www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com ne a — : ; This Book has been selected and distributed by ne Government of Punjab for Academic year 2016-2017 si as sole textbook for all Government Schools in Punjab. Tae CARAVAN BOOK HOUSE, LAHOREwww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com One Boat abl as Le Utell re pth Bibs?" 27 * PHYSICS Publisher: CARAVAN BOOK HOUSE, LAHOREwww.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com Unit 1| Physical Quantities and Measurement 4 Unit 2} Kinematics 27 Unit 3) Dynamics 55) Unit 4, | Turning Effect of Forces. 84 Unit 5} Gravitation Unit 6 Work and Energy Unit 7) Properties of Matter 143 Unit 8) Thermal properties of matter 167 Unit 9} Transfer of heat 193 Authors: © Prof. Tahir Hassan © Prof. Muhammad Naeem Anwar Prepared by: The Caravan Book House Kachehri Road, Lahore. Date of Printing No. of Copies Price March 2016 60,000 100www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1 Physical Quantities and Measurement After studying this unit, the students will be able to: Seiya ry rn deseribe the crucial role of Physics in Science, Technology and Society. explain with examples. that Science is based on physical quantities which consist of numerical magnitude and a unit. differentiate between base and derived physical quantities. list the seven units of System international (S!) alongwith their symbols and physical quantities (standard definitions of Si units are not required). interconvert the prefixes and their symbols to indicate multiples and sub-multiples for both base and derived units write the answer in scientific notation in measurements and calculations. describe the working of Vernier Callipers and screw gauge for measuting length. identify and explain the imitations of measuring instruments such as metre rule, Vernier Calipers and screw gauge. describe the need using significant figures for recording and stating results in the laboratory. www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com:/e uid L247www.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com Physics - 1% 4 ii Sass 2 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement » compare the feast count/ accuracy of the following measuring instruments and state their measuring range: (i) Measuring tape (ii) Metre rule (ili) Vernier Callipers (iv) Micrometer screw gauge » make a paper scale of given least count eg. 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm. » determine the area of cross section of a solid cylinder with Vernier Callipers and screw gauge and evaluate which measurement is more precise. » determine an interval of time using stopwatch, » determine the mass of an object by using different types of balances and identify the most accurate balance. » determine volume of an irregular shaped object using a measuring cylinder. List safety equipments and rules. » Use appropriate safety equipments in the laboratory. ¥ » determine length, mass, time and volume in daily life activities using various measuring instruments. ~ list with brief desoription the various branches of physies. Man has always been inspired by the wonders | of nature. He has always been curious to know the Secrets of nature and remained in: search of the truth and reality. He observes various phenomena and tries. to find their answers by logical reasoning. The knowledge gained through observations andwww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement 3 experimentations is called Science. The word science is derived from the Latin word scientia, which means knowledge. Not until eighteenth century, various aspect of material objects were studied under a single subject called natural philosophy. But as the knowledge increased, it was divided into two main streams; Physical sciences — which deal with the Physics - Ix study of non-living things and Biological sciences — which are concemed with the study of living things. Measurements are not confined to science. They are part of our lives. They play an important role to describe and understand the physical world. Over the centuries, man has improved the methods of measurements. In this chapter, we will study some of physical quantities and a few useful measuring instruments, We will also learn the measuring techniques that enable us to measure various quantities accurately. 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS In the nineteenth century, physical sciences were divided into five distinct disciplines; physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and meteorology. The most fundamental of these is the Physics. In Physics, we study matter, energy and their interaction. The laws and principles of Physics help us to understand nature. The rapid progress in science during the recent years has become possible due to the discoveries and inventions in the field of Physics. The technologies are the applications of scientific principles. Most of the technologies of our modern society throughout the world are related to Physics. For example, a car is made on the principles of mechanics and a refrigerator is based on the principles of thermodynamics. \n our daily life, we hardly find a device where Physics is not involved. Consider pulleys that make it easy to lift heavy loads, Electricity is used not only to BRANCHES OF PHYSICS Mechanics: it is the study of motion of objects, its causes and’ef Heat: Tt deals with the nature of heat, modes of transfer and effects of heat. Sound: it deals with the physical aspects of sound waves, their production, properties and applications. Light (Optics): It ig the study of physical aspects of light, its properties, working and use oi optical instruments. Electricity and Magnetism: lis the study of the charges at fest and in motion, their effecis and their relationship — with magnetism. Atomic Physies: Its the shady of the stuckire and properties of atoms. ‘Nuciear Physics: It deals with the properties and behaviour of nuclei and the Particles within the nuciei. Piusiie Physics: It is the study of production, Properties of the ionic state of matter ~ the*fourth state of matter. Geophysics; {t is the study of the internal structure of the Earth. www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com:U/e 52 £2 47www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Hees 4 Unit: Physical Quantities and Measurement get light and teat but also mechanical energy that drives fans and electric motors etc. Consider the means of transportation such as car and aeroplanes; domestic appliances such as air-conditioners, refrigerators, vacuum-cleaners, washing machines, and microwave ovens etc. Similarly the means of communication such as radio, TV, telephone and computer are the result of applications of Physics. & (b) a) These devices have made our lives much easier, Fe Oe Mosler’ faster and more comfortable than the past. For example, think of what a mobile phone smalier than our palm can do? It allows us to contact people anywhere in the world and to get latest worldwide information. We can take and save pictures, send and receive messages of our friends. We can also receive tadio transmission and can use it as a calculator as well. DO YOU KNOW? However, the scientific inventions have aiso caused harms and destruction of serious nature. One of which is the environmental pollution and the other is the deadly weapons. 1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES All measurable quantities are called physical quantities such as length, mass, time and temperature. A physical quantity possesses at east two characteristics in common. One is its numerical Magnitude and the other is the unit in whictr it is measured. For example, if the length of a student is 104 cm then 104 js its numerical Magnitude and centimetre is the unit of measurement. Similarly when a grocer says that each bag contains 5 kg sugar, he is describing its numerical magnitude as well as the unit of measurement. it would be meaningless to state 5 or > kg only. Physical quantities are divided into base Figure 1.2: Measunng height. quantities and derived quantities.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement 5 Physics - IX BASE QUANTITIES There are seven physical quantities which form the foundation for other physical quantities. These physical quantities are called the base quantities. These are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, intensity of light and the amount of a substance. DERIVED QUANTITIES Those physical quantities which are expressed in terms of base quantities are called the derived | quantities. These include area, volume, speed, force, work, energy, power, electric charge, electric potential, etc. 1.3 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS, Measuring is not simply counting. For example, if we need milk or sugar, we must also understand how much quantity of milk or sugar we are talking about. Thus, there is a need of some standard quantities for measuring/comparing unknown quantities. Once a standard is set for a quantity then it can be expressed in terms of that standard quantity. This standard quantity is called a unit. With the developments in the field of science and technology, the need for a commonly acceptable sysiem of units was seriously felt all over the world particularly to exchange scientific and technical information. The eleventh General Conference on Weight and Measures held in Paris in 1960 adopted a world-wide system of measurements called international System of Units. The International ‘System of Units is commonly referred as SI. BASE UNITS The units that describe base quantities are called base units. Each base quantity has its SI unit.www.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com Physics - 1X 6 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement Table 1.1 shows seven base quantities, their Si units and their symbols. DERIVED UNITS The units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. Derived units are defined in terms of base units and are obtained by multiplying or dividing one or more base units with each other, The unit of area (metre)* and the unit of volume (metre)* are based on the unit of length, which is metre. Thus the unit of length is the base unit while the unit of area and volume are derived units. Speed is defined as distance covered in unit time; therefore its unit is metre per second. In the same way the unit of density, force, pressure, power etc. can be derived using one or more base units. Some derived units and their symbols are given in the Table 1.2. Pa or (Nm*) kgm* Cor (As)www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement 7 Physics - Ix 1.4 PREFIXES Some of the quantities are either very large or very small. For example, 250 000 m, 0.002 W and 0.000 002 g, etc. SI units have the advantage that their multiples and sub-multiples can be expressed in terms of prefixes. Prefixes are the words or letters added before SI! units such as kilo, mega, giga and milli. These prefixes are given in Table 1.3. The prefixes are useful to express very large or small quantities. For example, divide 20,000 g by 1000 to exa peta tera giga megs kilo hecto deca deci centi 2 3 3 Bev saregeabsxeo4uMm express it into kilogramme, since kilo represents ee 10° or 1000. or Thus 20,000g = OP kg = 20kg aus. 1000 or 20,0009 = 20x10°g = 20kg Table 1.4 shows some multiples and sub- multiples of length. However, double prefixes are not used. For example, no prefix is used with kilogramme since it already contains the prefix kilo. Prefixes given in Table 1.3 are used with both types base and derived units. Let us consider few more examples: 4 o a i 1km 10°m ()) 200 000 ms" = 200x10°ms' =200kms ton 402m 3 () 4800000W = 4800x10° W = 4 B00 kW aa “wu tum 10° m = 4.8x10°W == 4.8 MW tnm 10°m (il) 3.300 000 000 Hz = 3:300x10°Hz =3300 MHzwww.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com Physics - IX 8 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement = 3.3x10°MHz =3.3GHz (iv) 0.00002 g = 0.02x10%g =20x10°9 Tidbits = 20ug ious objects does ot Varios oe (v) 0.000 000 0081m = 0.0081x10°m =8.1x10%m 109 : = 81am 1079 Se 10"%g eS 1.5 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 6, A simple but scientific way to write large or small 10"9 numbers is to express them in some power of ten. 10g Poe The Moon is 384000000 metres away from the Earth. ae Distance of the moon from the Earth can also be 10°g A expressed as 3,84 x10" m. This form of expressing a 10°g +o" number is called the standard form or scientific Average human notation. This saves writing down or interpreting large 10°g +} site of water § A numbers of zeros. Thus 10°9 «»| In scientific notation a number is expressed as \ some power of ten multiplied by a number 0° \ 10%9 between 1 and 10. 10%9 For example, a number 62750 can be 10"g cone a expressed as 62.75x10° or 6.275x10' or 0.6275x10°. s All these ‘are correct. But the number that has one 10g -s% non-zero digit before the decimal ie. 6.275x10" 40% preferably be taken as the standard form. Similarly the 8 standard form of 0.00045 s is 4.5x10"s, 10"9- ,, - a ea poten mace = = = 1007+ rman si 109g eewww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement 9 1.6 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Measuring instruments are used to measure various physical quantities such as length, mass, time, volume, etc. Measuring instruments used in the past were not so reliable and accurate as we use today. For example, sundial, water clock and other time measuring devices used around 1300 AD were quite crude. On the other hand, digital clocks and watches used now-a-days are highly reliable and accurate. Here we shall describe some measuring instruments used in Physics laboratory. THE METRE RULE Figure 1.3: A metre rule A metre rule is a length measuring instrument as (a) x shown in figure 1.3. It is commonly used in the coc Scenes ope ae, A? between two points. It is one metre long which is equal . a to 100 centimetres. Each centimetre (cm) is divided into (b) 10 small divisions called millimetre (mm). Thus one millimetre is the smallest reading that can be taken using ttn gis? @ metre rule and is called its least count. Figure 1.4 (3) Wrong position of the While measuring length, or distance, eye Must — 6¥6 to note the reading. : (©) Correct position of the eye to be kept vertically above the reading point as shown Sere the reading trom 4 metre rule. in figure 1.4(b). The reading becomes doubtful if the eye is positioned either left or right to the reading point. THE MEASURING TAPE Measuring tapes are used to measure length in metres and centimetres. Figure 1.5 shows a measuring tape used by blacksmith and carpenters. A Measuring tape consists of a thin and long strip of cotton, metal or plastic generally 10 m, 20 m, 50 m or 100 m long. Measuring tapes are marked in centimetres : as well as in inches. Figure 1.5: A measuring tapewww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Physics - IX 10 Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement VERNIER CALLIPERS The accuracy obtained in measurements using a metre rule is upto 1 mm. However an accuracy greater than 1 mm can be obtained by using some Figure 1.6: A Vernier Callipers with jaws closed other instruments such as a Vernier Callipers. A Vernier Callipers consists of two jaws as shown in figure 1.6. One is a fixed jaw with main scale attached to it. Main scale has centimetre and millimetre marks ‘on it. The other jaw is a moveable jaw. It has vernier scale having 10 divisions over it such that each of its division is 0.9 mm. The difference between one small division on main scale division and one vernier scale division is 0.1 mm. It is called least count (LC) of the Vernier Callipers. Least count of the Vernier Callipers can also be found as given below: Least count of _ Smallestreading on main scale Vernier Calipers ~ no. of divisions on vernier scale imm = Fodivisions = 1mm Hence LC = 0.1mm = 0.01 cm Working of a Vernier Callipers First of all find the error, if any, in the measuring instrument. It is called the zero error of the instrument. Knowing the zero error, necessary correction can be made to find the correct . measurement. Such a correction is called zero correction of the instrument. Zero correction is the negative of zero error.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com ‘Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement WW Zero Error and Zero Correction To find the zero error, close the jaws of Vernier Callipers gently. If zero line of the vemier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale then the zero error is zero (figure 1.7a). Zero error will exist if zero line of the vernier scale is not coinciding with the zero of main scale (figure 1.7b). Zero error will be positive if zero line of vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of the main scale and will be negative if zero line of vernier scale is on the left side of zero of the main scale (figure 1.7¢). Taking a Reading on Vernier Cailipers Let us find the diameter of a solid cylinder using Vernier Callipers. Place the solid cylinder between jaws of the Vernier Callipers as shown in figure 1.8. Close the jaws till they press the opposite sides of the object gently. Figure 1.8: A oylinder placed between the outer jaws of Vernier Calipers, Note the complete divisions of main scale past the vernier scale zero in a tabular form. Next find the vernier scale division that is coinciding with any division ‘on the main scale. Multiply it by least count of Vernier Pere eOERe Callipers and add it in the main scale reading. This is Geen equal to the diameter of the solid cylinder. Add zero (@)-0.02.om. correction (Z.C) to get correct measurement. Repeat the above procedure and record at least three observations with the solid cylinder displaced or rotated each time.www.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com Physics - IX 12 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement DIGITAL VERNIER CALLIPERS EXAMPLE 1.1 Find the diameter of a cylinder placed between the outer jaws of Vernier Calipers as shown in figure 1.8. SOLUTION Zero correction On closing the jaws of Vernier Callipers, the position of vernier scale as shown in figure 1.7(b). Main scale reading = 0.0cm Vernier division coinciding with main scale = 7 div. Vernier scale reading = 7x 0,01 cm | = 0.07 cm Zero error 1.0 em+0.07 cm ‘has eases : =+0.07 cm Vernier | Zero correction (Z.C) =—0.07 cm lipers. ae count cave Vernier Callipers e Diameter of the cylinder 0.01 mm. + Main scale reading =2.20m —! (when the given cylinder is kept between the jaws of the Vemier Gallipers as shown in figure 1.8), Vernier div. coinciding with main scale div. =6div. Vernier scale reading 6x 0.01 cm = 0.06 em Observed diameter of the cylinder =2.2 cm+0.06 cm =2.26 om Correct diameter of the cylinder =2.26 cm-0.07 cm =2,190m Thus, the correct diameter of the given cylinder as found by Vernier Callipers is 2.19 cm.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit +: Physical Quantities and Measurement 13 Physics - x SCREW GAUGE A screw gauge is an instrument that is used to Tic ‘i measure small lengths with accuracy greater than a ese cee st noeeues Vernier Calliper. It is also called as micrometer screw gauge. A simple screw gauge consists of a U-shaped metal frame with a metal stud at its one end as shown in figure 1.8. A hollow cylinder (or sleeve) has a millimetre scale over it along a line called index line parallel to its axis. The hollow cylinder acts as a nut, It is fixed at the end of U-shaped frame opposite to the stud. A Thimble has a threaded spindle inside it. As the thimble completes one rotation, the spindle moves 1 mm along the index line. It is because the distance between consecutive threads on the spindle is 1 mm. This distance is called the pitch of screw on the spindle. Figure 1.9: A micrometer screw gauge The thimble has 100 divisions around its one end. it is the circular scale of the screw gauge. As thimble completes one rotation, 100 divisions pass the index liné and the thimble moves 1 mm along the main scale. Thus each division of circular scale crossing the index line moves the thimble through 1/100 mm or 0.01 mm on the main scale. Least count of a screw gauge can also be found as given below: pitch of the screw gauge Least count = = ; no. of divisions on circular scaie ABojouyos}0uRN SIUBUOUICD 4ely) PE S}jS9 JO SEzis eANEIaYwww.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com Physics - IX Figure 4.10: Zero Errorin a scraw ‘gauge: (a) zero (b) +0.18 mm (¢) -0.05.mm. 14 Unit Imm 100 =0.01mm = 0.001 cm Thus least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm ‘or 0.001 cm. WORKING OF A SCREW GAUGE The first step is to find the zero error of the screw gauge. ZERO ERROR To find the zero error, close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge by rotating the ratchet in the clockwise direction. If zero of circular scale coincides with the index line, then the Zero error will be zero as shown in figure 1.10(a). Zero error will be positive if zero of circular scale is behind the index line. In this case, multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has not crossed the index line with the least count of screw gauge to find zero error as shown in figure 1.10(b). Zero error will be negative if zero of circular scale has crossed the index line. In this case, multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has crossed the index line with the least count of screw gauge to find the negative zero error as shown in figure 1.10(c). EXAMPLE 1.2 Find the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge. SOLUTION The diameter of a given wire can be found as follows: (i) Close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge by turning the ratchet in the clockwise direction. (ii) Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find zero error and hence zero correction of the screw gauge.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 4; Physical Quantities and Measurement 15 Physics-1X (ii) Open the gap between stud and spindle of the sen Exerciae a screw gauge by turing the ratchet in anti- 1 cote! clockwise direction. Place the given wire inthe |” 5 av eiee? Ee gap as shown in figure 1.11. Turn the ratchet 2. What is the pitch of your ‘so that the object is pressed gently between laboratory screw gauge? the studs and the spindle. 3. What is the range of your laboratory screw gauge? ‘es tend ween te gap 4: Which: one.of the two instruments is more precise and why? (a), Vernier Callipers. Figure 1.11: Measuring the diameter of a wire using a micrometer ‘screw gauge. v) Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find the diameter of the given wire. (v) Apply zero correction to get the correct diameter of the wire (vi) Repeat steps ili, iv and v at different places of the wire to obtain its average diameter. Zero correction Closing the gap of the screw gauge (figure 1.12). Main scale reading =O0mm Circular scale reading = 240.01 mm = 0.24 mm Zero error of the screw gauge =Omm+0.24 mm =+0.24mm Zero correction Z.C. =-0.24mm Diameter of the wire (figure 1.11) Main scale reading = 1mm (when the given wire is pressed by the stud and spindle of the screw gauge) (b) Screw. Gauge. Figure 1.12: Zero error of the screw gauge USEFUL INFORMATION Least count of ruler is “Ami. It is 0.1mm for Vernier Callipers and 0.01mm_ for micrometer screw gauge. ‘Thus measurements taken by micrometer screw gauge are the most precise than theother two?www.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com Physics-1x. Figure 1.13: A beam balance Mini Exercise 1. What is the function of balancing screws in a physical batance? 2, On what pan we place the object and why? 16 Unit-1: Physical Quantities and Measurement No. of divisions on circular scale = 85 div. 85 x 0.01 mm 0.85 mm Observed diameter of the given wire =1mm+0.85 mm 1.85 mm 4.85mm-0.24mm 1.61 mm Circular scale reading Correct diameter of the given wire Thus diameter of the given wire is 1.61 mm. MASS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Pots were used to measure grain in various part of the world in the ancient times. However, balances were also in use by Greeks and Romans. Beam balances such as shown in figure 1.13 are still in use at many places. in a beam balance, the unknown, mass is placed in one pan. It is balanced by putting known masses in the other pan. Today people use many types of mechanical and electronic balances. You might have seen electronic balances in sweet and grocery shops. These are more precise than beam balances and are easy to handle. PHYSICAL BALANCE A physical balance is used in the laboratory to measure the mass of various objects by comparison It consists of a beam resting at the centre on a fulcrum Stimup Beam —_galancing Screw = ee a Arestment knob I] Leveling Screw Figure 1.14: A physical balancewww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement 7 Physies-X as shown in the figure 1.14. The beam carries scale pans over the hooks on either side. Unknown mass is placed on the left pan. Find some suitable standard masses that cause the pointer to remain at zero on raising the beam. EXAMPLE 1.3 Find the mass of a small stone by a physical balance. SOLUTION Follow the steps to measure the mass of a given ‘object. (i) Adjusting the levelling screws with the help of plumbiine to level the platform of physical balance. (ii) Raise the beam gently by turning the arresting knob clockwise. Using balancing screws at the ends of its beam, bring the pointer at zero position. (iii) Turn the arresting knob to bring the beam back on its supports. Place the given object (stone) on its left pan. (iv) Place suitable standard masses from the weight box on the right pan. Raise the beam. Lower the beam if its pointer is not at zero. (vy) Repeat adding or removing suitable standard masses in the right pan till the pointer rests at zero on raising the beam. (vi) Note the standard masses on the right pan. Their sum is the mass of the object on the left pan. LEVER BALANCE A lever balance such as shown in figure 1.15 consists of a system of levers. When lever is lifted placing the object in one pan and standard masses on the other pan, the pointer of the lever system moves. The pointer is brought to zero by varying standard masses. Figure 1.15: A lever balancewww.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com 18 Unit 1: Physics! Quantities and Measurement SSS ELECTRONIC BALANCE on Electronic balance such as shown in figure 1.16 Poe j —_—_— = see Rote Figure 1.16: An electronic balance ea The precision of a balance in measuring mass. ‘of an object is different for different balances. A sensitive balance cannot measure large masses. Similarly a balance that Measures large masses cannot be sensitive. Some digital balances measure even smaller difference of the order of 0.0001g or 0.1 mg. Such balances are considered the most precise balance. Figure 1.17: 4 mechanical stopwatch come in various ranges; milligram ranges, gram ranges and kilogramme ranges. Before measuring the mass of @ body, it is switched ON and its reading is set to Zero. Next place the object to be weighed. The reading on the bala 4 body placed over it. ce gives you the mass The most Accurate Balance The mass of one rupee coin is done using different balances as given below: (a) Beam Balance Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.29 A sensitive beam balance may be able to detect a change as small as of 0.1 g Or 100 ma. (b) Physical Balance Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.24 g Least count of the physical balance may be as small as 0.01 g or 10 mg. Therefore, its measurement would be more precise than a sensitive beam balance. (c) Electronic Balance Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.247 g Least count of an electronic balance is 0.001 gort mg. Therefore, its measurement would be more Precise than a sensitive physical balance. Thus electronic balance is the most sensitive balance in the above balances. STOPWATCH A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event. There are two types of Stopwatches; mechanical and digital as shown in figure 1.17 and 1.18. A mechanical stopwatch can measure a time interval up to a minimum 0.1 second. Digital stopwatches commonly used in laboratories can measure a time interval as small as 1/100 second or 0.01 second.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement 19 How to use a Stopwatch A mechanical stopwatch has a knob that is used to wind the spring that powers the watch. It can also be used as a start-stop and reset button. The watch starts when the knob is pressed once. When Pressed second time, it Stops the watch while the third Press brings the needle back to zero position. The digital stopwatch starts to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop button is pressed. As soon as start/stop button’ is pressed again, it stops and Figure 1.18: A dgtal stopwatch indicates the time interval recorded by it between start and stop of an event. A reset button restores its initial zero setting. MEASURING CYLINDER " LABORATORY SAFETY A measuring cylinder is a glass or transparent EQUIPMENTS plastic cylinder. It has a scale along its length that A schoo! laboratory must indicates the volume in millitre (mL) as shown in | Rave s@lely equipments such figure 1.19. Measuring cylinders have different | Ra TES aE capacities from 100 mL to 2500 mL. They are used to | . Fire extinguisher, measure the volume of a liquid or powdered | « Fire alarm. substance. It is also used to find the volume of an | + First Aid Box. iegular shaped solid insoluble in a liquid by | * Sandand water buckets. displacement method. The solid is lowered into a | * Fife blanketto put oft fie measuring cylinder containing water/liquid. The level ‘that need extra cate must of water/liquid rises. The increase in the volume of bear water/liquid is the volume of the given solid object. EeCieR One (3) Correct position Figure 1.18(9) 1B) con rong Way to note the iiss level Keeping eye stove iu level ton of aye to-note Ihe iquid level Keeping eye at hquid Ieee!Physics-tX www.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com 20 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement LABORATORY SAFETY RULES The students should know what to do in case of an accident. The charts or posters are to be displayed in the laboratory to handie situations arising from any mishap or accident. For your ‘own safety and for the safely of others in the laboratory, follow safety rules given below: ® Do not cary out any experiment without the permission of your teacher. ® Do not eat, drink, play or run in the laboratory. “> Read the instructions ” carefully to familiarize yourself with the possible hazards before handling equipments and materials. » Handle equipments and materials with care, ® Do not hesitate to consult your teacher in case of any doubt. % Do not temper with the electrical appliances and “other fittings in the _ taboratory. ® Report any accident or injuries immediately to your teacher. HOW TO USE A MEASURING CYLINDER While using a measuring cylinder, it must be kept vertical on a plane surface. Take a measuring cylinder. Place it vertically on the table. Pour some water into it. Note that the surface of water is curved as shown in figure 1.19. The meniscus of the most liquids curve downwards while the meniscus of mercury curves upwards. The correct method to note the level of a liquid in the cylinder is to keep the eye at the same level as the meniscus of the liquid as shown in figure 1.19(b). It is incorrect to note the liquid level keeping the eye above the level of liquid as shown in figure 1.19 (a). When the eye is above the liquid level, the meniscus appears higher on the scale. Similarly when the eye is below the liquid level, the meniscus appears lower than actual height of the liquid. MEASURING VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPED ‘SOLID Measuring cylinder can be used to find the volume of a small irregular shaped solid that sinks in water. Let us find the volume of a small stone. Take some water in a graduated measuring cylinder. Note the volume V, of water in the cylinder. Tie the solid with a thread. Lower the solid into the cylinder till it is fully immersed in water. Note the volume V, of water and the solid. Volume of the solid will be V;— V; 1.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The value of a physical quantity is expressed by a number followed by some suitable unit. Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value. The accuracy in measuring a physical quantity depends upon various factors: + the quality of the measuring instrument + the skill of the observer + the number of observations made For example, a student measures the length of a book as 18 cm using a measuring tape. The numbers of significant figures in his/her measuredwww.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement 21 Physics-1x value are two. The left digit 1 is the accurately known digit. While the digit B is the doubtful digit for which the student may not be sure. Another student measures the same book using a ruler and claims its length to be 18.4 cm. In this case all the three figures are significant. The two left digits 1 and 8 are accurately known digits. Next digit 4 is the doubtful digit for which the student may not be sure. A third student records the length of the book as 18.425 om. Interestingly, the measurement is made using the same ruler. The numbers of significant figures is again three; consisting of two accurately known digits 1, 8 and the first doubtful digit 4. The digits 2 and 5 are not significant. It is because the reading of these last digits cannot be justified using a ruler. Measurement upto third or even second decimal place is beyond the limit of the measuring instrument. An improvement in the quality of measurement by using better instrument increases the significant figures in the measured result. The significant figures are all the digits that are known accurately and the ‘one estimated digit. More significant figure means greater precision. The following rules are helpful in identifying significant figure: () — Non-zero digits are always significant. (i) Zeros between two significant figures are also significant. (ii) Final or ending zeros on the right in decimal fraction are significant. (iv) Zeros written on the left side of the decimal point for the purpose of spacing the decimal point are not significant. (vy) In whole numbers that end in one or more zeros without a decimal point. These zeros may or may not be significant. In such cases, it is not clear which zeros serve to RULES TO FIND THE SIGNIFICANT DIGITS IN AMEASUREMENT @ Digits other than zero are always significant. 27 has 2 significant digits. 275 has 3 significant digits, (i) Zeros between significant digits are also significant. 2705 has 4 8ignilicant digits. Gil) Final zero or zeros after decimal ure alcaticert. 275.00 has 5 significant digits. eta een ee the cectral polnt are natPhysics4X www.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com 22 Unit 4; Physical Quantities and Measurement | Rounding the Numbers (Dif the last digit is less than 5 then it is simply dropped. This decreases ‘the number of significant digits in the figure. +E example, ao oe the last digit is greater oo hea ‘the digit on is increased by ‘one. his also decreases the number of significant “digits in the figure. For example, (1.47 is rounded to two ‘significant digits 1.5 If the last digit is 5, then ‘is rounded to get 1 even number. “Forexample, 1.35 is rounded to 1.4 and | 4.45 Is also rounded to 1.4 locate the position value and which are actually parts of the measurement. In such a case, express the quantity using scientific notation to find the significant zero. EXAMPLE 1.4 Find the number of significant figures in each of the following values. Also express them in scientific notations. a) 1008s b) 0.00580 km ce) 210.09 SOLUTION (a) All the four digits are significant. The zeros between the two significant figures 1 and 8 are significant. To write the quantity in scientific notation, we move the decimal point two places to the left, thus 100.8 s = 1.008 x10? s (b) The first two zeros are not significant. They are used to space the decimal point. The digit 5,8 and the final zero are significant. Thus there are three significant figures. In scientific notation, it can be written as 5.80x10~ km. (c) The final zero is significant since it comes atter the decimal point. The zero between last zero and 1 is also significant because it comes between the significant figures. Thus the number of significant figures in this case is four. In scientific notation, it can be written as 210.0 g = 2.100 x 10g.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement SUE os: Physics is a branch of Science that deals with matter, energy and their relationship. Some main branches of Physics are mechanics, heat, sound, light (optics), electricity and magnetism, nuclear physics and quantum physics. Physics plays an important role in our daily life. For example, electricity is widely used everywhere, domestic appliances, office equipments, machines used in industry, means of transport and communication etc, work on the basic laws and principles of Physics. A measurable quantity is called a physical quantity. Base quantities are defined independently. Seven quantities are selected as base quantities. These are length, time, mass, electric current, temperature, intensity of light and the amount of a substance. The quantities which are expressed in terms of base quantities are called derived quantities. For example, speed, area, density, force. pressure, energy, etc. A world-wide system —of measurements is known as international system of units (SI). In Si, the units of seven base quantities are metre, kilogramme, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and mole. The words or letters added before a unit and stand for the multiples or 23 PhystostX sub-multiples of that unit are known as prefixes. For example, kilo, mega, milli, micro, etc. A way to express a given number as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by 10 having an appropriate power is called scientific notation or standard form. An instrument used to measure small lengths such as internal or external diameter or length of a cylinder, etc is called as Vernier Calipers, A Screw gauge is used to measure small lengths such as diameter of a wire, thickness of a metal sheet, etc. Physical balance is a modified type of beam balance used to measure small masses by comparison with greater accuracy. A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event. Mechanical stopwatches have least count upto 0.1 seconds. Digital stopwatch of least count 0.01s are common. A measuring cylinder is a graduated glass cylinder marked in millilitres. It is used to measure the volume of a liquid and also to find the volume of an irregular shaped solid object. All the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit in an expression are called significant figures. It reflects the precision of a measured value of a physical quantity.www.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com vi. Encircle the correct answer from the given choices. The number of base units in SI are: {a3 (b) 6 @7 («as Which one of the following unit is not a derived unit? (a) pascal (b) kilogramme (c) newton (A) watt Amount of a substance in terms of numbers is measured in: (a) gram (b) kilogramme (c) newton (a) mole An interval of 200us_ is equivalent to (a) 02s (b) 0.02 s (c) 2x10"s (d) 2xi0*s Which one of the following is the smallest quantity? (a) 0.019 (b) 2mg (c) 100 ug (d) 5000 ng Which instrument is most suitable to measure the internal diameter of a test tube? (a) metre rule (b) Vernier Calipers (c) measuring tap (d) screw gauge vii. viii. 12 Unit 1; Physical Quantities and Measurement A student claimed the diameter of a wire as 1.032 cm using Vernier Calipers. Upto what extent do you agree with it? (a) tom (b) 1.0m (©) 1.03em — (d) 1.032. cm A measuring cylinder is used to measure: (a) mass (c) volume (b) area (d) level of a liquid A student noted the thickness of a glass sheet using a screw gauge. On the main scale, it reads 3 divisions while 8” division on the circular scale coincides with index line. Its thickness is: (a) 3.8m (c) 3.8mm (b) 3.08 mm (d) 3.08 m Significant figures in an expression are : (a) all the digits (b) all the accurately known digits (c) all the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit (d) all the accurately known and all the doubtful digits What is the difference between base quantities and derived quantities? Give three examples in each case.www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement 25 Physics-IX 4.3. Pick out the base units in the 1.9 Why is the use of zero error following: necessary in a measuring joule, newton, — kilogramme, instrument? hertz, mole, ampere, metre, kelvin, coulomb and watt. 4.40 What is a stopwatch? What is . the least count of a % ria ees er mechanical stopwatch you have used in the labor ies? following derived quantities: zr borne (a) speed (0): volume 4.11 Why do we need to measure (c) force () work extremely small interval of 1.5 Estimate your age in seconds. times? 4.6 What role SI units have played 4.12 What is meant by significant in the development — of figures of a measurement? science? 1.7 What is meant by vernier 1.13 How is precision related to the constant? significant figures in a measured quantity? 1.8 What do you understand by the zero error of a measuring instrument? PROBLEMS Ww 12 Express the following 14 quantities using prefixes. (a) 5000 g (b) 2000 000 W (c) 52 x10" kg (d) 225 x10 s {(a) 5 kg (b) 2 MW 15 (e) 5.2u9 (d) 2.25 us } How do the prefixes micro, nano and pico relate to each other? 1.3 Your hair grow at the rate of 1mm per day. Find their growth rate innms". (11.57 ams") Rewrite the standard form. (a) 1168x107" (b) 32 x10 * (c) 725 «10% kg (a) 0.02 x10 {(a) 1.168x10 — (b) 3.2 x10" (c) 7.259 (a) 2x10} Write the following quantities in standard form. (a) 6400 km (b) 380.000 km (c) 300 000 000 ms” (d) seconds in a day {(a) 6.410 * km (b) 3.8x10° km (c)3x10*ms* (d) 8.64x10"*s} following inwww.iqbalkalmati.blaogspot.com P 26 Unit 4: Physical Quantities and Measurement 1.6 On closing the jaws of a Vernier significant figures? Callipers, zero of the vernier (a) 3.0066 m —_{b} 0.00309 kg scale is on the right to its main seit j scale such that 4th division of its RUE OBS SHE 2010'S vernier scale coincides with one {(b) and (c)} of the main scale division. Find ie its zero error and zero correction, 19 What are the significant figures in the following (+0.04 cm, -0.04 em) measurements? 1.7 A screw gauge has 50 divisions (a) 1.009 m (b) 0.00450 kg on its circular scale. The pitch of (c) 1.66x10% kg (d) 2001s the screw gauge is 0.5 mm. What {(@)4 (b)3 ()3 (@)4) is its least count? (0.001 cm) 1.10 A chocolate wrapper is 6.7 cm long and 5.4 cm wide. Calculate 1.8 Which of the following its area upto reasonable quantities have three number of significant figures. (36 cm?)www.iqbalkalmati.blogspot.com Unit 2 : . Kinematics After studying unit, the students will be able to: ~ describe using examples how objects can be at rest and in motion simultaneously. ~ identify different types of motion ie. translatory, (linear, random, and circular rotatory and vibratory motions and distinguish among them. » differentiate with examples between distance and displacement, speed and velocity. ~ differentiate with examples between scalar and vector quantities, ~ represent vector quantities by drawing. ~ define the terms speed, velocity and acceleration. ~ plot and interpret distance-time graph and speed-time graph. ~ determine and interpret the slope of distance- time and speed-time graph. ~ determine from the shape of the graph, the | This unit is built on state of a body Force and Motion Sinerne at rest | moving with constant speed ill, moving with variable speed.www.iqbalkalmati.blagspot.com Physics 1X 28 Unit 2: Kinematics > calculate the area under speed-time graph to determine the distance travelled by the moving body. > derive equations of motion for a body moving with uniform acceleration in a straight line using graph. . solve problems related to uniformly accelerated motion using appropriate equations. > solve problems related to freely falling bodies using 10 ms* as the acceleration due to gravity. + demonstrate various types of motion so as fo distinguish between translatory, rotatory and vibratory motions. + measure the average speed of a 100 m sprinter. > list the effects of various means of transportation and their safety issues. > the use of mathematical slopes (ramps) of graphs or straight lines in real life applications. > interpret graph from newspaper, magazine regarding cricket and weather etc. The first thing concerning the motion of an object is its kinematics. Kinematics is the study of motion of an object without discussing the cause of motion. In this unit, we will study the types of motion, scalar and vector quantities, the relation between displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration; linear motion and equations of motion.