e c u r r e n t a t χ is o b t a i n e d
b y replacing τω b y ρ in (1). T h e solution
= 1- dz
of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l expression t h u s o b ­
Z(r) P(r)e >dv iT

tained is: 6

= erfc[ax(2avt)- ] l/i

For vt<x: i(x,t)/i(0,t)=0

I"
where r— (v +a ) , a being t h e r a d i u s of
2 2 l/i
w h e r e Ζ = ax(2avt) ~ . 1/2

t h e conductor. T h e functions P(r) a n d For vt>x:

C u r v e s of t h e r a t i o i{x t)/i{O t) are t y

Q(r) depend on t h e e a r t h resistivity, t h e i(x,t)/i(0,t)=e- ax

+ ax I\(aw)du shown i n figure 1. W h e n ht > 2x, t h e ctu -
dielectric c o n s t a n t of t h e e a r t h a n d t h e air, r e n t r a t i o as given b y (7) is q u i t e accu­
a n d on t h e d e p t h of t h e conductor below rate^
= 1— αχ Ε - Ii(aw)du (5)
t h e surface of t h e e a r t h . W h e n t h e con­
Jvt W

d u c t o r is a t t h e surface of t h e e a r t h a n d II. Infinite-Length Impedances

displacement c u r r e n t s are neglected in t h e where a=ρκν/2 = (2ν/κ) / 4 p , w—{u —
1 / j 2

air, corresponding t o zero dielectric con­ * ) / * , / t h e t i m e in seconds a n d I\ t h e

2 1
SINUSOIDAL CURRENT ,
s t a n t of t h e air, t h e following approxi­ Bessel function of t h e first k i n d a n d order T h e i m p e d a n c e t o g r o u n d of t h e
m a t e expressions are obtained:* for i m a g i n a r y a r g u m e n t s . T h e second counterpoise, as m e a s u r e d b e t w e e n its
expression is o b t a i n e d from t h e first b y m i d - p o i n t a n d a r e m o t e point, is i n t h e
, ίων 1.12
using t h e condition i(x,t)/i(0,t) = l for
N
- i
G ( r ) l o g c
following d e n o t e d b y Ζ(α,κο). T h e m u ­
αΓ
7Γ7
tv= o o .
2

\ (2) t u a l i m p e d a n c e of counterpoise-to-ground
ίων 1.85 W h e n avt— ax<\ t h e following formula a n d transmission-line-to-ground circuits is
Ζ ( Γ ) =
^ l 0 g
' α(Γ* °)'/ + γ ; m a y b e used :
t I t m a y b e of interest in connection w i t h t h e propa­
aX gation of surges along transmission lines t o observe
where •γ = (ίων/ρ=α?νκγ/ '\$, t h e propaga­ ,
t h a t t h e s a m e formulas a n d curves a p p l y t o the
i{x,t)/i(0,t)=e- *+— a
) (6) v o l t a g e ratio e(x,t)/e(0,t) for an infinitely l o n g line
tion c o n s t a n t of a plane w a v e in t h e e a r t h .
on w h i c h a u n i t s t e p v o l t a g e e (0,0 is i m p r e s s e d at
Therefore : W h e n avt—ax>\ a n d z O > * t h e fol­ s o m e point. I n t h a t case a = ( i ? / 2 ) ( C / L ) / and 1 2

R, L, C t h e u n i t l e n g t h resistance, i n d u c t a n c e , and
lowing formula is sufficiently a c c u r a t e :
1 . log 1 . 8 5 / α ( Γ ^ + ' ) Ά 7
c a p a c i t y of t h e line, w h i c h is a s s u m e d t o h a v e negli­
(3) gible leakance.
2 r
log!.12/or i(x,t)/i(0,t) = erfc [ax(2 vt) "
a
l / t
]
= erfc [x(v/8fit) ] l/t
(7) Figure 1 . Propagation of unit step current in
B y inspection it is seen t h a t T =y /2; in­ 2 2

serting this value of Γ in t h e logarithmic where a buried wire of infinite length

t e r m s t h e expression becomes: Solid curves represent equation 5, dashed

erfc{z) — 1 —erf(z) - 4 = ["e-'dz curves equation^
1 9 logl.52/fl 7

(4) t = time in seconds

2 r
logl.58/a is t h e error function c o m p l e m e n t . οί = ($.ρκν)~ }
T 1
numeric per meter
T h e r a t i o of t h e logarithmic t e r m s is prac­ Expression (6) is o b t a i n e d b y n o t i n g ρ = earth resistivity, meter-ohms
tically u n i t y for all frequencies u p t o sev­ t h a t w h e n aw<\> Ii(aw)~aw/2; while κ = earth capacitivity
eral million cycles, so t h a t for all practical (7) is derived as follows: = € · 8 . 8 5 0 Χ 1 0 farads per meter
- 1 2

€ = dielectric constant of earth

purposes T — y/y/2. F o r comparison it
When avt — ax > 1, Ii (aw)^(2iraw) ~ !*e?
x LW
v = velocity of propasation
m a y b e n o t e d t h a t for a conductor im­
= ( 2 / J / K ) / meter per second
1 2

b e d d e d a t infinite d e p t h t h e propagation and when

v = earth inductivity
of c u r r e n t is strictly exponential a n d t h a t = 1 . 2 5 6 X 1 0 ~ henries per meter
6

Γ = 7 (reference 4, page 1343). I n t h e

l a t t e r case t h e velocity of propagation is
v= (1/νκ) as compared with v= ( 2 / W )
1/ι l / 2

for a conductor a t t h e surface of t h e e a r t h . t(0,t)=i

UNIT STEP CURRENT

T h e propagation of currents of arbi­

t r a r y w a v e shape entering t h e wire m a y
b e formulated in t e r m s of t h e propaga­
tion of a u n i t step c u r r e n t equal t o 0 for
t < 0 a n d u n i t y f or t > 0. Consideration of
a c u r r e n t of this form, which m a y be re-

* In the paper referred t o displacement currents

were neglected also in the earth, and the formula for
G(r) written in a different form, which is identical
with t h a t below when y — ( ί ω ν / ρ ) / . 1 2

T h e present formulas are based on expressions for

P(r) and Q(r) with displacement currents neglected
in the air, obtained from: " M u t u a l I m p e d a n c e of
Grounded Wires for Stratified T w o - L a y e r E a r t h "
Bell System Technical Journal, v o l u m e 12, April
1933, pages 1 6 2 - 7 . 600 I000

988 Sunde—Surge Characteristics A I E E TRANSACTIONS

denoted b y Z(h,iu>) a n d equals t h e ratio of F o r small values of t i m e displacement so t h a t :
transmission line voltage t o c u r r e n t enter­ c u r r e n t s m u s t b e included a n d t h e surge ,-x*p/8pt
ing t h e counterpoise, t h e voltage being impedance is o b t a i n e d from t h e expres­ ydx (14)
2ir J (x +y )
2 2
'
taken between a point on t h e transmission sion:
Q

line opposite t h e counterpoise mid-point Inserting t h e value of t h e i n t e g r a l expres­

9

and a r e m o t e point. Assuming exponen­ (2p/k) /* 1

t ( Γ /<xvt\* sion (9) is obtained. T h e s a m e result is
tial c u r r e n t propagation, b o t h impedances obtained in a simplet w a y b y neglecting
are obtained from t h e following expression displacement c u r r e n t s in operational ex­
1 /«y V I tv+(t v +y ) *
2 2 2 l/

by t a k i n g y equal t o t h e r a d i u s of t h e pression (11), in which case (14) is o b ­

counterpoise (a) a n d t h e height of t h e sUvr -—;— 8

(10)
tained directly. 10
\
transmission line (h), respectively: As s t a t e d before, displacement c u r r e n t s
in t h e air h a v e been neglected t h r o u g h o u t . "
~ HxT

where <*= (2i>//c) /4p. Expression (9) T h i s h a s a negligible effect for large values
1/2

(8)
<*' +y ) m a y be used w h e n avt>\ a n d (10) w h e n
2

Wo- of / or for y = a b u t results in t h e condition

aVt<\. S(h,t) = 0 for i = 0, r a t h e r t h a n S(/M) = 0
= — [H (Ty)-Yo(ry)]
0
T h e a b o v e results a r e o b t a i n e d b y ob­ for / < h/c, c being t h e velocity of p r o p a g a ­
serving t h a t : tion i n free space. I t would appear t h a t
where t h e distance y is in meters a n d t h e effect of displacement c u r r e n t s in t h e
F = Struve's associated Bessel function of (Π) air is obtained, in a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n ,
0
dx 4-7Γ Γ
first kind, zero order b y -taking t as t h e t i m e i n excess of h/c.
Yq — Bessel function of second kind, zero T h e solution of this operational expression T h e surge i m p e d a n c e for small values of
order is:8
t i m e is of secondary i m p o r t a n c e in appli­
cation t o a c t u a l surge c u r r e n t s , since
The above integral represents t h e ratio of dS(y,t)
= 0 when t<x/v these are always small d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v a l
earth potential a t t h e perpendicular dis­ d*L in which displacement c u r r e n t s h a v e a p ­
tance y from t h e mid-point of t h e counter­
dS(y,t) (2p/k) ^ preciable effect.
poise t o t h e c u r r e n t entering t h e l a t t e r .
1

This e a r t h potential arises from currents dx 4w(x +y ) ^2 2 1

~ i
I n t h e a b o v e formulas t h e wire is as­
—Γ(χ,ίω)—Υβ~ Τχ
leaving t h e counter­ I [av(t -x /v ) ]
0
2 2 2 l/i
when t>x/v (12) sumed t o b e half buried in t h e e a r t h , t h a t
poise along i t s length, t h e e a r t h potential is, with i t s axis i n t h e plane of t h e e a r t h ' s
where I is t h e Bessel function of t h e first
at y d u e t o u n i t c u r r e n t leaving t h e
0
surface. F o r wires a t finite d e p t h s below
kind for i m a g i n a r y a r g u m e n t s , zero order. t h e surface, exact formulas would b e con­
counterpoise at χ being ζων/2τΓΎ 2

Thus: siderably m o r e complicated. As a first

(x +y ) = ^^/47rr (x +y ) .
2 2 1 / 2 2 2
Since
2 l A

the counterpoise is i n i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t a p p r o x i m a t i o n for practical purposes, t h e

S
S(y,t) =—(2ρ/κ) /*β-<* Χ ι νί

surge i m p e d a n c e of a wire a t a small d e p t h

with t h e e a r t h , t h e e a r t h potential aty — a 47Γ
equals t h e counterpoise potential. I n ob­ d is i n t h e following t a k e n a s half t h e s u m
taining Ζ(α,٢υ) from t h e above expression, ' Ι [<χν(1*-χ*/ν Υ }
ν1 2 /2 dx (1$ of S(a,t) a n d S(b,t), where &= (a +4d ) \
2 2 l/

(**+y*) T h i s is suggested b y a corresponding re­

the internal i m p e d a n c e of t h e counterpoise
l/s

lationship (implicit in e q u a t i o n 16) for t h e

is neglected a n d i n obtaining Z(h,ico) a For avt<l 9

leakage resistance t o g r o u n d of a b u r i e d
negligible error is c o m m i t t e d b y assuming a v (t -x /v )
2 2 2 2 2

the m u t u a l i m p e d a n c e t h e same for a hori­ h[av{t -x /v ) ^]

2 2 2 x
^ 1 +
zontal separation y = h as for a n equal
Figure 2 . Surge impedances for unit step cur­
vertical separation. T h e l a t t e r condition a n d inserting t h i s value for I expression 0
rent for buried wires of infinite length
is t r u e only w h e n displacement currents (10) is obtained b y i n t e g r a t i n g (13).
F o r avt ^> 1 expression (9) is obtained Radius of wire a = 0 . 5 centimeter
are neglected in t h e air, as assumed here,
Depth of wire o' = 0 and 0.3 meter
the equipotential lines in t h a t case being b y observing t h a t
Height h = 2 0 meters
circles a b o u t t h e conductor.
h [otv{t - x /v ) '/* ]-+(2*avt) " X
2 2 2 1 / 2
Earth resistivity ρ = 1,000 meter-ohms
expat;/ (l-x /2vt )
2 2
Dielectric constant € = 10
UNIT STEP CURRENT

For u n i t step c u r r e n t t h e operational

expression for t h e self- a n d m u t u a l imped­
ances defined b y (8) is obtained b y replac­
ing to) b y p. F o r large values of t i m e dis­
placement c u r r e n t s m a y b e neglected a n d
the solution for t h e surge impedance i s :

S(y,t) = 1 (ulY exp (y*r/lGpt)X

4ir \2wtJ
Ko(y*v/16 t) P (9)

where K is a Bessel function of t h e second

0

kind for i m a g i n a r y a r g u m e n t s , zero order.

For z=y v/l6pt<0A0,
2
which is usually
the case in applications, K (z)^ log 0 €

(1.12/z). F o r larger values of ζ tables of

2 S
this function are available. 7
MC
I ROSECONDS

1940, VOL. 5 9 Sunde—Surge Characteristics 989

wire of finite length. T h e surge imped­ this v a r i a t i o n w i t h t i m e is shown for a Between this time and the time / = 1 . 5
ance calculated in this w a y will b e some­ point midway between the mid-point and microseconds required t o o b t a i n uniform
w h a t t o o small, since t h e propagation con­ t h e e n d p o i n t of a counterpoise 100 m e t e r s leakage along wire, reflected c u r r e n t s in­
s t a n t increases with d e p t h , b u t for d e p t h s long for a n e a r t h resistivity ρ = 1 , 0 0 0 crease t h e surge i m p e d a n c e u n t i l i t e q u a l s
in t h e order of one foot, as actually en­ m e t e r - o h m s . F r o m t h i s figure it is seen t h e leakage resistance. Since t h e surge
countered, t h e error is likely t o b e small. t h a t t h e condition i(x,t/i(0,t) = V for ;c= 2
i m p e d a n c e v a r i a t i o n in t h i s s h o r t t i m e
T h e variation in 5(y,/) with / is shown Z/4, corresponding t o uniform leakage i n t e r v a l is r a t h e r small, it is sufficiently
in figure 2, for a representative case as along t h e wire, is practically r e a c h e d a c c u r a t e t o assume a t r a n s i t i o n as shown
indicated in t h e figure. N e a r t h e inter­ within one or t w o microseconds. i n t h e figure. I n t h e s a m e t i m e i n t e r v a l
section of curves 1 a n d 2 calculated from 0 . 7 4 < / < 1 . 5 microseconds, t h e i m p e d a n c e
(10) a n d (9), respectively, t h e actual surge SURGE IMPEDANCE FOR UNIT STEP S(h,t) decreases t o zero, as shown i n t h e
i m p e d a n c e is obtained b y d r a w i n g a CURRENT figure.
transition curve as shown in t h e figure. T h e leakage resistance used a b o v e is
On a c c o u n t of t h e m a n y difficulties of a
t h a t of a wire in perfect c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
III. Wires of Finite Length formal solution for t h e surge i m p e d a n c e of
e a r t h . Usually t h e r e is some c o n t a c t r e ­
a wire of finite length, t h i s section is con­
sistance b e t w e e n t h e wire a n d t h e sur­
PROPAGATION OF UNIT STEP CURRENT fined t o a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of a graphical
r o u n d i n g soil, b u t t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e wire
F o r a wire of length / t h e c u r r e n t a t t h e m e t h o d which a p p e a r s t o b e sufficiently
t o t h e soil is so large, t h a t for surges of
distance χ f r o n / t h e mid-point where a c c u r a t e for practical purposes.
s h o r t d u r a t i o n t h i s c o n t a c t resistance m a y
energization is effected, is obtained from T h e surge i m p e d a n c e s shown in figure 2 b e neglected, a n d t h e wire r e g a r d e d a s b e ­
t h e following formulas: h a v e been p l o t t e d i n figure 4 along a linear ing in perfect c o n t a c t w i t h t h e g r o u n d .
t i m e scale, t o g e t h e r w i t h leakage resist­ W h e n d-c or low-frequency m e a s u r e m e n t s
Condition i(x,t)/i(0,t) : ances of wires of 100-meter l e n g t h , b u r i e d a r e m a d e of t h e leakage resistance, t h e lat­
x<vt<l—χ βτ/εχβ a t d e p t h s d=0 a n d d = 0.S m e t e r , a n d t e r will include t h e c o n t a c t resistance a n d
l-x<vt<l+x εφχβ-εφ{1-χ)β being in perfect c o n t a c t w i t h t h e ground. therefore b e s o m e w h a t larger t h a n t h a t
l+x<vt<2l—x erjcx$-erjc{l-x)&+ F o r reasons t o b e explained, t h e surge im­ used above. F o r wires a few h u n d r e d feet
erfc(f+x)fi \ (15) pedances are shown d o t t e d for f > 0 . 7 4 , long t h e impulse i m p e d a n c e after a couple
2l-x<vt<2l+xerfcxfi-erfc{l-x)fi + a n d t h e leakage resistances are t h e hori­ of microseconds is therefore s o m e w h a t
erfc(l+x)fi—erfc
zontal lines on t h e r i g h t - h a n d side of t h e smaller t h a n t h e leakage resistance as
(21-χ) β
figure. T h e l a t t e r are o b t a i n e d from t h e m e a s u r e d w i t h direct c u r r e n t . T h i s con­
formula: 11
dition h a s been observed in surge i m p e d ­
a n d so on, where β=(ν/8ρΐ)^ 2
a n d erfc is
ance m e a s u r e m e n t s on v a r i o u s t y p e s of
t h e error function complement, as in ex­
# = -^[log (4JVa6)-2], (16) g r o u n d s , b u t h a s generally b e e n ascribed
12

pression (7). T h e first t e r m in each ex­ e

t o t h e m u c h larger c u r r e n t s used in case

pression is t h e c u r r e n t for a wire of infinite
of surge-impedance m e a s u r e m e n t s t h a n in
length, t h e second t e r m t h e c u r r e n t re­ where
case of leakage-resistance m e a s u r e m e n t s .
flected a t t h e end of t h e wire a n d reaching
ρ = earth resistivity in meter-ohms
χ  t t h e time (I—x)/v, t h e t h i r d t e r m t h e
/ = length of counterpoise, meters
c u r r e n t reflected again a t t h e mid-point
b=[a*+(2d)*] /* 1

a n d reaching χ a t t h e t i m e t—(l-\-x)/v i
a — radius of counterpoise, meters Figure 4. Surge impedances for unit step
etc. T h e c u r r e n t s are in each case as­ d = depth to center of counterpoise (d^>l) current for a buried wire of 100-meter
sumed t o be given b y expression (7), length
which is sufficiently a c c u r a t e for practical F o r a wire 100 m e t e r s long t h e t i m e r e ­
Radius of wire θ = 0.5 centimeter
purposes. quired for c u r r e n t reflected a t t h e e n d s t o
Depth of wire d—0 and 0.3 meter
A t t h e mid-point of t h e counterpoise r e t u r n t o t h e m i d - p o i n t is l/v = 0.74 micro­
Height h = 2 0 meters
i(x t)/i(0,t)
f — 1 a n d a t t h e end point second, w h e n ٥ ; = 1 . 3 5 · 1 0 m e t e r s p e r sec­
8

Earth resistivity p = 1,000 meter-ohms

i(x t)/i(0,t)
y = 0. A t i n t e r m e d i a t e points ond for e = 1 0 , as used in calculation of t h e Dielectric constant € = 10
t h e c u r r e n t varies with time. I n figure 3 surge i m p e d a n c e s .

JH s 100

Figure 3 (left).
Current in buried
wire of 100-meter g
length at distance χ
χ = I / 4 from mid­
point

Earth resistivity
ρ = 1,000 meter-
ohms
Dielectric constant .74 I
8 1.2 I.I
ΤΙΜε IN MICROSECONDS
€ = 10 T I M E IN MICROSECONDS

990 Sunde—Surge Characteristics A I E E TRANSACTIONS

 Figure 5 (left). Surge impedances
for lightning currents

Length of wire / = 1 0 0 meters and

infinite
Radius of wire a = 0 . 5 centimeter
Depth of wire d = 0 . 3 meter
Height h = 2 0 meters
Earth resistivity ρ = 1 , 0 0 0 meter-
ohms
Dielectric constant € = 1 0
Surge current J(t) = 1 . 4 4 I 2 3
1 2 9 4
(e-°"-e- ) 1
T I M E IN M I C R O S E C O N D S
TIME IN MICROSECONDS

IV. Surge Impedances for Light­ COMPARISON WITH MEASURED SURGE

Figure 6 . Comparison of calculated and
ning Currents IMPEDANCES
measured surge impedances of a long wire
Although several t e s t s h a v e been m a d e
CALCULATION OF SURGE^IMPEDANCES Radius of wire a = 0 . 3 1 8 centimeter
t o investigate surge characteristics of
Depth of wire o* = 0 . 3 meter
counterpoises, i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n only a Earth resistivity ρ = 2 , 0 0 0 meter-ohms
When a surge c u r r e n t J{l) enters t h e
single case were t h e t e s t s performed in Dielectric constant € = 1 5
mid-point of t h e wire t h e corresponding
such a w a y as t o o b t a i n reliable results for
surge voltage m a y be obtained from t h e Curve 1—Mid-point surge impedance calcu­
small values of t i m e . I n t h i s case a surge
3

superposition t h e o r e m : 13
lated for unit step current
c u r r e n t w a s impressed a t o n e e n d of a
Curve 2—Mid-point surge impedance calcu­
counterpoise 925 feet long, of 0.25-inch
lated for J(0 = 1 . 4 4 ( e - - e - ) 0 l i i

V(y,t)
•£ - n r)S(y r)dr
f (17) diameter, buried a t a d e p t h of 12 inches.
Measured leakage resistances of counter­
Curve 3—One-half of end-point surge imped­
ance observed for cbndition similar to those
poises of various l e n g t h s i n d i c a t e a n assumed in calculations
where / ' ( / ) = - J(t) a n d S(y,t) is t h e
dt e a r t h resistivity a t t h e t e s t location v a r y ­
surge impedance for u n i t step current. I t ing between 1,500 a n d 2,000 m e t e r - o h m s . 4. CURRENTS AND POTENTIALS ALONG LEAKY
GROUND-RETURN CONDUCTORS, E. D. Sunde.
is usually necessary t o perform t h e inte­ T h e observed velocity of p r o p a g a t i o n ELECTRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G ( A I E E TRANSACTIONS),

gration numerically, b u t t h e process is n o t along t h e counterpoise indicates a dielec­ v o l u m e 55, D e c e m b e r 1936, pages 1 3 3 8 - 4 6 .

difficult a n d does n o t require m u c h time tric c o n s t a n t of a b o u t 15. 5. RADIO PROPAGATION OVER PLANE EARTH-
F I E L D S T R E N G T H C U R V E S , C. R . B u r r o w s . Bell
for the accuracy needed here. T h e surge I n figure 6 a r e shown surge i m p e d a n c e s System Technical Journal, v o l u m e 16, January 1937,
pages 4 5 - 7 5 .
impedance is denned as t h e r a t i o V(y,t)-r- calculated for these conditions for u n i t
6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY A N D OPERATIONAL
m . step c u r r e n t a n d for a c u r r e n t as shown in C A L C U L U S (a b o o k ) , J. R. Carson. M c G r a w - H i l l
Lightning c u r r e n t entering counter­ figure 5. Since t h e surge i m p e d a n c e a t Book C o m p a n y , Inc., N e w York, first edition, p a g e
103.
poises m a y usually b e approximated b y an t h e e n d point of a long counterpoise is
7. FUNKTIONENTAFELN MIT F O R M E L N UND K U R - ,
expression of t h e form : nearly twice as large a s a t t h e m i d - p o i n t 2

V E N (u b o o k ) , J a h n k e a n d E m d e . B . G. Teubrier.
t h e calculated values a r e c o m p a r e d with
Berlin, econd edition, page 135; Ko(z) = ~Ho( )(iz).
l

J(t) = J(e- -e~ ) (18) one-half t h e observed e n d - p o i n t imped­

yit y2i

ance. T h e shape of t h e c u r r e n t used in 8. F O U R I E R INTEGRALS FOR PRACTICAL APPLICA­

TION, Campbell a n d F o s t e r . Bell T e l e p h o n e S y s ­
where 7 1 a n d y m a y be in t h e order of 0.1
2 t h e m e a s u r e m e n t is n o t a p p a r e n t i n t h e t e m Technical Publications, M o n o g r a p h B - 5 8 4 ,
and 1, respectively, when t is t a k e n in publication referred t o , b u t i n o t h e r t e s t s
3 1 pair 8 6 1 .

microseconds. W i t h these values of 7 1 on t h e s a m e counterpoise a c u r r e n t with 9. Reference 8, pair 912.2.

and 7 2 a n d with 7 = 1 . 4 4 , t h e above ex­ somewhat steeper w a v e front w a s used 10. Reference 8, pair 807.

pression represents a c u r r e n t rising from t h a n t h a t u p o n which c u r v e 2 of figure 6 is 11. CALCULATION OF R E S I S T A N C E S TO G R O U N D ,

Η. B. Dwight. ELECTRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G ( A I E E
zero t o a m a x i m u m value of 1 ampere based. T R A N S A C T I O N S ) , v o l u m e 5 5 , D e c e m b e r 1936, page
1325. A slight modification h a s been m a d e in t h e
within 2.5 microseconds a n d diminishing formula t o obtain the correct v a l u e of R for d = 0.
to 0.01 a m p e r e within 50 microseconds. References 12. IMPULSMOTSTANDET HOS JORDKONTAKTER (Im­
Actual lightning c u r r e n t m a y rise t o a pulse I m p e d a n c e of Ground C o n n e c t i o n s ) , H . N o r -
inder a n d R . Nordell. Teknisk Tidsskrift, Electro-
maximum value of 100,000 amperes or 1. THEORY AND T E S T S OP THE COUNTERPOISE
teknik, February 4 , 1939, pages 1 7 - 2 2 .
L. V. B e w l e y . ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ( A I E E
more. T R A N S A C T I O N S ) , v o l u m e 5 3 , A u g u s t 1 9 3 4 , pages 13. Reference 6, page 16.
1163-72.
W i t h a c u r r e n t of t h e above form a n d
2. Discussion of reference 1, L . V. B e w l e y . ELEC­
with u n i t step surge impedances shown i u

TRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G ( A I E E T R A N S A C T I O N S ) , vol­
figure 4 for a counterpoise a t a d e p t h of u m e 5 4 , February 1935, p a g e 2 2 8 .
Discussion
0.3 meter, t h e surge impedances shown in 3. Discussion of reference 1, J . H . H a g e n g u t h .
ELECTRICAL E N G I N E E R I N G ( A I E E TRANSACTIONS),
figure 5 a r e obtained. volume 54, February 1935, page 2 2 8 . For discussion, see page 1180.

1 9 4 0 , VOL. 5 9 Sunde—Surge Characteristics 991