FM 1-514

CHAPTER 3

ROTOR SYSTEM OPERATION

An understanding of the rotor system is necessary to needed because the rotor systems rotate in opposite
be able to troubleshoot it analogical manner. It is directions (counteract each other’s torque). Ad-
important to know and understand the operation of vantages of the tandem-rotor system are a larger
rotor heads and how rotor blades are driven. center-of-gravity range and good longitudinal
Remember that if the components of the rotor system stability also, the counter-rotating rotors do away
are not properly maintained, a malfunction may with the need for an antitorque rotor. Because there
occur while in flight causing possible loss of life and is no antitorque rotor, full engine power can be ap-
equipment. For a complete detailed description of a plied to load lifting. Disadvantages of the tandem-
specific helicopter rotor system, refer to the ap- rotor system are a complex transmission and more
plicable aircraft multipart maintenance manual. drag due to its shape and excessive weight.
SINGLE AND TANDEM ROTORS FLIGHT CONTROLS
Helicopter configurations are classified as single, As a helicopter maneuvers through the air, its at-
tandem, coaxial, and side by side. The single- and titude in relation to the ground changes. These
tandem-rotor configurations are the only ones used changes are described with reference to three axes
in Army helicopters. of flight: lateral, vertical, and longitudinal. Move-
Single Rotor ment about the lateral axis produces a nose-up or
nose-down attitude; this is accomplished by moving
Helicopters designed to use a main and tail rotor the cyclic pitch control fore and aft. Movement
system are referred to as single-rotor helicopters. about the vertical axis produces a nose swing (or
The main rotor provides lift and thrust while the tail change in direction) to the right or left; this move-
rotor counteracts the torque made by the main rotor. ment is called yaw. This is controlled by the direc-
This keeps the aircraft from rotating in the opposite tional control pedals. These pedals are used to
direction of the main rotor. The tail rotor also increase or decrease thrust in the tail rotor of a
provides the directional control for the helicopter single-rotor helicopter and to tilt the rotor discs in
during hovering and engine power changes. Power opposite directions on a tandem-rotor helicopter.
to operate the main and tail rotors is supplied by the Movement about the longitudinal axis is called roll.
power train system. The single-rotor configuration This produces a tilt to the right or left. The move-
has the advantage of being simpler and lighter than ment is accomplished by moving the cyclic pitch
the tandem-rotor system, and it requires less main- control to the right or left. Some other helicopter
tenance. Since the tail rotor uses a portion of the flight controls are discussed below.
available power, the single-rotor system has a smaller Cyclic Pitch Control
center-of-gravity range.
Tandem Rotor The cyclic pitch control looks like the control stick of
a common aircraft. It acts through a mechanical
Normally used on large cargo helicopters, the linkage to cause the pitch of each main rotor blade to
tandem-rotor configuration has two main rotor change during a cycle of rotation. To move a helicop-
systems, one mounted on each end of the ter forward from a hovering height, the rotor disc
fuselage. Each rotor operates the same as the main must be tilted forward so that the main rotor provides
rotor on the single-rotor helicopter, except for the forward thrust. This change from hovering to flying
direction of rotation of the aft rotor and the method is called transition and is done by moving the cyclic
of keeping directional control. The forward rotor control stick. Moving the cyclic control stick changes
turns in a counterclockwise direction viewed from the angle of attack of the blades this change tilts the
below, and the aft rotor rotates in a clockwise rotor disc. The rapidly rotating rotor blades create a
direction. A separate antitorque system is not disc area that can be tilted in any direction relative to

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the supporting rotor mast. Horizontal movement is synchronized with the control of the carburetor so
controlled by changing the direction of tilt of the that changes of collective pitch will automatically
main rotor to produce a force in the desired direc- make small increases or decreases in throttle settings.
tion. On turbine engine helicopters, the collective pitch
Collective Pitch Control stick is synchronized with the fuel control unit, which
controls the power and rotor RPM automatically.
Collective pitch control varies the lift of the main Torque Control
rotor by increasing or decreasing the pitch of all
blades at the same time. Raising the collective pitch In tandem-rotor and coaxial helicopter designs the
control increases the pitch of the main rotor blades. main rotors turn in opposite directions and thereby
This increases the lift and causes the helicopter to neutralize or eliminate torque effect. In single-rotor
rise. Lowering the control decreases the pitch of the helicopters torque is counteracted by an antitorque
blades, causing a loss of lift. This produces a cor- rotor called the tail rotor. It is driven by a power
responding rate of descent. Collective pitch control takeoff from the main transmission. The antitorque
is also used in coordination with cyclic pitch control rotor runs at a speed in direct ratio to the speed of
to regulate the airspeed. For example, to increase the main rotor. For this reason, the amount of thrust
airspeed in level flight, the cyclic is moved forward developed by the antitorque rotor must be changed
and the collective is raised at the same time. as the power is increased or decreased. This is done
by the two directional control pedals (antitorque
Control Plate pedals), which are connected to a pitch-changing
Forces from the cyclic and collective pitch sticks are device on the antitorque rotor. Pushing the left pedal
carried to the rotor by a control plate usually located increases the thrust of the tail rotor blades, swinging
near the bottom of the rotor drive. Control plates the nose of the helicopter to the left. The right pedal
used by various builders are different in appearance decreases the thrust, allowing the main rotor torque
and name, but they perform the same function. The to swing the nose to the right.
control plate is attached to the rotor blades by push- MAIN ROTOR HEAD ASSEMBLIES
pull rods and bell cranks. The collective pitch stick
changes the pitch of the blades at the same time by a The main rotor head assembly is attached to and
vertical deflection of the entire control plate. The supported by the main gearbox shaft. This assembly
cyclic pitch stick allows angular shifting of the control supports the main rotor blades and is rotated by
plate to be sent to a single blade. This causes flapping torque from the main gearbox. It provides the means
and small angles of pitch change to make up for of transmitting the movements of the flight controls
unequal lift across the rotor disc. The direction of tilt to the blades. Two types of rotor heads used on Army
of the control plate decides the direction of flight: helicopters are semirigid and fully articulated.
forward, backward, left, or right. Semirigid
Throttle Control The semirigid rotor head gets its name from the fact
By working the throttle control, pilots can keep the that the two blades are rigidly interconnected and
same engine and rotor speed, even if a change in pivoted about a point slightly above their center (Fig-
blade pitch causes them to increase or decrease en- ure 3-1). There are no flapping or drag hinges like
gine power. When the main rotor pitch angle is those on the articulating head. Since the blades are
increased, it makes more lift but it also makes more interconnected, when one blade moves upward the
drag. To overcome the drag and keep the same rotor other moves downward a corresponding distance.
RPM, more power is needed from the engine. This The main rotor hub is of a semirigid, underslung
added power is obtained by advancing the throttle. design consisting basically of the —
The opposite is true for a decrease in main rotor pitch • Yoke (1).
angle. The decreased angle reduces drag, and a • Trunnion (2).
reduction in throttle is needed to prevent rotor over- • Elastomeric bearing (3).
speed. The throttle is mounted on the collective
pitch grip and is operated by rotating the grip, as on • Yoke extensions.
a motorcycle throttle. The collective pitch stick is • Pitch horns (4).

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• Drag braces (5). each acting as a single unit and capable of flapping,
• Grips (6). feathering, and leading and lagging. The assembly is
made up primarily of —
The yoke is mounted to the trunnion by elastomeric
bearings which permit rotor flapping. Cyclic and • An internally splined hub.
collective pitch-change inputs are received through • Horizontal and vertical hinge pins.
pitch horns mounted on the trailing edge of the grips. • Extension links.
The grips in turn are permitted to rotate about the • Pitch shafts.
yoke extensions on Teflon-impregnated fabric frict-
ion bearings, resulting in the desired blade pitch. • Pitch housing.
Adjustable drag braces are attached to the grips and • Dampers.
main rotor blades to maintain alignment. Blade • Pitch arms.
centrifugal loads are transferred from the blade grips • Bearing surfaces.
to the extensions by wire-wound, urethane-coated,
tension-torsion straps. • Connecting parts.

Fully Articulated The extension links are attached to the hub by the
horizontal pins and to the forked end of the extension
A folly articulated rotor head gets its name from the link. The pitch shafts are attached by the vertical
fact that it is jointed (Figure 3-2). Jointing is made pins. The pitch housing is fitted over and fastened to
with vertical and horizontal pins. The fully articu- the pitch shaft by the tension-torsion straps, which
lated rotor head assembly has three or more blades, are pinned at the inboard end of the pitch shaft and

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the outboard end of the pitch-varying housing. One provide automatic equalization of thrust on the ad-
end of the dampers is attached to a bracket on the vancing and retreating blade, or equal and simul-
horizontal pins; the other end is fastened to the pitch taneous pitch change to counteract torque made by
housing. the main rotor system. Hub design varies with the
manufacturer. Typical configurations are the hinge-
Flapping mounted, flex-beamed, and fully articulated types.
Flapping of the rotor blades is permitted by the Hinge-Mounted Type
horizontal pin, which is the hinge or pivot point.
Centrifugal force on the blades and stops on the head A single two-blade, controllable-pitch tail rotor is
prevent excessive flapping. located on the left side of the tail rotor gearbox
Feathering (Figure 3-3). It is composed of the blades and the
hub and is driven through the tail rotor gearbox.
Feathering is the controlled rotation about the lon- Blades are of all-metal construction and attached by
gitudinal axis of the blades that permits the pilot to bolts in blade grips, which are mounted through
achieve directional control in either the horizontal or bearings to spindles of the hub yoke. The tail rotor
vertical plane. Feathering is permitted by a pitch- hub is hinge-mounted to provide automatic equaliza-
change assembly on some helicopters and by a sleeve- tion of thrust on advancing and retreating blades.
and-spindle assembly on other types of helicopters. Control links provide equal and simultaneous pitch
change to both blades. The tail rotor counteracts the
Leading and Lagging torque of the main rotor and provides directional
Leading and lagging is permitted by the vertical pin, control.
which serves as a hinge or pivot point for the action. Flex-Beamed Type
Excessive leading and lagging is prevented by the use
of a two-way hydraulic damper in the system. The tail rotor hub and blade assembly counteracts
torque of the main rotor and provides directional
TAIL ROTOR HUBS control. It consists of the hub and two blades (Figure
The tail rotor hub (antitorque rotor) is used as a 3-4). The hub assembly has a preconed, flex-
centering fixture to attach the tail rotor blades so that beamed-type yoke and a two-piece trunnion con-
they rotate about a common axis. It keeps the blocks nected to the yoke by self-lubricating, spherical
against centrifugal, bending and thrust forces. It flapping bearings. The trunnion, which is splined to
accepts the necessary pitch-change mechanism to the tail rotor gearbox shaft, drives the blades and

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Fully Articulated Type

The articulated tail rotor system (Figure 3-5)
counterbalances disturbing forces in the same way
that the hinge-type rotor does. The major difference
is that the blades can lead and lag individually during
rotation.
MAIN ROTOR BLADES
The rotor blade is an airfoil designed to rotate about
a common axis to produce lift and provide directional
control for a helicopter. It is often referred to as a
rotary wing. The design and construction of a rotor
blade vary with the manufacturer, although they all
strive to manufacture the most efficient and
economical lifting device. The particular helicopter
design places certain requirements on the main rotor
blades, which influence their design and construc-
tion. Most rotor blades are designed as symmetrical
airfoils to produce a stable aerodynamic pitching
characteristic. Aerodynamic stability is achieved
when the center of gravity, center of pressure, and
blade-feathering axis all act at the same point. The
blade is more stable in flight because these forces
continue to act at almost the same point as the blade
serves as a flapping stop for the tail rotor. The yoke changes pitch. At present only one Army helicopter
has two self-lubricating, spherical bearings as attach- is equipped with an unsymmetrical airfoil. This un-
ing points for each rotor blade. Rotor pitch change symmetrical airfoil blade is capable of producing
is accomplished at these bearings. greater lift than a symmetrical airfoil blade of similar

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dimensions. Aerodynamic stability is achieved by fairing or pockets are fiberglass covers bonded over
building a 3° upward angle into the trailing edge section either aluminum ribs or aluminum foil honeycomb.
of the blade. This prevents excessive center-of- The fairing assembly is then bonded to the trailing
pressure travel when the rotor blade angle of attack edge of the spar. The trailing edge of the fairing is
is changed. A variety of material is used in the con- bonded to a stainless steel strip forming the blade
struction of rotor blades; aluminum, steel, brass, and trailing edge. Rubber chafing strips are bonded be-
fiberglass are most common. tween the fairings to prevent fairing chafing and
provide a weather seal for the blade fairings. A steel
socket threaded to the blade spar shank provides an
attaching point to the rotor head. A stainless steel
tip cap is fastened by screws to the blade spar and
blade tip pocket.
Blade Nomenclature
Planform
The blade planform is the shape of the rotor blade
when viewed from above (Figure 3-8). It can be
uniform (parallel) or tapered. Uniform planforms
are most often selected by the manufacturer be-
cause, with all the ribs and other internal blade
parts the same size, they are easier to make. The
uniform blade requires only one stamping die for
all ribs, which reduces blade cost. This design has
a large blade surface area at the tip; it must there-
fore incorporate negative tip twists to make a more
uniform lift along the blade span. If the blade
angle is the same for the length of the blade, the
blade will produce more lift toward the tip because
it moves at a higher speed than the blade root. This
unequal lift will cause the blade to cone too much
or bend up on the end. The tapered planform
blade makes a more uniform lift throughout its
length. Few blade manufacturers use it, however,
because the manufacturing cost is too high due to
Types of Rotor Blades the many different-shaped parts required to fit the
tapered airfoil interior.
Metal
Twist
A typical metal blade has a hollow, extruded
aluminum spar which forms the leading edge of the The blade-element theory applies to a rotor blade
blade (Figure 3-6). Aluminum pockets bonded to as well as to a propeller. Therefore, most rotor
the trailing edge of the spar assembly provide stream- blades are twisted negatively from root to tip to get
lining. An aluminum tip cap is fastened with screws more even distribution of lift.
to the spar and tip pocket. A steel cuff bolted to the Skin
root end of the spar provides a means of attaching
the blade to the rotor head. A stainless steel abrasion The skin may be fiberglass or aluminum and may
strip is adhesive-bonded to the leading edge. consist of single or multiple layers. The thin skin
can easily be damaged by careless handling on the
Fiberglass ground. Three types of blade coverings are
The main load-carrying member of a fiberglass blade used: one-piece wraparound aluminum alloy,
is a hollow, extruded steel spar (Figure 3-7). The single pocket (or fairing), and multiple pocket

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(or fairing). Most main rotor blades are of single-

pocket or multiple-pocket construction.
Root
The blade root is the section nearest the center of
rotation that provides a means of attachment to the
rotor head (Figure 3-9). It is heavier and thicker
than the rest of the blade to resist centrifugal forces.

Tip
The tip is located furthest from the center of rotation
and travels at the highest speed during operation
(Figure 3-10). The blade tip cap also has a means for
attaching balance weights.

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Leading Edge
serious because stress lines move parallel to the span
The part of the blade that meets the air first is the line and would therefore pass the damage without
leading edge (Figure 3-11). For the edge to work interruption. Chordwise damage interrupts lines of
efficiently, airfoils must have a leading edge that is stress.
thicker than the trailing edge. The leading edge of
all blades is covered with a hard, abrasion-resistant
cap or coating to protect against erosion caused by
sand and dust.

Trailing Edge
Trailing edge is that part of the blade that follows or Chord and Chord Line
trails the leading edge and is the thinnest section of The chord of a rotor blade is its width measured at
the airfoil (Figure 3-12). The trailing edge is the widest point (Figure 3-14). The chord line of a
strengthened to resist damage, which most often hap- rotor blade is an imaginary line from the leading edge
pens during ground handling. to the trailing edge, perpendicular to the span line.
Span and Span Line Blade chord line is used as a reference line to make
angular measurements.
The span of a rotor blade is its length from root to tip
(Figure 3-13). The span line is an imaginary line Spar
running parallel to the leading edge from the root of The main supporting part of a rotor blade is the spar
the blade to the tip. Span line is important to the (Figure 3-15). Spars are usually made of aluminum,
blade repairer because damages are often located steel, or fiberglass; they always extend along the span
and classified according to their relation to it. line of the blade. Often the spar is D-shaped and
Defects paralleling the span line are usually less forms the leading edge of the airfoil. Spars are of

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Bottom
The high-pressure side of the blade is the bottom.
The bottom is the blade surface which is viewed from
the ground. It is always painted a lusterless black to
prevent glare from reflecting off the blade and into
crew compartments during flight.
Blade Stations
Rotor blade stations are numbered in inches and are
measured from one of two starting points. Some
rotor blades are numbered from the center of
rotation (center of the mast), which is designated
different shapes, depending on the blade material station zero, and outward to the blade tip. Others
and on how they fit into the blade airfoil. are numbered from the root end of the blade, station
Doublers zero, and outward to the blade tip (Figure 3-16).
Doublers are flat plates that are bonded to both sides Blade Construction
of the root end of some rotor blades to provide more Single Pocket or Fairing
strength. Not all blades use doublers since some The single-pocket or fairing blade is made with a
spars are made thick enough to provide the needed
strength at the root end. one-piece skin on top and bottom (Figure 3-17).

Top Each skin extends across the entire span and chord,
behind the spar. This style is simple and easy to make
The low-pressure side of the blade is the top. The because of the minimum number of pockets or fair-
top is the blade surface which is viewed from above ings that need positioning and clamping during the
the helicopter. It is usually painted olive drab when bonding process. However, minor damage to the
the blade skin is plastic or metal.

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skin often results in the blade being thrown away

since replacing the skin costs more than replacing the
blade.

reduce the use of hardware like bolts, rivets, and

screws that need holes and therefore weaken the
strength of the bond. To ensure full strength,
Multiple Pockets or Fairings manufacturers never drill holes in load-carrying
Most large rotor blades built with the multiple- parts of the blade except at the inboard and outboard
pocket or fairing shape behind the spar are costly ends. However, bonds react to the chemical action
of paint thinners and many cleaning solvents.
(Figure 3-18). This type of blade is selected since Careless use of these solvents will dissolve bonded
damage to the skin cover requires that only the pock- joints. The surface area where two objects are
et (or fairing) be replaced. The high-cost blade can bonded together is known as the faying surface
then be used over and over. This type of blade is (Figure 3-19).
more flexible across the span, which cuts down on
blade vibrations. Blade Balance
Internal Structural Components Three types of weights to balance the blade are mass
Rotor blades have internal structural parts that help chordwise, spanwise, and tracking (Figure 3-20).
to support the blade skin – ribs, I-beams, spanwise Mass balance weights (bars) are placed into the lead-
channels, and aluminum honeycomb foil. ing edge of a blade while the blade is being made
Bonds and Bonding (Figure 3-21). This is to ensure that correct
chordwise balance is about 25 percent of chord. The
Bonding is a method of putting two or more parts type of metal and its shape and location vary with the
together with an adhesive compound. Bonding helps

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blade during manufacture. The repairer is not

always permitted to move these weights. When
movement is necessary, the repairer should always
remember that adding spanwise weight moves the
center of gravity outward. Subtracting weight moves
the center of gravity inward. When moving the span-
wise weight is permitted, the weight change is com-
puted by the repairer mathematically after the blade
has been weighed.
To be efficient and vibration-free, all rotating blades
should track on about the same level or plane of
manufacturer. The repairer is not allowed to move rotation. Failure of blades to track correctly causes
the weights in most Army helicopter blades. When vibrations which can —
moving of weights is allowed, however, the repairer • Damage parts of the helicopter.
must remember that changing weights will move the • Reduce riding comfort.
center of gravity forward or backward.
• Cause a loss in blade performance due to air
turbulence made by the rotating blades.
One way of retaining track is to attach tracking
weights in front of and behind the feathering axis at
the blade tips (Figure 3-23). By adding removing or
shifting tracking weights, the repairer can move a
blade track up or down to match the track of the other
blade or blades. This causes all blades to move in the
same tip path plane.
Trim Tabs
Another method used to align the rotor blade on the
same plane of rotation is the use of trim tabs (Figure
3-24). Using tracking weights adds to building costs,
but the same results may be achieved by cheaper
methods; for example, putting a sheet metal trim tab
on the trailing edge of the blade. The trim tab is
usually located near the tip of the blade where the
Spanwise balance weights are at the tip of the blade, speed is great enough to get the needed aerodynamic
usually where they can be attached securely to the reaction. In tracking operations the trim tab is bent
spar (Figure 3-22). They are normally installed in the up to make the leading edge of the rotor blade fly
higher in the plane of rotation. Or it is bent down to
make it fly lower. The trim tabs are adjusted until the
rotor blades are all flying in the same plane of rota-
tion.
TAIL ROTOR BLADES
Tail rotor blades are used to provide directional con-
trol only. Made of metal or fiberglass, they are built
similarly to main rotor blades. Metal tail rotor blades
are made of aluminum; the spars are made of solid
aluminum extrusions, hollow aluminum extrusions,
and aluminum sheet channels. Fiberglass rotor

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blades are made of fiberglass sheets; the spars Fiberglass Blades

are made of solid titanium extrusions. Refer to The blade skins are formed around and bonded
Figure 3-25. to H-shaped titanium spars. The blade skins are
Metal Blades supported inside with aluminum honeycomb.
The space around the spar is filled with foam
The blade skins are formed around and bonded to plastic.
the spars, which in most cases form the leading edge
of the blades. Metal blade skins are supported from
the inside with aluminum honeycomb, ribs, and some
smaller blades which have no bracing or support
inside themselves.

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Blade Balance balance screw. Other models are balanced by adding

weights to the trailing edge of the blades near the cuff
Spanwise end.
On some models spanwise balance is accomplished Trammeling
by adding or subtracting washers on the blade tip. Fully articulated tail rotor systems must be tram-
On others the washers are added to the blade-cuff meled before they are balanced. Trammeling con-
attaching bolts. sists of aligning the tail rotor blades an equal distance
On some models blades are balanced chordwisc by to one another with a 2° angle of lead to the blades.
adding weights to the tips behind the spanwise

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