6

TEMPO-Mediated Oxidations

6.1. Introduction

In 1965, Golubev, Rozantsev, and Neiman reported 1 that treatment of oxoam-

monium salt 11 with excess of ethanol led to the formation of acetaldehyde.

In 1975, Cella et al. demonstrated 2 that alcohols can be oxidized to

carboxylic acids by treatment with m-chloroperbenzoic acid in the presence of
a catalytic amount of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (12).

Apparently, MCPBA oxidizes the amine 12, resulting in a catalytic quantity

of the stable radical 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (13), normally called
TEMPO, that is further oxidized to the oxoammonium cation 14 that operates
as the primary oxidant.
79
80 Introduction

Cella made a very important seminal contribution to the TEMPO-mediated

obtention of carboxylic acids by showing that oxoammonium salts can be
employed catalytically in the transformation of primary alcohols into carboxylic
acids. On the other hand, Cella’s procedure involves the use of a peracid
as secondary oxidant, which is a strong oxidant that interferes with many
functional groups.
In 1987, Anelli et al. published 3 a landmark paper in which they showed
that primary alcohols can be oxidized either to aldehydes or to carboxylic
acids in a highly efficient and convenient manner, by treating the alcohol in a
CH2 Cl2 –water biphasic mixture with chlorine bleach (sodium hypochlorite) in
the presence of sodium bicarbonate, potassium bromide, and a catalytic amount
of the TEMPO derivative 4-methoxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (15)
(4-MeO-TEMPO). The oxidation can be stopped at the aldehyde stage by running
it for a short time. Alternatively, it can be brought to the carboxylic acid stage by
adding a phase-transfer catalyst that causes a great acceleration of the oxidation.

One important limitation of Anelli’s procedure is the need to utilize sodium

hypochlorite as stoichiometric oxidant, a compound that has a great tendency to
produce chlorinations in some sensitive substrates. This tendency to chlorination
can be mitigated by employing Zhao’s modification of Anelli’s procedure, which
was published 4 in 1999. In this modification, the secondary oxidant—sodium
hypochlorite—is used in catalytic amounts rather than in excess, the reagent
being regenerated by addition of stoichiometric sodium chlorite, a compound
that lacks the strong chlorinating tendency of sodium hypochlorite.
Chapter 6 81

In 1999, Epp and Widlanski described 5 the oxidation of alcohols to

carboxylic acids using catalytic TEMPO, with bis(acetoxy)iodobenzene—
PhIOAc2 , commonly referred as BAIB—as secondary oxidant in an
acetonitrile–aqueous buffer mixture. This procedure for the oxidation of primary
alcohols possesses the distinctive advantage of producing the rather benign
iodobenzene and acetic acid as side compounds. Furthermore, in contrast to
other oxidation procedures, it is possible to perform the oxidation of Epp and
Widlanski in the absence of metallic salts.

Mechanism
The available experimental data are consistent with a mechanism, 4 6 as shown
below, in which the secondary oxidant transforms TEMPO, or a related stable
radical, in an oxoammonium salt that operates as the primary oxidant, trans-
forming the alcohol into the corresponding aldehyde. This results in the formation
of a hydroxylamine that is oxidized to a TEMPO radical, thus completing the
catalytic cycle.

The catalytic cycle can in fact be more complex, because TEMPO radicals can dispro-
portionate into oxoammonium salts and hydroxylamines under acidic catalysis. 6a
82 Introduction

The aldehyde, in the presence of water, equilibrates with the corresponding

hydrate that can be oxidized via a similar mechanism to the corresponding acid,
as shown below.

Interestingly, TEMPO inhibits the oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids when this
oxidation proceeds via a radical mechanism. That is why Anelli’s oxidation can be
carried out under air and be easily stopped at the aldehyde stage with no competing
overoxidation due to the presence of gaseous oxygen. 7
While in all TEMPO-mediated oxidations of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids,
oxoammonium salts are the primary oxidants for the transformation of alcohols into
aldehydes, the subsequent oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids may sometimes
be effected by the oxidant present in excess rather than by oxoammonium salts. In such
cases, the secondary oxidant for the transformation of alcohols into aldehydes is the
primary oxidant for the oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids.

The oxidation of primary alcohols with oxoammonium salts can work

either via a compact five-membered transition state under basic conditions or
via a linear transition state under acidic conditions, as shown below. Under basic
conditions the oxidation is quicker and possesses a greater selectivity for primary
alcohols versus secondary ones.

The five-membered transition state under basic conditions is more compact, leading to a
quicker reaction rate and greater selectivity for oxidation of primary alcohols relative to
secondary ones.
Chapter 6 83

Stoichiometric Oxidants
The most common stoichiometric oxidants in TEMPO-mediated transformations
of primary alcohols into carboxylic acids are sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)—
Anelli’s oxidation—, 3 sodium chlorite NaClO2 —Zhao’s modification of
Anelli’s oxidation—, 4 and PhIOAc2 —oxidation of Epp and Widlanski. 5
Other stoichiometric oxidants less commonly used include MCPBA, 2 CaClO2
(swimming pool bleach), 8 t-BuOCl, 9 CuCl − O2 , 10 NaBrO2 , 11 Cl2 , 12 Br 2 12 , and
trichloroisocyanuric acid. 13 It is possible to perform the oxidation under electro-
chemical conditions in the presence of catalytic TEMPO. 14

Amino 1-Oxyl Radicals

TEMPO and analogue compounds can be prepared starting with a simple conden-
sation of ammonia with acetone, 15 and their cost is quite affordable. They are
stable radicals because they are flanked by two quaternary carbons that provide a
bulky environment. For these reasons, TEMPO and analogue compounds, that is,
2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radicals, are almost exclusively employed
in oxidations mediated by amino 1-oxyl radicals.

TEMPO is a volatile compound soluble in organic solvents and water. It can be recovered
by extraction with Et2 O 14 or by azeotropic distillation with water. 16

Although some differences in the chemical behavior of different TEMPO

derivatives were noticed, 17 the selection of a particular derivative is normally
dictated by price and convenience. As far as the authors are aware, no profound
study of the efficacy of different TEMPO derivatives in the oxidation of alcohols
has been carried out.

TEMPO entrapped within a silica matrix has been employed as a recyclable

catalyst in the selective oxidation of primary alcohols using NaOCl as stoichiometric
oxidant. 18

6.2. Anelli’s Oxidation

In 1987, Anelli et al. made a key contribution to TEMPO-mediated oxida-

tions by showing that the very cheap reagent chlorine bleach (aqueous NaOCl)
can function very effectively as a stoichiometric oxidant for alcohols in the
presence of traces of 4-MeO-TEMPO. 3 They established a protocol involving
a reaction run at 0  C in a biphasic CH2 Cl2 –water mixture in the presence of
excess of NaOCl, NaHCO3 , KBr, and catalytic 4-MeO-TEMPO for oxidation
to aldehydes. Under these conditions the oxidation to acids is quite slow. If the
acid is desired, it is advisable to add a phase-transfer catalyst to speed up the
oxidation.
84 Anelli’s Oxidation

The oxidation of a primary alcohol using Anelli’s procedure without the addition of a
phase-transfer catalyst allows the preparation of 74% of the corresponding aldehyde. The
addition of 1 mol% of tetrabutylammonium bisulfate as phase-transfer catalyst produces a
great acceleration of the oxidation that allows the isolation of the corresponding
acid in 91%. 19

The following experimental data are relevant regarding Anelli’s

oxidation:
• Primary alcohols are transformed into the corresponding aldehydes—
with no need to add a phase-transfer catalyst—normally in only about 3
minutes. The oxidation of benzyl alcohols possessing electron donating
groups in the aromatic ring can be much slower, a fact that can
be explained by the presence of a negative charge in the transition
state for the oxidation involving oxoammonium salts under basic
conditions.
• The addition of some KBr produces a substantial acceleration of the
oxidation, because of the generation of HOBr. 20 This reagent is formed
from HOCl and KBr, and is apparently a much better oxidant for the
regeneration of oxoammonium salts than HOCl.
• The reaction is rather slow at the pH of commercial bleach (ca. 12.7),
being much quicker at a pH of ca. 8.6, generated by the addition
of NaHCO3 as buffer. This fact can be explained assuming that at a
very high pH the regeneration of the oxoammonium salt, rather than
the oxidation of the alcohol by the oxoammonium salt via a five-
membered transition state, becomes rate-determining. At a very basic
pH the concentration of HOBr, which is the oxidant regenerating the
oxoammonium salt, becomes very low relative to the concentration of
the hypobromite anion BrO– .
• The reaction can fail in substrates possessing a high hydrophilicity.
Apparently, the oxidation takes place in the organic phase, where such
substrates are present in a very low concentration.
• The oxidation can be substantially accelerated by the addition of
quaternary ammonium salts as a phase-transfer catalyst. Thus, while in
the absence of phase-transfer catalyst the reaction is easily stopped at
Chapter 6 85

the aldehyde stage, the addition of catalytic amounts of a quaternary

ammonium salt normally allows the oxidation to carboxylic acid
to be completed in 5 minutes at 0  C. As in the oxidation to
aldehydes, electronic effects can be very important, and oxidations
yielding benzoic acids possessing electron donating groups can be much
slower.
• Somehow unexpectedly, the reaction speed decreases by increasing the
temperature, a fact due to the decomposition of oxoammonium salts,
which are very stable at 0  C, but decompose very quickly in the presence
of water at 25  C.
• The transformation of aldehydes into carboxylic acids is apparently
mediated by oxoammonium salts, rather than by some other oxidant
in excess; for, in the absence of TEMPO radicals, this reaction is
rather slow.
The above facts are illustrated in the following scheme:

Solvent
Anelli‘s oxidation is most often carried out in a biphasic system consisting
of CH2 Cl2 and water. As the oxidation takes place in the organic phase, this
biphasic system fails in water-soluble substrates. That is why when Anelli’s
oxidation is applied to sugars, water is normally employed as the sole solvent. 21
Furthermore, acetone/water is a solvent combination quite often utilized, 22 while
86 Anelli’s Oxidation

MeCN/water 23 and EtOAc/water 24 are less used. When water or an aqueous

mixture is employed as solvent, the reaction may fail in lipophilic substrates
because of lack of solubility. 25

The primary alcohols, in a cyclodextrin possessing the secondary alcohols protected as methyl
ethers, are oxidized in a monophasic MeCN–water mixture providing 93% of the
corresponding heptacarboxylate. Under these conditions there is no oxidation in substrates
where the secondary alcohols are protected as benzyl or allyl ethers, due to their much greater
lipophilicity. 25

Catalyst
Simple TEMPO is usually employed as catalyst in the Anelli’s oxidation of
primary alcohols to acids, although other TEMPO derivatives such as 4-MeO-
TEMPO, 3 26 4-HO-TEMPO, 27 or 4-AcNH-TEMPO 19 are equally effective.
A trace quantity of 1 mol% of catalyst is normally enough for an efficient
oxidation, although because of the low price of TEMPO and its very easy elimi-
nation during the workup, the use of ca. 4–10 mol% is common. TEMPO is
sometimes added in amounts as high as 1–1.5 equivalents; this may help to
prevent side reactions produced by excess of HOCl. 22ab 28

According to the authors: “Direct oxidation of the primary alcohol to the desired sensitive
carboxylic acid was accomplished best using N -oxoammonium salts in combination with
NaOCl in a buffered solution (2 equivalents of 4–6% NaOCl, 1.1 equivalents of TEMPO, 0.1
equivalents of KBr, acetone-5% aqueous NaHCO3  0  C, 2 h, 78%). In the optimization of
this reaction it was found that 1.1 equivalents of TEMPO were necessary to obtain the desired
oxidation product. If a catalytic amount (ca. 0.1 equivalents) of TEMPO was employed or
CaOCl2 was substituted for NaOCl, the chlorinated aromatic derivative was isolated as the
major product. Presumably the TEMPO scavenges any chlorine which is liberated during the
reaction.” Observe that no phase-transfer catalyst is needed in this reaction performed in a
single acetone–water phase. 22a
Chapter 6 87

Phase-Transfer Catalyst
Although no phase-transfer catalyst is needed in oxidations carried out in a single
phase—such as in water, MeCN/water, or acetone/water— an ammonium salt
such as n-Bu4 NCl, 29 n-Bu4 NBr, 30 n-Bu4 NHSO4 , 19 or Aliquat® 336 (tricapry-
lylmethylammonium chloride) 31 is normally added in oxidations performed in a
biphasic CH2 Cl2 /water mixture.

pH
Commercial chlorine bleach is prepared by reacting chlorine with an aqueous
NaOH solution, and contains ca. 3–6% of NaOCl. Excess of NaOH is employed
to stabilize the NaOCl, which otherwise would disproportionate into NaCl and
NaClO3 . This results in bleach possessing a pH between 11 and 13, which is too
basic for a normal Anelli’s oxidation. The addition of NaHCO3 allows lowering
the pH to a value of ca. 8.6–10, which is normally ideal for Anelli’s oxidations.
Some NaOH is sometimes added additionally to fine tune the pH to a value of
ca. 10. 25 32
Figure 3 shows the influence of pH on the rate of oxidation of methyl
-d-glucopyranoside. There is a very sharp increase in speed from pH 8
to pH 10, while a higher pH produces no further acceleration of reaction
speed.
The generation of carboxylic acid during the oxidation may cause a
lowering of pH that produces a decrease of oxidation speed and of selectivity

Figure 3. Influence of pH on the rate of oxidation of methyl -D-glucopyranoside using

0.007 eq. of TEMPO, 2.2 eq. of a 15% NaOCl solution, and 0.4 eq. of NaBr at 2  C, adding
4 M HCl to adjust the pH.6b Reprinted from Carbohydrate Research, Vol.269, Nooy, A.E.J.;
Besemer, A.C.; van Bekkum, H., “Highly selective nitroxyl radical-mediated oxidation of
primary alcohol groups in water-soluble glucans,” pages 89–98, ©1995, with permission from
Elsevier.
88 Anelli’s Oxidation

for oxidation of primary alcohols versus secondary ones. This may be avoided
by continuous adjustment of the pH by addition of NaOH. 21b 33
Some functional groups, such as esters, may be sensitive to the
mildly basic pH normally used in Anelli‘s oxidations, and in some cases
it may be necessary to adjust the precise reaction conditions to avoid
interferences. 29a

The reaction time must be kept to a minimum to avoid the hydrolysis of the acetate under the
basic reaction conditions. 29a

In some cases, Anelli’s oxidation must be carried out under acidic condi-
tions to obtain an optimum yield. 27

In this oxidation the pH is adjusted below 7 by bubbling CO2 into the sodium
hypochlorite solution. The reaction fails when it is performed at a pH above 7, due to
the sensitivity of propargyl alcohol to NaOCl under basic conditions. It is possible to
increase the yield to 50–66% by performing a
continuous oxidation. 27

Selectivity
One of the most useful features of the oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic
acids under Anelli’s conditions is the great selectivity achieved for the oxidation
of primary alcohols versus secondary ones. 8 9b 34 This selectivity is the result of
the steric hindrance around the oxoammonium functionality in the oxoammonium
salts derived from TEMPO-like radicals, resulting in a much easier attack by the
relatively less hindered primary alcohols.
Chapter 6 89

Research needed
The employment of amino oxyl radicals, yielding oxoammonium salts with a
greater steric hindrance than those derived from TEMPO-like radicals, in the
selective oxidation of primary alcohols must be investigated.

Treatment of the starting triol under Anelli’s conditions in water at pH 10–11 allows the
selective oxidation of the primary alcohol in 90%. The use of gaseous oxygen in the presence
of platinum on carbon under Heyns’ conditions provides a more modest 50% yield of the
desired carboxylic acid. 9a

Under basic conditions there is a compact and sterically demanding five-

membered transition state for the oxidation of alcohols with oxoammonium salts,
while under acidic conditions a less sterically demanding linear transition state
operates. This results in both greater oxidizing speed and greater selectivity for
oxidation of primary alcohols under Anelli’s conditions at high pH. Furthermore,
under less basic conditions hypohalous acids may compete with oxoammonium
salts for the direct oxidation of alcohols 6b resulting in even less selectivity.
In fact, under acidic conditions the selectivity greatly decreases and secondary
alcohols may even be oxidized more rapidly. 6a

It is possible to oxidize selectively the two primary alcohols in d-glucitol in 89% under
Anelli’s conditions at pH 11.7, with minor formation of side compounds resulting from
incomplete oxidation or oxidative breakage at the secondary alcohols. Lowering of the pH to
10.5 produces a much less selective oxidation, resulting in only 27% of the desired diacid that
is isolated as the disodium salt. 34b
90 Anelli’s Oxidation

A primary alcohol is selectively oxidized in a complex molecule containing a secondary

alcohol, using Anelli’s conditions in a CH2 Cl2 –water biphasic system. 26

6.2.1 General Procedure for Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

to Carboxylic Acids by Anelli’s Oxidation
A mixture of 1 equivalent of alcohol with ca. 0.002–0.1—typically 0.01—
equivalent of TEMPO (MW 156.25),ab ca. 1.75–8—typically 2—equivalents
of NaOCl (MW 74.44),c ca. 0.1–0.7 equivalent of KBr (MW 119.01),d and
ca. 0.05–0.12—typically 0.06—equivalent of a phase-transfer catalyste in
a biphasic bufferedfg system containing water and CH2 Cl2 ,h is vigorously
stirred at 0  Ci until most of the starting alcohol is consumed.j The reaction
mixture is optionally quenched by addition of methanol or ethanol. When the
reaction is carried out using a mixture of acetone and water, the removal of
acetone in vacuo may facilitate the rest of the workup. The elimination of
acetone sometimes causes the crystallization or precipitation of the sodium
salt of the acid that can be isolated by filtration. Generally, the remainder of
the workup of the reaction can be made according to three alternative protocols:
Workup A: The reaction mixture is optionally washed with an
organic solvent like Et2 O or CH2 Cl2 . When the product—even as a sodium
carboxylate—is very lipophilic, it may be convenient to adjust the pH above
12 by the addition of concentrated NaOH before the washing with an organic
solvent. The pH is brought to ca. 2–6 by the addition of hydrochloric acid
or 10% aqueous citric acid. WARNING: this may cause the evolution of
poisonous chlorine gas. The mixture is extracted with an organic solvent like
EtOAc or CH2 Cl2 . The collected organic phases can be optionally washed
with water or brine. The organic phase is dried with Na2 SO4 or MgSO4 and
concentrated, giving a crude acid that may need further purification. This
workup may not be suitable for products like many sugars, possessing a
very low solubility in organic solvents. The acidification sometimes causes
the precipitation or crystallization of the acid that can be isolated by simple
filtration. Alternatively, in the case of organic acids with a high solubility
in water, the precipitation of the organic acid from an acidic aqueous phase
may be induced sometimes by addition of an organic solvent miscible with
water such as ethanol.
Workup B: The reaction mixture is fractioned between EtOAc and
water. The organic phase is separated and can be optionally washed with
Chapter 6 91

water, 10% HCl, or brine. The organic phase is dried with Na2 SO4 or MgSO4
and concentrated, giving a crude acid that may need further purification.
This workup is suitable for lipophilic organic acids possessing a very low
solubility in water even when present as sodium salts.
Workup C: The reaction mixture is optionally neutralized by the
addition of hydrochloric acid. The solvent is removed either by concentration
at reduced pressure or lyophilization. The resulting residue containing the
desired acid—either free or as a sodium salt contaminated with inorganic
salts—is purified by chromatography.
a
Other TEMPO derivatives such as 4-AcO-TEMPO (MW 214.28), 4-HO-TEMPO (MW
172.24), or 4-AcNH-TEMPO (MW 213.30) are equally effective.
b
A quantity as high as 1–1.5 equivalents of TEMPO is sometimes employed in order to
mitigate some side reactions induced by the stoichiometric oxidant, such as unwanted
chlorinations. 22ab 28
c
Sodium hypochlorite is sold as a ca. 3–13% aqueous solution (chlorine bleach) containing
some NaOH to provide a pH of 11–13, which helps to stabilize the reagent against dispro-
portionation in NaCl and NaClO3 . Household bleach is perfectly effective.
d
KBr is added to generate HOBr, which is a more effective secondary oxidant than HOCl.
Failure to add KBr leads to a slower oxidation that nevertheless may prove useful. NaBr is
equally effective.
e
Quaternary ammonium salts such as n-Bu4 NCl (MW 277.9), 29 n-Bu4 NBr (MW 322.37), 30
n-Bu4 NHSO4 (MW 339.53), 19 or Aliquat® 336 (tricaprylylmethylammonium chloride, MW
404.17) 31 are used as phase-transfer catalysts. Failure to add a phase-transfer catalyst results
in a much slower reaction that may lead to isolation of aldehyde. No phase-transfer catalyst
is needed when the oxidation is performed in a monophasic system.
f
The addition of bleach causes the mixture to reach a very basic pH that may prove detrimental
for many substrates. Thus, although the oxidation velocity increases under basic conditions,
the pH is normally lowered to ca. 8.5–10 in order to attain a good balance of oxidation
speed versus base-induced deleterious side reactions. The optimum pH is very substrate
dependent. When the selective oxidation of a primary alcohol in the presence of a secondary
one is desired, a pH as high as 11.7 may be advisable. 34b On the other hand, in oxidations
occurring in the presence of esters the pH must be lowered to 8–9 to avoid unwanted
hydrolysis.
g
The pH is normally lowered to 8.6–10 by the addition of an aqueous solution of NaHCO3
possessing a concentration between 5% and saturation. A higher pH can be adjusted by the
subsequent addition of aqueous NaOH. A final fine tuning of the pH can require the addition
of some HCl. A phosphate buffer is sometimes used. The formation of carboxylic acid in the
course of the oxidation leads to lowering of pH as the reaction proceeds, causing a decrease
in the oxidation rate. This can be avoided by the sequential addition of some aqueous NaOH.
h
A ca. 7:2 to 3:5 water:CH2 Cl2 mixture is normally employed. Normally, ca. 15–60 mL of
solvent mixture is used per mmol of alcohol. Sometimes, ca. 2–19 mL of brine per mmol of
alcohol is also added. The reaction can also be performed in a monophasic system consisting
of water, water:acetone (ca. 3:4 to 7:4), or water:MeCN (ca. 29:26 to 9:5). In a water:CH2 Cl2
biphasic system the oxidation takes place in the organic phase, therefore, this system is very
suitable for lipophilic substrates but fails in substrates—like most sugars—possessing a high
solubility in water. In such cases the oxidation is best carried out in water or in a monophasic
solvent mixture.
92 Anelli’s Oxidation

i
The primary oxidants, which consist of oxoammonium salts, are very quickly decomposed
by water at room temperature, leading to an actual decrease of oxidation rate with increasing
temperature. Therefore, the reaction temperature must be kept close to 0  C during the mixing
of the reagents as soon as oxoammonium salts are generated. This may demand the slow
addition of some reagents.
j
It normally takes between 30 minutes and 20 hours.

An attempted oxidation using Jones reagent resulted in extensive decomposition due to the
acid-sensitivity of the spiro system. The employment of Anelli’s oxidation under mildly basic
conditions allowed the isolation of the desired acid in very good yield. 31a

According to the authors: “Oxidation of the hydroxymethyl function to a carboxylic acid,

without simultaneous oxidation of the benzyl to a benzoyl group, proved to be a challenging
problem. Neither pyridinium dichromate in dimethylformamide nor Jones oxidation gave the
desired product in acceptable yield. Oxidation with ruthenium tetraoxide predictably gave a
mixture of the benzyl- and the benzoylepoxy acids. The problem was overcome by oxidation
with hypochlorite in the presence of catalytic amounts of oxoammonium salt generated from
2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO, free radical). The product, (2R,
3R)-3-(benzyloxy)methyloxirane-2-carboxylic acid, was obtained in excellent yield (88%) and
high purity.” 31b

According to the authors: “Problems were encountered in the attempted oxidation of the
primary alcohol to a carboxylic acid. After screening of various oxidation methods, the
oxoammonium salt mediated oxidation using a couple TEMPO-NaOCl was selected for
further optimization. Chlorination of the electron-rich aromatic ring was found to be the major
side reaction. However, when the reaction temperature was carefully maintained between
−5  C and 0  C, the desired acid was obtained in good yield.” 35
Chapter 6 93

This oxidation under Anelli’s conditions in which a quantity of TEMPO as high as 1.06
equivalents is utilized, probably to avoid side reactions, proved to be superior than the
PDC/DMF system. 22b

In this remarkable transformation, a total of 21 primary alcohols in one molecule are oxidized
to carboxylic acids in a 94% yield, which means that each individual alcohol oxidation is
performed in greater than 99.7% yield. 32

6.3. Zhao’s Modification of Anelli’s Oxidation

In 1999, Zhao et al. published 4 a variation of Anelli’s procedure for the transfor-
mation of primary alcohols into carboxylic acids, in which side reactions induced
by the presence of sodium hypochlorite were lessened by using this reagent in
catalytic rather than stoichiometric quantity. In this modified procedure sodium
chlorite NaClO2  is employed as stoichiometric oxidant, which serves both to
regenerate NaOCl and to operate as the primary oxidant 36 for the transformation
of the intermediate aldehyde into carboxylic acid. The mechanism represented
in the following scheme indicates the catalytic cycles in this oxidation:
94 Zhao’s Modification of Anelli’s Oxidation

Interestingly, there is no need for sodium chlorite to regenerate directly NaOCl by

oxidation of NaCl, because as soon as some aldehyde is formed, the aldehyde is very
quickly oxidized by sodium chlorite resulting in the formation of NaOCl. Thus, NaOCl
is in fact regenerated via oxidation of the aldehyde. If the reaction is carried out in
the absence of added NaOCl, there is a long induction period during which NaClO2
generates the aldehyde in a very inefficient way. Once some aldehyde is formed,
it is very quickly oxidized by NaClO2 , resulting in the formation of NaOCl that is
very efficient in the generation of an N -oxoammonium salt, resulting in a very quick
acceleration of the whole oxidation.

Zhao et al. optimized the reaction conditions seeking to minimize unwanted

chlorinations rather than increasing the oxidation speed. This resulted in an
oxidation protocol involving the simultaneous addition of NaClO2 and catalytic
NaOCl in the form of dilute bleach to a stirred mixture kept at 35  C, containing
the alcohol, acetonitrile, an aqueous phosphate buffer at pH 6.7, and catalytic
TEMPO. WARNING: sodium chlorite and bleach must not be mixed before
being added to the reaction, because the resulting mixture is unstable. Subse-
quent authors tended to follow very closely the original oxidation protocol of
Zhao et al.
Zhao’s modification of Anelli’s oxidation is reported 4 to give generally
better yields of carboxylic acids than the original Anelli’s procedure.
WARNING: Zhao’s procedure involves the use of stoichiometric NaClO2 , which
is a very powerful oxidant that can explode in the presence of organic matter.
Therefore, Zhao’s procedure must be employed, particularly on a big scale, only
on substrates for which it proves to be clearly superior.

6.3.1 General Procedure for Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

to Carboxylic Acids by Zhao’s Modification of Anelli’s
Oxidation
WARNING: NaClO2 and NaOCl must not be mixed before being added to
the reaction because the resulting mixture is unstable.
Approximately, from 2 to 5—typically 2—equivalents of aqueous ca.
1.1–2 M NaClO2 (MW 90.44)a and ca. 0.02–0.32—typically 0.02—equivalent
of NaOCl (MW 74.44) contained in ca. 0.28–0.65%—typically 0.30%—
bleachb are slowlyc added over a vigorously stirred mixture, kept at a certain
temperature between room temperature and 45  C,d typically 35  C, containing
1 equivalent of the alcohol, ca. 0.07–0.125—typically 0.1—equivalent of
TEMPO (MW 156.25), acetonitrile,e and a phosphate buffer at pH 6.6–6.8.fg
The resulting mixture is stirred at a certain temperature between 35 and 50  C
until most of the starting alcohol is consumed.h
The reaction mixture is cooled to room temperature. At this point the
addition of some (cold) water may help to carry out the rest of the workup.
Chapter 6 95

The reaction mixture is basified to pH 8–9 by the addition of 0.05–2 M NaOH,

and is quenched by mixing with a cold sodium sulfite Na2 SO3  aqueous
solution, followed by stirring for 30 minutes. The mixture is washed with
an organic solvent such as methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE), EtOAc, or Et 2 O.
The organic solutions must be checked for the presence of product, because
very lipophilic organic acids can be washed away by organic solvents even
from very basic aqueous solutions. The aqueous phase is acidified to a pH
of 2–4 by the addition of 1–2 M HCl and extracted with an organic solvent
such as EtOAc, Et2 O, MTBE, or CH2 Cl2 . If the organic phase from the
washing of the aqueous basic solution contains product, all organic phases
must be united for further workup. After optionally washing the organic phase
containing the product with water and brine, it is dried (Na2 SO4 or MgSO4 )
and concentrated, giving a crude acid that may need further purification. The
workup can be simplified by avoiding the quenching with sodium sulfite and
the washing of the basified aqueous solutions with an organic solvent. This
may lead to a more impure crude product.

a
WARNING: NaClO2 can explode in contact with organic matter.
b
Household chlorine bleach is perfectly effective. The desired concentration of NaOCl is normally
attained by diluting commercial bleach with some water.
c
The NaClO2 and NaOCl solutions can be added either simultaneously or sequentially
beginning with NaClO2 . The addition is normally performed over a period between 15
minutes and 2 hours.
d
Zhao et al. recommend a temperature of 35  C. Other researchers utilize a slightly higher
temperature of ca. 45–50  C. It must be mentioned that the oxoammonium salts primary
oxidants are unstable in hot water and increasing the temperature may lead to decreased
reaction rate.
e
A quantity of ca. 2.2–11.5—typically 5—mL of acetonitrile per mmol of alcohol is normally
employed.
f
An amount of ca. 1.7–5.5—typically 3.75—mL of phosphate buffer per mmol of alcohol is
normally used.
g
A phosphate buffer at pH 6.8 (35  C) consists of an aqueous solution containing 0.025 M
Na2 HPO4 and 0.025 M KH2 PO4 .
h
It normally takes between 4 and 24—typically 5—hours.

Although the oxidation could be carried out in 86% yield using RuCl3 and NaIO4 , Zhao’s
modification of Anelli’s procedure was preferred on a big scale. 37
96 Oxidation of Epp and Widlanski

A good yield of acid is obtained with catalytic TEMPO in the presence of stoichiometric
NaClO2 and catalytic NaOCl; other oxidations like PDC/DMF or Dess-Martin followed by
NaClO2 were found to be less effective. 38

While employing Zhao’s modification of Anelli’s oxidation leads to a 96% yield of carboxylic
acid, a more expensive oxidation with oxygen in the presence of platinum results in a 76%
yield. 39

6.4. Oxidation of Epp and Widlanski

In 1997, Margarita, Piancatelli et al. reported 6c the oxidation of alcohols to

aldehydes and ketones using catalytic TEMPO in the presence of 1.1 equiv-
alents of bis(acetoxy)iodobenzene (BAIB)—that is, PhIOAc2 —as stoichio-
metric secondary oxidant. According to the authors, under those conditions no
noticeable overoxidation to carboxylic acid is detected, even when the reaction
is carried out without employing an inert atmosphere and a dry solvent. In
fact, Margarita and Piancatelli described one successful oxidation to aldehyde
in which a MeCN:water (1:1) mixture is utilized as solvent. Two years later,
Epp and Widlanski reported 5 that it is possible to obtain a carboxylic acid from
a primary alcohol using the procedure of Margarita and Piancatelli, when the
reaction is performed with at least 2 equivalents of BAIB in the presence of
excess of water. They reported a successful protocol for the oxidation of primary
alcohols to carboxylic acids involving 2.2 equivalents of BAIB and catalytic
TEMPO in MeCN:water (1:1). This oxidation procedure for the obtention of
carboxylic acids is rather unique, because it is carried out in the total absence
of any inorganic salt and the by-products are the rather innocuous iodobenzene
and acetic acid.

Mechanism
A mechanism consistent with the experimental facts is shown in the following
scheme.
Chapter 6 97

Apparently, BAIB does not oxidize directly TEMPO to the corresponding

oxoammonium salt primary oxidant. Rather, TEMPO suffers an AcOH-catalyzed
bismutation to an oxoammonium salt and hydroxylamine, the latter being
oxidized to TEMPO by BAIB, resulting in the generation of AcOH. The
initial AcOH necessary for the formation of the first molecules of oxoam-
monim salt can be generated by ligand exchange of PhIOAc2 with the
alcohol.

Selectivity
Although at the time of this writing the reports of selective oxidation of primary
alcohols in the presence of secondary ones with TEMPO/BAIB are rather
scarce, 40 it seems that this oxidation system shows a great potential for this
selective transformation. The resulting hydroxyacids are very often isolated as
lactones, and TEMPO/BAIB is a very good reagent for the conversion of 1,4-
and 1,5-diols to lactones. 40b 41

A primary alcohol is selectively oxidized in more than 79% in the presence of two secondary
alcohols using BAIB with catalytic TEMPO. The resulting dihydroxyacid is isolated as a
lactone. 41a
98 Oxidation of Epp and Widlanski

6.4.1 General Procedure for Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

to Carboxylic Acids by the Protocol of Epp
and Widlanski
Approximately, from 0.2 to 0.3—typically 0.2—equivalent of TEMPO
(MW 156.25) and ca. 2.2–4.2—typically 2.2—equivalents of bis(acetoxy)
iodobenzenea (BAIB, MW 322.1) are added to a solution of the alcohol in
a MeCN:water (1:1) mixture,bc containing ca. 0.06–0.28 mmol of alcohol
per mL of mixture. The resulting mixture is stirred at room temperatured
until most of the alcohol or the intermediate aldehyde is consumed.e The
carboxylic acid sometimes precipitates from the reaction mixture and can
be very easily isolated in high purity by simple filtration. Otherwise, the
reaction can be optionally quenched by addition of 5–10% aqueous Na2 S2 O3
and the rest of the workup can proceed according to two alternative
protocols:
Workup A:
The reaction mixture is concentrated, giving a crude acid containing
iodobenzenef and other by-products that must be separated for example by
chromatography.
Workup B:
The reaction mixture can be optionally acidified by the addition of
hydrochloric acid. It is extracted with an aqueous solvent such as EtOAc
or Et2 O. The organic phase can be optionally washed with water and brine.
The resulting organic solution is dried (Na2 SO4 or MgSO4 ) and concentrated,
giving a crude carboxylic acid that may need further purification.
a
BAIB possesses the following 1 H-NMR ( CDCl3 , ppm): 8.13–7.45 (m, 5H, ArH), 2.01
(s, 6H, MeCO2 ). 42
b
A CH2 Cl2 :water mixture can also be employed. 43
c
It is sometimes beneficial to add 1 or 2 equivalents of NaHCO3 to the reaction mixture. 5
d
Better yields are sometimes obtained performing the reaction at 0  C, a temperature at which
the oxoammonium salt primary oxidant shows a greater stability in the presence of water.
e
It normally takes between half an hour and 1 day.
f
Iodobenzene possesses the following 1 H-NMR ( CDCl3 , ppm): 8.19 (s, 1H), 7.81 (s, 1H). 44

A primary alcohol is selectively oxidized in the presence of a secondary alcohol and a

sensitive uracil residue, using BAIB and catalytic TEMPO. 40a
Chapter 6 99

A primary alcohol is oxidized to carboxylic acid with BAIB and catalytic TEMPO in the
presence of a very oxidation-sensitive selenoether. 40c

6.5. Functional Group and Protecting Group

Sensitivity to TEMPO-Mediated
Oxidations

The transformation of primary alcohols into acids using Anelli’s protocol

involves more severe conditions than the analogous oxidation of alcohols to
aldehydes and ketones. 22e
TEMPO-mediated oxidations using Anelli‘s protocol are normally
performed at a pH of ca. 8.6–10. This moderately basic pH is compatible
with acid-sensitive functional groups and with most base-sensitive ones. Esters
normally resist 40c 45 the conditions of Anelli’s oxidation, including the very
base-sensitive acetate esters. 25 However, it is sometimes advisable to minimize
the reaction time to prevent hydrolysis of acetates. 29a Not surprisingly, esters
are fully compatible with the almost neutral conditions of TEMPO-mediated
oxidations by the method of Epp and Widlanski. 40c 46
Normally, Anellis‘s oxidation is not compatible with the presence of
olefins, because usually they react very easily with NaOCl. Nevertheless, there
is one report 22e in which a primary alcohol is oxidized to acid in the presence of
an alkene due to the use of stoichiometric—rather than catalytic—TEMPO that,
therefore, is able to act as a chlorine scavenger.
Alkynes remain unchanged under TEMPO-mediated oxidations. 4 47

The oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid under Anelli’s conditions is performed
using stoichiometric TEMPO that operates as a scavenger of chlorine that otherwise would
react with the alkene. 22e
100 Side Reactions

Olefins conjugated with carbonyl groups are much less reactive

against HOCl, and, therefore, remain unchanged under TEMPO-mediated
oxidations. 34a 48
It is possible to transform primary alcohols into acids in the presence of
sulfides and selenides, which fail to react in spite of their general sensitivity to
oxidation. 40c
Formation of neither lactones nor lactols has been reported when
1,4- 8 9b 34a 49 and 1,5-diols 8 14 34b 50 are oxidized under TEMPO-mediated
conditions, unless the condition of Epp and Widlanski are used. In this case,
good yields of lactones can be obtained. 40b 41

6.6. Side Reactions

A very common lateral reaction in oxidations under Anelli’s protocol is the

chlorination of aromatic rings and alkenes, due to the presence of HOCl. This
reaction can be mitigated by:

• Addition of a stoichiometric quantity of TEMPO, which acts as

scavenger of chlorine. 22a 28c
• Addition of a secondary oxidant different from NaOCl, such as
t-BuOCl. 9b
• Lowering the reaction temperature to −5 to 0  C. 35
• Using Zhao’s modification of Anelli’s oxidation, in which NaClO2 —
a much weaker chlorinator than HOCl—serves as stoichiometric
secondary oxidant; HOCl being present in catalytic quantities and,
therefore, much less able to produce undesired chlorinations. 4

For obvious reasons, no chlorinations are possible in TEMPO-mediated

oxidations performed under the protocol of Epp and Widlanski, in which
PhIOAc2 is used as secondary oxidant, rather than HOCl.

According to the authors “In optimizing this reaction it was found that one equivalent of
TEMPO was needed. When a catalytic amount of TEMPO was employed, a chlorinated
aromatic derivative was isolated as the major product (presumably the TEMPO scavenges any
chlorine which is liberated during the reaction provided that ca. 1 equiv is
present).” 28c
Chapter 6 101

This oxidation is performed using t-BuOCl as secondary oxidant, rather than the more
common HOCl, because the latter produces chlorination at the para position of the phenyl
group. The similar benzyl and methyl glycosides can be oxidized uneventfully using HOCl as
secondary oxidant. 9b

Sometimes, carboxylic acids obtained by Anelli’s oxidation suffer in

situ decarboxylation. This can be avoided by proper adjustment of pH and
maintaining low temperature. 29c

According to the authors: “To prevent decarboxylation during the TEMPO oxidation, it was
crucial to keep the pH between 8.5 and 9.5, and the temperature below 0  C.” 29c

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