Nephrology: Edward F. Foote, Pharm.D., FCCP, BCPS

Nephrology
Nephrology
Edward F. Foote, Pharm.D., FCCP, BCPS
Wilkes University
Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
ACCP Updates in Therapeutics® 2012: The Pharmacotherapy Preparatory Review and Recertification Course
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Learning Objectives: 2. F.D. is a 44-year-old man admitted with gram-neg-

ative bacteremia. He receives 4 days of parenteral
1. Categorize acute kidney injury (AKI) as prerenal, aminoglycoside therapy and develops acute tubular
intrinsic, or postrenal, based on patient history, necrosis (ATN). Antibiotic therapy is adjusted on
physical examination, and laboratory values. the basis of culture and sensitivity results. Which
2. List risk factors for AKI and formulate preventive one of the following is the urinalysis most likely to
strategies to decrease the risk of developing AKI in show?
specific patient populations. A. BUN/SCr ratio greater than 20:1; urine Na
3. Formulate a therapeutic plan to manage AKI. less than 10 mOsm/L; fractional excretion of
4. Identify medications and medication classes asso- sodium (FENa) less than 1%; specific gravity
ciated with acute and chronic kidney damage. more than 1.018; hyaline casts.
5. Discuss factors that determine the efficiency of re- B. BUN/SCr ratio greater than 20:1; urine Na
moval of drugs by dialysis. more than 20 mOsm/L; FENa more than 3%;
6. Identify the stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD) specific gravity 1.010; no casts visible.
on the basis of patient history, physical examina- C. BUN/SCr ratio 10–15:1; urine Na more than
tion, and laboratory values. 40 mOsm/L; FENa more than 1%; specific
7. List risk factors for the progression of CKD and for- gravity less than 1.015; muddy casts.
mulate strategies to slow the progression of CKD. D. BUN/SCr ratio 10–15:1; urine Na less than 10
8. Describe the common complications of CKD. mOsm/L; FENa less than 1%; specific gravity
9. Develop a care plan to manage the common com- more than 1.018; muddy casts.
plications observed in patients with CKD (e.g.,
anemia, secondary hyperthyroidism). 3. W.C. is a patient with chronic kidney disease (CKD)
stage 4 (estimated creatinine clearance [eCrCl]
of 25 mL/minute). The patient has a diagnosis of
Self-Assessment Questions: gram-positive bacteremia, which is susceptible
Answers and explanations to these questions only to drug X. There are no published reports on
may be found at the end of this chapter. how to adjust the dose of drug X in patients with
impaired kidney function. Review of the drug X
1. A.M. is a 75-year-old man who presents to your in- package insert shows that it has significant renal
stitution with abdominal pain and dizziness. He has elimination, with 40% excreted unchanged in the
a brief history of gastroenteritis and has had noth- urine. The usual dose for drug X is 600 mg/day
ing to eat or drink for 24 hours. His blood pressure intravenously and is provided as 100 mg/mL in a
(BP) reading while sitting is 120/80 mm Hg, which 6-mL vial. Which of the following is the best dose
drops to 90/60 mm Hg when standing. His heart rate (in millimeters of drug X) that should be given to
is 90 beats/minute. His basic metabolic panel shows this patient?
sodium (Na) 135 mEq/L; chloride (Cl) 108 mEq/L;
A. 4.
potassium (K) 4.7 mEq/L; CO2 26 mEq/L; blood
B. 4.5.
urea nitrogen (BUN) 40 mg/dL; serum creatinine
C. 3.6.
(SCr) 1.5 mg/dL; and glucose 188 mg/dL. He has
D. 5.5.
no known drug allergies. His weight is 92.5 kg, and
his height is 6′1′′. Which one of the following is best
approach to treat this patient? 4. D.Z. is a 45-year-old patient with a long history of
cancer. He has long-standing malnutrition and is
A. Administer furosemide 40 mg intravenously × 1.
well below his ideal body weight. His SCr is 0.5
B. Insert Foley catheter to check for residual urine.
mg/dL. He is to be dosed on carboplatin, in which
C. Administer fluid bolus (500 mL of normal
an accurate estimate of kidney function is critical.
saline solution).
Which one of the following is the best method for
D. Administer Humalog insulin 3 units
assessing kidney function in this patient?
subcutaneously.
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A. Cockcroft-Gault equation. osmolality is 290 mOsm/kg. His urine Na is 40

B. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease mEq/L, and there are tubular cellular casts in his
(MDRD) study equation. urine. Which one of the following is the most likely
C. 24-hour urine collection. renal diagnosis?
D. Iothalamate study. A. Prerenal azotemia.
B. ATN.
5. M.M.R., a 59-year-old patient who has had end- C. Acute interstitial nephritis (AIN).
stage renal disease (ESRD) for 10 years, is main- D. Hemodynamic/functional-mediated acute
tained on chronic hemodialysis (HD). He has a kidney injury (AKI).
history of hypertension, coronary artery disease
(CAD), mild congestive heart failure (CHF), and 7. You are evaluating a study comparing epoetin and
type 2 diabetes mellitus. Medications are as fol- darbepoetin regarding their efficacy on mean he-
lows: epoetin 10,000 units intravenously 3 times/ moglobin concentrations. Both drugs are initiated
week at dialysis; Nephrocaps once daily; atorv- at the recommended dose, and the hemoglobin
astatin 20 mg/day; insulin; and calcium acetate 2 concentration is checked at 4 weeks. There are 50
tablets 3 times/day with meals. Laboratory values patients in each group. The mean hemoglobin in
are as follows: hemoglobin 9.2 g/dL, parathyroid the epoetin group is 12.1 g/dL, and in the darbepo-
hormone (PTH) 300 pg/mL, Na 140 mEq/L, K etin group, it is 12.2 g/dL. Which one of the follow-
4.9 mEq/L, Cr 7.0 mg/dL, calcium 9 mg/dL, albu- ing statistical tests is best for this comparison?
min 3.5 g/L, and phosphorus 4.8 mg/dL. He has
A. A paired t-test.
a serum ferritin concentration of 80 ng/mL and a
B. An independent (unpaired) t-test.
transferrin saturation of 14%. The red blood cell
C. An analysis of variance.
count (RBC) indices (mean corpuscular volume,
D. A chi-square test.
mean corpuscular hemoglobin count) are normal.
His white blood cell count (WBC) is normal. He
is afebrile. Which one of the following is the best
approach to managing anemia in this patient?
A. Increase epoetin.
B. Add oral iron.
C. Add intravenous iron.
D. Maintain current regimen; patient at goal.
6. Q.R.S. is a 60-year-old (72 kg) patient in the inten-

sive care unit. He suffered a myocardial infarction
about 1 week ago with secondary heart failure. He
now has pneumonia. He has been hypotensive for
the past 5 days. Before his admission 1 week ago,
he had an SCr of 1.0 mg/dL. His medical history is
significant for diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
His urine output has been steadily declining for the
past 3 days, despite adequate hydration. He made
only 700 mL of urine during the past 24 hours. His
medications since surgery include intravenous do-
butamine, nitroglycerin, and cefazolin. Yesterday,
his BUN and SCr were 32 and 3.1 mg/dL, respec-
tively; today, they are 41 and 3.9 mg/dL. His urine
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Patient Cases for AKI

1 H.D. is a 48-year-old African American man admitted to the intensive care unit after an acute myocardial
infarction. He has a medical history/social history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and tobacco
use. Current medications include metformin 500 mg orally 2 times/day, lisinopril 20 mg/day, nicotine patch
14 mg/day applied each morning, and naproxen 500 mg/day orally. Before admission, his kidney function
was normal (SCr 1.0 mg/dL); however, during the past 24 hours, his kidney function has declined (BUN
20 mg/dL, SCr 2.1 mg/dL). His urine shows muddy casts. He has been anuric for 6 hours. His current BP is
110/70 mm Hg. He has edema and pulmonary congestion. Which one of the following is the best assessment
of H.D.’s kidney function?
A. 26.2 mL/minute (CrCl using the Cockcroft-Gault equation).
B. 44 mL/minute/1.73m 2 (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] using abbreviated MDRD study equation).
C. 23.1 mL/minute/70 kg (CrCl using the Brater equation).
D. Assumed CrCl less than 10 mL/minute.
2. Which one of the following represents the most likely cause of impaired kidney function in this patient?
A. Prerenal.
B. Intrinsic.
C. Postrenal.
D. Functional.
3. Which of the following medications is best to discontinue at this time?

A. Lisinopril.
B. Naproxen.
C. Metformin and lisinopril.
D. Metformin, naproxen, and lisinopril.
4. Which one of the following interventions is most appropriate at this time?

A. Add intravenous 0.9% NaCl.
B. Add hydrochlorothiazide.
C. Add furosemide.
D. Add fluid restriction.
I. ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY (AKI) or ACUTE RENAL FAILURE (ARF)
A. Definitions and Background

1. AKI is defined as an acute decrease in kidney function or GFR over a period of hours, days, or even
weeks and is associated with an accumulation of waste products and (usually) volume.
a. Definitions vary. A commonly used definition is an increase in SCr of 0.5 mg/dL or greater OR a
decrease of 25% or greater in the GFR of patients with previously normal kidney function OR an
increase of 1 mg/dL or greater in SCr in patients with CKD. It is also defined on the basis of urine
output (less than 0.5 mL/kg/hour for at least 6 hours).
b. The Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN): Diagnostic criteria require one of the following within
a 48 hour period: 1) an absolute increase in SCr of more than 0.3 mg/dL OR a 50% or greater
increase in baseline SCr OR urine output less than 0.5 mL/kg/hour for more than 6 hours. Can
further classify into stages 1–3 on the basis of degree of SCr rise and urine output.
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c. Stratifying AKI using Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, and End-stage kidney disease (RIFLE) criteria.
Developed by the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Uses change in baseline SCr/
GFR or urine output
Risk of renal dysfunction
•• GFR criteria – Increased SCr 1.5-fold from baseline or GFR decrease greater than 25%
•• Urine output criteria – Urine output less than 0.5 mL/kg/hour for 6 hours
Injury to kidney
•• GFR criteria – Increased SCr 2-fold or GFR decrease greater than 50%
•• Urine output criteria – Urine output less than 0.5 mL/kg/hour for 12 hours
Failure of kidney function
•• GFR criteria – Increased SCr 3-fold or GFR decrease greater than 75% or SCr greater
than 4 mg/dL (350 micromoles/L) in the setting of acute increase of at least 0.5 mg/dL
(44 micromoles/L)
•• Urine output criteria – Urine output less than 0.3 mL/kg/hour for 24 hours (oliguria) or
anuria for 12 hours
Loss of kidney function (persistent AKI) = complete loss of kidney function greater than 4
weeks
End-stage kidney disease (ESKD or end-stage renal disease, ESRD) = complete loss of
kidney function for greater than 3 months
d. Common complications include fluid overload as well as acid-base and electrolyte abnormalities.
e. Urine output classification:
i. Anuric: Less than 50 mL/24 hours—Associated with worse outcomes
ii. Oliguric: 50–500 mL/24 hours
iii. Nonoliguric: More than 500 mL/24 hours—Associated with better patient outcomes. Easier to
manage because of fewer problems with volume overload
2. Community-acquired AKI
a. Low incidence (0.02%) in otherwise healthy patients
b. As high as 13% incidence among patients with CKD
c. Usually has a very high survival rate (70%–95%)
d. Single insult to the kidney, often drug-induced
e. Often reversible
3. Hospital-acquired AKI
a. Has a moderate incidence (2%–5%) and moderate survival rate (30%–50%)
b. Single or multifocal insults to the kidney
c. Can still be reversible
4. Intensive care unit–acquired AKI: 5%–6% of patients in intensive care develop AKI during unit stay,
and patients who develop this condition have a low survival rate (10%–30%)
5. Estimating kidney function in AKI
a. Difficult because commonly used SCr-based equations (Cockcroft-Gault, MDRD, and CKD-EPI)
are not appropriate (need stable SCr)
b. Equations by Brater and Jeliffe are probably more accurate than the Cockcroft-Gault equation, but
they have not been rigorously tested.
c. Can do a urine collection in non-oliguria. Obtain an SCr before and after the collection, and
average them for the calculation.
B. Risk Factors Associated with AKI
1. Preexisting CKD (eGFR less than 60 mL/minute/1.73m2)
2. Volume depletion: Vomiting, diarrhea, poor fluid intake, fever, diuretic use, effective volume depletion
(e.g., CHF, liver disease with ascites)
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3. Use of nephrotoxic agents/medications: Intravenous radiographic contrast, aminoglycosides,

amphotericin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs] and cyclooxygenase-2 [COX-2]
inhibitors, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors [ACEIs] and angiotensin II receptor blockers
[ARBs], cyclosporine, and tacrolimus
4. Obstruction of the urinary tract
C. Classifications of AKI (Table 1)

1. Prerenal AKI
a. Initially, the kidney is undamaged.
b. Characterized by hypoperfusion to the kidney
i. Systemic hypoperfusion: Hemorrhage, volume depletion, drugs, CHF
ii. Isolated kidney hypoperfusion: Renal artery stenosis, emboli
c. Urinalysis will initially be normal (no sediment) but concentrated.
d. Physical examination: Hypotension, volume depletion
2. Functional AKI
a. Kidney is undamaged; often “lumped” with prerenal in classification
b. Caused by reduced glomerular hydrostatic pressure
c. In general, medication-related (cyclosporine, ACEIs and ARBs, and NSAIDs) or seen in patients
with low effective bloodflow (patients with CHF, patients with liver disease, and elderly patients)
who cannot compensate for alterations in afferent/efferent tone
d. Concentrated urine
e. Small increases in SCr (less than 1 mg/dL) after initiation of ACEI/ARB are acceptable.
3. Intrinsic AKI
a. Kidney is damaged, and damage can be linked to structure involved: Small blood vessels,
glomeruli, renal tubules, and interstitium
b. Most common cause is ATN; other causes include AIN, vasculitis, and acute glomerulonephritis
c. Urinalysis will reflect damage; urine generally not concentrated
d. Physical examination: Normotensive, euvolemic, or hypervolemic depending on the cause; check
for signs of allergic reactions or embolic phenomenon
e. History: Identifiable insult, drug use, infections
4. Postrenal AKI
a. Kidney is initially undamaged. Bladder outlet obstruction is the most common cause of postrenal
AKI. Lower urinary tract obstruction may be caused by calculi. Ureteric obstructions may be
caused by clots or intraluminal obstructions. Extrarenal compression can also cause postrenal
disease. Increased intraluminal pressure upstream of the obstruction will result in damage if
obstruction is not relieved.
b. Urinalysis may be nonspecific.
c. Physical examination: Distended bladder, enlarged prostate
d. History: Trauma, benign prostatic hypertrophy, cancers
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Table 1. Classifications of Acute Kidney Injury

Prerenal and Functional Intrinsic (ATN and AIN) Postrenal
History/Presentation Volume depletion Long-standing renal Kidney stones
Renal artery stenosis hypoperfusion BPH
CHF Nephrotoxins Cancers
Hypercalcemia (e.g., contrast or antibiotics)
NSAID/ACEI use Vasculitis
Cyclosporine Glomerulonephritis
Physical examination Hypotension Rash, fever (with AIN) Distended bladder
Dehydration Enlarged prostate
Petechia if thrombotic
Ascites
Serum BUN/SCr ratio > 20:1 15:1 15:1
Urine concentrated? Yes No No
Low urine Na (< 20 mEq/L) Urine Na > 40 mEq/L Urine Na > 40 mEq/L
Low FENa (< 1%) FENa > 2% FENa > 2%
High urine osmolarity Low urine osmolarity Low urine osmolarity
Urine sediment Normal Muddy brown granular casts; Variable, may be normal
tubular epithelial casts
Urinary WBC Negative 2–4+ Variable
Urinary RBC Negative 2–4+ 1+
Proteinuria Negative Positive Negative
ACEI = angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; AIN = acute interstitial nephritis; ATN = acute tubular necrosis; BPH = benign prostatic
hypertrophy; BUN = blood urea nitrogen; CHF = congestive heart failure; FENa = fractional excretion of sodium [(urine Na × SCr) ÷ (serum
Na × urine creatinine) × 100%]; GFR = glomerular filtration rate; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; RBC = red blood cell (count);
SCr = serum creatinine; WBC = white blood cell (count).
D. Prevention of AKI
1. Avoid nephrotoxic drugs when possible.
2. Ensure adequate hydration.
3. Patient education
4. Drug therapies to decrease incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy—See Drug-Induced Kidney
Damage section.
E. Treatment and Management of Established AKI

1. Prerenal azotemia: Correct primary hemodynamics
a. Normal saline if volume depleted
b. Pressure management if needed
c. Blood products if needed
2. Intrinsic: No specific therapy universally effective
a. Eliminate the causative hemodynamic abnormality or toxin.
b. Avoid additional insults.
c. Fluid and electrolyte management to prevent volume depletion or overload and electrolyte
imbalances
d. Nutrition support is important, but no specific recommendations are widely accepted.
e. Medical therapy
i. Fenoldopam. May reduce need for renal replacement therapy (RRT) and in-hospital mortality
(based on systematic review). Not widely used
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ii. Atrial natriuretic peptide. May reduce need for RRT. Not widely used
iii. Loop diuretics. Consider loop diuretics for patients who are oliguric and euvolemic or
hypervolemic. Does not reduce mortality or improve renal recovery but may assist in fluid/
electrolyte management. In general, given intravenously at relatively high doses
iv. Low-dose dopamine. Ineffective. Avoid.
3. Postrenal AKI: Relieve obstruction. Early diagnosis is important. Consult urology and/or radiology.
4. Indications for renal replacement therapy in AKI:
i. BUN greater than 100
ii. Volume overload unresponsive to diuretics
iii. Uremia or encephalopathy
iv. Life-threatening electrolyte imbalance
v. Refractory acidosis
Patient Cases for Drug-Induced Kidney Damage

5. E.P. is a 67-year-old man referred to cardiology for intermittent chest pain. The patient has a medical history
significant for CKD, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and hypertension. Medications include enalapril, hydrochlo-
rothiazide, and pioglitazone. Laboratory values include SCr 1.8 mg/dL, glucose 189 mg/dL, hemoglobin 12
mg/dL, and hematocrit 36%. His physical examination is normal. The plan is to undergo elective cardiac
catheterization. Which one of the following approaches is the best choice for hydration?
A. 0.45% NaCl.
B. 0.9% NaCl.
C. D5 (5% dextrose)/0.45% NaCl.
D. Oral hydration with water.
6. In addition to intravenous fluid, which one of the following therapies is best to use in E.P. to decrease his
likelihood of developing contrast-induced nephropathy?
A. Fenoldopam.
B. Acetylcysteine.
C. Ascorbic acid.
D. Hemofiltration.
II. DRUG-INDUCED KIDNEY DAMAGE
A. Introduction: Drugs are responsible for kidney damage through many mechanisms. Evaluate potential drug-
induced nephropathy on the basis of the period of ingestion, patient risk factors, and the propensity of the
suspected agent to cause kidney damage.
1. Risk factors
a. History of CKD
b. Increased age
2. Epidemiology
a. 7% of all drug toxicities
b. 18%–27% of AKI in hospitals
c. 1%–5% of NSAID users in community
d. Most implicated medications: Aminoglycosides, NSAIDs, ACEIs, intravenous contrast dye,
amphotericin
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3. Kidney at risk of toxicity because:

a. High exposure to toxin: Kidney receives 20%–25% cardiac output
b. Autoregulation and specialized bloodflow through glomerulus
c. High intrarenal drug metabolism
d. Tubular transport processes
e. Concentration of solutes (i.e., toxins) in tubules
f. High-energy requirements of tubule epithelial cells
g. Urine acidification
4. Pseudo-nephrotoxicity
a. Drugs that inhibit tubular secretion of creatinine: Triamterene; cimetidine
b. Drugs that increase BUN: Corticosteroids; tetracycline
c. Drugs that interfere with creatinine assay: Cefoxitin and other cephalosporins
B. Acute Tubular Necrosis

1. Most common drug-induced kidney disease in the inpatient setting
2. Aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity
a. Incidence of 1.7%–58% of patients
b. Pathogenesis
i. Caused by proximal tubular damage leading to obstruction of the lumen
ii. Cationic charge of drug leads to binding to tubular epithelial cells and uptake into those cells.
iii. Accumulation of phospholipids and toxicity
c. Presentation
i. Gradual rise in SCr concentrations and decrease in GFR after about 6–10 days of therapy
ii. Patients usually have nonoliguric kidney failure.
iii. Wasting of electrolytes (i.e., hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia) may occur.
d. Risk factors
i. Related to dosing: Large total cumulative dose, prolonged therapy, trough concentration
exceeding 2 mg/L, recent previous aminoglycoside therapy
ii. Concurrent use of other nephrotoxins (cyclosporine, amphotericin B, and diuretics)
iii. Patient related—Preexisting kidney disease/damage, increased age, poor nutrition, shock,
gram-negative bacteremia, liver disease, hypoalbuminemia, obstructive jaundice, dehydration,
and K/magnesium (Mg) deficiencies
e. Prevention
i. Avoid in high-risk patients.
ii. Maintain adequate hydration.
iii. Limit the total cumulative aminoglycoside dose.
iv. Avoid other nephrotoxins.
v. Use extended-interval (once daily) dosing (not as useful in patients with severe kidney
disease; need to monitor these and other high-risk patients closely)
3. Radiographic contrast media nephrotoxicity related to intravenous contrast use. Intravenous contrast
media classified as isoosmolar (300 mOsm/kg), low-osmolar (780–800 mOsm/kg), and high-osmolar
(more than 1000 mOsm/kg) agents. Also categorized as ionic versus nonionic contrast agents
a. Incidence
i. Third leading cause of inpatient AKI
ii. Less than 2% and up to 50% of patients, depending on risk
iii. Associated with a high (34%) in-hospital mortality rate
b. Pathogenesis
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i. Direct tubular toxicity caused by reactive oxygen species

ii. Also may cause renal ischemia (prerenal picture secondary to volume depletion) because of
intrarenal hemodynamic alterations
(a) Most contrast agents are hyperosmolar (more than 900 mOsm/kg), which leads to an
osmotic diuresis and dehydration.
(b) Some contrast agents also cause systemic hypotension on injection and renal
vasoconstriction.
c. Presentation
i. Initial transient osmotic diuresis, followed by tubular proteinuria
ii. SCr rises and peaks after about 2–5 days.
iii. 50% of patients develop oliguria, and some will require dialysis.
d. Risk factors for toxicity
i. Preexisting kidney disease (SCr more than 1.5 mg/dL or CrCl less than 60 mL/minute)
ii. Diabetes mellitus
iii. Volume depletion
iv. Age older than 75 years
v. Anemia
vi. Conditions with decreased bloodflow to the kidney (e.g., CHF)
vii. Hypotension
viii. Other nephrotoxins
ix. Large doses of contrast (more than 140 mL) and/or hyperosmolar contrast agents
e. Prevention
i. Hydration. Intravenous isotonic saline considered more effective than half-isotonic saline in
prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Begin 6–12 hours before procedure. Maintain
urine output greater than 150 mL/hour. The addition of Na bicarbonate is widely used, but
data are conflicting on efficacy.
ii. Use an alternative imaging study if possible.
iii. Discontinue nephrotoxic agents. Avoid diuretics.
iv. Use low-osmolar or iso-osmolar contrast agents in patients at risk (more expensive).
v. Medications used to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy:
(a) Acetylcysteine—Antioxidant and vasodilatory mechanism. Accumulation of
glutathione takes time, so it may not be as effective in emergency cases. Various dosing
recommendations. Widely used. Lots of conflicting evidence. Considered safe
(b) Ascorbic acid—Antioxidant. One large study showed benefit when used immediately
before. Not confirmed. Give oral ascorbic acid 3 g before procedure and 2 g 2 times/day
for two doses after procedure. May have role in emergency cases
(c) Theophylline—May reduce contrast-induced nephropathy
(d) Fenoldopam—Avoid, given the CONTRAST (Controlled Multicenter Trial Evaluating
Fenoldopam Mesylate for the Prevention of Contrast-Induced Nephropathy) trial, which
showed no benefit on contrast-induced nephropathy and an increased incidence of
hypotension.
(e) Others not worth mentioning
f. The Joint Commission standards on medication management regarding radiologic contrast media
i. Treated as a drug
ii. Subject to all the standards for medication management in a health system
g. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis also known as nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy
i. Rare but associated with gadolinium-based agents used in high doses for magnetic resonance
angiogram
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ii. Occurs in patients with moderate CKD to ESKD given intravenous contrast, and systemic
acidosis seems to be a risk factor (Magnevist, Omniscan, and OptiMARK considered
inappropriate for use in patients with AKI or CKD)
iii. Onset 2–18 days after exposure
iv. Presents as burning, itching, swelling/hardening/tightening of skin, skin patches, spots on
eyes, joint stiffness, and muscle weakness
v. Can cause organ damage, and deaths have occurred
vi. In 2010, the FDA required the addition of warning to prescribing information.
4. Cisplatin and carboplatin nephrotoxicity
a. Incidence: 6%–13% with appropriate dosing and administration
b. Pathogenesis – Complex; direct tubular toxins
c. Presentation
i. SCr peaks 10–12 days after starting therapy but may continue to rise with subsequent cycles
of therapy
ii. Renal Mg wasting is common (may be severe with central nervous system symptoms) and
may be accompanied by hypokalemia and hypocalcemia
iii. May result in irreversible kidney damage
d. Risk factors for toxicity: Many courses of cisplatin, patient age, dehydration, concurrent
nephrotoxins, kidney irradiation, alcohol abuse
e. Prevention
i. Avoid concurrent nephrotoxins.
ii. Use smallest dose possible, and decrease frequency of administration.
iii. Aggressive intravenous hydration: 1–4 L within 24 hours of high-dose cisplatin or carboplatin
iv. Amifostine: Cisplatin-chelating agent. Should be considered in patients at risk of
nephrotoxicity
5. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity
a. Incidence
i. Increases as cumulative dose increases
ii. Approaches 80% with cumulative doses of 4 g or more
b. Pathogenesis
i. Direct proximal and distal tubular toxicity
ii. Arterial vasoconstriction
c. Presentation
i. Manifests after 2–3 g
ii. Loss of tubular function leads to electrolyte wasting (especially K+, Na+, and Mg2+) and distal
tubular acidosis
iii. Patients may require substantial K+ and Mg2+ replacement
iv. SCr increases and GFR decreases because of a decrease in kidney bloodflow from
vasoconstriction caused by amphotericin.
d. Risk factors for toxicity: Existing kidney dysfunction, high average daily doses, diuretic use,
volume depletion, concomitant nephrotoxins, rapid infusion
e. Prevention
i. Avoid other nephrotoxins (especially cyclosporine), and limit the total cumulative dose.
ii. Intravenous hydration with at least 1 L/day of 0.9% NaCl before each dose
iii. Use a liposomal product in high-risk patients.
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C. Functional (Hemodynamically Mediated) Acute Kidney Injury

1. Caused by a decrease in intraglomerular pressure through the vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles or
the vasodilation of efferent arterioles
2. ACEIs and ARBs
a. Pathogenesis
i. Vasodilation of the efferent arteriole
ii. Leads to a decrease in glomerular hydrostatic pressure and a resultant decrease in GFR
b. Presentation
i. Exerts a predictable dose-related reduction in GFR
ii. SCr is usually expected to rise by up to 30%.
(a) Usually occurs within 2–5 days
(b) Usually stabilizes in 2–3 weeks
(c) Increases greater than 30% may be detrimental.
(d) Usually reversible on drug discontinuation
c. Risk factors for toxicity: Patients with bilateral (unilateral with a solitary kidney) renal artery
stenosis, decreased effective kidney bloodflow (CHF, cirrhosis), preexisting kidney disease, and
volume depletion
d. Prevention
i. Initiate therapy with low doses of short-acting agents and gradually titrate upward.
ii. Switch to long-acting agents once tolerance is established.
iii. Initially, monitor kidney function and SCr concentrations often: daily for inpatients, weekly
for outpatients.
iv. Avoid use of concomitant diuretics, if possible, during therapy initiation.
3. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
a. Incidence: Estimates indicate that 500,000–2.5 million people develop NSAID-induced
nephrotoxicity annually in the United States
b. Pathogenesis
i. Vasodilatory prostaglandins help maintain glomerular hydrostatic pressure by afferent
arteriolar dilation, especially in times of decreased kidney bloodflow.
ii. Administration of an NSAID in the setting of decreased kidney perfusion reduces this
compensatory mechanism by decreasing the production of prostaglandins, resulting in afferent
vasoconstriction and reduced glomerular bloodflow.
c. Presentation
i. Can occur within days of starting therapy
ii. Patients generally have low urine volume and Na. In addition, see an increase in BUN, SCr,
K+, edema, and weight
d. Risk factors for toxicity: Preexisting kidney disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, high plasma
renin activity (e.g., CHF, hepatic disease), diuretic therapy, atherosclerotic disease, and advanced age
e. Prevention
i. Use therapies other than NSAIDs when appropriate (e.g., acetaminophen for osteoarthritis).
ii. Sulindac is a potent NSAID that may affect prostaglandin synthesis in the kidney to a lesser
extent than other NSAIDs.
iii. Question the utility of COX-2–specific inhibitors because they have not been found to prevent
kidney dysfunction, and they increase cardiovascular complications.
f. If NSAID-induced AKI is suspected, discontinue drug and give supportive care.
g. Recovery is usually rapid.
4. Cyclosporine and tacrolimus
a. Incidence
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i. The 5-year risk of developing CKD after transplantation of a nonrenal organ ranges from 7%
to 21%.
ii. The occurrence of kidney failure in the transplant patient population has a 4-fold increased
risk of death.
b. Pathogenesis
i. Caused by a dose-related hemodynamic mechanism
ii. Causes vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles through possible increased activity of various
vasoconstrictors (thromboxane A2, endothelin, sympathetic nervous system) or decreased
activity of vasodilators (nitric oxide, prostacyclin)
iii. Increased vasoconstriction from angiotensin II may also contribute.
iv. Effects usually resolve with dose reduction.
c. Presentation
i. Can occur within days of starting therapy
ii. SCr rises and GFR decreases.
iii. Patients often have hypertension, hyperkalemia, and hypomagnesemia.
iv. A biopsy is often needed for kidney transplant patients to distinguish this from acute allograft
rejection.
d. Risk factors for toxicity: Increased age, high initial cyclosporine dose, kidney graft rejection,
hypotension, infection, and concomitant nephrotoxins
e. Prevention
i. Monitor serum cyclosporine and tacrolimus concentrations closely.
ii. Use lower doses in combination with other nonnephrotoxic immunosuppressants.
iii. Calcium channel blockers may help antagonize the vasoconstrictor effects of cyclosporine by
dilating afferent arterioles.
D. Tubulointerstitial Disease
1. Involves the renal tubules and the surrounding interstitium
2. Onset can be acute or chronic.
a. Acute onset generally involves interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrates, rapid loss of kidney
function, and systemic symptoms (i.e., fever and rash).
b. Chronic onset shows interstitial fibrosis, slow decline in kidney function, and no systemic
symptoms.
3. Acute allergic interstitial nephritis
a. Cause of up to 3% of all AKI cases. Caused by an allergic hypersensitivity reaction that affects the
interstitium of the kidney
b. Many medications and medication classes can cause this type of kidney failure. The most
commonly implicated are the β-lactams and the NSAIDs (although the presentations are different).
i. Penicillins: Classic presentation of acute allergic interstitial nephritis. Signs/symptoms occur
about 1–2 weeks after therapy initiation and include fever, maculopapular rash, eosinophilia,
pyuria, hematuria, and proteinuria. Eosinophiluria may also be present.
ii. NSAIDs: Onset, much more delayed, typically begins about 6 months into therapy. Usually
occurs in elderly patients on chronic NSAID therapy. Patients usually do not have systemic
symptoms.
c. Kidney biopsy may be needed to confirm diagnosis.
d. Treatment includes discontinuing the offending agent and possibly initiating steroid therapy.
4. Chronic interstitial nephritis
a. Often progressive and irreversible
b. Lithium
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i. Toxicity results from a dose-related decrease in response to an antidiuretic hormone.

ii. AKI from lithium usually occurs during acute lithium intoxication.
(a) Patients become dehydrated secondary to nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
(b) There is also direct damage to the proximal and distal tubules.
iii. Risks include elevated serum concentrations and repeated episodes of AKI from lithium toxicity.
iv. Prevention is accomplished by maintaining the lowest serum lithium concentrations possible,
avoiding dehydration, and monitoring kidney function closely.
c. Cyclosporine: Presents later in therapy (about 6–12 months) than hemodynamically mediated
toxicity
5. Papillary necrosis
a. Form of chronic interstitial nephritis affecting the papillae, causing necrosis of the collecting ducts
b. Results from the long-term use of analgesics
i. “Classic” example was with products that contained phenacetin.
ii. Occurs more often with combination products
iii. Products containing caffeine may also pose an increased risk.
c. Evolves slowly as time progresses
d. Affects women more often than men
e. Difficult to diagnose, and much controversy remains regarding risk, prevention, and cause
E. Postrenal (Obstructive) Nephropathy

1. Results from obstruction of the flow of urine after glomerular filtration
2. Renal tubular obstruction
a. Caused by intratubular precipitation of tissue degradation products or precipitation of drugs or
their metabolites
i. Tissue degradation products
(a) Uric acid intratubular precipitation after tumor lysis following chemotherapy
(b) Drug-induced rhabdomyolysis leading to intratubular precipitation of myoglobin
(c) Results in rapid decline in kidney function with resultant oliguric or anuric kidney failure
ii. Drug precipitation: Sulfonamides, methotrexate, acyclovir, ascorbic acid; can be diagnosed by
observing needlelike crystals in leukocytes found on urinalysis
b. Prevention includes pretreatment hydration, maintenance of high urinary volume, and
alkalinization of the urine.
3. Extrarenal urinary tract obstruction
a. Benign prostatic hypertrophy can be worsened by anticholinergics.
b. Bladder outlet or ureteral obstruction from fibrosis after cyclophosphamide for hemorrhagic
cystitis
4. Nephrolithiasis
a. Usually does not affect GFR, so does not have the classic signs/symptoms of nephrotoxicity
b. Some medications contribute to the formation of kidney stones: Triamterene, sulfadiazine,
indinavir, and ephedrine derivatives.
F. Glomerular Disease
1. Proteinuria is the hallmark sign of glomerular disease and may occur with or without a decrease in GFR.
2. A few distinct drugs can cause glomerular disease:
a. NSAIDs: Associated with acute allergic interstitial nephritis
b. Heroin: Can be caused by direct toxicity or toxicity from additives or infection from injection, and
ESKD develops in most cases
c. Parenteral gold: Results from immune complex formation along glomerular capillary loops
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Patient Cases for CKD

7. P.P. is a 55-year-old male patient with a history of hypertension and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mel-
litus. He denies alcohol use but does smoke cigarettes (1 pack/day). His medications include atenolol 50 mg/
day and a multivitamin. At your pharmacy, his BP is 149/92 mm Hg. A 24-hour urine collection reveals 0.4
g of albumin. A recent SCr is 1.9 mg/dL. His eGFR is 50 mL/minute. Which one of the following is the best
answer in terms of staging of kidney disease?
A. Stage 2.
B. Stage 3.
C. Stage 4.
D. Stage 5.
8. Assuming that nonpharmacologic approaches have been maximized, which one of the following actions is
best for P.P. to limit the progression of his kidney disease?
A. Add nifedipine.
B. Add diltiazem.
C. Add enalapril.
D. Increase atenolol.
9. Enalapril was added to this patient’s regimen. Two weeks later, he presents back to his physician. His BP
is 139/89 mm Hg. A repeat SCr is 2.3 mg/dL, and the serum K is 5.2 mEq/L. Which one of the following is
the best recommendation for this patient?
A. Change enalapril to Cardizem CD. Monitor BP, SCr, and K in 2 weeks.
B. Add chlorthalidone 50 mg/day. Monitor BP, SCr, and K in 2 weeks.
C. Change enalapril to valsartan.
D. Increase atenolol.
III. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
A. Background
1. Prevalence: Difficult to assess, according to NHANES (1999–2004); 16.8% of adults (20 years or
older) have CKD. There were 382,343 prevalent dialysis patients in 2008 (up 3.6% from 2007) and
165,639 prevalent transplant patients. Incidence rate is relatively flat, so growth in population of ESKD
is mainly because of the longer life span of these patients.
2. Definition of CKD, according to The National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcome
Quality Initiative (KDOQI): Kidney damage for more than 3 months, as defined by structural or
functional abnormality of the kidney, with or without decreased GFR, manifested by either pathologic
abnormalities or markers of kidney damage, including abnormalities in the composition of blood or
urine or abnormalities in imaging tests OR GFR less than 60 mL/minute/1.73m 2 for 3 months, with or
without kidney damage.
3. Stages of CKD (KDOQI):
a. Stage 1 kidney damage with normal or increased GFR (90 or more mL/minute/1.73m2)
b. Stage 2 kidney damage with mild decrease in GFR (60–89 mL/minute/1.73m2)
c. Stage 3 moderate decrease in GFR (30–59 mL/minute/1.73m2)
d. Stage 4 severe decrease in GFR (15–29 mL/minute/1.73m2)
e. Stage 5 kidney failure (less than 15 mL/minute/1.73m2 or on dialysis
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B. Etiology
1. Diabetes (40% of new cases of ESKD in the United States)
2. Hypertension (25% of new cases)
3. Glomerulonephritis (10%)
4. Others—Urinary tract disease, polycystic kidney disease, lupus, analgesic nephropathy, unknown
C. Risk Factors
1. Susceptibility (associated with an increased risk, but not proved to cause CKD): Advanced age,
reduced kidney mass, low birth weight, racial/ethnic minority, family history, low income or education,
systemic inflammation, and dyslipidemia; mostly not modifiable
2. Initiation (directly cause CKD): Diabetes, hypertension, autoimmune disease, polycystic kidney
diseases, and drug toxicity; may be modifiable by drug therapy
3. Progression (result in faster decline in kidney function): Hyperglycemia, elevated BP, proteinuria,
and smoking
D. Albuminuria/Proteinuria
1. Marker of kidney damage, progression factor, and cardiovascular risk factor. Can be classified as
follows:
a. Normal: Albumin excretion less than 30 mg/24 hours
b. Microalbuminuria: 30–300 mg/24 hours
c. Macroalbuminuria: (overt proteinuria) more than 300 mg/24 hours
d. Nephrotic range proteinuria: More than 3 g/24 hours
2. Assessment for proteinuria—Usually assessed by measurement of urinary albumin/creatinine ratio.
Spot urine: Untimed sample is adequate for adults and children (screening test).

E. Assessment of Kidney Function
1. Serum creatinine
a. Avoid use as the sole assessment of kidney function.
b. Depends on age, sex, weight, and muscle mass
c. All laboratories now use “standardized” creatinine traceable to isotope dilution mass spectrometry,
which will decrease variability in results between laboratories.
2. Measurement of GFR: Inulin, iothalamate, and others are not routinely used.
3. Measurement of CrCl through urine collection
a. Reserve for vegetarians, patients with low muscle mass, patients with amputations, and patients
needing dietary assessment, as well as when documenting need to start dialysis.
b. Urine collection will give a better estimate in patients with very low muscle mass.
c. In most cases, equations will overestimate kidney function because creatinine concentrations will
be low in patients with very low muscle mass.
4. Estimated using Cockcroft-Gault equation (mL/minute, CrCl)—Overestimates GFR
[(140 − age) × body weight]/[SCr × 72] × (0.85 if female)
5. Estimated GFR with MDRD study data equation
a. Estimated GFR (mL/minute/1.73m2) in patients with known CKD (GFR less than 90 mL/minute)
b. Abbreviated MDRD formula correlates well with the original MDRD formula, simpler to use.
eGFR (mL/minute/1.73m2) = 186 × SCr−1.154 × age−0.203 × (0.742 if female) × (1.21 if African
American). This equation and an adjusted equation for use with standardized creatinine are
available at www.nkdep.nih.gov or www.kidney.org.
c. CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) equation. Alternative equation
to estimate GFR. See www.kidney.org.
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6. CKD-EPI equation is a relatively new formula that is more accurate than MDRD in patients with
eGFR greater than 60 mL/minute/1.73m2.
7. For children, Schwartz and Counahan-Barratt formulas
F. Diabetic Nephropathy
1. Pathogenesis
a. Hypertension (systemic and intraglomerular)
b. Glycosylation of glomerular proteins
c. Genetic links
2. Diagnosis
a. Long history of diabetes
b. Proteinuria
c. Retinopathy (suggests microvascular disease)
3. Monitoring
a. Type I—Begin annual monitoring for microalbuminuria 5 years after diagnosis.
b. Type II—Begin annual monitoring for proteinuria immediately (do not know how long they have
had diabetes mellitus).
4. Management/slowing progression
a. Aggressive BP management
i. In patients with diabetes and CKD, target BP is less than 130/80 mm Hg.
ii. ACEIs and ARBs are preferred and should be used with any degree of proteinuria, even if the
patient is not hypertensive.
(a) Use moderate to high doses with proteinuria.
(b) Hold ACEI/ARB if serum K is greater than 5.6 or there is a rise in SCr greater than 30%
after initiation.
iii. Most patients will require diuretic in combination. (Thiazide with stages 1–3 and loop in
stages 4–5.) If BP is greater than 160/100 mm Hg, start with two-drug regimen.
iv. Calcium channel blockers (nondihydropyridine) are second line to ACEIs/ARBs. Data are
emerging for combined therapy.
v. Dietary Na consumption should be less than 2.4 g/day. Modify DASH diet to limit K intake as
well.
b. Intensive blood glucose control. Glycosylated hemoglobin less than 7%. Less aggressive with
more advanced CKD
c. Protein restriction—There are insufficient data in diabetes, but 0.8 g/kg/day might slightly reduce
progression and decrease the risk of ESKD. Patients should avoid high-protein diets.
G. Nondiabetic Nephropathy
1. Manage hypertension. If proteinuric and hypertensive, use ACEI or ARB. Often need to add (or start
with) combination. Diuretic is usual second drug. Monitor serum K.
2. Minimize protein in diet. Controversial. May slow progression based on MDRD study but may also
impair nutrition. Very low-protein diet may increase mortality.
H. Other Guidelines to Slow Progression
1. Manage hyperlipidemia. Follow National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines. Goal is low-
density lipoprotein less than 100. Statins are first line.
2. Stop smoking.
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Patient Cases for RRT

10. R.R. is a 70-year-old man being assessed for HD access. He has a history of diabetes mellitus and hyperten-
sion but is otherwise healthy. Which one of the following dialysis accesses has the lowest rate of complica-
tions and the longest life span and is thus the best access to use?
A. Subclavian catheter.
B. Tenckhoff catheter.
C. Arteriovenous graft.
D. Arteriovenous fistula.
11. W.Y. is a chronic HD patient who experiences intradialytic hypotension. After nonpharmacologic ap-
proaches have been maximized, which one of the following medications is best to manage his low BP?
A. Levocarnitine.
B. NaCl tablets.
C. Fludrocortisone.
D. Midodrine.
IV. RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY (RRT)
A. Indications for RRT

1. A – acidosis (not responsive to bicarbonate)
2. E – electrolyte abnormality (hyperkalemia; hyperphosphatemia)
3. I – intoxication (boric acid; ethylene glycol; lithium; methanol; phenobarbital; salicylate; theophylline)
4. O – fluid overload (symptomatic [pulmonary edema])
5. U – uremia (pericarditis and weight loss)
B. Two Primary Modes of Dialysis

1. Hemodialysis—Most common modality
2. Peritoneal dialysis
C. Hemodialysis (intermittent for ESKD)

1. Access
a. Arteriovenous fistula—Preferred access!
i. Natural, formed by anastomosis of artery and vein
ii. Lowest incidence of infection and thrombosis, lowest cost, longest survival
iii. Takes weeks/months to “mature”
b. Arteriovenous graft
i. Synthetic (polytetrafluoroethylene)
ii. Often used in patients with vascular disease
c. Catheters
i. Commonly used if permanent access unavailable
ii. Problems include high infection and thrombosis rates. Low bloodflow leads to inadequate
dialysis.
2. Dialysis membranes
a. Conventional—Not used much anymore. Small pores. Made of cuprophane
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b. High flux and high efficiency—Large pores. Can remove drugs that were impermeable to standard
membranes (vancomycin). Large amounts of fluid removal (ultrafiltrate)
3. Adequacy
a. Kt/V—Unitless parameter. K = clearance, t = time on dialysis, and V = volume of distribution of urea.
KDOQI set goal of 1.2 or more.
b. URR—Urea reduction ratio. URR = [(preBUN - postBUN)/preBUN] * 100% Goal URR is > 65%.
4. Common complications of HD
a. Intradialytic
i. Hypotension—Primarily related to fluid removal. Common in people who are elderly and people
with diabetes mellitus. Treatment: Limit fluid gains between sessions; give normal or hypertonic
saline, midodrine. Less well-studied agents include fludrocortisone, selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors
ii. Cramps—Vitamin E
iii. Nausea/vomiting
iv. Headache/chest pain/back pain
b. Vascular access complications—Most common with catheters
i. Infection—S. aureus. Need to treat aggressively. May need to remove catheter
ii. Thrombosis—Suspected with low bloodflow. Oral antiplatelets for prevention not used because of
lack of efficacy. Can treat with alteplase 1 mg per lumen
5. Factors that affect the efficiency of HD
a. Type of dialyzer used (changes in membrane surface area and pore size)
b. Length of therapy
c. Dialysis flow rate
d. Bloodflow rate
D. Continuous HD for AKI

1. CAVH/CVVH (continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration/continuous veno-venous hemofiltration). Removes
fluid and solutes by dialysis. CAVH differs from CVVH because “VV” access requires an in-line pump.
Used primarily when fluid removal is most important
2. CVVHD/CAVHD. “D” is dialysate, which flows in countercurrent to bloodflow. Fluid and solute removal are
greater with this procedure. Used when there is a need for fluid removal and better solute clearance
E. Peritoneal Dialysis
1. Peritoneal dialysis membrane is 1–2 m2 (approximates the body surface area) and consists of the vascular
wall, the interstitium, the mesothelium, and the adjacent fluid films. From 1.5 to 3 L of peritoneal dialysate
fluid may be instilled in the peritoneum (fill), allowed to dwell for a specified time, and then drained.
2. Solutes and fluid diffuse across the peritoneal membrane.
3. Peritoneal dialysis is usually not used to treat AKI in adults.
4. Peritonitis
a. Infection of the peritoneal cavity. Patient technique and population variables influence the infection
rate. Elderly patients or those with diabetes have a higher infection rate. Peritonitis is a major cause of
failure of peritoneal dialysis.
b. Treatment
i. Most common gram-positive organisms include Staphylococcus epidermis, S. aureus, and
streptococci. Most common gram-negative organisms include Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
ii. Empiric treatment should cover gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Adjust as needed.
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5. Types of peritoneal dialysis

a. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Classic. Requires mechanical process, which requires
many manual changes throughout the day. Can be interruptive to daytime routine
b. Automated peritoneal dialysis. Many variants exist, but continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis is
the most common. Patient undergoes many exchanges during sleep by a cycling machine. May
have one or two dwells during day. Minimizes potential contamination. Lowest incidence of
peritonitis
Patient Cases
12. R.T. is a 60-year-old HD patient who has had ESRD for 10 years. His HD access is a left arteriovenous
fistula. He has a history of hypertension, CAD, mild CHF, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and a seizure disor-
der. Medications: Epoetin 14,000 units 3 times/week at dialysis; multivitamin (Nephrocaps) once daily;
atorvastatin 20 mg/day; insulin; calcium acetate 2 tablets 3 times/day with meals; phenytoin 300 mg/day;
and intravenous iron 100 mg/month. Laboratory values: Hemoglobin 10.2 g/dL; immunoassay for PTH
(iPTH) 800 pcg/mL; Na 140 mEq/L; K 4.9 mEq/L; Cr 7.0 mg/dL; calcium 9 mg/dL; albumin 2.5 g/dL; and
phosphorus 7.8 mg/dL. Serum ferritin is 200 ng/mL, and transferrin saturation is 32%. The RBC indices
are normal. His WBC is normal. He is afebrile. Which one of the following is most likely contributing to
relative epoetin resistance in this patient?
A. Iron deficiency.
B. Hyperparathyroidism.
C. Phenytoin therapy.
D. Infection.
13. In addition to diet modification and emphasizing adherence, which one of the following is the best approach
to managing this patient’s hyperparathyroidism and renal osteodystrophy?
A. Increase calcium acetate.
B. Change calcium acetate to sevelamer and add cinacalcet.
C. Hold calcium acetate and add intravenous vitamin D analog.
D. Add intravenous vitamin D analog.
V. COMPLICATIONS OF chronic kidney disease
A. Anemia
1. Several factors are responsible for anemia in CKD: Decreased erythropoietin production (most
important), shorter life span of RBCs, blood loss during dialysis, iron deficiency, anemia of chronic
disease, and renal osteodystrophy
2. Prevalence: 26% of patients with a GFR greater than 60 mL/minute have anemia versus 75% of
patients with a GFR less than 15 mL/minute.
3. Signs and symptoms—Similar to anemia associated with other causes
4. Treatment—Treatment of anemia in CKD can decrease morbidity/mortality, reduce left ventricular
hypertrophy, increase exercise tolerance, and increase quality of life. Recent studies have suggested
that treatment to high hemoglobin concentrations (greater than 13 g/dL) increases cardiovascular
events. Most recently, TREAT (Trial to Reduce Cardiovascular Events with Aranesp Therapy) failed to
show a benefit in outcomes but was associated with increased stroke (N Engl J Med 2009;361).
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a. Anemia workup—Initiate evaluation when CrCl is less than 60 mL/minute OR hemoglobin is less
than 11 g/dL:
i. Hemoglobin/hematocrit
ii. Mean corpuscular volume
iii. Reticulocyte count
iv. Iron studies
(a) Transferrin saturation (total iron/total iron-binding capacity)—Assesses available iron
(b) Ferritin—Measures stored iron
v. Stool guaiac
b. Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) (Note: ESAs are now under FDA’s Risk Evaluation and
Mitigation Strategy [REMS] program.)
i. Epoetin alfa
(a) Same molecular structure as human erythropoietin (recombinant DNA technology)
(b) Binds to and activates erythropoietin receptor
(c) Administered subcutaneously or intravenously
ii. Darbepoetin alfa
(a) Molecular structure of human erythropoietin has been modified from 3 N-linked
carbohydrate chains to 5 N-linked carbohydrate chains; increased duration of activity
(b) The advantage is less-frequent dosing.
(c) Binds to and activates erythropoietin receptor
(d) May be administered subcutaneously or intravenously
c. Therapy goals: Because of concern about high hemoglobin concentrations, the 2007 update to the
KDOQI guidelines suggests a goal of 11–12 g/dL and the avoidance of a hemoglobin concentration
greater than 13 g/dL.
d. Modified dosing recommendations of ESAs from the FDA (June 2011) for more conservative dosing
i. For patients with CKD, consider starting ESA treatment when the hemoglobin concentration
is less than 10 g/dL.
ii. This advice does not define how far below 10 g/dL is appropriate for an individual to initiate.
iii. This advice also does not recommend that the goal be to achieve a hemoglobin of 10 g/dL or a
hemoglobin above 10 g/dL.
iv. Individualize dosing and use the lowest dose of ESA sufficient to reduce the need for RBC
transfusions; adjust dosing as appropriate.
v. The drug label previously recommended that ESAs should be dosed to achieve and maintain
hemoglobin concentrations within the target range of 10–12 g/dL in patients with CKD,
however, this target concept has been removed from the label.
e. ESA dose adjustment is based on hemoglobin response.
i. Adjustment parameters are the same for epoetin alfa and darbepoetin alfa.
ii. Dosage adjustments upward should not be made more often than every 4 weeks.
iii. In general, dose adjustments are made in 25% intervals (i.e., dosages adjusted upward or
downward by 25% according to current dose).
f. ESA monitoring
i. Hemoglobin concentrations initially every 1–2 weeks and then every 2–4 weeks when stable
ii. Monitor BP because it may rise (treat as necessary).
iii. Iron stores
(a) Ferritin: HD target is 200–500, and peritoneal dialysis/CKD target is 100–500.
(b) Transferrin saturation target is greater than 20% (upper limit of 50% removed from recent
guidelines).
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g. Common causes of inadequate response to ESA therapy:

i. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of erythropoietin resistance, however, increased use
of intravenous iron products has reduced this problem.
ii. Infection and inflammation
iii. Other causes include chronic blood loss, renal bone disease, aluminum toxicity, folate or
vitamin B12 deficiency, malignancies, malnutrition, hemolysis, and vitamin C deficiency.
h. Iron therapy
i. Most patients with CKD who are receiving erythropoietic therapy require parenteral iron
therapy to meet needs (increased requirements, decreased oral absorption).
ii. For adult patients who undergo dialysis, an empiric cumulative or total dose of 1000 mg is
usually given, and equations are rarely used.
iii. Follow transferrin saturation and ferritin as noted during erythropoietic therapy.
iv. Four commercial iron preparations are approved in the United States (Table 2).
v. Oral iron not recommended in patients with CKD on HD.
Table 2. Iron Therapy

Iron Dextran Ferric Gluconate Iron Sucrose Ferumoxytol
Replacement IVP: 100 mg IV 3 125 mg IV 3 times/ 100 mg IV 3 times/ 510 mg at up to 30
therapy %TSAT times/week during week during HD week during HD for mg/second followed
< 20% and HD for 10 doses (1 g) for 8 doses (1 g) 10 doses (1 g) by a second 510 mg
ferritin < IVPB: 500−1000 mg For nondialysis CKD, IV 3–8 days later
100–200 mg/dL in 250 mL of NSS 200 mg IV × 5 doses (all CKD)
infused for at least 1
hour (option for non-
HD patients)
Maintenance 25–100 mg/week IV × 31.25–125 mg/week 25–100 mg/week IV × N/A
therapy (iron 10 weeks IV × 10 weeks 10 weeks
stores in goal)
Iron overload Hold therapy Hold therapy Hold therapy Hold therapy
%TSAT > 50%
and/or ferritin
> 500
Initial test dose Yes; 25-mg one-time No No No
test dose
CKD = chronic kidney disease; HD = hemodialysis; IV = intravenous; IVP = IV push; IVPB = IV piggyback; N/A = not applicable; NSS =
normal saline solution; TSAT = transferrin saturation.
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B. Renal Osteodystrophy and Secondary Hyperparathyroidism

1. Pathophysiology: Calcium and phosphorous homeostasis is complex, involving the interplay of
hormones affecting the bone, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, kidneys, and PTH. Process may begin as early
as GFR 60 mL/minute. The most important driving force behind the process is hyperphosphatemia.
Nephron loss: Decreased production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and phosphate retention. Increased
phosphorous concentrations cause 1) an inhibition of vitamin D activation, reducing absorption of
calcium in the gut; 2) a decrease in ionized (free) calcium concentrations; and 3) direct stimulation
of PTH secretion. Elevated PTH concentrations cause decreased reabsorption of phosphorus and
increased reabsorption of calcium in the proximal tube. This adaptive mechanism is lost as the GFR
falls below 30 mL/minute. Important: Calcium is not well absorbed through the gut at this point, and
calcium concentrations are maintained by increased bone resorption through elevated PTH. Unabated
calcium loss from the bone results in renal osteodystrophy.
2. Prevalence
a. Major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients undergoing dialysis
b. Very common
3. Signs and symptoms
a. Insidious onset: Patients may experience fatigue and musculoskeletal and GI pain; calcification
may be visible on radiography; bone pain and fractures can occur if progression is left untreated.
b. Laboratory abnormalities
i. Phosphorus
ii. Corrected calcium
iii. Intact PTH
4. Treatment
a. Therapy goals—Table 3
Table 3. KDOQI Guidelines for Calcium, Phosphorus, Ca x PO4 Product, and PTH in CKD Stages 3–5
CKD Stage 3 CKD Stage 4 CKD Stage 5
Ca (mg/dL) a
Normal Normal 8.4–9.5
Phosphorus (mg/dL) 2.7–4.6 2.7–4.6 3.5–5.5
Ca × PO4 product < 55 < 55 < 55
PTH (pg/mL) 35–70 70–110 150  300
a
Use corrected calcium = serum calcium + (0.8 × [4.0 − patient albumin]).
Ca = calcium; CKD = chronic kidney disease; KDOQI = Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative; PO4 = phosphate; PTH = parathyroid
hormone.
b. Nondrug therapy
i. Dietary phosphorus restriction 800–1200 mg/day in stage 3 CKD or higher
ii. Dialysis removes various amounts of phosphorus depending on treatment modalities but, by
itself, is insufficient to maintain phosphorus balances in most patients.
iii. Parathyroidectomy—Reserved for patients with unresponsive hyperparathyroidism
c. Drug therapy
i. Phosphate binders: Take with meals to bind phosphorus in the gut; products from different
groups may be used together for additive effect.
(a) Aluminum-containing phosphate binders (aluminum hydroxide, aluminum carbonate,
and sucralfate). Effectively lowers phosphorus concentrations. In general, avoid. Not
used as often because of aluminum toxicity (adynamic bone disease, encephalopathy, and
erythropoietin resistance)
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Nephrology
(b) Calcium-containing phosphate binders (calcium carbonate and calcium acetate)

(1) Widely used phosphate binder. Calcium binders are initial binder of choice for stage
3 and 4 CKD. Calcium (or nonionic binders) is considered initial binder of choice in
stage 5 CKD. Carbonate salt is relatively inexpensive.
(2) Carbonate is also used to treat hypocalcemia, which sometimes occurs in patients
with CKD, and can decrease metabolic acidosis.
(3) Calcium acetate: 667-mg capsule contains 167 mg of elemental calcium. Better
binder than carbonate, so less calcium given
(4) Use may be limited by development of hypercalcemia.
(5) Total elemental calcium per day is 2000 mg/day (1500-mg binder; 500-mg diet).
(c) Sevelamer: A nonabsorbable phosphate binder
(1) Effectively binds phosphorus
(2) As with calcium, considered primary therapy in CKD stage 5. In particular, consider
if calcium-phosphorus product is greater than 55 mg2/dL2 or calcium intake exceeds
recommended dose with calcium-containing binders.
(3) Decreases low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and increases high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol
(4) Hypocalcemia may occur if sevelamer is sole phosphate binder. Metabolic acidosis
may worsen with sevelamer HCl.
(5) Available as sevelamer HCl (Renagel) and sevelamer carbonate (Renvela).
(d) Lanthanum carbonate:
(1) As effective as aluminum in phosphate-binding capability. Not widely used, but
indications similar to sevelamer
(2) Tasteless, chewable wafer
(3) Consider using if calcium × phosphorus product is more than 55.
(e) There are no data to support that any phosphate binder is superior to another in clinical
outcomes (mortality or hospitalization). However, sevelamer and lanthanum do cause less
hypercalcemia and reduce calcium burden.
ii. Vitamin D analogs: Suppress PTH synthesis and reduce PTH concentrations; therapy is
limited by resultant hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and elevated calcium-phosphorus
product. Products include calcitriol, doxercalciferol, and paricalcitol.
(a) Calcitriol, the pharmacologically active form of 1,2-hydroxyvitamin D3, is U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) label approved for the management of hypocalcemia and the
prevention and treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism.
(1) Oral and parenteral formulations
(2) Does not require hepatic or renal activation
(3) Low-dose daily oral therapy reduces hypocalcemia but does not reduce PTH
concentrations significantly.
(4) High incidence of hypercalcemia limiting PTH suppression
(5) Dose adjustment at 4-week intervals
(b) Paricalcitol: Vitamin D analog; FDA label approved for the treatment and prevention of
secondary hyperparathyroidism
(1) Parenteral and oral formulations
(2) Does not require hepatic or renal activation
(3) Lower incidence of hypercalcemia (decreased mobilization of calcium from the bone
and decreased absorption of calcium from the gut)
(c) Doxercalciferol: Vitamin D analog; FDA label approved for the treatment and prevention
of secondary hyperparathyroidism
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Nephrology
(1) Parenteral and oral formulations

(2) Prodrug, requires hepatic activation; may have more physiologic levels
(3) Lower incidence of hypercalcemia (decreased mobilization of calcium from the bone
and decreased absorption of calcium from the gut)
iii. Cinacalcet HCl: A calcimimetic that attaches to the calcium receptor on the parathyroid gland
and increases the sensitivity of receptors to serum calcium concentrations, thus reducing
PTH. Especially useful in patients with high calcium/phosphate concentrations and high PTH
concentrations when vitamin D analogs cannot be used.
(a) The initial dose is 30 mg, irrespective of patient PTH concentration.
(b) Monitor serum calcium every 1–2 weeks (risk of hypocalcemia is about 5%); do not start
therapy if serum calcium is less than 8.4 mg/dL.
(c) Can be used in patients irrespective of phosphate binder or vitamin D analog use
(d) Caution in patients with seizure disorder (hypocalcemia may exacerbate)
(e) Adverse effects are nausea (30%) and diarrhea (20%).
(f) Cinacalcet inhibits cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 metabolism, thereby inhibiting the
metabolism of CYP2D6 substrates such that dose reductions in drugs with narrow
therapeutic indexes may be required (e.g., flecainide, tricyclic antidepressants, thioridazine).
(g) Cinacalcet is primarily metabolized by CYP3A, so drugs that are potent inhibitors of
CYP3A (ketoconazole) may increases cinacalcet concentrations up to 2-fold.
Patient Case for Dose Adjustments in Kidney Disease

14. P.P. is a 40-year-old dialysis patient with a history of grand mal seizures. He takes phenytoin 300 mg/day.
His albumin concentration is 3.0 g/L. His total phenytoin concentration is 5.0 mg/dL. Which one of the fol-
lowing is the best interpretation of the phenytoin concentrations?
A. The concentration is subtherapeutic, and a dose increase is warranted.
B. The concentration is therapeutic, and no dosage adjustment is needed.
C. The concentration is toxic, and a dose reduction is needed.
D. The level is not interpretable.
VI. DOSAGE ADJUSTMENTS IN Kidney Disease
A. Dosages of many drugs will require adjustment to prevent toxicity in patients with CKD; adjustment
strategies will vary, depending on whether the patient is receiving RRT and, if so, the type of RRT. The
National Kidney Disease Education Program of the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of
Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases suggests that either eGFR or eCrCl be used for drug dosing.
If using eGFR in very large or small patients, the eGFR should be multiplied by the actual body surface
area to obtain eGFR in milliliters per minute.
B. Pharmacokinetic Principles Can Guide Therapy Adjustments

1. Absorption – Oral absorption can be decreased.
a. Nausea and vomiting
b. Increased gastric pH (uremia)
c. Edema
d. Physical binding of drugs to phosphate binders
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Nephrology
2. Distribution
a. Changes in concentrations in highly water-soluble drugs occur as extracellular fluid status
changes.
b. Acidic and neutral protein-bound drugs are displaced by toxin buildup. Other mechanisms include
conformational changes of the plasma protein–binding site. Phenytoin is a classic example. The
“normal” free fraction of phenytoin is 10%. Free fraction can be as high as 25%–30% in patients
with ESRD and hypoalbuminemia.
i. Hypoalbuminemia correction
Concentration adjusted = concentration measured/[(0.2 × measured albumin) + 0.1]
ii. Renal failure adjustment
Concentration adjusted = concentration measured/[(0.1 × measured albumin) + 0.1]
iii. Patients will have lower total concentrations despite having adequate free concentrations
(increased free fraction).
iv. Dosage adjustment of phenytoin not needed, just a different approach to evaluating
concentrations
3. Metabolism – Variable changes can occur with uremia. Metabolites can accumulate.
4. Excretion – Decreased
C. Pharmacodynamic Changes Can Also Occur (e.g., patients with CKD can be more sensitive to
benzodiazepines).
D. General Recommendations:
1. Patient history and clinical data
2. Estimate CrCl (Jeliffe or Brater in AKI; Cockcroft-Gault or MDRD study equations in stable kidney
function).
3. Identify medications that require modification (Table 4).
Table 4. Dose Adjustments in Decreased Kidney Function

Agent Dose Adjustment
Antibiotics Almost all antibiotics will require dosage adjustment (exceptions: cloxacillin,
clindamycin, linezolid, metronidazole, and macrolides)
Cardiac medications Atenolol, ACEIs, digoxin, nadolol, sotalol; avoid potassium-sparing diuretics if CrCl
< 30 mL/minute
Lipid-lowering therapy Clofibrate, fenofibrate, statins
Narcotics Codeine, avoid meperidine; other agents may also accumulate
Antipsychotic/ Chloral hydrate, gabapentin, lithium, paroxetine, primidone, topiramate, trazodone,
antiepileptic agents vigabatrin
Hypoglycemic agents Acarbose, chlorpropamide, glyburide, glipizide, insulins, and metformin
Antiretrovirals Individualize therapy: Monitor CD4 counts, viral load, and adverse effects (agents
requiring dose adjustment: Lamivudine, adefovir, didanosine, stavudine, tenofovir,
zalcitabine, and zidovudine)
Miscellaneous Allopurinol, colchicine, H2-receptor antagonists, diclofenac, ketorolac, and terbutaline
ACEIs = angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; CrCl = creatinine clearance.
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Nephrology
4. Calculate drug doses individualized for the patient.

a. Published data
b. Rowland-Tozer estimate
i. Q = 1 − [Fe(1 − KF)]
ii. Q = kinetic parameter or drug dose adjustment factor
iii. Fe = fraction of drug excreted unchanged in the urine
iv. KF = ratio of patient’s CrCl to normal (120 mL/minute)
5. Monitor patient (e.g., kidney function, clinical parameters) and drug concentration (if applicable).
6. Revise regimen as appropriate.
E. Drug Dosing in HD
1. Dosing changes in HD patients may be necessary because of accumulation caused by kidney failure
AND/OR because the procedure may remove the drug from the circulation.
2. Drug-related factors affecting drug removal during dialysis:
a. Molecular weight—With high-flux membranes, larger molecules (such as vancomycin) can be
removed.
b. Water soluble—Non-soluble drugs not likely removed
c. Protein binding—Because albumin cannot pass through membranes, protein-bound drugs cannot
either.
d. Volume of distribution—Drugs with a small Vd (less than 1 L/kg) available in central circulation
for removal. Large Vds cannot be removed (digoxin and tricyclic antidepressants), even if the
protein binding is very low.
3. Procedure-related factors affecting drug removal
a. Type of dialyzer—high flux widely used now
b. Bloodflow rate. Increased rates will increase delivery and maintain gradient across membrane.
c. Duration of dialysis session
d. Dialysate flow rate. High rates of flow will increase removal by maintaining the gradient across
membranes.
1-529
Nephrology
REFERENCES
National Kidney Foundation’s Kidney 2. Schweiger MJ, Chambers CE, Davidson CJ, et al.
Disease Outcome Quality Initiative Prevention of contrast induced nephropathy: rec-
1. Go to www.kidney.org/professionals/. ommendations for the high risk patient undergoing
cardiovascular procedures. Catheter Cardiovasc
Interv 2007;69:135–40.
National Kidney Disease Education Program
1. Go to www.nkdep.nih.gov/.
Chronic Kidney Disease and Complications
1. Derebail VK, Kshirsagar AV, Joy MS. Chronic
Acute Kidney Injury kidney disease: progression-modifying therapies.
1. Dager W, Halilovic J. Acute renal failure. In: DiP- In: DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee GC, et al, eds. Phar-
iro JT, Talbert RL, Yee GC, et al, eds. Pharma- macotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, 8th
cotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, 8th ed. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011:767–86.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011:741–66. 2. Hudson JQ. Chronic kidney disease: management
2. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, et al; the ADQI of complications. In: DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee
workgroup. Acute renal failure – definition, out- GC, et al, eds. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysi-
come measures, animal models, and information ologic Approach, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
technology needs: the Second International Consen- 2011:787–816.
sus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initia- 3. Schonder KS. Chronic and end-stage renal disease.
tive (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 2004;8:R204–R212. In: Chisholm-Burns MA, Wells BG, Schwingham-
3. Kellum JA. Acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med mer TL, et al, eds. Pharmacotherapy: Principles and
2008;36:S141–S145. Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010:chapter 26.
4. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, et al. Acute kid- 4. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI. Clinical
ney injury network: report of an initiative to im- Practice Guidelines and Clinical Practice Recom-
prove outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care mendations for diabetes and chronic kidney dis-
2007;11:R31. ease. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;49(Suppl 2):S1–S180.
5. Stamatakis MK. Acute kidney injury. In: Chisholm- 5. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI. Clinical
Burns MA, Wells BG, Schwinghammer TL, et al, practice guidelines on hypertension and antihy-
eds. Pharmacotherapy: Principles and Practice. pertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010:chapter 25. Kidney Dis 2004;43(Suppl5):S1.
6. Ympa YP, Sakr Y, Reinhart K, Vincent JL. Has 6. Levey AS, Coreh J. Chronic kidney disease. Lan-
mortality from acute kidney injury decreased? cet 2011;Aug 12. [Epub ahead of print]
A systematic review of the literature. Am J Med 7. Pharmacotherapy Specialists Should Be Aware of
2005;118:827–32. the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease
7. Acute Renal Failure. In: DynaMed [database on the Outcome Quality Initiative Web site. Available at
Internet]. Ipswich, MA: EBSCO Publishing, 2011. www.kidney.org/professionals/kdoqi/guidelines.
Available at http://dynaweb.ebscohost.com/. Sub- cfm. Accessed September 28, 2011.
scription required.
Renal Replacement Therapy
Drug-Induced Kidney Damage 1. Sowinski KM, Churchwell MD. Hemodialysis and
1. Nolin TD, Himmelfarb J. Drug-induced kidney dis- peritoneal dialysis In: DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee
ease. In: DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee GC, et al, eds. GC, et al, eds. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysi-
Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, ologic Approach, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011:819–36. 2011:817.
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Nephrology
2. Li PK, Szeto CC, Piraino B, et al. Peritoneal di-

alysis-related infections recommendations: 2010
update. Perit Dial Int 2010;30:393–423.
Drug Therapy Adjustment in CKD

1. Kappel J, Calissi P. Nephrology: 3. Safe drug pre-
scribing for patients with renal insufficiency. Can
Med Assoc J 2002;166:473–7.
2. Matzke GR. Drug therapy individualization for pa-
tients with chronic kidney disease. In: DiPiro JT,
Talbert RL, Yee GC, et al, eds. Pharmacotherapy:
A Pathophysiologic Approach, 8th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2011:861–72.
3. Chronic Kidney Disease and Drug Dosing. In-
formation for Providers (Revised January 2010).
Available at www.nkdep.nih.gov/professionals/
drug-dosing-information.htm. Accessed Septem-
ber 28, 2011.
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Answers and Explanations to Patient Cases
1. Answer: D thiazide (Answer B) would not be appropriate because

Estimating CrCl in a patient with unstable kidney func- thiazide diuretics are not likely to be effective with such
tion is difficult. The Jeliffe or Brater equation has been poor kidney function. Fluid restriction (Answer D) may
recommended as preferable to other equations. In this be required if furosemide fails to increase urine output,
case, the patient is anuric; hence, a CrCl (GFR) of 10 but it would not be the first-line approach.
mL/minute or less (Answer D) should be assumed.
Answer A (Cockcroft-Gault) is inappropriate because 5. Answer: B
Cockcroft-Gault should only be used with stable kidney Intravenous 0.9% NaCl is considered the most effective
function. The use of MDRD (Answer B) in unstable hydration for the prevention of contrast-induced ne-
kidney function is also inappropriate. Although An- phropathy (Answer B). The other solutions, particularly
swer C, the Brater equation, may be used, it would still oral, would not be appropriate.
overestimate kidney function in this patient because the
patient is anuric. 6. Answer: B
Much data have been published on the use of oral
2. Answer: B acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast-induced
This patient very likely has ATN, which is a type of in- nephropathy. Although many of the studies are obser-
trinsic renal failure (Answer B). The rapid rise in SCr, vational and some are conflicting, the low risk of the
the BUN/Cr ratio of about 10, and the muddy casts all product has made it the standard of care in this situa-
point to ATN. There is no evidence of prerenal causes tion. Fenoldopam (Answer A) should not be used based
(hypotension, volume depletion) (Answer A). Naproxen on the results of the CONTRAST trial. There are some
is associated with functional AKI, but the urine in these data with ascorbic acid (Answer C), but they are lim-
patients is bland without casts. Answer C is incorrect be- ited. Hemofiltration (Answer D) has also been studied,
cause there is no evidence of obstruction in this patient. but it is not generally recommended because of the
questionable benefits and the real risk of complications.
3. Answer: D
One of the strategies in the management of AKI is to 7. Answer: B
remove potentially nephrotoxic drugs, either direct tox- The patient is currently at stage 3 CKD (GFR 30–59
ins or medications that alter intrarenal hemodynamics. mL/minute/1.73m 2), which can be calculated by the
It is common to see the following orders for patients in MDRD formulae or Cockcroft-Gault. The five stages
AKI: no ACEIs, ARBs, NSAIDs, or intravenous con- correlate from mild kidney damage (stage 1) to kidney
trast. It is also important to remove (or reduce the dose failure (stage 5).
of) agents that are cleared renally. Metformin, which
accumulates in decreased kidney function with an 8. Answer: C
increased risk of lactic acidosis, should be temporar- Based on a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and the pres-
ily discontinued at this time. In this case, metformin, ence of overt proteinuria, this patient likely has diabetic
naproxen, and lisinopril should be discontinued. nephropathy. Progression will be accelerated by smok-
ing, poor diabetes control, and poor BP control. In pa-
4. Answer: C tients with diabetes, a target hemoglobin A1c of less than
This patient presents with ATN, anuria, and volume 7% is associated with a decrease in the rate of disease
overload. Although loop diuretics have not been shown progression. Blood pressure control less than 130/80
to improve clinical outcomes in patients with AKI, mm Hg in patients also decreases the progression of
they may increase urine output, which will help with kidney disease. The standard of care in patients with di-
fluid and electrolyte balance. In addition, this patient abetic nephropathy is ACEIs (evidence for a reduction
is hypervolemic, so a trial of intravenous loop diuretic in morality and reduced progression of CKD) or ARBs
would be appropriate (Answer C). Adding 0.9% NaCl (evidence for a reduction in progression but no mortal-
(Answer A) would worsen fluid overload. Hydrochloro- ity data), so enalapril (Answer C) is the best choice. A
1-532
Nephrology
nondihydropyridine (Answer B) might be initiated in ciency is the most common cause of epoetin deficiency,
patients who cannot tolerate ACE or ARB therapy but the laboratory results in this patient do not indicate iron
would not be a choice yet. Dihydropyridine therapy deficiency (Answer A). Phenytoin therapy (Answer
(Answer A) is not recommended in diabetic nephropa- C) has been associated with anemia in other patient
thy because of conflicting literature on its efficacy. An populations but not in HD patients. Infection (Answer
increase in atenolol (Answer D) might control BP, but D) and inflammation are very common causes of epo-
inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system is still the etin deficiency in patients on HD, but there is nothing
best answer. In addition, a recent meta-analysis evalu- in this patient’s presentation to suggest an infectious or
ating atenolol in hypertensive patients with diabetes inflammatory process.
mellitus found either no difference or worse outcomes.
13. Answer: B
9. Answer: C D.W. requires treatment for his elevated iPTH (800 pg/
The BP is not at goal (should be less than 130/80 mm dL), which puts him at high risk of renal osteodystro-
Hg). To improve BP control and enhance the effect of phy. He has high serum phosphorous and calcium. The
the ACEI, chlorthalidone should be added to the regi- corrected calcium is 10.2 mg/dL, and the calcium ×
men (Answer B). Monitoring of SCr and serum K is phosphorus factor is 80 mg2/dL2. The goal/target cal-
appropriate in this patient. There is a less than 30% in- cium × phosphorus factor in stage 5 CKD is less than
crease in SCr, so enalapril should be continued, mak- 55 mg2/dL2. Current binder therapy is contributing to
ing Answer A and Answer B inappropriate. Adding calcium exposure; therefore, calcium acetate should be
chlorthalidone will also counter the tendency for hy- discontinued and sevelamer, initiated. Cinacalcet will
perkalemia. Answer D would probably lower BP but lower iPTH and potentially serum calcium. Answer A
would not be the preferred route because renal protec- is incorrect because increasing the calcium acetate may
tion would likely not be enhanced. worsen the hypercalcemia. Answer C is incorrect for
two reasons. First, the patient needs some type of phos-
10. Answer: D phate binder; second, intravenous vitamin D analogs
A native arteriovenous fistula is the preferred access for can worsen hypercalcemia and are not very effective at
chronic HD. If an arteriovenous fistula cannot be con- reducing elevated iPTH in the presence of hyperphos-
structed, a synthetic arteriovenous graft (Answer C) is phatemia. Answer D is incorrect because intravenous
considered second line. A subclavian catheter (Answer vitamin D analogs can worsen hypercalcemia and are
A) is a poor choice because of the increased risk of in- not very effective in reducing elevated iPTH in the
fection and thrombosis and because of the poor blood- presence of hyperphosphatemia.
flow obtained through a catheter. A Tenckhoff catheter
(Answer B) is incorrect because this is a catheter for 14. Answer: B
peritoneal dialysis. The presence of kidney failure and low albumin re-
sults in an increased free fraction of phenytoin. Using
11. Answer: D the correction equation gives a corrected level of 12.5,
The best-studied agent is midodrine, an α1-agonist. Le- which is therapeutic. A free phenytoin concentration
vocarnitine (Answer A) has been tried, but there are can also be drawn.
limited data on its benefit. Fludrocortisone (Answer
B) is a synthetic mineralocorticoid, which is used for
hypotension in other situations; however, the primary
mechanism is caused by Na and water restriction in the
kidney; hence, this drug is less likely to work. Sodium
chloride tablets (Answer B) would not work acutely,
and they should generally be avoided.
12. Answer: b
Hyperparathyroidism is associated with epoetin resis-
tance in HD patients (Answer B). Although iron defi-
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Nephrology
Answers and Explanations to Self-Assessment Questions
1. Answer: C 4. Answer: c
Initial treatment of AKI requires the identification and In most cases, either the Cockcroft-Gault OR the
reversal (if possible) of the insult to the kidney. A.M.’s MDRD equation is appropriate (and best) to assess kid-
symptoms and presentation are consistent with prerenal ney function. However, this patient has muscle wast-
azotemia because of volume depletion, so fluid admin- ing; hence, equations will overestimate. An iothalamate
istration is the best choice in this case. There is no sug- study will measure GFR, but it is not used clinically.
gestion of obstruction (distended abdomen, history of
benign prostatic hypertrophy). Diuretic administration 5. Answer: C
would not be appropriate because it would worsen his This patient is not at goal for hemoglobin. Iron studies
volume depletion and probably further impair his kid- indicate the patient is iron-deficient. Although a trial of
ney function. Fluid management is critical to managing oral iron might be indicated in CKD stages I–IV, HD
AKI, requiring a careful assessment of the patient. Al- patients should be given intravenous iron as first line.
though A.M.’s glucose concentration is elevated, insu-
lin is not required at this point. 6. Answer: b
The BUN/SCr ratio, urine osmolality, and presence of
2. Answer: c urinary casts all point to ATN. Prerenal and functional
F.D. has intrinsic azotemia, resulting in damage to the AKI look similar in urinalysis. Classically, AIN has eo-
kidneys. Aminoglycosides can cause direct damage to sinophils in the urine.
the tubules. The BUN/SCr ratio is normal (an increased
BUN/SCr ratio reflecting hypovolemia is common in 7. Answer: b
prerenal azotemia). Decreased urinary Na less than 20 An unpaired/independent t-test is the most appropriate.
mOsmol/L is also a marker of hypovolemia. Fractional There is no reason to think these continuous data will
excretion of Na additionally distinguishes prerenal and not be normally distributed. There are only two groups
intrinsic renal damage. A low FENa (less than 1%) in (otherwise, an analysis of variance would be needed
an oliguric patient suggests that tubular function is still with an appropriate post hoc test).
intact. A FENa of 1%  –2% is commonly seen in in-
trinsic renal failure. The specific gravity is normal in
intrinsic renal failure. Elevated specific gravity greater
than 1.018 is seen in prerenal failure, reflecting concen-
trated urine caused by hypovolemia. Cellular debris is
often present in intrinsic renal failure because of renal
tubular cell death/damage.
3. Answer: a
Application of the Rowland-Tozer equation yields the
following calculation:
Q = 1 − [Fe(1 − KF)]
Q = 1 − [0.4(1 − 25/120)]
Q = 1 − [0.4(0.79)]
Q = 1 − 0.32
Q = 0.68 or 68% of usual dose
Drug X usual dose = 600 mg
Formulation = 100 mg/mL in a 6-mL vial
Adjusted dose = 408 mg
Four milliliters would provide 400 mg of drug X.
1-534

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What are the main types of acute kidney injury and how are they categorized?

What are the main types of acute kidney injury and how are they categorized?

What factors determine drug clearance by dialysis?

What factors determine drug clearance by dialysis?

Nephrology

Learning Objectives: 2. F.D. is a 44-year-old man admitted with gram-neg-

A. Cockcroft-Gault equation. osmolality is 290 mOsm/kg. His urine Na is 40

6. Q.R.S. is a 60-year-old (72 kg) patient in the inten-

Patient Cases for AKI

3. Which of the following medications is best to discontinue at this time?

4. Which one of the following interventions is most appropriate at this time?

I. ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY (AKI) or ACUTE RENAL FAILURE (ARF)

A. Definitions and Background

3. Use of nephrotoxic agents/medications: Intravenous radiographic contrast, aminoglycosides,

C. Classifications of AKI (Table 1)

Table 1. Classifications of Acute Kidney Injury

E. Treatment and Management of Established AKI

Patient Cases for Drug-Induced Kidney Damage

II. DRUG-INDUCED KIDNEY DAMAGE

3. Kidney at risk of toxicity because:

B. Acute Tubular Necrosis

i. Direct tubular toxicity caused by reactive oxygen species

C. Functional (Hemodynamically Mediated) Acute Kidney Injury

i. Toxicity results from a dose-related decrease in response to an antidiuretic hormone.

E. Postrenal (Obstructive) Nephropathy

Patient Cases for CKD

III. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

Patient Cases for RRT

IV. RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY (RRT)

A. Indications for RRT

B. Two Primary Modes of Dialysis

C. Hemodialysis (intermittent for ESKD)

D. Continuous HD for AKI

5. Types of peritoneal dialysis

V. COMPLICATIONS OF chronic kidney disease

g. Common causes of inadequate response to ESA therapy:

Table 2. Iron Therapy

B. Renal Osteodystrophy and Secondary Hyperparathyroidism

(b) Calcium-containing phosphate binders (calcium carbonate and calcium acetate)

(1) Parenteral and oral formulations

Patient Case for Dose Adjustments in Kidney Disease

VI. DOSAGE ADJUSTMENTS IN Kidney Disease

B. Pharmacokinetic Principles Can Guide Therapy Adjustments

Table 4. Dose Adjustments in Decreased Kidney Function

4. Calculate drug doses individualized for the patient.

2. Li PK, Szeto CC, Piraino B, et al. Peritoneal di-

Drug Therapy Adjustment in CKD

Answers and Explanations to Patient Cases

1. Answer: D thiazide (Answer B) would not be appropriate because

Answers and Explanations to Self-Assessment Questions

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