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Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel

Article · January 2005

DOI: 10.4197/Eng.16-2.1

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 JKAU: Eng. Sci., vol. 16 no. 2, pp: 3-16 (2006 A.D./1427 A.H.)

Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel

AHMED M. EL-ASSAL1
Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University

ABSTRACT. Steel alloys are widely used in outdoor applications where

corrosive media exist and contribute to a great loss in components
dimensions and strength. Reinforcement steel bars suffer from
corrosion as other steels do. This work is intended to study any
possible effect to prestraining of this material on the corrosion
behavior. Uniform prestraining was caused on specimens made of two
types of reinforcement steel bars. Two degrees of prestraining were
included and two corrosive media were implemented in the study. The
weight loss method for determining corrosion rates was used. Stress
relieving of specimens was also considered and results of corrosion
rates at different conditions were compared and discussed. Results
indicated that prestraining slightly increased the uniform corrosion
rate of tested materials, while this effect diminished with stress
relieving specimens before immersion.

KEY WORDS: Corrosion rates, weight loss, saline solution, prestrain,

reinforcement, steel alloy, stress relief.

Introduction

Corrosion is one of the most effective mechanisms of metals degradation

and failure. The total damage of materials due to corrosion costs the UK
around 4% of GNP per annum[1]. Corrosion costs U.S. industry and
government agencies an estimated $276 billion/year, according to the
study by CC Technologies for the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) published in September 2001[2]. A tremendous amount of
literature about corrosion and factors affecting its behavior exists.
Corrosion (chemical corrosion) occurs for metals and alloys either in dry
or in wet conditions. Corrosion starts at heterogeneities on the metals'
surfaces. Theses heterogeneities can be on different scales [3]:
• Atomic (point defects, vacancies, and kinks sites)
• Microscopic (grain boundaries and between phases)
1
On leave from Benha High Institute of Technology, Benha, Egypt.

3
4 Ahmed M. El-Assal

• Macroscopic (grain boundaries and discontinuities)

While the rusting developed on the iron and steels is considered the first
stage of corrosion, the extent of corrosion depends upon many factors.
The most important of these factors are:
• Material compositions (alloying elements, phase constituents, etc.)
• Surface condition (roughness, treatment, etc.)
• Corrosive media and local conditions
Iron and its alloys constitute most of the research on corrosion since they
come on top of most materials used in different applications. Carbon
content, as a primary alloying element for steels, was found to be of
slight or no effect on corrosion rates by Lopez et. al.[4] especially at
lower temperatures. Also, Melchers [5] stated that carbon content and
microstructure are not independent factors in determining corrosion rate.
He concluded that more work yet has to be done to investigate that issue.
In his recent paper [6], he indicated that metal composition is more
effective in corrosion at the first phase of corrosion (kinetically
controlled) but not effective during oxygen diffusion controlled phase.
Abdel-Aal et. al.[7] attributed combined effect on corrosion to carbon
content according to corrosive medium like acetic, oxalic and cetric acid.
Nickel content in low steel alloys [8] was found to work on overall
reduction of corrosion rates by decreasing the lattice diffusion of
hydrogen. Nishikata et. al.[9] concluded that nickel content less than 5%
suffer of increased corrosion rates, while above that percentage carrion
rates, corrosion due to cyclic wet-dry environments greatly decreases.
Surface finish was found to affect the corrosion conditions effectively [3,
10-12]. As a general conclusion, the better the surface condition the
better corrosion resistance of that surface. Aqueous pH increases to some
extent corrosion rates [13-15] then decreases with further increase of pH
values. For immersed components, flow versus static condition was
having some impact on corrosion but not patterned as well as salinity [16,
17]. They had different trends along versatile range of materials.
As a result of hydrogen or water existence around ferrous components,
the anodic reaction in which the iron atoms can free two electrons (Fe →
Fe++ + 2e-) to be used in cathodic reaction (2H+ + 2e-→ H2) takes place. In the
presence of oxygen (O2), the cathodic reaction (O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-)
occurs so that ferrous hydroxides form (Fe++ +4OH- → Fe(OH)2). The ferrous
 Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel 5

hydroxide in turn is oxidized to ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3. The final

product is the familiar reddish brown rust Fe2O3.H2O. In a restricted
supply of oxygen, Fe3O4 or Fe2O3 is formed instead. These products
depend mainly on the oxygen content and the surface roughness of the
component. A model for the uniform deposits, c, was presented [18]:
c(t ) = A t B (1)
Where A and B are constants determined from experimental data. Stress
corrosion, SC, and stress corrosion cracking, SCC, on the other hand are
the case where corrosion takes place in existence of component being
under stress, which is the actual service condition of most components in
real life. Stress corrosion is considered one of the most important topics
attracting majority of investigators. The rusty film which develops
uniformly on the surfaces, its increased depth was found to increase the
resistance to SCC. That was concluded [19] for investigated U-bend
specimens of 304 stainless steel in high temperatures. Other factors
affecting SCC were studied by many researchers [20-23] such as acidity
and alkalinity of the working environments, service temperatures, nature
of applied stresses, and composition of working alloys.
Among the variety of applications of components, which are subject to
corrosion, is reinforcing of concrete by steel. Also, commercial steels
used for this purpose may be subject to prestraining due to forming in
different shapes. This may raise the question of the possibility of the
effect of this prestraining on the corrosion behavior of such components.
Mills and others investigated this aspect partially in their research project
[23]. They did not discuss the effect of prestraining directly on the
corrosion behavior, but they used prestraining to create residual stresses
to different levels and investigate its reflection on the components
corrosion rates. The main purpose of this work is to investigate the
possible effect of prestraining itself (as a source of massive generation of
dislocation density), since cold working and many other manufacturing
processing leaves components with a considerable prestrain amount.
Investigating such components corrosion behavior was meant by this
work. A variation of corrosive media, by taking two different saline
solutions into considerations, was taken into account. Two commercially
steels used for reinforcing concrete were used to conduct the
experimental work. Also, two degrees of prestraining were implemented,
6 Ahmed M. El-Assal

so three specimens were used from each material for the purpose of
making the needed comparison to show the effects of chosen parameters.
Hypothetically, if specimens were put into tensile test and unloaded after
plastic deformation was reached as shown in Fig. 1, a certain amount of
dislocation density is developed. This dislocation density will increase
with the increase of the amount of plastic deformation of the specimen
(points 1 and 2 in Fig1.). Corrosion behavior of such specimen when
subjected to a corrosive medium can answer the question. Accordingly,
two degrees of prestraining were used for this work. The degree of
prestraining was determined after making a complete tensile test and
selecting two points on the stress-strain curve (Fig. 2). Two materials
were selected for this work (they are commercially used for reinforcing
concrete) and specimens were machined to the standard ASTM
dimensions. Two groups of the two materials were used, one group was
used as received and the other group was stress relieved then used.

Materials and Experimental Work

Two steel materials commercially used for reinforcement of concrete

were the target of this study. Elemental analyses were performed for both
materials, designated as steel A and steel B. These analyses are presented
in Table 1. The elemental analysis shows that steel A contains higher
carbon content compared with steel B. This is clear by the microstructure
photos for both materials as shown in Fig. 3. Material A constitutes
mostly of ferrite with some pearlite while pearlite constitutes the major
phase in material B. This is clearly reflected on the mechanical response
of both metals (Fig. 2). Standard tensile specimens with circular cross
sections were prepared from both materials and tensile tests were
performed using universal tensile testing machine (A 200 KN loading
capacity)2. Results of standard tensile tests are presented in Fig. 2. Based
on the results of tensile tests, prestraining points were defined (at
approximately 6%, 12%) and used to generate the prestrained specimens
as shown in Fig. 1. More than one degree of prestraining were performed

2
Testometric 200 KN. VITFK INTERNATIONAL LTD. MANCHESTER- ENGLAND
 Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel 7

to generate variety of specimens to help investigate any relevant effect on

corrosion rates for these materials.

TABLE 1. Composition of the investigated materials

Constituent C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Cu
Material A 0.372 0.11 0.7 0.01 0.04 - - 0.02 0.03
Material B 0.13 0.126 0.496 0.611 0.012 0.09 0.01 0.136 0.199

Preparation of specimens:
The middle part of each prestrained specimen was cut and used for
corrosion testes. A total of about 40 specimens were prepared to be used
for corrosion tests. Two kinds of specimens groups of each material were
prepared. A group of specimens without any treatment (as received) were
prepared. Another group of specimens were prepared after being stress
relieved. The same procedure was followed on the specimens for both
materials designated as steel A and steel B. Specimens made from stress
relieved bars were prestrained after stress relieving was performed.

σ σu

σy

2
1

ε
FIG. 1. Schematic drawing showing prestraining of used specimens
8 Ahmed M. El-Assal

1000
Spc 1, St A

Spc 2, St A
Stress, MPa 800
Spc. 1, St B

600 Spc 2, St B

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Strain, %
FIG. 2. Tensile response of the two used steels, designated A and B

Material A, at 500x Material B, at 500x

FIG. 3. Microstructure of the two used steels, designated A and B

Corrosion tests were conducted under two kinds of saline solutions. It

was meant to simulate the concentrations of Red and Mediterranean Seas
(40,000 gm/L NaCl and 35,000 gm/L NaCl respectively). Same amount
of the aqueous solutions were used for each specimen. Determination of
weight loss of the specimens in a corrosion experiment is one of the
common methods to calculate corrosion rates [24]. The coupons were
 Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel 9

degreased in trichloroethylene, and oxides were removed mechanically

with fine emery paper. Each coupon was washed under running water,
dried with alcohol and ether and weighed accurately before and after the
experiments to remove the surface and/or corrosion products. This
method can, in principle, be used in all laboratory methodologies, and for
monitoring corrosion rates in the field using coupons. Experiments were
carried out over a temperature range from 25 ºC to 28 ºC. Each time
weight was taken, specimens were carefully washed and solution was
changed (using the same amount and concentration). Each specimen was
placed in a different container by itself. A sensitive scale (with four
digits) was used to take measure the weight of specimens. Weight loss
was calculated using the equation:

ΔW = W0 − Wi (2)

Where W0 is the original weight of specimens before immersion in

solution and Wi is the specimen weight after immersion for time i.
Corrosion rate was calculated based on the equation:
ΔW
W& = (3)
A Δt
Where A is the surface area of the specimen and Δt is time elapsed for
immersion for ΔW to corrode. The term W& can be expressed in mass
units per time units or penetration depth (mm/time) if it was divided per
density (ρ) as needed.

Results

The results of collected data were analyzed and transformed into

corrosion rates based on equation (3). Groups of data were plotted in
Figs. 4-7. In all figures, “PreStrn” was used to designate specimens that
were prestrained, and “No PreStrn” for specimens without prestraining.
Also, “Env I” and “Env II” were used to designate solutions of
immersions I and II. Figure 4 contains corrosion rates of specimens made
of steel A as received (No treatments were made). Periods of collecting
data (Weight) were uniform (weekly) except for third and sixth readings.
10 Ahmed M. El-Assal

Corrosion rates (for both materials) were slightly increasing with

immersion time except at readings number 3 and 6. Data points of
corrosion rates in solution I (35,000 mg/L) were plotted in solid lines
with filled marks, while data for solution II (40,000 mg/L) were plotted
in discontinuous lines with hollow marks. Three data series for each
environment were plotted for specimens with no prestrain (“No
PreStrn”), with “PreStrn 1” (≈6%), and with “PreStrn 2” (≈12%).
Corrosion rate results for alloy A was plotted in Fig.4 and Fig.5 for as
received and stress relieved specimens. That was repeated for alloy B, as
well, in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.

Discussion

As shown if Figs. 4-7, the general trend of corrosion rate is the increase
(slight) with time as far as equal time span readings for weight are taken.
The longer the time period that specimens were immersed in the
solutions, the lower the corrosion rate. That was regarded to the increased
corroded film of the specimens’ surface which constitutes protection
against corrosion. That was indicated to in many other references [19, 25,
26].

1.6
S teel A
1.4 As Received
Crrosion rate, mg/mm .hr
3

1.2

No PreStrn-Env I PreStrn 1-Env I

0.8 PreStrn 2-Env I No PreStrn-Env. II
PreStrn 1-Env. II PreStrn 2-Env. II
0.6
0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05
Time, Hrs
FIG. 4. Corrosion behavior of steel A as received
Environment I: 35,000 PPM (pH=7.8) and Environment II: 40,000 PPM (pH=8)
 Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel 11

1.6
Steel A
Crrosion rate, mg/mm .hr

1.4 Releived
3

1.2

1
No PreStrn-Env I PreStrn 1-Env I
0.8 PreStrn 2-Env I No PreStrn-Env II
PreStrn 1-Env II PreStrn 2-Env II
0.6
0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05
Time, Hrs

FIG. 5. Corrosion behavior of steel A, stress relieved

Environment I: 35,000 PPM (pH=7.8) and Environment II: 40,000 PPM (pH=8)

1.2
Crrosion rate, g/mm .hr

1
3

0.8

0.6

No PreStrn-Env I PreStrn 1-Env I

0.4 Steel B
PreStrn 2-Env I No PreStrn-Env. II
As Received PreStrn 1-Env. II PreStrn 2-Env. II

0.2
0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05
Time, Hrs

FIG. 6. Corrosion behavior of steel B as received

Environment I: 35,000 PPM (pH=7.8) and Environment II: 40,000 PPM (pH=8)
12 Ahmed M. El-Assal

1.2

1
Crrosion rate, mg/mm .hr
3

0.8

0.6

No PreStrn-Env I PreStrn 1-Env I

0.4 Steel B PreStrn 2-Env I No PreStrn-Env II
Releived PreStrn 1-Env II PreStrn 2-Env II

0.2
0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05
Time, Hrs
FIG. 7. Corrosion behavior of steel B, stress relieved
Environment I: 35,000 PPM (pH=7.8) and Environment II: 40,000 PPM (pH=8)

The slowness in the corrosion rate was slightly time dependent (within
the testing range) as was indicated by points 3 and 6 in all graphs. In
other words, the longer the period of measurement (which involves
surface cleaning) the thicker the corroded film, which leads to more
protection against accelerated corrosion.

Prestraining for the two alloys led to a slight increase in corrosion rates
for almost all specimens. That was also true for both solutions used for
immersion. This may be attributed, as it was assumed at the beginning, to
dislocation density. As the dislocation density increases, the locations
inside the specimens and on their surfaces for different kinds of lattice
imperfections increases. This leads to an increased number of locations
where corrosion starts to develop. The work done by Novak [22] and
Mills et. al.[23] was to use the prestraining on notched specimens to
cause residual compressive stress that can help close the micro-cracks
and crack which helps retarding stress corrosion cracking. Even though
the prestraining can cause increased dislocation densities, still the
presence of residual compressive stress in such situations can be much
 Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel 13

more effective in retarding stress corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.

What supports this point of view is the increased corrosion rates
associated with the specimens made without any treatment. When
specimens were stress relieved, the corrosion rates were decreased for
both alloys. Corrosive media constituted of lower salinity concentration
(35,000 mg/L) showed very slight increase in corrosion rates compared
with the higher salinity one. The effect of the corrosive media is slightly
more obvious in the case of specimens made from “as received” bars of
both alloys when compared with the stress relieved specimens.

Steel alloy with a higher carbon content (designated as A) showed

noticeably higher corrosion rates compared with the other alloy
(designated B). This may be attributed to the copper and silicon contents
that are higher in alloy B compared with alloy B (Table 1). This is in
consistence with the literature. The contribution to prestraining on the
increase of corrosion rates was more obvious in alloy A compared with
alloy B. This may lead to the importance of material composition rather
than microstructure of the alloy (ferrite versus pearlite dominated
structures) in corrosion resistance.

Conclusions

• Prestraining led to some slight increase in corrosion rates of

reinforcing steel bars when compared with specimens without
prestraining. This effect was more obvious at higher prestrining
degrees for both alloys used for this study.
• Material composition is more important for determining corrosion
rates when compared with microstructure of used alloys.
• Longer periods of immersion led to slower rates of corrosion for
both alloys used in this study.
• Stress relieved specimens performed better compared with other
specimens as far as the corrosion rate is considered. Lower
corrosion rates were associated with stress relieved specimens.
14 Ahmed M. El-Assal

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‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪Ahmed M. El-Assal‬‬

‫ﺗﺂآﻞ ﺣﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﺢ ﺳﺎﺑﻖ اﻻﺟﻬﺎد‬

‫أﺣﻤﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺴﺎل‬
‫آﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ‬
‫ﺟﺪة‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﺼﻠﺐ ﺑﻜﺜﺮة ﻓﻰ اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺮﺿﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺂآﻞ‪ ،‬و ﻳﻨﺸﺄ‬
‫ﻋﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻓﻰ أﺑﻌﺎدهﺎ و ﻓﻘﺪ ﻓﻰ ﻗﻮة ﺗﺤﻤﻠﻬﺎ‪ .‬وﺗﻌﺎﻧﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺣﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﺢ ﻟﻠﺨﺮﺳﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﺸﺎآﻞ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺂآﻠﻬﺎ‪ .‬وﻗﺪ ﻋﻨﻰ هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺑﺪارﺳﺔ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﺾ‬
‫ﻋﻴﻨﺎت ﺣﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﺢ ﻹﺟﻬﺎد ﺳﺎﺑﻖ )ﺗﺴﺒﻴﺐ ﺗﺸﻮﻩ داﺋﻢ( ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫أداﺋﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺂآﻞ‪ .‬وﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﺾ ﻋﻴﻨﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﺸﻮﻩ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﻄﻊ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ .‬وﺗﻢ إﺣﺪاث درﺟﺘﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻻﺟﻬﺎد اﻟﻤﺴﺒﺐ ﻻﻧﻔﻌﺎل داﺋﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺣﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﺢ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺗﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﺾ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت ﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﻴﻞ ﺑﺪرﺟﺘﻰ ﺗﺮآﻴﺰ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺘﻴﻦ واﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻔﻘﺪ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻮزن ﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‬
‫و أﺧﺬ ﻓﻰ اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر أداء اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺘﻰ أﺟﺮى ﻟﻬﺎ إزاﻟﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻺﺟﻬﺎدات اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ )‪ (Stress relieving‬و ﺗﻢ ﻋﺮض آﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ اﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ إﻟﻴﻬﺎ وﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‪ .‬وﻓﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻞ ﻓﺈن اﻻﻧﻔﻌﺎل اﻟﻤﺴﺒﻖ ﻟﻠﻌﻴﻨﺎت أدى إﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺰﻳﺎدة‬
 ‫‪Corrosion of Prestrained Reinforcement Steel‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬

‫ﻓﻰ ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺘﺂآﻞ وزاد ﻣﻦ هﺬا اﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ زﻳﺎدة آﻢ اﻻﻧﻔﻌﺎل‬

‫اﻟﻤﺴﺒﻖ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت‪ ،‬وﻳﻠﻐﻰ هﺬا اﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﺟﺮاء ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ‬
‫ﺣﺮارﻳﺔ ﻹزاﻟﺔ اﻻﺟﻬﺎدات اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت‪.‬‬

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