THE

FOUNDATIONS
OF SOCIAL
RESEARCH
Meaning and perspective
in the research process
Michael Crotty
($)SAGE Publications
London Thousand Oaks New Delhi
 1
INTRODUCTION:
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
... many arrows, loosed several ways,
Fly to one mark .
Willi,lIn Shakespeare, Henry V
They call it 'scaffolded learning'. It is an approach to teaching and
learning that, while careful to provide an initial framework, leaves it to
the learner to establish longer term structures.
What is presented here is offered in this spirit. It is to be seen as in
no way a definitive construction of the social research process but merely
a framework for the guidance of those wishing to explore the world of
research.
Research students and fledgling researchers-and, yes, even more
seasoned campaigners-often express bewilderment at the array of meth-
odologies and methods laid out before their gaze. These methodologies
and methods are not usually laid out in a highly organised fashion and
may appear more as a maze than as pathways to orderly research. There
is much talk of their philosophical underpinnings, but how the method-
ologies and methods relate to more theoretical elements is often left
unclear. To add to the confusion, the terminology is far from consistent
in research literature and social science texts. One frequently finds the
same term used in a number of different, sometimes even contradictory,
ways.
In response to this predicament, here is one reasonably clear-cut way
of using terms and grasping what is involved in the process of social
research. It is obviously not the only way in which these terms are used,
THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
nor is it being suggested that it is the only defensible way to use them. • Methods: the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyst' data
Equally, it is not the only way of analysing and understanding the related to some research question or hypothesis.
research process. This is scaffolding, not an edifice. Its aim is to provide • Methodology: the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind
researchers with a sense of stability and direction as tht'y go on to do the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and
their own building; that is, as they move towards understanding and use of methods to the desired outcomes.
expounding the research process after their own fashion in forms that • Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the method-
sui t their particular research purposes. ology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its
logic and criteria.
FOUR ELEMENTS • EjJistemolof;Y: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical
perspective and thereby in the methodology.
As a starting point, it can be suggested that, in developing a research In social research texts, the bulk of discussion and much of the
proposal, we need to put considerable effort into answering two questions terminology relate in one way or another to these four elements. What
in particular. First, what methodologies and methods will we be employ- one often finds, however, is that forms of these different process elements
ing in the research we propose to do? Secnnd, how do we justify this are thrown together in grab-bag style as if they were all comparable
choice and use of methodologies and methods? terms. It is not uncommon to find, say, symbolic inreractionism, ethnog-
The answer to the second question lies with the purposes of our raphy and constructionism simply set side by side as 'methodologies',
research-in other words, wi th the research question that our piece of 'approaches', 'perspectives', or sorneth ing similar. Yet they are not truly
inquiry is seeking to answer. 1t is obvious enough that we need a process comparable. Lumping them together without distinction is a bit like
capable of fulfilling those purposes and answering that question. talking about putting tomato sauce, condiments and groceries in one
There is more to it than that, however. Justification of our choice and basket. One feels compelled to say, 'Hang on a moment! Tomato sauce
particular use of methodology and methods is something that reaches is one of many forms of condiment. And all condiments are groceries.
into the assumptions about reality that we bring to our work. To ask Let's do some sorting out here'. Similarly, one may feel urged to do some
about these assumptions is to ask about our theoretical perspective. sorting out when confronted by items like symbolic interactionism,
It also reaches into the understanding you and [ have of what human ethnography and constructionism all slung together.
knowledge is, what it entails, and what status can be ascribed to it. What Ethnography, after all, is a methodolof;y. It is one of many particular
kind of knowledge do we believe will be attained by our research? research designs that guide a researcher in choosing methods and shape
What characteristics do we believe that knowledge to have? Here we are the use of the methods chosen. Symbolic interaction ism, for its part, is
touching upnn a pivotal issue. How should observers of our research- a theoretical jJersjJective that informs a range of methodologies, including
for example, readers of our thesis or research report-regard the out- some forms of ethnography. As a theoretical perspective, it is an
comes we layout before them? And why should our readers take these approach to understanding and explaining society and the human world,
outcomes seriously? These are epistemological questions. and grounds a set of assumptions that symbolic interactionist researchers
Already our two initial questions have expanded. We find ourselves typically bring to their methodology of choice. Constructionism is an
l
with four questions now: ejJistemolof;Y embodied in many theoretical perspectives, including sym-
• What methods do we propose to use? bolic interaction ism as this is generally understood. An epistemology,
• What methodology governs our choice and use of methods? we have already seen, is a way of understanding and explaining how we
• What theoretical perspective lies behind the methodology in question? know what we know. What all this suggests is that symbolic interaction-
• What epistemolof;Y informs this theoretical perspective? ism, ethnography and constructionism need to be related to one another
rather than merely set side by side as comparable, perhaps even com-
At issue in these four questions are basic elements of any research process, peting, approaches or perspectives.
and we need to spell out carefully what we mean by each of them. So there are epistemologies, theoretical perspectives and methodologies.
THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION THE RESEARCH PROCESS
If we add in methods, we have four elements that inform one another, Figure 2
as depicted in Figure 1.
construction ism
Figure 1 symbolic
. , interaction ism
epistemology
ethnography
---=- --=-- ..l. participant
--=-- . , observation
theoretical perspective
III
methods. An attempt to list a representative sampling of each category
might result in something like Table 1. (But note the several 'etceteras'
--=- occurring in this table. It is not an exhaustive listing.)
methodology To denote another typical string, an arrow could start with 'objectiv-
ism'. Objectivism is the epistemological view that things exist as
III III meaningful entities independently of consciousness and experience, that
they have truth and meaning residing in them as objects Cobiecrive'
methods
Table 1
Epistemology Theoretical Methodology Methods
perspective
One or other form of constructionism is the epistemology found, or at Objectivism Positivism (and Experimental Sampling
Constructionism post-positivism) research Measurement and
least claimed, in most perspectives other than those representing posi- Survey research scaling
Subjectivism Interpretivism
tivist and post-positivist paradigms. As we have Just noted, the (and their variants) • Symbolic Ethnography Questionnaire
epistemology generally found embedded in symbolic interacrionisrn is interactionisrn Phenomenological Observation
• Phenomenology research • participant
thoroughly constructionist in character. So, if we were to write down • Hermeneutics Grounded theory • non-participant
the four items we are talking about, we would be justified in drawing an Critical inquiry Heuristic inquiry Interview
Feminism Action research Focus group
arrow from constructionism to symbolic interactionism to indicate this Postmodernism Discourse analysis Case study
relationship. Ethnography, a methodology that sprang in the first etc Feminist standpoint Life history
research Narrative
instance from anthropology and anthropological theory, has been etc. Visual ethnographic
adopted by symbolic interactionism and adapted to its own purposes. For methods
Statistical analysis
that reason, our next arrow may go from symbolic inreractionism to
Data reduction
ethnography. Ethnography, in turn, has its methods of preference. Par- Theme identification
ticipant observation has traditionally been accorded pride of place. So, Comparative analysis
Cognitive mapping
out with the pen for yet another arrow. Here, then, we have a specific Interpretative
example of an epistemology, a theoretical perspective, a methodology methods
Document analysis
and a method, each informing the next as suggested in Figure 2. Content analysis
The textbooks describe several epistemological positions, quite a Conversation analysis
etc.
number of theoretical stances, many methodologies, and almost countless
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THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
truth and meaning, therefore), and that careful (scientific i) research can pat ion is involved. We will not just talk about 'identifying themes in
attain that objective truth and meaning. This is the epistemology under- the data' but will show what we mean by themes, how the themes
pinning the positivist stance. Research done in positivist spirit might emerge, how they are identified, and what is done with them when they
select to engage in survey research and employ the quantitative method do.
of statistical analysis (see Figure 3). Once again the arrows go across the
columns from first to last. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
We now describe our strategy or plan of action. This is the research
Figure 3
design that shapes our choice and use of particular methods and links
objectivism them to the desired outcomes.
What is called for here is not only a description of the methodology
. . positivism but also an account of the rationale it provides for the choice of methods
and the particular forms in which the methods are employed. Take
ethnographic inquiry, for instance. Ethnographic inquiry in the spirit of
. . survey research symbolic interaction ism seeks to uncover meanings and perceptions on
the part of the people participating in the research, viewing these
statistical understandings against the backdrop of the people's overall worldview
..., analysis or 'culture'. In line with this approach, the researcher strives to see
things from the perspective of the participants. It is this that makes
sense of the researcher's stated intention to carry out unstructured inter-
What purpose can these four elements serve? views and to use a non-directive form of questioning within them.
For one thing, they can help to ensure the soundness of our research
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
and make its outcomes convincing. Earlier we recognised the need to
justify the methodologies and methods employed in our research. Setting Next we describe the philosophical stance that lies behind our chosen
forth our research process in terms of these four elements enables us to methodology. We attempt to explain how it provides a context for the
do this, for it constitutes a penetrating analysis of the process and points process and grounds its logic and criteria.
up the theoretical assumptions that underpin it and determine the status Inevitably, we bring a number of assumptions to our chosen meth-
of its findings. odology. We need, as best we can, to state what these assumptions
How might we outline our research proposal in these terms? arc. This is precisely what we do when we elaborate our theoretical
perspective. Such an elaboration is a statement of the assumptions
RESEARCH METHODS brought to the research task and reflected in the methodology as we
understand and employ it. If, for example, we engage in an ethno-
First, we describe the concrete techniques or procedures we plan to use. graphic form of inquiry and gather data via participant observation,
There will be certain activities we engage in so as to gather and analyse what assumptions are embedded in this way of proceeding? By the
our data. These activities are our research methods. very nature of participant observation, some of the assumptions relate
Given our goal of identifying and justifying the research process, it is to matters of language and issues of intersubjectivity and communi-
important that we describe these methods as specifically as possible. To this cation. How, then, do we take account of these assumptions and
end, we will not just talk about 'carrying out interviews' but will indicate justify them? By expounding our theoretical perspective, that is, our
in very detailed fashion what kind of interviews they are, what interviewing view of the human world and social life within that world, wherein
techniques are employed, and in what sort of setting the interviews are such assumptions are grounded.
conducted. We will not just talk about 'participant observation' but will Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective that grounds these
describe what kind of observation takes place and what degree of partici- assumptions in most explicit fashion. It deals directly with issues such
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THE FOUNDATlONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
as language, communication, interrelationships and community. As we without a mind. Meaning is not discovered, but constructed. In this
shall see in more detail in Chapter 4, symbolic interactionisrn is all about understanding of knowledge, it is clear that different people may
those basic social interactions whereby we enter into the perceptions, construct meaning in different ways, even in relation to the same
attitudes and values of a community, becoming persons in the process. phenomenon. Isn't this precisely what we find when we move from
At its heart is the notion of being able to put ourselves in the place of one era to another or from one culture to another? In this view of
others-v-the very notion we have already expressed in detailing our things, subject and object emerge as partners in the generation of
methodology and have catered for in the choice and shaping of our meaning.
methods. We will be discussing objectivism in the context of positivism and
post-positivism. We will deal with constructionism at some length
EPISTEMOLOGY (Chapter 3) since it is the epistemology that qualitative researchers tend
to invoke. A third epistemological stance, subjectivism, comes to the
Finally, we need to describe the epistemology inherent in the theoretical fore in structuralist, post-structuralist and postmodernist forms of
perspective and therefore in the methodology we have chosen. thought (and, in addition, often appears to be what people are actually
The theoretical perspective we have described is a way of looking at describing when they claim to be talking about constructionism). In
the world and making sense of it. It involves knowledge, therefore, and subjectivism, meaning does not come out of an interplay between subject
embodies a certain understanding of what is entailed in knowing, that and object but is imposed on the object by the subject. Here the object
is, how we know what we know. Epistemology deals with 'the nature of
as such makes no contribution to the generation of meaning. It is
knowledge, its possibility, scope and general basis' (Hamlyn 1995,
tempting to say that in constructionism meaning is constructed out of
p. 242). Maynard (1994, p. 10) explains the relevance of epistemology
something (the object), whereas in subjectivism meaning is created out
to what we are about here: 'Epistemology is concerned with providing
of nothing. We humans are not that creative, however. Even in subjec-
a philosophical grounding for deciding what kinds of knowledge are
tivism we make meaning out of something. We import meaning from
possible and how we can ensure that they are both adequate and
somewhere else. The meaning we ascribe to the object may come
legitimate'. Hence our need to identify, explain and justify the episte-
from our dreams, or from primordial archetypes we locate within our
mological stance we have adopted.
collective unconscious, or from the conjunction and aspects of the
There are, of course, quite a range of epistemologies. For a start,
planets, or from religious beliefs, or from. .. That is to say, meaning
there is objectivism. Objectivist epistemology holds that meaning, and
comes from anything but an interaction between the subject and the
therefore meaningful reality, exists as such apart from the operation
object to which it is ascribed.
of any consciousness. That tree in the forest is a tree, regardless of
whether anyone is aware of its existence or not. As an object of that Much more can be said about possible epistemological stances, and
kind ('objectively', therefore), it carries the intrinsic meaning of the three we have referred to are not to be seen as watertight
'tree-ness'. When human beings recognise it as a tree, they arc simply compartments. Hopefully, enough has been said here for us to recog-
discovering a meaning that has been lying there in wait for them all nise that epistemology bears mightily on the way we go about our
along. We might approach our piece of ethnographic research in that research. Is there objective truth that we need to identify, and can
spirit. Much of the early ethnography was certainly carried out in that identify, with precision and certitude? Or arc there just humanly
spirit. In this objectivist view of 'what it means to know', under- fashioned ways of seeing things whose processes we need to explore
standings and values are considered to be objectified in the people and which we can only come to understand through a similar process
we are studying and, if we go about it in the right way, we can discover of meaning making? And is this making of meaning a subjective act
the objective truth. essentially independent of the object, or do both subject and object
Another epistemology-constructionism-rejects this view of contribute to the construction of meaning? Embedded in these ques-
human knowledge. There is no objective truth waiting for us to tions is a range of epistemological stances, each of which implies a
discover it. Truth, or meaning, comes into existence in and out of profound difference in how we do our researching and how we present
our engagement with the realities in our world. There is no meaning our research outcomes.
8 l)
THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
WHAT ABOUT ONTOLOGY? able. Meaning without a mind is not. Realism in ontology and construc-
tionism in epistemology turn out to be quite compatible. This is itself
In the research literature there is frequent mention of ontology and an example of how ontological issues and epistemological issues arise
you might be wondering why ontology does not figure in the schema together. Given that state of affairs, it would seem that we can deal with
developed to this point. the ontological issues as they emerge without expanding our schema to
Ontology is the study of being. It is concerned with 'what is', with include ontology.
the nature of existence, with the structure of reality as such. Were we This is borne out when we look at literature that plays up the
to introduce it into our framework, it would sit alongside epistemology importance of the ontological dimension in research. In many instances
informing the theoretical perspective, for each theoretical perspective the authors are not talking about ontology at all. Blaikie (1993, p. 6),
embodies a certain way of understanding what is (ontology) as well as a for example, acknowledges that the 'root definition of ontology is the
certain way of understanding what it means to know (epistemology). "science or study of being" '. However, 'for the purposes of the present
Ontological issues and epistemological issues tend to emerge together. discussion', he takes ontology to mean 'the claims or assumptions that
As our terminology has already indicated, to talk of the construction of a particular approach to social enquiry makes about the nature of social
meaning is to talk of the construction of meaningful reality. Because of reality' (p. 6). This, in itself, is unexceptionable. We need to recognise,
this confluence, writers in the research literature have trouble keeping however, that this is no longer ontology in its philosophical sense.
ontology and epistemology apart conceptually. Realism (an ontological Blaikie's use of the term roughly corresponds to what you and I are
notion asserting that realities exist outside the mind) is often taken to calling 'theoretical perspective'. It refers to how one views the world.
imply objectivism (an epistemological notion asserting that meaning Blaikie tells us that positivism 'entails an ontology of an ordered universe
exists in objects independently of any consciousness). In some cases we made up of atomistic, discrete and observable events' (p. 94). He tells
even find realism identified with objectivism. Guba and Lincoln (1994, us that, in the ontology of critical rationalism (the approach launched
p. 108) certainly posit a necessary link between the two when they claim by Karl Popper), nature and social life 'are regarded as consisting of
that 'if, for example, a "real" reality is assumed, the posture of the knower essential uniformities' (p. 95). He tells us that interpretivism 'entails an
must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to be ontology in which social reality is regarded as the product of processes
able to discover "how things really are" and "how things really work" '. by which social actors together negotiate the meanings for actions and
In the chapters that follow, you and I will be listening to a large number situations' (p. 96). This is stretching the meaning of ontology well and
of scholars who disagree with this position. Heidegger and Merleau- truly beyond its boundaries.
Ponty, for instance, frequently invoke a 'world always already there', but It would seem preferable to retain the usage of 'theoretical perspective'
they are far from being objectivists. and reserve the term 'ontology' for those occasions when we do need to
True enough, the world is there regardless of whether human beings talk about 'being'. This is something you and I cannot avoid doing when
are conscious of it. As Macquarrie tells us (1973, p. 57): 'If there were we come to grapple with, say, the philosophy of Martin Heidegger, for
no human beings, there might sti II be galaxies, trees, rocks, and so that is a radical ontology and needs to be dealt with in strictly ontolog-
on-and doubtless there were, in those long stretches of time before the ical terms. Happy days ahead!
evolution of Homo sapiens or any other human species that may have In the Middle Ages, the great ontological debate was between realists
existed on earth'. But what kind of a world is there before conscious and nominalists and concerned the extrarnental reality, or irreality, of
beings engage with it! Not an intelligible world, many would want to 'universals'. Are there, for example, just individual human beings or does
say. Not a world of meaning. It becomes a world of meaning only when 'humankind' have real existence too! Does humankind as such denote
meaning-making beings make sense of it. a reality in the world or is it just something that exists only in the mind!
From this point of view, accepting a world, and things in the world, In more recent centuries, the major ontological debate has been between
existing independently of our consciousness of them does not imply that realists and idealists and concerns the extrarnental reality, or irrealitv,
meanings exist independently of consciousness, as Guba and Lincoln of anything whatsoever. While neither debate is without relevance to
seem to be saying. The existence of a world without a mind is conceiv- an analysis of the research process, it still seems the case that ontological
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THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
issues can be dealt with adequately without complicating our four- Still, we should not be so carried away with our sense of freedom in
column schema further by expressly introducing ontology. drawing arrows from left to right that we forget to draw arrows in other
directions as well. Our arrows can fly from right to left too. In terms of
what informs what, going from left to right would seem a logical
IN ALL DIRECTIONS progression. At the same time, in describing our piece of research, we
found our starting point in methods and methodology. This suggests that,
Back we go to our arrows. We have been drawing arrows from left to to mark the chronological succession of events in our research, the
right-from one item in one column to another item in the next column arrows may need to be drawn from right to left as well.
to the right. We should feel very free to do this. Certainly, they may. Not too many of us embark on a piece of social
First of all, there are few restrictions on where these left-to-right arrows research with epistemology as our starting point. 'I am a constructionist.
may go. Any limitations that exist would seem to relate to the first two Therefore, I will investigate . . . ' Hardly. We typically start with a
columns. We need to rule out drawing an arrow from constructionism real-life issue that needs to be addressed, a problem that needs to be
or subjectivism to positivism (or, therefore, post-positivism), since pos- solved, a question that needs to be answered. We plan our research in
itivism is objectivist by definition. Without a thoroughly objectivist terms of that issue or problem or question. What, we go on to ask, are
epistemology, positivism would not be positivism as we understand it the further issues, problems or questions implicit in the one we start
today. Nor would we want to draw an arrow from objectivism or subjec- with? What, then, is the aim and what are the objectives of our research?
tivism to phenomenology. Constructionism and phenomenology are so What strategy seems likely to provide what we are looking for? What
intertwined that one could hardly be phenomenological while espousing does that strategy direct us to do to achieve our aims and objectives? In
either an objectivist or a subjectivist epistemology. And postmodernism this way our research question, incorporating the purposes of our re-
well and truly jettisons any vestiges of an objectivist view of knowledge search, leads us to methodology and methods.
and meaning. Other than that, as we draw our arrows from column to We need, of course, to justify our chosen methodology and methods.
column, it would seem that 'the sky's the limit'. Certainly, if it suits In the end, we want outcomes that merit respect. We want the observers
their purposes, any of the theoretical perspectives could make use of any of our research to recognise it as sound research. Our conclusions need
of the methodologies, and any of the methodologies could make use of to stand up. On some understandings of research (and of truth), this
any of the methods. There are typical strings, to be sure, and we have will mean that we are after objective, valid and generalisable conclusions
noted two of them in Figure 2 and Figure 3, but 'typical' does not mean as the outcome of our research. On other understandings, this is never
'mandatory'. realisable. Human knowledge is not like that. At best, our outcomes will
Secondly, we can draw arrows from a particular item to more than one be suggestive rather than conclusive. They will be plausible, perhaps
item in the column to the right. Historically, objectivism, construction- even convincing, ways of seeing things-and, to be sure, helpful ways
ism and subjectivism have each informed quite a number of different of seeing things-but certainly not any 'one true way' of seeing things.
perspectives. Similarly, one theoretical perspective often comes to be We may be positivists or non-positivists, therefore. Either way, we need
embodied in a number of methodologies. Symbolic interaction ism is a to be concerned about the process we have engaged in; we need to lay
case in point. It has informed both ethnography and grounded theory that process out for the scrutiny of the observer; we need to defend that
and we might well draw arrows from that theoretical perspective to each process as a form of human inquiry that should be taken seriously. It is
of those methodologies. Again, while critical inquiry will certainly be this that sends us to our theoretical perspective and epistemology and
linked to action research, we can also draw an arrow from critical inquiry calls upon us to expound them incisively. From methods and methodol-
to ethnography. Yes, the critical form of inquiry has come to be embodied ogy to theoretical perspective and epistemology, then. Now our arrows
in ethnography too, transforming it in the process. Now it is no longer are travelling from right to left.
a characteristically uncritical form of research that merely seeks to Speaking in this vein sounds as if we create a methodology for
understand a culture. It is critical ethnography, a methodology that oursel ves-as if the focus of our research leads us to devise our own ways
strives to unmask hegemony and address oppressive forces. In the same way, of proceeding that allow us to achieve our purposes. That, as it happens,
there can be a feminist ethnography or a posrmodernist ethnography. is precisely the case. In a very real sense, every piece of research is
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THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
unique and calls for a unique methodology. We, as the researcher, have distinction between objectivist/positivist research, on the one hand, and
to develop it. constructionist or subjectivist research, on the other. Yet, in most
If that is the case, why are we bothering with the plethora of meth- research textbooks, it is qualitative research and quantitative research
odologies and methods set forth for us so profusely that they seem like that are set against each other as polar opposites. Just as the student of
William James's 'blooming, buzzing confusion'? Why don't we just sit Latin is taught very early on via the opening lines of Caesar's Gallic
down and work out for ourselves how we are to go about it) Wars that 'All Gaul is divided into three parts', so every beginning
In the end, that is precisely what we have to do. Yet a study of how researcher learns at once that all research is divided into two parts-and
other people have gone about the task of human inquiry serves us well and these are 'qualitative' and 'quantitative', respectively.
is surely indispensable. Attending to recognised research designs and their Our model suggests that this divide-objectivist research associated
various theoretical underpinnings exercises a formative influence upon us. with quantitative methods over against constructionist or subjectivist
It awakens us to ways of research we would never otherwise have conceived research associated with qualitative methods-is far from justified. Most
of. It makes us much more aware of what is possible in research. Even so, methodologies known today as forms of 'qualitative research' have in
it is by no means a matter of plucking a methodology off the shelf. We the past been carried out in an utterly empiricist, positivist manner. This
acquaint ourselves with the various methodologies. We evaluate their is true, as we have already noted, of the early history of ethnography.
presuppositions. We weigh their strengths and weaknesses. Having done all On the other hand, quantification is by no means ruled out within
that and more besides, we still have to forge a methodology that will meet non-positivist research. We may consider ourselves utterly devoted to
our particular purposes in this research. One of the established methodolo- qualitative research methods. Yet, when we think about investigations
gies may suit the task that confronts us. Or perhaps none of them do and carried out in the normal course of our daily lives, how often measuring
we find ourselves drawing on several methodologies, moulding them into a and counting tum out to be essential to our purposes. The ability to
way of proceeding that achieves the outcomes we look to. Perhaps we need measure and count is a precious human achievement and it behoves us
to be more inventive still and create a methodology that in many respects not to be dismissive of it. We should accept that, whatever research we
is quite new. Even if we tread this track of innovation and invention, our engage in, it is possible for either qualitative methods or quantitative
engagement with the various methodologies in use will have played a crucial methods, or both, to serve our purposes. Our research can be qualitative
educative role. or quantitative, or both qualitative and quantitative, without this being
Arrows right to left as well as left to right. What about arrows up and in any way problematic.
down? Yes, that too. Renowned critical theorist [urgen Habermas carried What would seem to be problematic is any attempt to be at once
on a debate with hermeneuticist Hans-Georg Gadamer over many years objectivist and constructionist (or subjectivist). On the face of it, to say
and out of that interplay there developed for Habermas a 'critical that there is objective meaning and, in the same breath, to say that
hermeneutics'. Here we have critical theory coming to inform herme- there is no objective meaning certainly does appear contradictory. To be
neutics. In our four-column model, the arrow would rise up the same sure, the postmodemist world that has grown up around us calls all our
column ('theoretical perspective') from critical inquiry to hermeneutics. cherished antinomies into question, and we are invited today to embrace
Similarly, we can talk of critical feminism or feminist critical inquiry, of 'fuzzy logic' rather than the logic we have known in the past with its
postmodemist feminism or postmodernist critical inquiry. There is plenty principle of contradiction. Nevertheless, even at the threshold of the
of scope for arrows up and down. 21 st century, not too many of us are comfortable with such ostensibly
blatant contradiction in what we claim.
To avoid such discomfort, we will need to be consistently objectivist
THE GREAT DIVIDE
or consistently constructionist (or subjectivist).
If we seek to be consistently objectivist, we will distinguish scientifi-
In the model we are following here, you will notice that the distinction cally established objective meanings from subjective meanings that
between qualitative research and quantitative research occurs at the level people hold in everyday fashion and that at best 'reflect' or 'mirror' or
of methods. It does not occur at the level of epistemology or theoretical 'approximate' objective meanings. We will accept, of course, that these
perspective. What does occur back there at those exalted levels is a subjective meanings are important in people's lives and we may adopt
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THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
qualitative methods of ascertaining what those meanings are. This is speculative purposes. You and I will allow ourselves to be led at times
epistemologically consistent. It has a downside, all the same. It makes into very theoretical material indeed. Nevertheless, we will refuse to
people's everyday understandings inferior, epistemologically, to more wear the charge of being abstract intellecrualisers, divorced from expe-
scientific understandings. In this way of viewing things, one cannot rience and action. It is our very inquiry into human experience and
predicate of people's everyday understandings the truth claims one makes action that sends us this far afield. The long journey we are embarking
for what is scientifically established. upon arises out of an awareness on our part that, at every point in our
If we seek to be consistently constructionist, we will put all under- research-in our observing, our interpreting, our reporting, and every-
standings, scientific and non-scientific alike, on the very same footing. thing else we do as researchers-we inject a host of assumptions. These
They are all constructions. None is objective or absolute or truly are assumptions about human knowledge and assumptions about realities
generalisable. Scientific knowledge is just a particular form of con- encountered in our human world. Such assumptions shape for us the
structed know ledge designed to serve particular purposes-and, yes, it meaning of research questions, the purposiveness of research methodol-
serves them well. Constructionists may indeed make use of quantitative ogies, and the interpretability of research findings. Without unpacking
methods but their constructionism makes a difference. We need to ask these assumptions and clarifying them, no one (including ourselves!) can
ourselves, in fact, what a piece of quantitative research looks like when really divine what our research has been or what it is now saying.
it is informed by a constructionist epistemology. What difference does Performing this task of explication and explanation is precisely what
that make to it? Well, for a start, it makes a big difference to the truth we are about here. Far from being a theorising that takes researchers
claims proffered on its behalf, all the more so as one moves towards from their research, it is a theorising embedded in the research act itself.
subjectivism rather than constructionism. No longer is there talk of Without it, research is not research.
objectivity, or validity, or generalisabilitv. For all that, there is ample
recognition that, after its own fashion, quantitative research has valuable
contributions to make, even to a study of the farthest reaches of human
being.
Is this scaffolding proving helpful? If so, let us go on to examine the
items in some of its columns. We will confine ourselves to the first two
columns. We will look at epistemological issues and issues relating to
theoretical perspectives.
As already foreshadowed, the epistemological stance of objectivism will
be considered in the context of positivism, with which it is so closely
allied. Constructionism, as the epistemology claimed in most qualitative
approaches today, deserves extended treatment. Our discussion of the
constructionist theorising of knowledge will set it against the subjectiv-
ism only too often articulated under the rubric of constructionism and
found self-professedly in much structuralist, post-structuralist and
postmodernist thought.
After our discussion of positivism, the theoretical perspectives we go
on to study are interprerivism, critical inquiry, feminism and postrnodern-
ism. Thinking about postmodernisrn will make it necessary for us to delve
also into structuralism and post-structuralism.
As we discuss these perspectives and stances, we should remind our-
selves many times over that we are not exploring them for merely
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