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Biomedical
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Reference

Engineering
R.S. Kandpur, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill, 2003.
L.A. Geddes and L.E. Baker, Principles of
Applied Biomedical Instrumentation, 3rd
Edition, John Wiley, 1989.

Dr. K. Adalarasu
Office: VV233
Email id : [email protected]

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Textbook and Materials

John. G. Webster, Medical
instrumentation Application & Design, 4th
Edition, John Wiley & sons, 2009. Bio-potentials
Leslie Cromwell, Fred J. Weibell and
Erich A. Pfeiffer, Biomedical
Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd
Edition, PHI, 2008.
Power Point Presentation

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Biopotential Cell Membrane Potentials

Electrical states of excitable cells  Selectively permeable to sodium (Na+) potassium
Resting state (K+) and chlorine ions
Action state  Ion concentration difference across membrane
creates a diffusion gradient
 Ions flow, creating an electric field that opposes
flow, until an equilibrium is established
 Similar to p-n junction, ions flow by diffusion and create a
potential difference which inhibits further flow of charged
ions

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Cell Membrane Potentials Na-K Pump
Cell Membrane
Very thin (7-15 nm) lipid-protein complex
Transmembrane ion channels (pores) allow flow of
ions across the membrane
Like a leaky capacitor: a thin dielectric material acts as
a charge separator
Impermeable to intracellular protein and other
organic anions

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Biopotential Mechanism behind biopotentials

Biopotential  Resting Potential:
 Concentration of potassium (K+) ions higher inside as
An electric potential that is measured compared to outside
between points in living cells, tissues, and  Sodium ion (Na+) concentration is higher outside the
organisms, and which accompanies all membrane than inside
biochemical processes  In resting state the member is permeable only for
potassium ions
Bioelectric Potentials  Potassium ions flows into the cell, Sodium ions remain
These are the ionic voltages produced as a outside the cell- charge imbalance.
result of electrochemical activity in a certain  Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across
the membrane. Cell is Polarized.
class of cells known as Excitable cells

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Action Potential Generation Mechanism behind biopotentials

Intracellular Fluid  Na+ concentration is higher outside
the membrane.
 It is prohibited to penetrate inside.
- Na+ is less inside
- K+ penetrates inside
V
- Imbalance in concentration

Equilibrium reached with a difference

in potential across the membrane -
RESTING POTENTIAL
RESTING POTENTIAL CELL is –ive inside
Polarized State
+ive outside
Cell is Polarized

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Mechanism behind biopotentials Problem:

Characteristics of Resting Potential  Ions Extracellular Intracellular

Temperature depended  Na+ 140X 10X
Permeability varies from -60mV to 100mV  K+ 4X 140X
Resting Pot. is constant unless exicted  Cl- 103X 4X

Permeability of Na+ - 2*10^(-8)cm/s

 K+ - 2*10^(-6)cm/s

 Cl- - 4*10^(-6)cm/s

X= mM/L
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Problem Mechanism behind biopotentials
 Example concentrations of the major ion species  When membrane stimulation exceeds a threshold level of
 from frog skeletal muscle about 20 mV - action potential occurs:
 Buildup of K inside cell buildup of K inside cell
 Buildup of Na & Cl outside cell  Permeabilities of the membrane change - Sodium ion
permeability increases rapidly allowing sodium ions to flow
to inside - making the inside more positive.
 Potassium ions flow out to balance the flow.
 The cell becomes slightly positive – 20mV. Cell is
Depolarized.
 The flow of Na ion stop – leads to repolariztion and Resting
Potential.
 At rest, the Na-K pump restores the ion concentrations to
 Equilibrium potential using GHK formulation their original values.

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Mechanism behind biopotentials Mechanism behind biopotentials
Extracellular Fluid  Permeability of the membrane Goldman’s Equation
changes.
20mV  Na+ penetrates inside –Avalanche
effect
V
 K+ struggles out.
 VE: Equilibrium potential, net current is zero
 Cell becomes slightly positive due  PX : permeability coefficient of the membrane for ionic species X
to imbalance of K+ - ACTION  [X]i and [X]o : the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of X in moles/
POTENTIAL liter.
ACTION POTENTIAL
Depolarized State
 R: Universal gas constant (8.31 J/mol.K)
 Cell Depolarized  T: Absolute temperature in K (Measured at 310K)
 F: Faraday constant (96500 C/mol.)
After the ion current has died out the cell comes back to
normal - Resting Potential- REPOLARIZATION
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Mechanism behind biopotentials Action Potential

Nernst equation

Depolarization
Repolarization

Hyperpolarization

Action Potential = opening of sodium and potassium channels

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Organ Systems
Action Potential

excitable cell
Vm

Na+ -channels

K+ -channels

time

resting potential

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Nervous System
Neurons = masses of nerve cells that transmit
information
Nervous System Have 2 Types of Cells
Neurons

Nervous System Supporting Cells

Nervous System is Divided into
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Cranial Nerves
Spinal Nerves
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Neurons
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Nervous System
 Somatic Nervous
System
 Skeletal
(voluntary)

 Autonomic
Nervous System
 Smooth
muscles, glands
(involuntary)  Cell body (perikaryon)
 Dendrites
 Provide Receptive Area
 Transmit Electrical Impulses to Cell Body
 Axon
 Conducts Impulses Away from Cell Body
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Neurons Functional Classification of Neurons

Basic structural and functional units of the
nervous system
Respond to physical and chemical stimuli
Produce and conduct electrochemical
impulses
Release chemical regulators
Nerve
Bundle of axons located outside CNS

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Neurons: A Close-Up View Neurons
Axon terminals: Small swellings that release
signals to affect other neurons
Chemical signals, known as neurotransmitters, cross
small gaps, known as synapses.
It is estimated that there are about 500 trillion synapses
in the adult brain

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Neurons Communication
 Synapse
Neurons have four important regions  Junction between two communicating neurons
Dendrites  Nerve pathway
 Nerve impulse travels from neuron to neuron
 Branching projections that collect information  Synaptic Transmission
Soma (Cell Body) Dendrite ->cell body -> along axon -> synapse (gap)
 To complete the signal, a NEUROTRANSMITTER is
 Contains the nucleus and integrates
released at the gap to signal the next neuron
information
 Excitatory
Axon  Increase membrane permeability, increases chance for
threshold to be achieved
 Conducts the neural signal across a long
 Inhibitory
distance  Decrease membrane permeability, decrease chance for
threshold to be achieved.

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Types of Nerves Structural Classification
 Sensory Nerves
 Conduct
impulses into
the brain or
spinal cord
 Motor Nerves
 Carry impulses
to muscles of
glands
 Mixed Nerves
 Contain both
sensory and
motor nerves

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Structural Classification Structural Classification
Neurons can be classified by their shape:
Multipolar neurons
Have many dendrites.
Bipolar neurons
Have one dendrite and one axon.
Monopolar neurons
Have only one projection from the soma, which branches
to form the axon and the dendrite.

Pseudounipolar
Bipolar
Multiploar
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Synaptic Transmission: Chemical
Motor Neurons
Signaling in the Brain
Release of Neurotransmitter at the Synapse
Types of Neurotransmitters
Receptors
Postsynaptic Potentials

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Release of Neurotransmitter at the 40

Neuronal Injury Synapse

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by
the presynaptic cell to affect the postsynaptic
cell.
Synaptic cleft is the 20- to 30-nm space
between the cells.
Small size of the synaptic cleft allows the
concentration of the neurotransmitter to
Think of Soma as Head, Axon as Arm
change rapidly.
When Soma Dies, Neuron Dies
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Release of Neurotransmitter at the 41

Receptors
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Synapse
Specialized proteins in the cell membrane
Neurotransmitters interact with receptors to
affect the postsynaptic cell.
Ionotropic receptors allow ions to flow across
the membrane, changing the charge of the
cell membrane
Metabotropic receptors relay information into
the cell using a series of proteins.

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Types of Neurotransmitters Receptors

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