SEC; Rmiezos

Vol. 13, 2000, p. 245-277

Chapter 7

Exploration for Epithermal Gold Deposits

J EFFREY W. HEDENQUIST,?
99 Fifth Avenue, Suite 420, Ottawa, Ontario KlS 5P5, Canada

ANTONIO ARRIBAS R., AND ELISEO GONZALEZ-U RIEN

Placer Dome Exploration, 240 South Rock Boulevard, Suite 117, Rena, Nevada 89502

Abstract

The successful exploration geologist uses knowledge of geologic relationships and ore-deposit styles,
tempered by experience, to interpret all information available from a given prospect in order to develop
an understanding of its mineral potential. In the case of exploration for epithermal gold deposits, this
understanding can be augmented by familiarity with active hydrothermal systems, their present-day ana-
logues. Just as geological skills and exploration experience are the defining elements of a philosophy of
exploration, the needs of a company determine, as much as the funding and skills available, which level
of exploration it pursues and where: grassroots, early-stage or advanced targets. Epithermal gold deposits
have size, geometry, and grade variations that can be broadly organized around some genetic classes and,
therefore, influence the exploration approach or philosophy.
Nearly 80 years ago, Waldemar Lindgren defined the epithermal environment as being shallow in
depth, typically hosting deposits of Au, Ag, and base metals plus Hg, Sb, S, kaolinite, alunite, and silica.
Even before this, Ransome recognized two distinct styles of such precious-metal deposits, leading to the
conclusion that the two end-member deposits form in environments analogous to geothermal springs
and volcanic fumaroles, which are dominated by reduced, neutral-pH versus oxidized, acidic fluids, re-
spectively. The terms we use are low- and high-sulfidation to refer to deposits formed in these respective
environments. The terms are based on the sulfidation state of the sulfide assemblage. End-member low-
sulfidation deposits contain pyrite-pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite and high Fe sphalerite, in contrast to pyrite-
enargite-luzonite-covellite typifying highsulfidation deposits. A subset of the low-sulfidation style has an inter-
mediate sullidation-state assemblage of pyrite-tetrahedrite/tennantite-chalcopyrite and low Fe sphalerite.
Intermediate sulfidation-state deposits are Ag and base metal-rich compared to the Au-rich end-member
low-sulfidation deposits, most likely reflecting salinity variations.
There are characteristic mineral textures and assemblages associated with epithermal deposits and,
coupled with fluid inclusion data, they indicate that most low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation deposits
form in a temperature range of about 160” to 270°C. This temperature interval corresponds to a depth
below the paleowater table of about 50 to 700 m, respectively, given the common evidence for boiling
within epithermal ore zones. Boiling is the process that most favors precipitation of bisulfide-complexed
metals such as gold. This process and the concomitant rapid cooling also result in many related features,
such as gangue-mineral deposition of quartz with a colloform texture, adularia and bladed calcite in low-
sulfidation deposits, and the formation of steam-heated waters that create advanced argillic alteration
blankets in both low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation deposits.
Epithermal deposits are extremely variable in form, and much of this variability is caused by strong
permeability differences in the near-surface environment, resulting from lithologic, structural, and hydra
thermal controls. Low-sulfidation deposits typically vary from vein through stockwork to disseminated
forms. Gold ore in low-sulfidation deposits is commonly associated with quartz and adularia, plus calcite or
sericite, as the major gangue minerals. The alteration halos to the zone of ore, particularly in vein deposits,
include a variety of temperature-sensitive clay minerals that can help to indicate locations of paleofluid flow.
The areal extent of such clay alteration may be two orders of magnitude larger than the actual ore deposit.
In contrast, a silicic core of leached, residual silica is the principal host of high-sulfidation ore. Outward
from this commonly vuggy quartz core is a typically upward-flaring advanced argillic zone consisting of
hypogene quartz-alunite and kaolin minerals, in places with pyrophyllite, diaspore, or zunyite. The deposit
form varies from disseminations or replacements to veins, stockworks, and hydrothermal breccia.
During initial assessment of a prospect, the first goal is to determine if it is epithermal, and if so, its style,
low-sulfidation or high-sulfidation. Other essential determinations are: (1) the origin of advanced argillic

%orresponding author: e-mail, [email protected]

245
246 HDENQUIST ET AL..

alteration, (i.e., hypogene, steam-heated, or supergene), (2) the origin of silicic alteration (e.g., residual
silica or silicification), and (3) the likely controls on grade (i.e., the potential form of the orebody), be-
cause this is one of the most basic characteristics of any deposit. These determinations will define in part
the questions to be asked, such as the relationship between alteration zoning and the potential ore zone,
and will guide further exploration and eventual drilling, if warranted. Observations in the field must
focus on the geologic setting and structural controls, alteration mineralogy and textures, geochemical
anomalies, etc. Erosion and weathering must also be considered, the latter masking ore in places but
potentially improving the ore quality through oxidation. As information is compiled, reconstruction of
the topography and, hence, hydraulic gradient during hydrothermal activity, combined with identifica-
tion of the zones of paleofluid flow, will help to identify ore targets. Geophysical data, when interpreted
carefully in the appropriate geological and geochemical context, may provide valuable information to aid
drilling by identifying, for example, resistive and/or chargeable areas.
The potential for a variety of related deposits in epithermal districts has exploration implications. For
example, there is clear evidence for a spatial, and in some cases genetic relationship between high-sulfidation
epithermal deposits and underlying or adjacent porphyry deposits. Similarly, there is increasing recognition
of the potential for economic intermediate sulfidation-state base metal k Au-Ag veins adjacent to high-
sulfidation deposits. By contrast, end-member low-sulfidation deposits appear to form in a geologic envi-
ronment incompatible with porphyry or high-sulfidation deposits of any economic significance. The expla-
nation for these empirical metallogenic relationships may be found in the characteristics of the magma
(e.g., oxidation potential) and of the magmatic fluid genetically associated with the epithet-ma1 deposit.
For effective exploration it is essential to maximize the time in the field of well-trained and experi-
enced geologists using tried and tested methods. Understanding the characteristics of the deposit style
being sought facilitates the construction of multiple working hypotheses for a given prospect, which leads
to efficiently testing each model generated for the prospect, using the tools appropriate for the situation.
Geologists who understand ore-forming processes and are creative thinkers, and who spend much of
their time working in the field within a supportive corporate structure, will be best prepared to find the
epithermal deposits that remain hidden.

Introduction further expenditure. Although no one wishes to walk away

from an orebody waiting to be found, careful consideration
M INERAL EXPLORATION, or more appropriately, mineral dis- of economic factors at each step of the assessment of a pro-
covery, starts with exploration geologists walking over rocks ject is essential to prevent excessive unwarranted expendi-
and making observations. The successful explorationist ture. Although the adage that mines are made, not discov-
uses knowledge of geologic relationships and ore-deposit ered, is commonly true, no amount of investment can make
styles, tempered by experience, to interpret all information a mine from an orebody that is not there.
available from a given prospect; these interpretations lead We begin our discussion with some comments on explom-
to action. Insight into how the characteristics of an ore style tion philosophy and its connection with genetic and explo
may be affected by various geologic settings can be bol- ration models. Following this, we define the epithermal envi-
stered by an understanding of how the processes of ore for- ronment and related terminology, discuss the hydrothermal
mation are manifested as hydrothermal products such as processes that are important in the epithermal environment,
patterns of alteration and ore minerals. In the case of and review the characteristics of epithermal deposits, includ-
exploration for epithermal gold deposits, this understand- ing their tops, bottoms, and sides. In this context, the first goal
ing can be augmented by familiarity with active hydrother- during the assessment of a prospect is to determine if it is
mal systems, their present-day analogues. epithermal, and if so, its style, as this will determine in part the
Although finding an attractive prospect in the first place questions to be asked. The field geologist can then focus on
is hard work, a majority of exploration budgets these days is the geological setting and the various features of the hydro-
spent on assessment. Therefore, we focus on the explo- thermal system. These features provide the framework to iden-
ration of epithermal deposits from the perspective of an tify the location of the paleofluid flow channels, and to deter-
explorationist assessing a prospect or submission. The job of mine whether or not there is ore potential. There are a variety
the explorationist includes building the information base of tools that can assist these efforts, and these are reviewed
that is necessary to develop multiple working hypotheses for below. We finish with a consideration of the causes of regional
a prospect, and establishing valid tests of each hypothesis, variations among giant epithermal deposits.
whether this is a mental test or a drill hole.
During assessment of a prospect, it is essential to know the Exploration Philosophy
geologic and economic objectives of a company, and to An exploration philosophy is more a set of beliefs than an
keep these in mind during each step. Regardless of how organized system of thought, although it requires some of
good a prospect looks, if the geologic controls indicate a the latter to be useful. It resides usually with those responsi-
tonnage that is insufficient to meet the company’s economic ble for leading a company’s exploration efforts, and at its
requirements, or if the mineralized zone is likely to be best, is understood and supported by the corporate leaders.
either low grade or refractory, the answer should be to stop These beliefs, coupled with the corporate needs and
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 247

resources, largely determine the most fundamental choices of the exploration process, is essential to continued support
made in constructing an exploration plan, strategic or oth- and eventual success. For this reason, buying good explo-
erwise, and the organization that will implement it. ration capabilities in the absence of an in-house geological
The elements of this philosophy can range from experi- tradition rarely lasts and seldom succeeds.
ence-driven abstract concepts such as odds-of-discovery, in Just as geological skills and exploration experience are the
general or as is known for a given deposit type, to the conh- defining elements of a philosophy of exploration, the needs
dence (or belief) in specific scientific theories (genetic mod- of the company determine, as much as the funding and skills
els). It also includes pragmatic business notions such as rela- available, which level of exploration it pursues and where:
tive finding costs versus time to discovery, or discovery costs grassroots, early stage, or advanced targets, and targets near
per ounce versus stage of exploration. company-owned ore bodies or in far-flung locations. These
Most exploration geologists are arguably driven more by needs include consideration of existing reserves and the pro-
the desire to succeed, to discover an economic deposit, than duction goals of a company, and the timing for additions to
by a wish to prove a particular theory Consequently, the ten- or replacement of reserves. Given the impracticality of exam-
dency is to rely on exploration philosophies that are a mix ining every prospect, the need to reduce the number of
of pragmatic and scientific beliefs. An example of an end- prospects will benefit from an analysis of the economic and
member philosophy that has nonetheless formed the basis logistic characteristics of different types of deposits of the
of large, long-lived corporate exploration efforts is that of particular metal being sought. This assumes that the corpo-
using the best metallogenic science and the best geologists, rate time horizon allows the search to begin with virgin dis-
and being consistent and persistent in the most favorable tricts or superficially explored prospects.
metallogenic provinces. There is a strongly contrasting phi- Epithermal gold deposits have size, geometry, ore-type, and
losophy, also often applied, based on the argument that the grade variations that can be broadly organized around some
discovery of a significant orebody is statistically highly genetic classes and, therefore, influence the exploration
improbable by any single company. This leads to the policy approach or philosophy. For example, the economic-related
that the more effective approach is to examine the best characteristics of some disseminated high-sulhdation deposits
prospects developed by others and acquire them at an opti- (e.g., Yanacocha, Peru and Pascua-Lama, Chile-Argentina)
mum moment in their exploration process. and low-sulfidation deposits (Round Mountain, Nevada) suit
In evaluating prospects, epithermal gold occurrences in large, relatively low capital-cost open-pit operations. Con-
particular-given their relative abundance and similarity, versely, structurally controlled low-sulfidation vein-type
either of the end-member philosophies outlined above, or deposits (e.g., Hishikari, Japan and Midas, Nevada) are more
any combination of the two, require a solid basis of diagnos- likely to be high-grade underground operations, with con-
tic characteristics. These are derived from genetic and explo- trasting capital requirements, development schedules, and
ration (descriptive) models, and must be applicable to environmental impact. In addition, the medium-grade high-
prospects ranging from unexplored to those in the sulfidation deposits (e.g., Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic,
advanced, grid-drilling stage. Accurate evaluation, however, and Chelopech, Bulgaria), unless oxidized, tend not to be
when based on a complex and extensive model, requires economically viable because of their complex metallurgy and
time and resources. high arsenic content. Keeping in mind such varied economic
It has taken almost a century to develop a systematic, considerations and their effect on exploration philosophy, we
albeit still imperfect, understanding of epithermal ore next examine the geologic features of these epithermal gold
deposits. To expect such an understanding to be translat- deposits.
able during a brief exploration review in the field, intended
Nature of the Epithermd Environment
to accurately define whether the prospect is epithermal,
and its style, size potential, and grade, is unrealistic. Fur-
thermore, the acquisition, compilation, and analysis of suf- Why is there an @ithermal environment of are deposition?
ficient data to make informed decisions on whether or not A rigorous definition of the much-used term epithermal
to pursue a certain prospect, assuming there are few explo is difficult (Henley, 1991). Lindgren (1922) first defined
ration data available to start with, is not possible for all the epithermal environment as being shallow in depth, typi-
prospects. Thus, it becomes necessary to reduce the num- cally hosting deposits of Au, Ag, and base metals (Table 1).
ber of prospects to the few that can be addressed systemati- Epithermal systems have also been exploited for a wide
cally. To accomplish such a reduction, some basic philo- range of metals and minerals, including Hg, Sb, S, kaolinite,
sophical framework must first exist, which uses economic, alunite, and silica. Lindgren’s estimate for maximum depth
social, logistical, and in-company resource parameters to of formation was 3,000 feet (about 1,000 m) , based on geo-
select prospects irrespective of their genetic affiliation. logic reconstruction. The estimate of the upper pressure
A fundamental first step is recognition and application of limit was 100 atmospheres, which corresponds to that of low-
company assets. If these include a strong geological, field- salinity, low-gas water that is boiling at -1,000-m depth.
oriented exploration group, even though funding may be Lindgren deduced a temperature range of 50” to 200°C
comparatively low, the search for virgin or early-stage from the perceived stability limits of various minerals, and
prospects has a sound basis. A good understanding at the similarities of vein textures with those of hot spring
corporate level of a company’s exploration capabilities, and deposits, the latter formed at less than 100°C.
248 HEDENQUIST ET AL.

T ABLE 1. Alternative Nomenclature Used for the Two Main Epithermal Environments and
Correspondence to Understanding of Geothermal Activity

Geothermal Volcanic-hydrothermal
(dominated by neutral pH and (dominated by early acidic and
reduced hypogene fluid) oxidized hypogene fluid) Reference

Goldfield type Ransome, 1909; Bethke, 1984

Au-qtz veins in andesite and rhyolite Au-alunite Lindgren, 1922,1933
Ag-Au, Ag, Au-Te, and AuSe veins
Base metal veins with Au, Ag
Cinnabar, stibnite veins
Enargite Au Ashley, 1982
Hot spring Giles and Nelson, 1982
Adulatia-sericite Acid sulfate Heald et al., 1987
Low sulfur High sulfur Bonham, 1986
Low sulfidation High sultidation Hedenquist, 1987
Adularia-sericite Alunite-kaolinite Berger and Henley, 1989
Intermediate sulfidation This study

Barren quartz-ahrnite lithocap Sillitoe, 1995a; this study

We now know that deposits with textures and mineral pH and reduced deep fluid that is essentially in equilibrium
assemblages characteristic of the epithermal environment with the altered host rocks owing to its relatively slow ascent,
have minerals and fluid inclusions that record a maximum resulting in a rock-dominated system (Giggenbach, 1992a).
temperature of about 3OO”C, although most deposits form The liquid typically is low salinity, less than 1 to 2 wt percent
in a temperature range of about 160” to 270°C. The maxi- NaCl equivalent, and may be gas-rich, with CO, and H,S the
mum temperature at a given depth under hydrostatic pres- dominant gases. Where this liquid discharges at the surface,
sure is limited by the vapor pressure of boiling water. As boiling, neutral-pH springs deposit silica sinter. Steam-
there is abundant evidence that boiling is common within heated waters also occur in this environment, formed by
epithermal ore zones, this temperature interval corresponds condensation of vapor into ground water. Vapor that con-
to a depth range below the paleowater table of about 50 to denses within the vadose zone, above the water table, forms
700 m, respectively. Few deposits with epithermal character- blankets of sulfate-rich waters. Where the vapor condenses
istics have formed below 1,000 m depth (Hedenquist et al., on the margins of the system below the water table, the
1996; Sillitoe, 1999). waters are CO*-rich. Surface features associated with the
Lindgren (1933, p. 452) concluded that ore deposition steam-heated zone include steaming ground, mud volcanoes,
occurs because focused, rapidly ascending fluids quickly and collapse craters in clay-altered ground.
change composition within a kilometer or so of the surface. Geothermal systems typically occur some distance from a
We now know that this change is caused by boiling, the volcanic edifice, although they can also occur in areas with-
process that most favors precipitation of bisulfidecomplexed out contemporaneous volcanic activity or volcanic rocks. In
metals such as gold. Boiling and the concomitant rapid cool- most cases the geothermal systems are driven by intrusions
ing also result in many related features, such as gangue- located as much as 5 to 6 km below the surface. Although
mineral deposition of quartz with a colloform texture, adu- systems with relatively saline waters also occur, the high
laria and bladed calcite, and the formation of steam-heated density of the deep liquid prevents discharge at the surface,
waters that create advanced argillic and argillic (Table 2) and these systems are not well known. An exception is the
alteration blankets and halos. In addition, sharp depressur- well-studied but atypical Salton Sea system, with the brine
ization follows hydraulic fracturing, and this also focuses the being amagmatic in origin (McKibben and Hardie, 1997).
flow of vigorously boiling fluid. For these reasons there is an At the opposite extreme, volcanic-hydrothermal systems
epithermal environment of ore deposition. occur in a location proximal to volcanic vents that focus the
discharge of magmatic vapors to the surface (Fig. 1). Their
End-member styles of hydrothermal system principal surface expressions are high-temperature fumaroles
Two contrasting styles of hydrothermal systems exist within and related condensates of extremely acid water. The
the epithermal environment, and both are well known from acidic, oxidized fluid is far from equilibrium with the host
the study of active examples (e.g., Henley and Ellis, 1983). rocks, reflecting its magmatic affiliation (Giggenbach,
The two epithermal deposit styles of contrasting alteration 1992b). The strong structural control causes the rapid fluid
and ore assemblages form within these distinctly different ascent that is responsible for its reactive nature and fluid-
systems in somewhat contrasting volcanic settings (Fig. 1). dominated character (Giggenbach, 1992a). The parent intru-
At one extreme are geothermal systems with a near-neutral sions may be very shallow, even erupting to the surface.
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 249

TMLE 2. Alteration Assemblages Relevant to the Epithet-ma1 Environment

with Comments on Characteristic Lithologic or Mineralogical Features

Assemblage Low sulfidation High sulfidation

Silicic (see Table 4) Quartz veins and veinlets, silicified Residual quartz bodies, often field termed
breccia and/or stockwork; shallow “vuggy silica”; partial to massive
silicification, including chalcedony silicification; quartz veins and silicified
and/or opaline blankets; silica sinter breccias; shallow silicification, including
chalcedony and/or opaline blankets;
no sinter
Advanced Argillic Kaolinite-alunite-(illite/smectite-native Alunite-kaolinite/dickite-pyrophyllite-
sulfur) ? opaline blankets of steam- d&pore of hypogene origin, typically
heated origin; commonly underlain by surrounding silicic cores; also sericite-
chalcedony blankets pyrophyllite roots
Kaolinite/halloysite-alunitejarosite Kaolinite-alunite blankets of steam-
blankets or zones of supergene origin heated or supergene origin
Argillic or Intermediate Illite/smectite halo to veins; illite + Illite and illite/smectite halo to advanced
Argillic smectite halo to deeper sericitic zones aurgillic core
Propylitic Broad host to ore system, in some cases deuteric in
origin and of questionable direct genetic relation
to epithennal ore forming system; typically
chloritic (not epidote), except at deeper levels
Sericitic’/Phyllic Sericitedominated rock, typically as a Sericitic roots to advanced argillic areas;
halo to deep quartz veins may be transitional to advanced argillic

Note: These alteration assemblages may accompany ore, or may be barren; in the case of hypogene advanced
argillic assemblages (quartz-alunite halos to residual quartz), the term lithocap is used when there is thought to be
a spatial relationship to an underlying porphyry system (Sillitoe, 1995a)
‘Sericite is a field term used to designate fine-grained white mica, and may constitute illite, 2M muscovite, and
intermediate Kdioctahedral micas (Meyer and Hemley, 1967)

VOLCANIC-HYDROTHERMAL
SYSTEM
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM

1:;
/Porphyry Cu (M O , Au)
m Saline magmatic fluid Y

, lkm ,
Approximate
scale

FIG . 1. Cartoon to illustrate schematically the various processes deduced for volcanic-hydrothermal and geothermal
systems, and the respective environments of high-sulfidation and low-sulfidation styles of epithennal ore deposits relative
to the intrusive engine. We do not infer necessarily this spatial relationship between all systems (from Hedenquist and
Lowenstern, 1994, integrated from many sources, including Sillitoe, 1975; Giggenbach, 1981; Henley and Ellis, 1983).
250 HEDENQUIST ET AL.

These volcanic-hydrothermal systems have distinctly dif- the terminology. Rather, it is an attempt to recognize and
ferent characteristics from their geothermal counterparts, distinguish the possibility that intermediate sulfidation-state
although both can coexist nearly side by side. In some cases, and end-member low-sulfidation deposits form in different
there is a transition downward from geothermal to volcanic- tectonic settings, and have different magmatic affiliations
hydrothermal environments at depths of only 1 to 2 km, (John, 1999; John et al., 1999).
where hypogene acid fluid rises along fractures or shallow The hypogene acid fluid that is generated in the volcanic-
dikes into an overlying neutral-pH geothermal system hydrothermal environment (Fig. 1) leaches the rock, creat-
(Reyes et al., 1993). Typically, this transition is represented ing a core of residual, commonly vuggy silica that recrystal-
by a zone of hydrolysis (Meyer and Hemley, 1967), also lizes to quartz. These silicic zones invariably form the core of
called primary neutralization (Giggenbach, 1981), located an advanced argillic alteration halo (Fig. 2)) and the silicic
beneath the epithet-ma1 environment (Fig. 1). core may serve as an aquifer for a subsequent ore fluid
(White, 1991). The ore fluid, when present, is distinct in
Terminology: High- and low-suljidation styles of epithermal deposit composition from the early-stage fluid responsible for leach-
The two distinctly different chemical environments have ing; it is less acidic and less oxidized, and is also relatively
also long been recognized for epithermal deposits (Ran- saline (Hedenquist et al., 1998). Sulfide minerals deposited
some, 1907), although the interpretation of the cause of this during this later stage include enargite and pyrite (Table 3).
difference has varied (Ransome, 1909; Lindgren, 1933; A shortcoming of the sulfidation-state terminology is the
Nolan, 1933; White, 1955). There are a variety of terms that fact that it is based on ore minerals, whereas barren
have been used to describe the two end-member styles of prospects-those that experienced only the early stage of
epithermal deposits (Table 1). These various terms have leaching-do not contain diagnostic high-sulfidation min-
caused some confusion at times, and for this reason we erals such as enargite. Barren prospects are common in the
review the origins of the terms. The ore-deposit characteris- volcanic-hydrothermal environment, similar to the silicic
tics are strongly influenced by the contrasting compositions and quartz-alunite lithocaps (Sillitoe, 1995a) that form over
of the deep fluid, outlined above, either neutral and degassing intrusions (Hedenquist et al., 1998). In these
reduced or acidic and oxidized. Therefore, the various situations, the high-sulfidation ore fluid either did not form
terms that have been used in the past usually reflected either at depth or did not ascend to epithermal depths, thus, leav-
the different processes or the resulting products of these ing an alteration assemblage typical of a lithocap, the term
two end-member types of fluid. we use for a barren system of this alteration style (Table 1).
We use the terms low sullidation and high sulfidation to The low-salinity liquid responsible for formation of low-
reflect the two end-member sulfidation states, deduced sulfidation ore veins and disseminations (Fig. 3) is similar to
from the sulfide mineral assemblages (Barton and Skinner, waters tapped by drilling beneath geothermal hot springs.
1979). These terms were first suggested on the basis of the The low-sulfidation state minerals that form from these
oxidation state of the sulfur in the fluid (Hedenquist, reduced, neutral-pH waters are in equilibrium with the host-
1987). However, as this is impractical to determine for an rock alteration minerals. The salinity of the fluids that form
ore prospect, the terms are now used to refer to the sulfi- intermediate sulfidation-state deposits is somewhat higher
dation state of the sulfide assemblage. This mineralogical than that of the end-member low-sulfidation systems
feature reflects the intrinsic nature of the ore fluid (Heald (Table 3)) and the sulfide assemblage indicates a sulfidation
et al., 1987; Hedenquist, 1987; John, 1999), both its origin state that has not fully been equilibrated with the rock buffer,
and also the degree of fluid-rock interaction, rock-dominated in contrast to end-member low-sulfidation deposits.
for low-sulfidation and fluid-dominated for high-sulfidation The two end-member styles of deposit, low-sulfidation and
systems (Giggenbach, 1992a). high-sulfidation, are also clearly distinguished on the basis of
However, just as there is a transition between the end- their hypogene alteration mineralogy (Table 2). Quartz-adu-
member active systems, so too do we recognize deposits with laria-carbonate veins with sericitic or clay halos commonly
features intermediate between the low-sulfidation and high- host low-sulfidation ore (Fig. 3), in contrast to the leached
sulfidation end-members (Sillitoe, 1993a; John et al., 1999; silicic host of high-sulfidation ores with quartz f alunite +
this study). The sulfide assemblage of end-member low- pyrophyllite f dickite halos (Fig. 2). The silicate alteration
sulfidation epithermal deposits is typically pyrite-pyrrhotite- mineralogy of intermediate sulfrdation-state deposits is
arsenopyrite and Fe-rich sphalerite. The high-sulfidation broadly similar to that of end-member low-sulfidation
deposits, by contrast, are characterized by enargite-luzonite- deposits (Table 3), indicating that they also form from a
covellite plus pyrite assemblages. In the past, the low- near-neutral pH ore fluid. Distinctions include an abun-
sulfidation term has been applied to deposits with a sulfide dance of rhodochrosite and anhydrite versus chalcedony and
assemblage intermediate between the low-sulfidation and adularia in intermediate sulfidation-state versus end-member
high-sulfidation end-members (i.e., tennantite-tetrahedrite- low-sulfidation deposits, respectively.
chalcopyrite and Fe-poor sphalerite). In this study we subdi- In reality, the alternative nomenclature that developed over
vide the low-sulfidation category into end-member low-sulfi- the century simply reflects different ways to refer to the same
dation deposits and those with assemblages indicating an set of observations. Early distinctions were commonly based
intermediate sulfidation state. This is not simply a distinc- on a type example (e.g., Goldfield type; Ransome, 1909), and
tion of the sulfide assemblage, nor is it intended to confuse this neatly avoided any genetic discussion, including changes
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 251

Vuggy silica

Leeched
Propyiitic Argillic -+ Adv. argiillic silicic
‘- Af

Quartz-alunite rock

Chlorite-&h Montmorildte-rich Kahnitic Mine2lized vuggy

rock rock rock rock quartz rock

FIG. 2. Section through a typical high-sulfidation orebody, showing the upward-flaring zone of the silicic core (Stoffregen,
1987), with an inset (Steven and Raw?, 1960) illustrating the characteristic alteration zonation outward from the silicic core
that may have a texture of vuggy quartz. The silicic core is the principal host to highsulfidation ore, although portions of
the advanced argillic zone can also contain ore, particularly where pyrophyllite dominates over silicic zones (White, 1991).
Note that patches of advanced argillic assemblages (e.g., quartz-alunite) may be contained within the silicic core, most likely
caused by permeability variations that result in some zones being incompletely leached.

in the perceived origin with time (White and Hedenquist, Although mineralogic and textural distinction is possible
1990). Lindgren (1933) distinguished epithermal types on (Sillitoe, 1993a), a casual reference to an acidic fluid or an
the basis of metal assemblage (Table l), noting the distinct advanced argillic assemblage without specifying the miner-
Au-alunite association from the work by Ransome and oth- alogy and determining its origin can lead to some geolo-
ers. Nolan (1933)argued for a division that was based on Au- gists assuming, incorrectly, a high-sulfidation style of system.
rich or Ag-rich ore, a precursor to the low-sulfidation and The terms low sulfur and high sulfur (Table 1; Bonham,
intermediate sulfidation-state grouping to distinguish these 1986) refer to the total amount of sulfide minerals in a
observed differences. The Russian literature has long recog- deposit. In contrast, the terms low and high sulfidation do
nized the distinctive high-sulfidation style, and used the term not refer to low and high concentrations of sulfide minerals,
secondary quartzite (Fedorov, 1903; Nakovnik, 1933, 1968) but rather reflect the oxidation potential and sulfur fugacity
to refer to the lithocap of residual quartz associated with vol- of the fluid that deposited the sulfides (Barton and Skinner,
canism and massive sulfide mineralization, including por- 1979). Although low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation
phyry-type deposits (Rusakov, 1926; Nakovnik, 1934). deposits typically have low and high sulfide contents, respec-
Increased exploration for gold in the late 1970s and 1980s tively, there are pyrite-rich low-sulfidation and base metal-
led to a renewed examination of epithermal deposits. The rich intermediate sulfidation-state deposits with sulfide con-
classic low-sulfidation-style veins of the western Americas tents as high as sulfide-poor high-sulfidation examples
(Buchanan, 1981), similar to some of the first epithermal (Sillitoe, 1993a). Lastly, hot-spring type is a term that was
deposits ever studied, located in central Europe (Lindgren, introduced following the discovery of the McLaughlin
1933), were termed adularia-sericite (Heald et al., 1987) in deposit, California, beneath silica sinter (Giles and Nelson,
recognition of the common presence of vein adularia and 1982). However, this and similar examples are simply a shal-
halos of sericite (Buchanan, 1981). However, in some low-formed subset of low-sulfidation deposits, typically end-
deposits adularia is rare or absent, particularly in southwest member low-sulfidation deposits, with evidence of paleosur-
Pacific examples (White et al., 1995) and others with a high face preserved, and do not constitute a distinct style.
base metal content associated with andesitic volcanism Why do we need to define the various environments of epi-
(Sillitoe, 1993a). The counterpart to this term, acid sulfate thermal deposit formation, and understand these variations
(Heald et al., 1987), refers to the deduced nature of the during exploration? As noted here, the two end-member
altering fluid responsible for generating hypogene styles of a system create different alteration and miner-
advanced argillic assemblages. A problem arises here alization products with potential for markedly different
because an acidic sulfate-rich solution can also be gener- ore controls and geometries (Sillitoe, 1993a; White and
ated in the vadose zone over the top of both styles of sys- Hedenquist, 1995). For this reason, the correct framework
tem, from syn-hydrothermal steam-heated waters and from of interpretation is essential, starting from the earliest stage
post-hydrothermal weathering of sulfides (see below). of exploration and assessment. Guidelines to distinguish
Thus, advanced argillic minerals (Table 2) can form in the style of epithermal environment can all be employed in
three distinct environments (e.g., Rye et al., 1992). the field, as discussed in the following sections.
252 HELJENQUIST ET AL

TABLE 3. High- and Low-Sulfidation Deposit Characteristics

Low-sulfidation deposits’ High-sulfidation deposits

Genetically Andes&rhyodacite (AR), bimodal rhyolite- Andesite-rhyodacite, dominated by talc-alkalic magmas

related basalt (RB), alkalic (A)
volcanic
rocks
Shallow Deep Shallow* Intermediate* Deep (po’phm)*
Depth of O-300 m 300-800 m <500 500-l ,000 m >l,OOO m
formation (rarely >l,OOO m)
Setting, typical Domes; pyroclastic Domes, diatremes Domes, central Domes, diatremes; Domediatreme;
host rock and sedimentary W, A) ; vent; pyroclastic volcanic rocks po’phyry,
rocks pyroclastic and and sedimentary volcanic, elastic
sedimentary rocks rocks sedimentary
rocks
Deposit form Vein, vein swarm, Vein, breccia body, Disseminated, Massive sulfide Dissemination,
stockwork, disseminated breccia and veins, breccia, veinlets, breccia
disseminated veinlet ledges
Ore textures Fine bands, combs, Coarse bands Vuggy quartz Massive sulfide, Replacement
crustiform, hosts late
breccia replacement veins/breccias
Alteration Alunite-kaolinite Clays, sericite, Silicic (vuggy) , Silicic (vuggy) , Pyrophyllite-
blanket, clay carbonates; quartz-alunite quartz-alunite, sericite, quartz-
halo roscoellite, fluorite pyrophyllite- sericite
(4 dickite-sericite
Gangue 3 Chalcedony- Quartz-carhonate- Alunite, barite, Anhydrite, Sericite,
adularia-illite. rhodonite-sericite- kaolinite kaolinite, pyrophyllite
calcite adularia + barite f dickite
anhydrite f
hematite + chlorite
Lw
Cinnabar, stibnite; Pyri te-Au-Ag Enargite/luzonite, Enargite/luzonite, Bornite, digenite,
pyrite/marcasite- sulfides/sulfosalts, covellite, pyrite chalcopytite, chalcocite,
arsenopyrite, Au- variable sphalerite, tetrahedrite/
Ag selenides, Se galena, tennantite,
sulfosalts, chalcopytite, sphalerite, late
pyrrhotite, Fe- tetrahedrite/ covellite, pyrite
rich sphalerite tennantite (AR)
W)
Metals3 Au-Ag-A.+SbSe- Ag-Au-PbZn, Ba, Au-Ag, Cu Cu-Au-Ag-Bi-Te- Cu-Au
Hg-Tl (RB) , low Mn, Se (AR), high leached (Hg Sn
Ag:Au; <O. l-l % Ag:Au; 2-10 overprint)
base metals (20t) % base metals
Notable Sinter, chalcedony Some intermediate Steam-heated Vuggy quartz host Overprinted on
features blanket sulfidation-state blanket po$vv
veins adjacent to features
high-sulfidation ore
Fluids 4% NaQ, gas- 3-lot% NaCl, 220- ~2 wt% NaCl 4-15t wt% NaCl Variable
rich, ~220°C 28O”Ct (AR)
VW
Examples McLaughlin, Cornstock, Tonopah, Yanacocha, Pueblo El Indio, Lepanto, Bisbee, MM,
Midas, Round Creede, Fresnillo, Viejo, Pierina, La Chinkuashih, Chuquicamata
Mountain, Casapalca, Victoria Coipa, Tambo, Goldfield,
Sleeper, (intermediate Pascua, Paradise Lahoca
Hishikari (low- sultidation-state) Peak,
sultidation) Summitville,
Rodalquilar,
K==@
Based on Lindgren, 1933; Buchanan, 1981; Heald et al., 1987; Sillitoe, 1993a, 1999; White et al., 1995; John et al., 1999; this study
‘Includes both intermediate-sulfidation and end-member low-sulfidation deposits
?Sillitoe, 1999
shrtermediate sulfidationstate deposits associated with andesite-rhyodacite (AR) tend to form at greater depths than the end-mem-
ber low-sulftdation deposits associated with rhyolite-basalts (John et al., 1999); a deep to shallow transition from the AR to RB associa-
tion, or from intermediate sulfidation-state to Iow-sulfidation character, is not implied
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 253

1Kaolinite e a/unite A native S - opaline silica (steam-heated alteration) 1

SRl

...
.P.i
;C- :, :,:
Vein ore :.
I -,- ..

Crustified quartz/chalcedony-carbonates * adularia f barite/fluorite

F IG. 3. Schematic section that generalizes patterns of alteration in a low-sulfidation system, showing the variable form
with increasing depth, and the typical alteration zonation, including the distribution of sinter, a blanket of advanced
argillic (AA) steam-heated alteration, and water table silicification (Buchanan, 1981; Sillitoe, 1993a). The geologic vari-
ation between deposits accounts for many deviations from this generalization.

Genetic Framework and Waimangu, New Zealand (Hedenquist and Henley,

1985b). Conversely, high salinity decreases the depth to a
Epithermalfluids and processes given boiling temperature, but this effect is limited at the low
salinities that are characteristic of Au-rich epithermal fluids
Drilling into numerous geothermal systems around the (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a).
world has provided abundant information on temperature- Boiling and mixing are the two principal processes that
depth relationships (Henley et al., 1984). The principal occur in geothermal systems (Giggenbach and Stewart,
upflow in most systems has a thermal gradient indicating 1982)) together with vapor condensation near the surface.
boiling conditions, in some cases adjusted for the gas-rich In high-flux hydrothermal systems, fluid ascent is suffr-
nature of the fluid (Fig. 4a). High gas contents contribute to ciently rapid that the liquid will intersect its boiling-point-
the vapor pressure, thus pushing a given isotherm to greater for-depth curve. Because a high fluid-and metal-flux is a
depths. For example, high concentrations of CO, in solution requirement for the formation of a hydrothermal ore
can cause a 300°C liquid to start to boil as deep as 1,500 m deposit (Henley, 1985), it follows that boiling should be
depth, instead of 1,000 m for pure water (Henley et al., common in the upflow zones of an ore deposit. Deep fluid
1984). In contrast, the resistance to flow in a fracture typi- typically mixes with shallow water on the margins of the sys-
cally results in hydrodynamic pressures 10 percent greater tem, either cool ground water or its steam-heated equiva-
than hydrostatic (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a). In some lent, and this invariably quenches boiling (Fig. 4a).
cases mineral deposition may result in the flow becoming In geothermal systems and their low-sulfidation ana-
restricted, causing the pressure to increase to as much as logues, the principal control on fluid pH is the concentra-
twice that of the hydrostatic profile (e.g., at Sulphur Bank tion of CO, in solution, together with the salinity (Henley
and McLaughlin, California; Moore et al., 2000). This will et al., 1984). Thus, boiling and loss of CO, to the vapor
result in the isotherms being compressed closer to the sur- results in an increase in the pH (eq. 1). In turn, this causes
face. The higher pressure will also contribute to the likeli- a shift from illite to adularia stability (eq. 2). The loss of
hood of hydraulic fracturing, hydrothermal brecciation, and CO, also leads to the deposition of calcite (eq. 3). This
possible hydrothermal eruption, such as has occurred in the explains the common occurrence of adularia and bladed
geothermal systems ofYellowstone, Wyoming, and Waiotapu calcite as gangue minerals in low-sulfidation ore veins.
254 HELIENQUIST ET AL.

Alteration mineralogy: Alteration mineralogy:

Temperature (Co) core of svstem
margin of system
-(mixing) (boiliig)

0.5

E ’
Y
r
E
$ 1.5

2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age, Ma
F IG. 4. a. Boiling point for depth curve, for pure water and a gas-rich solution at close to hydrostatic pressure. The
schematic distribution of alteration minerals in the wall rock proximal to the boiling upflow portion of the system is
shown to the right; many of these minerals form as the result of boiling, and the distribution of some reflect their tem-
perature dependence (Fig. 8). The pattern of temperature-dependent minerals that form on the cooler margins of
the system where mixing predominates is shown schematically to the left. b. Depth ranges for epithermal ore versus
age of deposit (modified from Hedenquist et al., 1996), showing the typical erosion rates for continental and island
arcs settings, and the rate for extreme uplift (e.g., Papua New Guinea; Sillitoe, 1994). See Fig. 9 for low-sulfidation or
high-sulfidation character. Ba = Baguio; CC = Cripple Creek; Ch = Chinkuashih; CL = Comstock Lode; El = El Indio;
Go = Goldfield; Hi = Hishikari; Iv = Ivanhoe; Ka = Kasuga; Ke = Kelian; Ku = Kushikino; La = Ladolam; LC = Lewis-
Crofoot (Sulphur); Le = Lepanto; MC = McLaughlin; Mi = Midas; MC = Mule Canyon; PP = Paradise Peak; Ro =
Rodalquilar; RM = Round Mountain; Sa = Sado; Su = Summitville; Ta = Taio; mm/a = millimeter per year erosion rate.
 fXPLO~4TION FOR EPITHEFMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 255

HCO, t H+ = H&O, * CO, + H,O (1) AuSH + 0.5 H, 3 Au t H,S (4b)

KAl,Si,O,,(OH), t 6 SiO, t 2 K+ 3 3 KAlSi,O, t 2 H+ (2) In contrast to the many indications for boiling in low-sul-
fidation deposits, there is evidence for mixing based on the
2 HCO; + Ca *+ * CaCO, t CO, + H,O (3) 0 and H isotope data from some high-sulfidation deposits.
Trends of isotopic data indicate a ground-water diluent dur-
Boiling in the focused upflow of a hydrothermal system ing alunite formation (Arribas, 1995)) consistent with the
(Simmons and Christenson, 1994) is a critical process in temperature-salinity trend of enargite-hosted fluid inclu-
the epithermal environment, because boiling and the asso- sions from the Julcani, Peru (Deen et al., 1994) and Lep-
ciated gas loss are the principal causes of gold precipita- anto, Philippines (Mancano and Campbell, 1995) high-sul-
tion from bisulfide complexes. Gold saturation occurs due fidation deposits. Dilution by cool ground water at Lepanto
to the loss of the sulfide ligand to the vapor (eq. 4a; would have prevented boiling during enargite deposition,
Buchanan, 1981; Brown, 1986; Cooke and Simmons, because mixing always causes a boiling fluid to fall below
2000). This is particularly relevant to the deposition of the boiling curve (Fig. 4a). Because gold deposition fol-
high-grade gold ore in low-sulfidation veins. Thus, evi- lowed closel,y.after enargite deposition in this and similar
dence for boiling to have occurred in an epithermal deposits, boiling may not be the sole precipitation mecha-
prospect is desirable. nism of sulfides and gold in high-sullidation deposits.
Regardless, boiling must occur at some stage in the life of
Au(HS), + 0.5 H, ==+ Au t H,S t HS- (44 high-sulfidation systems, as indicated by the common
occurrence of hydrothermal breccias, some of which pre-
The evidence that boiling occurred in epithermal date mineralization, and evidence, prior to erosion, of
deposits includes alteration blankets of steam-heated origin steam-heated alteration blankets (Sillitoe, 1999). Our lack
(Buchanan, 1981), adularia and bladed calcite in low- of knowledge about the ore fluid and mineralization
sulfidation veins (Simmons and Christenson, 1994)) fluid process responsible for forming high-sulfidation deposits
inclusion relations (Roedder, 1984) and, indirectly, hydro- reflects the fewer studies of such deposits and their lack of
thermal breccias that indicate hydraulic fracturing and silicate alteration minerals, plus our inability to drill into
pressure release (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985b). Boiling their highly reactive and dynamic present-day volcanic
also causes cooling and concentration of dissolved species equivalents.
such as silica, leading to quartz supersaturation and the for-
Origin of acid waters in the epithemal environment
mation of silica colloids. The colloids deposit as a gel that
recrystallizes to fine, colloform-banded chalcedony, a fea- During exploration it is essential to distinguish the origin
ture typically associated with gold dendrites in high-grade of advanced argillic alteration (Bethke, 1984), because the
low-sulfidation veins. Dendrites grow from gold colloids, alteration products have distinctly different spatial and
another indication of supersaturation caused by boiling genetic relationships to the potential ore zone. For this
(Saunders, 1994). In addition, truscottite (a hydrated Ca-Al reason, we elaborate here on the origins of the acid waters
silicate) is a mineral that is found most commonly in asso- that generate advanced argillic assemblages. As mentioned
ciation with high-grade gold ore. It is stable only when the above, there are three principal sources of natural acidity:
silica concentration exceeds quartz saturation, another hypogene magmatic condensates, steam-heated oxidation,
indirect line of evidence for boiling (Izawa and Yamashita, and supergene oxidation. The first is responsible for form-
1995). Although steam-heated blankets and hydrothermal ing the advanced argillic alteration of barren lithocaps as
breccias are common in high-sulfidation deposits (Sillitoe, well as high-sulfidation deposits, whereas the latter two can
1999) as well as low-sulfidation deposits, the other features create blankets of advanced argillic alteration over both
are restricted to low-sulfidation systems. high-sulfidation and low-sullidation deposits (Fig. 5; Sillitoe,
The high-sulfidation ore fluid typically deposits sericite, 1993a; White and Hedenquist, 1995).
dickite, or kaolinite where silicate minerals are able to form The proximal volcanic setting of high-sulfidation deposits
adjacent to the vuggy quartz rock that typically hosts ore. accounts for the presence of hypogene acidic species,
These minerals indicate a lower pH than is typical for low- including HCl, SO,, and HF in decreasing abundance
sulfidation fluids that deposit adularia and calcite, about (Hedenquist, 1995). Dissociation of the dominant acidic
pH 4 to 5 versus pH 6 to 7, respectively (Hedenquist et al., species, HCl and H,SO, (eqs. 5 and 7, respectively) occurs
1998). In the more acid high-sulfidation environment, the at less than 300” to 350X, subsequent to absorption of the
dominant gold complex may be bisulfide (Benning and high-temperature magmatic vapor by ground water and dis-
Seward, 1996; Giggenbach, 1997), even though the fluid is proportionation of the SO, (eq. 6).
relatively oxidized and has a moderate salinity (Hedenquist
et al., 1998). By contrast, within the epithermal environ- HCl = H+ t Cl- (5)
ment the solubility of the gold-chloride complex will be
very low except under acidic and oxidized conditions (i.e., 4 SO, t 4 H,O = 3 H,SO, t H,S (6)
typical of the fluid that may be responsible for early leach-
ing and production of the preore lithocap). H,SO, = H+ + HSO, (7)
256 HELlENQlJIST ET AL.

Cool meteoric water Sinter

f Surface
toble

\ Condensation and mixing: Ascending fluids

a k acid fluid produced
\
Surface
i

magma
+
+
+ +
+

AL&A

10 : ,++ 1 6_=\:\lr:,3 Advanced argillic alteration 1

200 metres
FIG. 5. Schematic illustration of the environment of formation of the three types of acid waters, hypogene (eqs. 5-7),
steam-heated (eq. 8), and supergene (eq. 9) (Schoen et al., 1974, Giggenbach, 1992a; Sillitoe, 1993a). In a, acidity derives
from ascending and cooling HCI and SO,, the latter after it has been condensed into water and has formed suIfuric acid
(cf. Fig. 2). In b, acidity derives from oxidation of H,S gas that condenses within the vadose zone (cf. Fig. 3). By contrast,
in c, acidity derives from post-hydrothermal oxidation of pyrite within the vadose zone. From Sillitoe (1993a)

This process results in the development of hypogene High-temperature, high-pressure vapors apparently trans-
hydrochloric-sulfuric acid water with a pH of about 1, &Ii- port metals such as Cu, Au, and As (Heinrich et al., 1999),
ciently acid to leach most components, including Al, from the possibly as molecular S and Cl complexes. Aerosols similar
rock. This leaching leaves a siliceous residue that soon recrys- to those accompanying volcanic eruption (Hedenquist,
tallizes to quartz, sometimes with a vuggy texture (vuggy 1995) may also be responsible for transporting metals into
quartz, or porous quartzite in the Russian literature), and also the epithermal environment during the formation of this
forms the advanced argillic alteration halo typical of the litho- type of advanced argillic alteration (Muntean and Einaudi,
caps that host high-suhidation deposits (Fig. 2). The creation 2000). Despite vapor transport of metals at high pressure,
of acid conditions is dependent on absorption of magmatic hypogene silicic and advanced argillic alteration generated
vapors by ground water; thus, the zone of silicic and advanced by condensation of relatively low-pressure, metal-poor
argillic alteration has a sharp lower boundary (Stoffregen, vapor (Hedenquist, 1995) should not be highly anomalous
1987; White, 1991), coincident with an aquifer (Giggenbach, in metals, as noted in barren lithocaps without subsequent
1992a). Cooling results in the solution becoming increasingly introduction of sulfide minerals.
reactive, causing the alteration to flare upward as reactive fluid In both high-sulfidation and low-sullidation systems, H,S
is continually supplied at depth (Figs. 2 and 5). Where the acid is present and will oxidize to sulfate in the presence of atmo
fluid intersects a permeable lithology or structure, flow will spheric 0, within the vadose zone (Schoen et al., 1974).
occur along the most permeable channel, down the hydraulic This process forms steam-heated acid sulfate water.
gradient. If this results in lateral flow, the distribution of this
alteration type may be asymmetric. H,S + 20, = H, SO, (8)
 EXPLOR4TIONFOREPITHERA&4L GOLD DEPOSITS 257

Deeply circulating cold ground water contains a maxi- forming blankets of chalcedony at the water table and
mum of 10 ppm dissolved O,, insufficient to create an acid zones of opal above the water table (Table 4).
sulfate water beneath the vadose zone. Thus, because In a related situation, condensation of vapor below the
steam-heated acid-sulfate water forms only within the vadose vadose zone forms a COP-rich steam-heated water (eq. 1;
zone, its distribution mimics that of the ground-water table, Hedenquist, 1990) that occurs as a discontinuous umbrella
forming a blanket of alteration (Figs. 3 and 5)) although across the top and draped over the margins of the upflow
locally the acid water can descend along fractures if the plume. The mildly acid (pH 4-5) water creates argillic
water table is perched. Flow will occur down the hydraulic halos of smectite and inter-layered clays plus kaolinite,
gradient towards drainages (Schoen et al., 1974; Sillitoe, siderite, and other carbonates, and extends locally to 1,000
1993a). The thickness of the zone of acid-sulfate water is m depth (Simmons and Browne, 2000). Incursion of this
only several meters and, thus, temperatures seldom exceed water during the late-stage collapse of a system may form
100” to 120°C. During syn-hydrothermal erosion, however, carbonates, some Mn-rich, that are commonly barren (Sim-
the zone of steam-heated alteration will fall with the water mons et al., 2000).
table, leading to the development of a thick blanket of acid- The third environment in which acidic solutions form is
sulfate alteration that may overprint deeper alteration. This related to post-hydrothermal supergene oxidation of sul-
was the case at Sulphur, Nevada (Ebert and Rye, 1997), fide minerals:
which owes its name to the sulfur deposits, formed by
steam-heated activity, that cap the ore veins. sulfides + 20, = Fe oxides t H,SO,. (9)
The pH of steam-heated acid-sulfate water is typically
2-3, owing to the lack of HCl and the generally low sulfate Supergene oxidation has many of the same controls as
concentrations. This fluid readily dissolves volcanic glass that of steam-heated oxidation, because it occurs only
and many minerals, but because Al tends to remain insolu- within the vadose zone and is controlled by the position of
ble at pH greater than 2, it will be fixed in minerals such as the water table. Temperature is limited to a maximum of
kaolinite and alunite. This precludes the widespread devel- 30” to 40°C and in addition to the formation of secondary
opment of residual silica (>95% SiO,) within steam-heated clays, kaolinite, halloysite, and alunite, jarosite is common
blankets of alteration, although a friable and silica-rich opa- and Fe oxides are ubiquitous. Acid waters may drain down-
line cap of residual material may form locally. Subsurface ward locally along faults and open fractures (Fig. 5). Weath-
lateral flow of this water causes silicification of the aquifer ering of sulfides improves the recovery of refractory gold in
as the acid solution reacts with wall rock and is neutralized, low-grade epithermal deposits that otherwise would be

TABLE 4. Types of Silicic Alteration

Twe Formation Where? Significance Metals LSorHS

Sinter From near-neutral pH Only at surface Paleosurface, topographic Var. As, Sb, LS only
hot springs (hydrologic) depression, Hg, ‘1-1 (Au,
focus of upflow Ag if flared
vent)
Residual silica Moderate leaching, pH In vadose zone Steam-heated origin, Hg, unless LS or HS
(opaline) -2-3,80-90%SiO, above paleowater table overprint
Chalcedony Silica remobilized At water table, Paleowater table, may be Hg if only LS or HS
horizon from steam-heated up to l-2+ distal from source steam-
zone; deep fluid may km from heated, As,
contribute to source Sb, Au, Ag
outflow if deep
fluid
Chalcedony veins, From low-T fluid, Shallow depth, <2OO”C, rapidly cooling As, Sb, Se, L.S or late
colloform colloids; cl50 m fluid, boiling at depth; Au, Ag HS
bands; crypto- recrystallized from cryptocrystalline at
crystalline veins gel -200°C
Quartz veins, vugs From cooling solution >150 m depth >2OO”C Au, Ag, base IS, late
metals HS
Residual silica Extreme leaching at Core of Permeable core, principal Barren, or Cu, HS only
(vuggy quartz) pH ~2, >95% SiO, volcanic- host to high-sulfidation A, Au, Ag
hydrothermal ore
system
Silicification From cooling water Surface to 500 Shallow portion of Trace Au, Ag IS, mid to
m, massive system, pervasive flow late HS
~150 m depth

Abbreviations: LS = low sultidation, HS = high sulfidation

258 H.!DENQUIST ET AL.

uneconomic, and also leads to the removal of Cu, which is mediate sulfidation state, as noted above. The higher fluid
a metal that increases cyanide consumption during heap salinity in these intermediate sulfidation-state deposits
leach recovery of Au. The tectonic and climatic setting of (Table 3) accounts for their high Ag and base metal con-
the western Americas is more favorable than the southwest centrations (Henley, 1990; Simmons, 1995). Other regions
Pacific for such economically advantageous supergene oxi- with major end-member low-sulfidation plus intermediate
dation (Silli toe, 1999). sulfidation-state deposits and potential for discovery
include central America (e.g., Cerro Crucitas, Costa Rica),
Setting and General Characteristics the Andes (e.g., Portovelo, Ecuador, and several prospects
of Epithermal Ore Deposits in Peru), eastern Australia (Vera Nancy), Patagonia (Cerro
Vanguardia, Argentina), the western Mediterranean
Low-sulfidation deposits, and their tops, bottom, and sides (Almagrera and Mazarron, Spain), the Carpatho-Balkan
Buchanan (1981) and White et al. (1995) reviewed the arc (e.g., Rosia Montana and Baia Mare in Romania, and
host rocks and other characteristics of 60 and 137 epithetmal Madjarovo in Bulgaria), Central Asia (Arharlik in Kazakhstan
deposits in the southwestern United States and southwest- and Baleyskoye in Russia) and the Magadan (Kubaka and
ern Pacific, respectively (Fig. 6). The majority of the Dukat) and Kamchatka regions (Asacha and Aginskoye) of
deposits reviewed, particularly those in southwestern United Far East Russia (Fig. 6).
States, were low-sulfidation in style, both end-member low- Gold ore in low-sulfidation deposits is commonly asso-
sulfidation as well as intermediate sulfidation state. ciated with quartz and adularia plus calcite or sericite as the
Although Buchanan (1981) focused on the physical charac- major gangue minerals (Sillitoe, 1977; Buchanan, 1981;
teristics of the deposits, White et al. (1995) also examined Berger and Eimon, 1983; White et al., 1995; Tables 3 and 5).
the controls on ore, and how they varied in different set- The form of the deposit can vary from vein (Sleeper, Midas
tings. White et al. (1995) noted some differences between and Hishikari in Japan) to stockwork (McLaughlin, Cerro
the two regions, with the southwest Pacific deposits having Crucitas) to disseminated (Round Mountain) (White and
characteristics that suggest a greater depth of formation, a Hedenquist, 1990; Sillitoe, 1993a; Fig. 7). The alteration
larger degree of lateral flow-as a result of higher relief in halos to the zone of mineralization, particularly in vein-
stratovolcanic settings-and a more rapid rate of uplift. All controlled mineralization, include a variety of temperature-
these factors probably reflect the island-arc settings of most sensitive clay minerals (Fig. 8). The area1 extent of such clay
of these deposits, relative to the continental setting of the alteration may be two orders of magnitude larger than the
southwestern United States. Like their geothermal ana- actual ore deposit. This is usually the case with the shallow,
logues, low-sulfidation deposits typically are distant from lower-temperature alteration (e.g., Hishikari; Izawa et al.,
contemporaneous central vents. However, they commonly 1990)) that mushrooms near the surface owing to the inter-
occur within a dome setting, such as Cerro Crucitas, Costa section of an aquifer by basement feeder structures, the
Rica (Pease, 1999), and Castle Mountain, California (Capps latter potentially being host to high-grade ore. Thus, even
and Moore, 1991), and most end-member low-sulfidation after a large alteration system is found, it may still be difhcult
deposits in northern Nevada are associated with rhyolite to assess where the ore is located.
domes (John et al., 1999). Low-sulfidation deposits are afIili- Wall-rock alteration assemblages include illite, chlorite,
ated with a wide range of rock types, from alkalic to talc-alkalic albite, epidote, zeolites, and pyrite, in addition to quartz,
(Sillitoe, 1993a). End-member low-sulfidation deposits may adularia, and calcite (Tables 3 and 5). These minerals reflect
be restricted to bimodal basalt-rhyolite settings, in contrast the near neutral-pH and reduced composition of the ore
to the andesite-rhyodacite setting noted for intermediate fluid. Interstratified illite-smectite and smectite clays plus
sulfidation-state deposits in Nevada (Table 3; John et al., kaolinite occur on the margins of the system, as well as within
1999). A specific style of low-sulfidation deposit is associated the ore zone, in some cases as supergene alteration products
with alkalic rocks (Table 3; Richards, 1995). of hydrothermal sericite. End-member low-sulfidation
Examples of end-member low-sulfidation epithermal deposits contain very minor base metal (Zn-Pb) sulfides, in
deposits in the western United States include gold-rich contrast to intermediate sulfidationstate deposits.
veins at Midas and Sleeper, and disseminated deposits such Tops of low-sulfidation ore deposits: The most distinctive
as Round Mountain, all in Nevada (Buchanan, 1981; John paleosurface feature of low-sulfidation systems is sinter,
et al., 1999). Martha Hill and Golden Cross in New Zealand which forms finely laminated terraces of amorphous silica
(White et al., 1995; de Ronde and Blattner, 1988), some of around neutral pH hot springs. Aprons may extend in the
the mines in the Baguio district, Philippines, and Hishikari, direction of the drainage for several hundreds of meters.
Kushikino, Seigoshi, and Sado mines in Japan (Izawa et al., Finely laminated air-fall or lacustrine sediments that have
1990) are also examples of this style of epithermal deposit been silicifred, in many cases by an out.fIow of steam-heated
(Fig. 6). Other large deposits in the western Pacific region water, may be mistaken for sinter. The presence of plant frag-
include Gunung Pongkor and Kelian in Indonesia, and ments, common in sinter, is not diagnostic, as such material
Ladolam in Papua New Guinea. The Ag + base metal-rich also accumulates with a variety of finely laminated sediments.
deposits of Comstock Lode, Nevada and Creede, Colorado, The only diagnostic criterion is that of the vertical structures
as well as Pachuca and Fresnillo in Mexico (Simmons, that form due to algal growth as well as evaporation (White
1991), possess sulfide assemblages that indicate an inter- et al., 1989). Care must be taken in distinguishing true sinter
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 259

L v o y esfi

Paradise Peak

Hishikari

,Q&,/ \tLadolam

a 4X. LerokisTvMisima
Donok
Gunud PonFb,.,. * I Err rperor

wemora
CI /3ti
VVera-Nancy
G o l d e n Cross Pascua/Veladero
- Waihi

0 Low-sulfidation
0 High-sulfidation

Arharlik

Kochbulak
b

Rodalquilar M a h d a d h Dhahab

FIG. 6. Distribution of principal low-s&id&on and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits in the circumPacific region (a)
and Europe-Central Asia (b).
260 HmENQlJIST ET AL.

TABLE 5a. Depth and Temperature Controls on Hypogene Alteration Characteristics of Low-Sulhdation Deposits

Approx. Paleosurface or 50&l ,000

depth (m) paleowater table O-150 m 150-300 m 300-500 m (1,500) m

Temp. (“C) 100-120 100-200 200-230 230-260 260-300t

Advanced Steam-heated Steam-heated Rare overprint None None
argillic (kaolinite- (kaolinite-
alteration alunite) blanket alunite) overprint
over water table; along fractures
residual opal
Silicic Sinter around hot Colloform Qtz veins, fine Qtz veins w/ Minor qtz veins,
alteration springs, horizon chalcedony veins, bands, open- coarse bands minimal
of chalcedony at wall-rock space filling silicification
water table silicification
Argillic Kaolinite-smectite Smectite, mixed Minor Illite Illite,
alteration illite/smectite; illite/smectite illite/smectite
marginal halo to to illite halo on margins
1,000 m depth
Sericitic None None None Illite + chlorite 2M mica
alteration
T-sensitive or Opal Chalcedony Loss of interlayer Illite, epidote Biotite-amphibole,
T indicative clays presence >800-1,000 m
Associated Kaolinite, alunite (Adularia) Adularia Adularia K feldspar
minerals
Carbonates, None Bladed calcite, Bladed calcite, Calcite Calcite
others late Mn rhodochrosite
carbonates + barite (AR)
Sulfides (RB) Pyrite-marcasite at Pyrite Pyrite, arsenopy- Pyrite, arsenopy- Minor base metal
base rite, pyrrhotite, rite, pyrrhotite sulfides, sphale-
Ag selenides (Ag selenides) rite-galena-
chalcopyrite
Sulfides (AR) Pyrite-marcasite at Pyrite Tetrahedrite- Major base metal Base metal
base tennantite sulfides sulfides
Propylitic Chloritic Chloritic, trace Chlorite f Epidote
epidote epidote

TABLE 5b. Death and Temnerature Controls on Hypogene Alteration Characteristics of High-Sulfidation Deposits

Paleosurface- 500-l ,000

Depth (m) water table O-150 m 150-300 m 300-500 m (1,500) m

Temp. (“C ) 100-120 100-200 200-230 230-260 260-300+

Advanced Steam-heated Quartz-alunite Wide quartz- Flaring upward, Narrow zones,
argillic kaolinite- halo to silicic alunite halo, quartz-alunite; pyrophyllite,
alteration alunite blanket; core depending on pyrophyllite, sericite
residual opal, host diaspore
cristobalite
Silicic Chalcedony Chalcedony veins, Residual silica, Residual silica, Quartz D-type
alteration horizon at residual silica, vuggy quartz, vuggy quartz, porphyry veins
water table wggy quartz, silicification silicification
silicification
Argillic Kaolinite- Smectite- Transitional to On margins On margins
alteration smectite interlayered sericitic
illite/smectite
Sericitic None None None Illite-sericite, to Sericite-
alteration sericite- pyrophyllite to
pyrophyllite 2M mica
T-sensitive or Opal Chalcedony Loss of Pyrophyllite Biotite
indicative interlayered
clays
Sulfides Pyrite-marcasite Pyrite-marcasite at Enargite-luzonite Enargite-luzonite Enargite, bomite,
at base base, with later Au+ with later Au+ digenite,
transitional to tennantite- tennantite- chalcocite,
Cu-As-Sb tetrahedrite- tetrahedrite- covellite
sulfides/ chalcopyrite chalcopyrite
sulfosalts
 EXPLORATION FOR PITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 261

Temperature, “C
Lithologic Mineral
Ring fault 100 200 300

--mm

w-m--

---w--------

Dispersed in ignimbrite/ Replacement at -----mm

elastic sediment permeability contrast Dispersed -m-B

(unconformity) in diatreme
breccia -m-s

Structural
Ring

Y fault ----mm------

-e----

--m

mm-

--

Massive vein Vein swarm Stockwork Low-angle veins w-w-

---

Hydrothermal
-m--m

100m --I

I I m-w

biwrox.)
Hydrothermal Residual Epithermal ore deposition
breccia vuggy silica
FIG. 8. Thermal stability of various hydrothermal minerals that occur
in the epithermal environment under acid and neutral-pH conditions,
F IG. 7. Examples of orebody form, controlled by the host-rock lith- and the typical temperature range for deposition of epithet-ma1 ore
ology, by structure, and by hydrothermal processes (from Sillitoe, 1993a). (cf. Fig. 4; Reyes, 1990; Hedenquist et al., 1996).
Ore shown by angled lines.

Steam-heated water collects at the water table and creates

from a variety of finely laminated, dense siliceous beds that aquifercontrolled stratiform blankets of dense silicification,
form in the epithermal environment. The presence of true typically chalcedony (Schoen et al., 1974), up to several kilo-
sinter proves that the system is low sulfidation, fixes the posi- meters distant from the zone of generation of steam-heated
tion of the paleosurface, and, most importantly, identifies water (Sillitoe, 1993a). Although the horizon of silicifrcation
the location of a principal upflow channel of boiling fluid may be no more than a few meters thick, a falling-or ris-
(Fig. 3). ing-water table resulting from erosion or in-filling of the
Steam-heated water forms blankets of kaolinite, cris- drainage point can form a siliceous blanket up to 25 m or
tobalite, smectite, and, locally, alunite and native sulfur (Figs. more in thickness. These acid-sulfate solutions are also Fe-
3 and 5). There is no direct relationship to ore, but such rich and, thus, may form pyrite and marcasite near the base
blankets typically overlie the ore system in the hanging wall, of the horizon, in proximal positions, where H,S is available.
for example, at McLaughlin (Sherlock et al., 1995) and This acid water may pond in depressions, such as eruption
Kushikino, Japan (Matsuhisa et al., 1985). This alteration craters, leading to the formation of laminated siliceous
assemblage may overprint ore in cases where the ground- deposits interbedded with lacustrine sediments.
water table collapses (e.g., Sulphur and Mt. Muro, Indonesia; The low-pressure, -100°C vapor that is involved in gener-
Ebert and Rye, 1997; Simmons and Browne, 1990). Where ating steam-heated acid sulfate waters does not transport
these acid fluids descend along fractures and are heated NaCl or metals, except for Hg, which is particularly volatile.
(Fig. 5)) such as in high-relief Philippine geothermal systems Indeed, Hg has been mined from such occurrences over
(Reyes, 1990)) they may form narrow zones of higher-tem- epithermal ores, for example, in the Sulphur and Ivanhoe
perature minerals such as pyrophyllite and diaspore. Zoning districts (low-sulfidation) and at the Paradise Peak (high-
of alteration minerals in the steam-heated zone, including sil- sulfidation) deposit, all in Nevada. Thus, metal anomalies
ica minerals, alunite, kaolinite, and smectite, may be present should not be generated by steam-heated alteration in
(Schoen et al., 1974), although this surficial alteration blan- either low-sulfidation or high-sulfidation systems (Sillitoe,
ket is rarely preserved except in the youngest systems. 1993a), except where preexisting metal deposition is over-
262 HELIENQUIST ET AL

printed by a falling water table (Ebert and Rye, 1997). In Rodalquilar, Spain; Figs. 6 and 9). The most common set-
addition, silicification formed at the ground-water table will ting is that associated with domes (22 of 43), primarily in a
not create metal anomalies, aside from Hg, except in cases dome complex, but also summit domes in a central-vent
where an ascending metal-rich liquid also discharges along volcano. A central-vent volcano setting is the next most
the same ground-water outflow. common (12)) whereas a spatial association with diatremes
Sides of low-sulfidation deposits: Low-sulfidation deposits or calderas accounts for only three deposits each; in some
grade outward, in some cases sharply, to argillic halos cases, the association overlaps two of these settings. For ten
whose widths relate to the primary permeability of the host deposits there is insufficient information to determine
rocks-narrow halos around structurally focused ore, or their geologic setting. Rodalquilar, one of the smallest
wide areas in permeable rocks. The argillic assemblage is deposits considered here, is related spatially to a caldera,
transitional outward to propylitic assemblages that may be whereas the large Goldfield, Nevada, deposit is associated
district-wide in extent. with domes that are influenced by a caldera, as at Rodalquilar
The argillic alteration forms as the result of the genera- (Arribas et al., 1995a).
tion of CO*-rich steam-heated water on the margin of the The high-sulfidation style of epithermal deposit forms in
system (Hedenquist, 1990). The mildly acidic (pH 4-5) a position transitional between the surface and a shallow
water creates halos of illite, interstratified clays, and smec- degassing intrusion, in places associated with porphyry
tite as well as kaolinite and siderite that extend locally to deposits. Ore bodies commonly are located proximal to vol-
1,000 m depth (Fig. 8; Simmons and Browne, 2000). The canic vents and are hosted by structural conduits or
outward and upward decrease in temperature from the permeable lithologies. As mentioned above, a critical
fluid channelway is recorded by temperature-dependent requirement is the existence of an effective plumbing sys-
clay minerals (Figs. 7 and 8) that form a zoned halo around tem in the volcanic-hydrothermal system that will allow fast
ore zones. For example, at Hishikari, clays are increasingly ascent of magmatic fluid to epithermal depths. The compo-
interstratified with distance from the veins (Izawa et al., sitional range of rocks genetically related to high-sulfidation
1990). Incursion of this marginal water during the late- deposits is relatively narrow, primarily intermediate calc-
stage collapse of a system may account for the formation of alkaline compositions, in contrast to the wider range of
calcite veins and Mn-rich carbonates that are commonly rock types associated with low-sulfidation deposits, both
barren (Simmons et al., 2000). intermediate sulfidation-state and end-member low-sulfida-
Bottoms of low-sulfidation deposits: The vertical interval of tion (Sillitoe, 1993b; Arribas, 1995; John et al., 1999).
low-sulfidation ore zones typically averages about 300 m High-sulfidation deposits are most well preserved in
(Buchanan, 1981), but may be as large as 600 to 800 m for Cenozoic volcanic arcs of the Circum-Pacific, in the Medi-
intermediate sulfidation-state deposits (Fig. 4b), or in the terranean region, including the Cretaceous to Tertiary
case of high-grade, end-member low-sulfidation deposits, Carpatho-Balkan belt (e.g., Chelopech), and in the Paleo-
may be as little as 100 to 150 m. Quartz veins may simply zoic belt of Central Asia (e.g., Kochbulak, Uzbekistan).
pinch out with increasing depth or change to narrow car- High-sulfidation deposits occur in two principal settings, in
bonate stringers, or they may lose gold grade, resulting in island arcs and at continental margins (Arribas, 1995;
sharp bottoms of high-grade ore (e.g., at Sleeper and White et al., 1995). Older deposits are Mesozoic to Paleo-
Hishikari). Buchanan (1981) notes that the precious metal zoic in age (e.g., in China, Uzbekistan, and Australia), and
zones in many deposits have roots rich in base metal sul- highly metamorphosed examples (DubC et al., 1998) have
fides. This is also documented in the low-sulfidation even been recognized in Proterozoic shields of Canada
deposits of the Metaliferi Mountains of Romania, such as (Hope Brook; Dub6 et al., 1998) and the Baltic region
Brad, where a transition over several 100 meters towards (En&en, Sweden; Hallberg, 1994). The large proportion of
higher base metal concentrations eventually leads to young high-sulfidation (as well as low-sulfidation) deposits
porphyry-style base metal mineralization. A genetic relation simply reflects the greater likelihood of the epithermal
between porphyry and end-member low-sulfidation environment being eroded with time.
epithermal mineralization has not been demonstrated, and The principal host rocks to high-sulfidation deposits are
in northern Nevada, it appears that they are mutually exclu- variable. Andesitic and dacitic volcanic rocks, both flows and
sive (John et al., 1999). By contrast, intermediate sulfida- breccias, host a part or all of 16 deposits out of the 43
tion-state deposits occur in districts that also host deep por- reviewed by Sillitoe (1999); poorly to moderately welded
phyry deposits (John et al., 1999), and there may be a ignimbrite hosts 10 deposits. Ignimbrite seems to be a more
relationship. This is one of the reasons to distinguish common host in South America, whereas other volcanic units
between end-member low-sulfidation and the intermediate are more common in Asia and Europe. Dacitic to andesitic
sulfidation-state deposits. porphyry and other intrusions host ten deposits, and sedi-
mentary rocks of various types (mudstone, sandstone, cal-
High-suljidation deposits, and their tops, bottoms, and sides careous units, metamorphosed graywacke) are host to parts
Arribas (1995) and Sillitoe (1999) summarize the setting or all of nine deposits. Despite the common association of
of 43 high-sulfidation deposits. These deposits range in size high-sulfidation deposits with domes, surprisingly the domes
from the greater than 35 Moz gold deposit at Yanacocha, to themselves host a portion of only a small number of deposits.
several small 0.3 Moz deposits (e.g., Kasuga, Japan and This may reflect their syn-hydrothermal timing of intrusion.
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 263

100 - \
NB: Variable cutoff :
Ix<o, A, \ Hi ‘\, grades
\\
0
- “\o

FIG. 9. Grade-tonnage plot of low-sulfidation and highsulfidation epithermal ore deposits (modified from Hedenquist
et al., 1996). Includes both production and reserves, but with various cut-off grades. Note that there are many
prospects that contain low tonnages and/or grades, plotting in the lower left corner, which are largely uneconomic to
mine. Intermediate sulfidation-state deposits such as Comstock Lode and Kelian are shown with the lowsulfidation
symbol. Ba = Baguio, Philippines; Bo = Boliden, Sweden; CC = Cripple Creek, Colorado; Ch = Chinkuashih, Taiwan;
CL = Comstock Lode, Nevada; Cp = Chelopech, Bulgaria; El = El Indio, Chile; El D.S.O. = El Indio direct shipping ore;
Em = Emperor, Fiji; Go = Goldfield, Nevada; Hi = Hishikari, Japan; Ke = Kelian, Indonesia; La = Ladolam, Papua New
Guinea; Lh = Lahoca, Hungary; Le = Lepanto, Philippines; MC = McLaughlin, California; Mi = Midas, Nevada; Mu =
Mulatos, Mexico; Na = Nansatsu district deposits, including Kasuga, Japan; Pa = Pascua, Chile; Pi = Pierina, Peru; PO =
Porgera, Papua New Guinea; PP = Paradise Peak, Nevada; PV = Pueblo Viejo (oxide + sulfide), Dominican Republic;
Ro = Rodalquilar, Spain; RM = Round Mountain, Nevada; Sl = Sleeper, Nevada (average ore); Su = Summitville,
Colorado; Ta = Tambo, Chile; Ve = Veladero, Argentina; Wa = Waihi, Martha Hill, New Zealand; Ya: Yanacocha, Peru.

The form of high-sulfidation deposits varies from dissemi- emplacement of the shallow intrusions to which high-sulfi-
nations or replacements to veins, stockworks, and hydro- dation deposits are related.
thermal breccia bodies (Fig. 7). Similar to low-sulfidation One of the most common characteristics of high-sulfida-
deposits, lithologic and structural controls determine the tion deposits is the alteration zoning outward from the ore-
individual deposit form. Sillitoe (1999) discussed the char- body. Figure 2 shows the alteration section for the Sum-
acteristics of high-sulfidation deposits at porphyry, deep mitville deposit, Colorado (Steven and Ratte, 1960). Ore is
epithermal, and shallow epithermal levels (Table 3). In par- hosted by a vuggy rock consisting of quartz recrystallized
ticular, he recognized a diversity in styles of high-sulfidation from residual silica, with grades decreasing at the edge of
ore that is controlled largely by the changing nature of the the silicic core. Outward from the vuggy quartz is a zone of
permeability from the surface to greater than 1 km depth. advanced argillic alteration consisting of quartz-alunite and
The largest, although lowest-grade, deposits form at shal- the kandite minerals, including kaolinite, nacrite, or dickite,
low depths, where the system mushrooms into permeable in places with pyrophyllite or d&pore. This assemblage may
lithologies such as volcaniclastic rocks, lacustrine sedi- also occur in patches within the silicic zone, possibly pre-
ments and, in particular, ignimbrite. The pyroclastic host served from complete leaching by local zones of lower per-
rocks have a range in the degree of welding; where welded meability. The silicic and advanced argillic altered core is
they are brittle and fracture easily. By contrast, high-grade followed in an outward direction by argillic alteration of
vein deposits, typically with massive accumulations of illite or interstratified clays; an outermost zone of propylitic
pyrite and sulfosalt minerals, tend to form at greater alteration includes chlorite. The total thickness of the zone
depths and are, thus, exposed in more deeply eroded ter- of advanced argillic alteration can be as narrow as 1 m but
rain. As noted above, high-sulfidation ore deposits com- may be as wide as 100 m. This pattern of alteration zonation
monly show a large degree of structural control, even indicates progressively less acidic conditions outward from
within the massive zones of vuggy quartz and sulfides, the pathway of acid fluid flow (Hemley et al., 1969, 1980;
reflecting the fracture-related roots of these systems. These White, 1991). The silicic (k vuggy quartz) and quartz-alunite
fractures reflect regional-scale features in some cases, zones, where they can be observed, pinch downward, with a
whereas in other cases the fractures appear to be caused by sericitic or argillic zone surrounding the structural feed
264 HELIENQUIST ET AL.

zone (Fig. 2; Stoffregen, 1987). In some deposits, the silicic same in high-sulfidation and low-sulfrdation systems. Con-
zone is absent, and gold ore is hosted by quartz-pyrophyllite, versely, the acid pH of deep waters in the high-sulfidation
such as at Pueblo Viejo (White, 1991; White et al., 1995). environment precludes the precipitation of silica directly
Cold mineralization in high-sulfidation ore deposits is asso from hot springs due to kinetic effects, and for this reason,
ciated most commonly with enargite or its lower-temperature silica sinters do not form in high-sulfidation systems.
dimorph, luzonite. Such high sulfidation-state copper Sides of high-suljidation deposits: The early, reactive solution
sulfides typically form early in the paragenesis, with rela- typically is controlled by a fracture, but where this fluid
tively low contents of gold, and are cut by gold ore (e.g., intersects a zone of permeability, such as a tuff bed, an
Lepanto as well as El Indio, Chile). The post-enargite gold unconformity, a fault, or their intersection (cf. Lepanto),
ore is associated with pyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, chalco- lateral outflow may occur in the direction of the hydraulic
pyrite, and tellurides; these sulfides indicate a lower sulfi- gradient. Such lateral flow can result in a regionally exten-
dation state than enargite. At Summitville, there is a transi- sive but asymmetric zone of hypogene silicic alteration.
tion from enargite to tetrahedrite with increasing depth Close to the upflow, leaching leaves residual silica that may
(Stoffregen, 1987). Alunite is commonly an early alter- be silicified by later solutions, forming a massive unit. By
ation and gangue mineral, whereas anhydrite and barite contrast, the distal outflow may consist of massive chal-
are relatively late. cedony with no residual silica, and this chalcedony will be
Tops of high-suljidation ore deposits: Many high-sulfidation difficult to distinguish from that related to outflow of steam-
deposits, particularly those formed at shallow depth, occur heated water. The extent of lateral flow is a function of the
near domes and stratovolcano edifices (Sillitoe, 1999; Table permeability and hydraulic gradient, the latter determined
3). Both volcanic environments may host acid lakes, either by the paleorelief, and may extend for several kilometers.
in summit craters or as moats around the margins of domes. Epithermal veins occur close to several high-sulfidation
Evaporation increases the sulfate concentration by up to an deposits (Sillitoe, 1993a), within a few kilometers and near
order of magnitude, decreasing the pH to values as low as the margins of alteration of the volcanic-hydrothermal sys-
0.0 (e.g., in the Kawah Ijen crater lake ofJava; Delmelle and tem. Such veins typically possess features of intermediate
Bernard, 1994). Native S typically forms pools at the lake sulfidation-state deposits. In a few cases, these veins form
bottom, along with pyrite it: alunite f. kaolinite. economic deposits, for example, Victoria, south of Lepanto,
The ponding of acid water also leads to the formation of and Chiufen, west of Chinkuashih, both within 1 km of the
laminated siliceous deposits interbedded with lacustrine high-sulfidation deposits. A lack of detailed study and
sediments (e.g., Yanacocha; Sillitoe, 1999). Like in low- precise dating for most deposits precludes an unambiguous
sulfidation systems, hydraulic fracturing and hydrothermal determination of the timing or relationship of these adja-
brecciation is common, and where these breccia zones cent ore bodies.
reach the paleosurface, the eruption vent commonly is filled Bottoms of high-sulfidation deposits: High-sulfidation
by water. In these situations, the shallow portion of the brec- deposits typically are located above or marginal to intru-
cia vent may contain laminated sediments consisting of sions, some associated with porphyry Cu-Au deposits. Well-
breccia fragments and alteration minerals such as alunite, known porphyry systems are recognized beneath Lahoca,
kaolinite, and barite, as noted at Akaiwa, Japan, and Hungary and Lepanto, and a porphyry-style system was
Rodalquilar (Arribas et al., 1995a). In places, the silicic alter- recently found beneath Yanacocha. Porphyry systems also
ation zone that hosts ore at depth is seen to pinch upwards, occur below or adjacent to many other similar high-sulfida-
for example, at the Penshan orebody, Chinkuashih, Taiwan tion deposits (Sillitoe, 1999).
(White, 1991). Drilling beneath some high-sulfidation orebodies
Where the paleosurface is nearly preserved (e.g., at La (Hedenquist et al., 1994; Arribas et al., 1995a) indicates that
Coipa, Pascua and Tambo, Chile, plus Yanacocha; Sillitoe, the silicic and advanced argillic zones commonly pinch
1999), a blanket of bleached, friable opaline quartz (origi- downward (Stoffregen, 1987). The roots can be narrow,
nally cristobalite)-kaolinite-alunite alteration is common. unmineralized quartz-pyrite veins with narrow to broad
This blanket formed from steam-heated waters by the same halos of sericitic alteration (Fig. 2), in some instances with
mechanism discussed for low-sulfidation deposits, and native variable amounts of pyrophyllite. Although pyrophyllite is
sulfur is common. Distinguishing this style of acidic alter- an advanced argillic mineral, it is not restricted to forming
ation from hypogene quartz-alunite + dickite-pyrophyllite only as a halo of the silicic and quartz-alunite advanced
must be done on textural observations and field occurrence, argillic alteration. This mineral can also form by cooling of a
rather than on mineralogy alone, as the mineralogy of sericite-stable fluid (Hemley and Hunt 1992), explaining
hypogene and steam-heated alteration overlaps. Although the common upward transition of sericite to pyrophyllite
pyrophyllite typically forms at high temperature in por- over the tops of porphyry deposits, but below the quartz-alu-
phyry deposits, it can form at less than 150°C when the con- nite lithocaps (Hedenquist et al., 1998). Where fluid inclu-
centration of silica exceeds that of quartz solubility (Hem- sion studies have been conducted, the lower limit of
ley et al., 1980). advanced argillic alteration corresponds to the upper limit
Again similar to low-sulfidation systems, chalcedony forms of hypersaline, daughter-mineral bearing liquid inclusions,
at the base of the vadose zone along the water table (Fig. 5). for example, at Rodalquilar (Arribas et al., 1995a) and Lep
Thus, the features related to steam-heated alteration are the anto (Hedenquist et al., 1998). This suggests that the dense
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERWIL GOLB DEPOSITS 265

hypersaline liquid is confined largely to the upper reaches of textures are less common in disseminated low-sulfidation
the porphyry environment unless catastrophic events cause deposits, although they are still present in crosscutting veins.
it to be propelled to epithermal depths (Muntean and Ein- Colloform bands are most commonly formed at very shallow
audi, 2000). depths, caused by colloidal silica accumulations (Lindgren,
1933)) and which host gold dendrites in high-grade low-sul-
Exploration of Epithermal Prospects: fidation veins (Saunders, 1994). Hydrothermal brecciation
Relevant Observations and Useful Tools of veins and wall rock is common in both low-sulfidation
As discussed above, epithermal mineralization is the and high-sulfidation deposits, typically showing a jigsaw pat-
result of a series of hydrothermal processes that are rela- tern of fragments.
tively well understood. The products resulting from these By contrast, high-sulfidation deposits may lack many of
processes (e.g., silica sinter, steam-heated alteration, vuggy these textures, except in late veins. Textures in high-
quartz, etc.) provide the framework for unraveling epi- sulfidation deposits are dominated by massive to vuggy
thermal prospects and assessing their potential to contain silicic zones that are residual in origin, with the abundance
an orebody. This section focuses on the processes and and size of vugs dependent on the original nature of the
resulting products that are most relevant to exploration. host rock and the degree of silicification. Extreme acid
Throughout the section, comments are made on the most leaching of a rock with coarse to fine phenocrysts or pumice
useful assessment tools. and/or lithic fragments will develop a vuggy appearance,
recognizable even if massively silicified. By contrast, an orig-
Methodology inally fine-grained and massive rock will maintain its appear-
During the assessment of a prospect, the first goal is to ance. Breccias are common in high-sulfidation deposits, as
determine if it is epithermal, and if so, its style, low sulfida- they are in low-sulfidation deposits, and it may be difficult to
tion or high sulfidation. This determination will define in distinguish between altered breccias of volcanic or phreato-
part the questions to be asked, such as the relationship magmatic origin and breccias of syn-hydrothermal origin. It
between alteration zoning and the potential ore zone (Figs. is common in high-sulfidation deposits to find compara-
2 and 3). The ore, gangue, and alteration mineralogy, com- tively higher ore grades in syr-hydrothermal breccia and its
monly combined with textural features, typically allow a immediately surrounding rock.
straightforward distinction between the end-member low- The majority of the textures that are diagnostic of the
sulfidation and high-sulfidation styles. To a lesser extent, epithermal environment involve silica in some form, and
the metal suite and form of the deposit are also distinctive silicic zones tend to be more resistant to erosion than
(Table 3; Buchanan, 1981; Sillitoe, 1993a; White et al., argillic alteration, thus forming topographic highs. This is
1995; Hedenquist et al., 1996). particularly notable with silicic cores of vuggy quartz.
Once the style of prospect is determined, the field geolo- Therefore, topographic highs, no matter how high or how
gist can focus on understanding the geologic and structural steep, must be thoroughly examined for evidence of silicic
characteristics of the prospect and determine the geometry alteration and textures, and for gold anomalies.
of the system and its size in terms of ore potential. At this
early stage, it is critical that one or more working hypotheses Host rocks, structure, and deposit form
are developed, and then refined or discarded after testing Early in the assessment of any epithermal prospect, the
with observations and ground facts. As mentioned above, a likely controls on grade (i.e., the potential form of the
clear understanding of the economic requirements of a body) must be determined, as this is one of the most basic
given project (i.e., definition of the critical path to achieve characteristics of any ore deposit. Both high-sulfidation
exploration success) is essential at any stage. and low-sulfidation styles commonly have a strong struc-
For epithermal deposits, as with all other deposits of tural control, although in disseminated or replacement
hydrothermal origin, one of the main challenges for explo deposits the structure may be concealed. Epithermal
ration is to identify the location of the paleoflow channels, deposits are extremely variable in form (Fig. 7). Much of
and to determine whether or not there is ore potential. this variability is caused by strong permeability differences
From a practical point of view, the objective is to find ore, in the near-surface environment, resulting from lithologic,
particularly high-grade ore, and understanding the con- structural, and hydrothermal controls. Some of the largest
trols on ore will make this job much easier. high-sulfidation deposits (e.g., Yanacocha) have a large
component of ore contained within favorable lithologies
Textures and their interpretation and can be considered disseminated. This is also true for
Lindgren’s (1922) definition of the epithermal environ- the large low-sulfidation deposit of Round Mountain.
ment was based on vein textures (Table 3) and these criteria The grade-tonnage characteristics of both low-sulfidation
still serve us well. Textures in low-sulfidation veins include and high-sulfidation deposits (Fig. 9) correlate closely with
fine, crustiform bands of chalcedony, bladed quartz (due to deposit form (Fig. 7). The largest tonnage deposits are
carbonate-replacement) and open-space fillings. Indeed, dominated by disseminated or replacement ore as the
even epizonal Archean lode-Au veins (e.g., Wiluna deposits, result of lithologic control on fluid flow. In addition, these
western Australia; Groves et al., 1998) possess similar tex- large deposits are economic most commonly because of
tures, indicating their shallow depth of formation. These supergene oxidation of the sulfides (e.g., at Yanacocha and
266 HELIENQUIST ET AL.

Pierina, Peru, and La Coipa and Pascua). By contrast, text, two observations may provide diagnostic evidence for
several deposits with greater than 3 Moz Au at grades in a hypogene origin: (1) the presence of true residual silica
excess of 20 to 30 g/t are hosted by fractures. These high- (e.g., vuggy quartz formed by leaching of a porphyritic
grade vein deposits include end-member low-sulfidation igneous rock), and (2) crystalline alunite with tabular to
(Hishikari, Midas, Sleeper), intermediate sulfidation-state platy crystal habit and white to pink color (Table 6); these
(Cornstock Lode), and high-suifidation (El Indio, Goldfield, crystals can be recognized most easily in thin section or
Chinkuashih) styles. with the aid of a hand lens in vugs or open spaces.
Practical recommendation: An efficient technique to There is a clear distinction between the two styles of
quickly reach a preliminary, broad understanding of the deposit in the spatial relationship of the advanced argillic
order of magnitude potential of an epithermal prospect, assemblage to the ore zone. In high-sulfidation deposits,
including host rocks, structural control, deposit form, alter- the ore zone occurs within a silicic core and is hosted by a
ation relations, and ore, is to start exploration with a pre- laterally varying halo of advanced argillic minerals. Closest
liminary field transect of the entire exposed hydrothermal to the residual quartz core is the common zone of quartz-
system. Assuming the terrain and/or vegetation cover alunite (Fig. 2). By contrast, the advanced argillic zone of
allow, this should be done by traversing from fresh or low-sulfidation deposits forms a blanket above the water
weakly altered rock on one side of the system, to fresh or table due to steam heating and, hence, lies over the ore
weakly altered rock on the opposite side, via the perceived zone, although it may overprint ore during conditions of a
core(s) of mineralization. Combined with preliminary falling water table (e.g., at Sulphur and Mt. Muro). Because
alteration and mineralogical identification, possibly sup- of its shallow origin, the associated alteration minerals
ported by PIMA (Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer; see constitute opal-cristobalite, kaolinite (the low-temperature
below) and previously generated photo-geologic maps, this kandite mineral), and alunite (Fig. 8). Although steam-
early traverse will provide a wealth of information and help heated alteration may result in a porous texture, complete
to focus exploration efforts. residual silica of the type formed by extremely acid hypo-
gene leaching should not be found within steam-heated
Hydrothermal alteration blankets other than in overprinted situations. Alunite
Assemblages and zoning: Alteration zoning is distinctly dif- formed in the steam-heated environment, as well as super-
ferent between the two styles of epithermal system, low sul- gene alunite, shows a pseudocubic or rhombohedral crystal
fidation and high sulfidation (Figs. 2 and 3). Although we habit and is rarely coarse enough for individual crystals to
generalize about such zoning, each prospect is an indi- be recognized with the aid of a hand lens (Table 6).
vidual and, given the geologic variability, may vary from Steam-heated alteration blankets also form over high-sulfi-
such generalized schema (cf. Buchanan, 1981). Although it dation systems (e.g., La Coipa). Therefore, even if the low-
is common to group alteration minerals into the standard temperature advanced argillic minerals form a blanket, this
assemblages (Table 2; Meyer and Hemley, 1967), we recom- morphology does not distinguish the style of system. Neither
mend first identifying the minerals present and their zona- does such a morphology and mineral assemblage constitute
tion, rather than mapping simply on the basis of an altera- evidence for steam-heating, because supergene processes are
tion type. There is much information to be gained from also controlled by the water table, and result in a similar
knowing specific mineralogy, information that is lost when assemblage of minerals. In addition to the different textures
lumping into a broad category, or perhaps never making between hypogene and steam-heated or supergene alunite
the distinction in the first place (“split in the field, as you (Sillitoe, 1993a), secondary or low-temperature minerals
can always lump in the office” is good advice; see below). such as jarosite, scorodite, or halloysite (low temperature
Furthermore, geologists are known to use such alteration polymorph of kaolinite) help to identify supergene altera-
terminology differently. tion (Fig. 8, Table 6). In some situations it is also possible to
Type of advanced argillic alteration: Two of the most critical use sulfur isotope ratios to distinguish readily between hypo-
interpretations to make in the field are the origin of gene and supergene or steam-heated advanced argillic altem-
advanced argillic alteration (i.e., hypogene, steam-heated, tion (Rye at al., 1992; Arribas et al., 1995a)
or supergene) and the origin of silicic alteration (e.g., Silica and silicification: It is critical to distinguish the
residual silica or silicification). If the advanced argillic various origins of silicic alteration or silicification (Table 4)
alteration is of hypogene origin, the prospect may either be for two main reasons: (1) to understand the geometry and
a barren lithocap or a mineralized high-sulfidation system. spatial relations of the hydrothermal system, and (2) to
As discussed above and elsewhere (Meyer and Hemley, better understand epithermal ore, as ore is closely associ-
1967; Rye et al. 1992; Sillitoe 1993a; Arribas 1995), hypo- ated with various forms of silica products. In this context,
gene advanced argillic alteration is defined by the presence the rapid cooling of a boiling fluid as it ascends near the
of assemblages containing some or all of the following min- surface results in silica deposition, either as quartz (at
erals: quartz, alunite, kandite minerals (kaolinite, nacrite, >2OO”C) or as a less-ordered polymorph such as chalcedony
dickite), diaspore, pyrophyllite and zunyite. Advanced at less than 150” to 200°C or amorphous silica at 100” to
argillic alteration of steam-heated origin contains many of 150°C (Fig. 4a). In addition, quartz deposition occurs only
these minerals, particularly if these acid fluids descend from relatively neutral-pH solutions, such as those ascend-
along fractures and are heated (Reyes, 1990). In this con- ing in low-sulfidation and intermediate sulfidation-state
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 267

TABLE 6. Characteristics of Three Types of Acid Alteration, Including Ahmite, and their Distinction

Hypogene chloride-sulfate Steam-heated sulfate Supergene

Genetic terminology Magmatic-hydrothermal Steam-heated Supergene

(Rye et al., 1992)
Origin (eqs. 5-9) Condensation of high-T Atmospheric oxidation of Atmospheric oxidation of
magmatic vapor with H,S in vadose zone fine-grained sulfide within
HCl t SO, ascending above water table surficial weathering zone

Temperature range 300”-350” t o loo”, loo”-120”, up to 150”+, 20”-40”, overprinting

(“C) ascending hypogene fluid descending fluid descending fluid
Assemblages Quartz, alunite, kaolinite, Raolinite, alunite, opal, Kaolinire, halloysite, jarosite
dickite, diaspore, cristobalite, native
pyrophyllite, zunyite sulfur

Relationship to ore Potentially ore-bearing, Barren, above ore or Unrelated to sulfide ore,
typically forms envelope overprint related to oxide ore
to ore
Alunite texture and Coarse to fine-grained Fine (~20-50 pm) Chalky, porcellaneous
crystal habit crystalline aggregates; powdery aggregates, masses and fine (~20-50
tabular or bladed crystals chalky, porcellaneous pm) powdery aggregates;
masses; rhombohedral rhombohedral crystals
crystals with nearly with nearly cubic angles
cubic angles
Alunite color Colorless, pink, white, Generally white White, cream,.yellow-brown
cream, yellow, tan, (jarosite stammg)
brown

Alunite isotopic 634S alunite >> 634S Ss4S alunite -834S F34S alunite = hs4S of
composition (see associated sulfide (e.g., associated sulfide (e.g., precursor sulfide
Rye et al., 1992) 20 vs. 0 per mil) 3 and 2 per mil)

Literature sources include Schoen et al. (1974), Anderson (1982), Rye et al. (1992), Sillitoe (1993a), Itaya et al. (1996)

veins. By contrast, hypogene leaching leaves a silica residue mates can also provide information on the erosion level,
that recrystallizes to quartz, and this zone also may be silici- although one must remember that isotherms drape over the
fied in later stages, typically before and/or during high-sul- upflow. If there are indications that a portion of the system
fidation ore introduction. Chalcedony deposits as a blanket was boiling, then the estimate of the paleotemperature may
at the water table, whereas opal forms within the vadose be used to estimate the paleodepth (Fig. 4a). Some of these
zone (Figs. 3 and 5). Lastly, silica sinter, which precipitates indications, at least in a qualitative and relative sense, are
in the form of amorphous silica but eventually recrystallizes summarized in Tables 4 and 5. Mapping the zonation of
to quartz, provides unequivocal evidence for the location of alteration minerals can be applied to early-stage projects,
the paleosurface at the time of mineralization. but it is typically a more useful approach during exploration
Mineralogy: Knowledge of the temperature range over of established deposits or districts, where a variety of three-
which epithermal alteration minerals are stable (Fig. S), dimensional mineralogical information is available.
coupled with an interpretive geometry of fluid distributions Alteration minerals can provide much information about
in low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation systems, allows the the composition of the fluids. As already noted, there is a
alteration mineral distribution to be used to establish the suite of advanced argillic minerals that indicate a fluid was
paleoisotherms and, thus, paleofluid flow directions (Fig. 1). acid (Fig. 8), whereas the presence of adularia and calcite
The latter aspect can help to establish the center of fluid suggest relatively alkaline fluid, perhaps generated from a
flow and direction to mineral potential, and may indicate neutral-pH fluid by the loss of CO, during boiling. Zeolites
whether or not flow was structurally controlled (tight paleo- also indicate somewhat alkaline conditions and, along with
isotherms) or pervasive (broad alteration halos). White et al. the occurrence of epidote, provide evidence for relatively
(1995) also stress the potential for lateral fluid flow in set- low gas contents in the fluid. Calcite forms in place of zeo-
tings of high topographic relief, and an asymmetric altera- lites from fluids of high CO, content. This observation of
tion zonation may indicate this. the presence of Ca minerals may be relevant if several prop
As an example of using minerals to estimate isotherms, the erties are being compared, because it can be argued that
zonation of hydrothermal clays from smectite to illite (Fig. 2) indications of a high gas content are favorable for ore for-
matches the pattern of increasing thermal gradient in the mation because this implies a high H,S content and, thus,
Broadlands geothermal system, New Zealand (Simmons high gold solubility (eq. 4).
and Browne, 2000). Izawa et al. (1990) recognized a similar Practical recommendations: Remote sensing tools that can
zonation of clay minerals around the surface projection of assist in broad-scale alteration studies include satellite-
the high-grade veins at Hishikari. Paleotemperature esti- based thematic mapping (TM) and the new generation of
268 H,tDENQlJIST ET AL.

hyper-spectral airborne spectrometers, such as AVIRIS recommend that either tool be used primarily to help field
(Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) and the geologists directly recognize in the field the alteration min-
SFSI (Short Wave Infra-Red Full Spectrum Imager; Neville erals relevant to the prospect being explored. Secondly,
and Powell, 1992; Neville et al., 1995; Staenz et al., 1999). PIMA or XRD data will provide mineralogical information
TM provides a useful tool to survey large regions and iden- that can be processed later in different ways. In general,
tify areas of potentially favorable alteration. However, with epithermal prospects can be understood more quickly and
one possible exception at Pier-ma (Volkert et al., 1998), TM completely when mineralogical data are processed, inter-
has not been credited as a crucial tool in the discovery of an preted, and simplified into relevant categories. Table 7
epithermal deposit (Sillitoe, 1995b). The high spatial and shows an alteration classification based on visual observa-
spectral resolution of the most recent hyper-spectral air- tions and field-generated PIMA data (about 150 measure-
borne instruments, such as SFSI, allow for the fast ments a day) that we used successfully in grassroots explo-
(although costly) production of detailed district and prop ration of epithermal deposits in remote locations.
erty-wide mineral maps at resolutions of 5 m or better. For
example, SFSI operates in the short wave infra-red between Ore controls and their indications
1,208 and 2,445 nm, and has 10 nm resolution, making it During exploration for low-sulfidation epithermal
ideal for mapping the narrow absorption features of clay deposits, recognition of features such as silica sinter, steam-
minerals associated with hydrothermal alteration (Staenz heated alteration, and the structural fabric of the prospect
et al., 1999). These remote sensing techniques require area will assist in the reconstruction of the paleogeothermal
good rock exposure, but also allow identification of litho- system, and identification of the most favorable drilling or
logic and structural features that may help to focus field sampling locations. For example, evidence for boiling indi-
mapping on a critical set of questions or areas. cates proximity to upflow channels. This includes miner-
The most common tools for mineralogical analysis are alogical evidence such as adularia, and in some situations,
X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and short-wave infrared truscottite, and textures such as bladed calcite, commonly
(SWIR) spectroscopy (e.g., PIMA II). Both techniques are replaced by quartz pseudomorphs. In addition to identi-
widely used and each has its advantages and disadvantages fying flow channels, evidence for boiling also indicates the
(cf. Thompson et al., 1999). The PIMA II is field portable occurrence of the mechanism that we argue is most favor-
and requires minimal sample preparation, allowing for a able for deposition of gold in the low-sulfidation environ-
large number of measurements to be made rapidly and at ment (eq. 4a). However, in many deposits there is a spatial
relatively low cost. Alteration mapping can be done at the separation between the gold ore zone and indicators of
same time as mapping or drilling, improving the effective- boiling (Simmons and Browne, 2000). This may be caused
ness of alteration data (Thompson et al., 1999). Samples either by the delay in gold saturation on initiation of boil-
for XRD must be submitted to central laboratories with ing, or in the extreme case, by physical transport of gold
longer turn-around time and higher costs. However, there colloids from the site of saturation, as indicated by gold
are trade-offs; for example, portable SWIR spectrometers dendrites. In addition, barren bladed calcite also forms late
are limited in terms of the number of minerals they can in the life of the system from marginal waters collapsing
identify. For this and other reasons, SWIR data must be col- inward (Simmons et al., ZOOO), when there are no metals
lected by a skilled operator who has geologic training. The present in the fluid.
use of each technique (XRD or PIMA) reflects the prefer- High-grade epithermal deposits, both low-sulfidation
ences and previous experience of the explorationist. We and high-sulfidation, typically are fracture controlled and

TABLE 7. Alteration Assemblages Based on Visual Identification Aided by PIMA

Mineral assemblage Alteration type

Quartz dominant (e.g., >90%) Silicic

Alunite f quartz dominant Advanced argillic 1’
Mixtures of quarts with alunite, and other acid minerals Advanced argillic 22
such as dickite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, diaspore
Pyrophyllite f dickite f quartz dominant Advanced argillic 33
Illite ? quartz dominant Argillic (high temperature)
Interstratified illite-smectite dominant Argillic (moderate temperature)
Smectite dominant Argillic (low temperature)
Epidote present Propylitic (high temperature)
Chlorite * calcite present Propylitic (low temperature)

‘Typically hypogene; note textures

*May be hypogene, steam-heated, or supergene; note textures and morphology
3Deep hypogene
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 269

have sharp lower and upper limits, suggesting the influence depths. This may not be a trivial exercise, but the potential
of a process such as boiling on gold saturation. In the case rewards make it a worthwhile project, particularly in
of deposits with dendritic gold, Saunders (1994) concludes advanced exploration targets where a larger amount of
that deposition occurred from gold colloids when a rapidly information may be available. In low-relief paleo-settings
ascending fluid slowed near the surface, or in the case of the amount of lateral flow may be relatively small, with sur-
Hishikari, reached a permeable unit. In addition, some face discharge to topographic lows such as lakes and
deposits can have low-grade tops to the ore zone in the streams. In high-relief settings such as stratovolcanoes, how-
form of veins (e.g., Comstock Lode) or disseminated bod- ever, lateral flow can extend for many kilometers (Henley
ies (Ivanhoe). In the case of the Comstock Lode, outcrops and Ellis, 1983)) resulting in a large and asymmetric zone of
of the Oriental vein consist of quartz and adularia, but con- alteration. The secret is in determining where the upflow
tain only 50 to 150 ppb Au, despite the quartz-calcite and was focused, because this is most likely the place to start the
quartz-adularia ore zones rising to within 30 m of these out- search for ore.
crops (D.M. Hudson, pers. commun., 2000). Individual ore
Depth of erosion and paleodqbth indicators
zones in this district have vertical intervals of about 150 m, but
their tops vary by as much as 800 m (although much of this With the discovery of the low-sulfidation deposit of
range may have been caused by fault offset after vein for- McLaughlin, beneath a silica sinter, the “hot-spring deposit”
mation; D.M. Hudson, pers. commun., 2000). In the case of term (Table 1) was coined and the rush was on for explo-
the Ivanhoe district, the newly discovered Clementine and ration geologists to identify sinters in their search for other
Gwenivere vein systems in basement rocks represent the such deposits. As discussed above, the criteria for identifying
high-grade feeders to low-grade, volcanic-hosted dissemi- silica sinter (White et al., 1989) extend beyond finely lami-
nated ore of the type previously mined at the Hollister nated siliceous material, because this feature is also typical
deposit (Northern Miner, 2000) _ of silicified air-fail tuffs and lacustrine sediments. For this
A good understanding of the origin of the faults and frac- reason, care must be taken in interpreting the origin of such
tures is always important, but it may be critical during outcrops, because misidentification can have negative con-
exploration for fault-controlled high-grade deposits. The sequences to the model of the prospect being constructed.
alteration halos of these fractures or faults may be narrow An example would be deciding that a prospect was low sulfi-
and of little use from a prospecting point of view. In the dation on the basis of sinter, when in fact the fine siliceous
case of deposits with two contrasting lithologies occurring laminae had a lacustrine origin in a volcanic-hydrothermal
within the ore zone, such as older metamorphic basement crater with high-sulfidation potential. In both cases, the
and younger volcanic cover, no hard rules can be applied as potential for ore would be at depth, but the guides for its
to the location of high-grade ore. At Hishikari (Izawa et al., location could differ significantly.
1990) and Ivanhoe (John et al., 1999), the high-grade ore Silica sinters define the paleosurface of the low-sulfida-
that constitutes much of the contained gold is found in the tion environment and also indicate the location of a princi-
Cretaceous and Ordovician metasedimentary basement pal upflow conduit. Sinter may contain anomalous As, Sb,
rocks, respectively. However, the opposite is true at Sleeper Hg, and Tl, and even Au and Ag, although whether or not
(Nash and Trudel, 1996) and Midas (John et al., 1999), these elements are concentrated may depend on local fea-
with the high-grade gold occurring within the Tertiary vol- tures, such as vent shape, more than on basic characteris-
canic cover. The thickness of the volcanic package and tics, such as the metal content of the thermal water
depth to basement are likely factors that control the host of (Hedenquist, 1991).
high-grade veins, located within or beneath a disseminated, In both low-sulfidation and high-sulfidation systems, the
low-grade halo. discontinuous blanket of steam-heated kaolinite-smectite f
In high-sulfidation deposits, ore typically is controlled by alunite f native S produces an opaline rock that is friable
hydrothermal products such as hydrothermal breccia or and easily eroded. Thick blankets may form where there is
bodies of residual vuggy quartz (Fig. ‘7; Sillitoe, 1993a). a syn-hydrothermal fall in the water table, and this alter-
Both provide permeability that may be localized along ation may also descend along permeable zones. At the base
lithologic or structural boundaries. Examples of lithologic of the vadose zone, finely laminated sedimentary units such
controls include gold dispersed in ignimbrite (Yanacocha, as air-fall tuffs and other permeable units serve as aquifers
Pierina) or permeable elastic or carbonate sedimentary for outflow of the acid water along the paleowater table,
rocks (La Coipa, and San Gregorio, Peru, respectively), as a causing silicification in the form of chalcedony (Fig. 3).
replacement at a lithologic unconformity (Lepanto), or dis- The opaline cap to the chalcedony horizon forms only in
persed in diatreme breccia. Examples of structural control the area where steam-heated water is generated, whereas
include massive veins or vein swarms (El Indio, the chalcedony horizon can extend far outside the system
Chinkuashih, Lepanto) and low-angle veins (Goldfield). as the result of outflow along aquifers, forming a thick and
Practical recommendation: Estimating the degree and direc- laterally extensive horizon.
tion of hydraulic gradients is critical in both low-sulfidation As just noted, finely laminated, in some cases crossbed-
and high-sulfidation prospects, whether permeability is ded siliceous deposits accumulate in acid lakes in both low-
lithologic or structural, because the ascending fluid is influ- sulfrdation and high-sulfidation systems, and these lakes
enced by topography soon after it reaches epithermal may fill and thus define hydrothermal or even volcanic
270 HEDEhQUIST ET AL.

eruption craters. These and other lakes also accumulate volcanoes that can cause an epithermal style of overprint
elastic sediments that may be interbedded with the siliceous on a deep porphyry system (Sillitoe, 1994).
material, the latter depositing from a colloidal suspension
of silica in an acid lake. Potential for related deposits within a district
Disseminated and replacement deposits, both low-sulfi- There is potential for a variety of related deposits in epi-
dation and high-sulhdation, are dominated by quartz, either thermal districts. For example, there is clear evidence for a
residual (high sulfidation) and/or silicification (low sulfi- spatial, and in some cases genetic relationship between high-
dation, high sulfidation) in origin. As noted above, if ero- sulfidation epithermal deposits and underlying or adjacent
sion exposes these shallow-formed zones, these bodies will porphyry deposits (Sillitoe, 1983, 1999; Arribas et al., 1995b).
be very resistant and topographically steep, as seen at Skarns are present in some districts with calcareous litholo-
Chinkuashih, Yanacocha, and the Mexican deposits of gies. Calcareous rocks have also been recognized recently to
Sauzal and Mulatos, plus the Ladera-Farellon orebodies at host ore adjacent to high-sulfidation deposits (San Gregorio;
La Coipa, among others. However, where erosion is slight, Fontboti and Bendezu, 1999). There is also speculation on
as indicated by evidence of paleowater table preservation, the relationship between porphyry-epithermal deposits and
the silicic core may not crop out, or it may crop out only some Carlin-like ore bodies in Nevada (Sillitoe and Bonham,
along permeable horizons, such as an unconformity some 1990). By contrast, end-member low-sulfidation deposits
distance from the upflow (e.g., Lepanto, Pierina, and Coipa appear to form in a geologic environment with little porphyry
Norte orebody at La Coipa). Similarly, low-sulfidation or high-sulfidation potential (John et al., 1999).
quartz veins will also crop out, particularly because their There is increasing recognition of the potential for base
argillic halos erode relatively quickly. metal + Au-Ag veins adjacent to high-sulfidation deposits,
Without additional information from a geologic recon- for example, the recent discovery of the multi-million oz gold
struction or indications of paleotemperature, vein textures veins of Victoria, adjacent to Lepanto (Cuizon et al., 1998;
provide a relative indication of the paleodepth. Open-space Claveria et al., 1999). These quartz veins have sericite halos,
cockade textures decrease with increasing depth, and the rhodochrosite and rhodonite gangue, and a sulfide assem-
abundance of chalcedony also decreases with a concomitant blage similar to intermediate sulfidation-state deposits else-
increase in the crystallinity of quartz; fine banding also dis- where (Table 3). In addition, the ore-mineral assemblage is
appears with increasing depth. White et al. (1995) note that very similar in composition to the post-enargite gold-rich
quartz is more common than chalcedony in Philippines stage of Lepanto (Hedenquist et al., 1998). This raises the
deposits compared to those in Japan and New Zealand, sug- speculation that there is a similar chemical evolution of the
gesting a greater depth of formation and more erosion in fluid responsible for intermediate sulfidation-state veins and
the high-relief Philippines setting. By contrast, the lack of the post-enargite, Au-rich stage of high-sulfidation deposits.
silicification, or the presence of hydrothermal minerals such Practical recommendation: Epithermal veins with inter-
as biotite and amphibole (Fig. 8), indicates high tempera- mediate sulfidation-state characteristics have been found
ture and, thus, deep erosion, close to or below the lower adjacent to some high-sulfidation ore deposits. This empir-
limit of the epithermal environment. However, this is a ical observation of a spatial association (Sillitoe, 1993a,
guide only, because some deposits (Cornstock Lode and 1999) should encourage exploration around known high-
Kelian, Indonesia) apparently formed at greater than sulfidation deposits for such intermediate sulfidation-state
280°C a higher temperature, and thus, a greater depth than veins, and even in the vicinity of barren lithocaps. Con-
is typical for most epithermal deposits (Figs. 4b and 8). versely, one may also predict potential for high-sulfidation
The deeper portion of the high-sulfidation environment and/or porphyry deposits to occur near known intermediate
may encroach on porphyry systems. In porphyry copper sulfidation-state veins.
environments, lithocaps may be separated by as much as
Weathering and supergene processes
1 km from the underlying porphyry ore, or the lithocap
may overprint the orebody if there has been sufficient tele- Supergene oxidation, and in places enrichment, have
scoping and collapse of shallow alteration onto the deep affected the large replacement-type high-sulfidation
system (Sillitoe, 1995a). The occurrence of high-temperature deposits, as well as disseminated low-sulfrdation deposits in
minerals such as pyrophyllite, andalusite, and corundum, regions of arid and semi-arid climate, for example, the west-
and lodes of enargite or bornite, indicate that the exposed ern Americas (Sillitoe, 1999). By contrast, relatively few
portion of the lithocap is deep, and near an underlying epithermal deposits have been equally affected in the
porphyry system. The absence of a porphyry stock or early tropics, where water tables lie close to the surface. The
veins of vitreous, anhedral quartz, commonly termed extent of supergene oxidation is controlled by the climate,
A-veins, suggests that the porphyry may be deeper, or later- permeability of the rock, rates of uplift, etc. For reasons of
ally offset. The occurrence of pyrophyllite f sericite as a lat- permeability, such oxidation extends to depths of 400 m at
erally extensive or thick zone of alteration, with or without Yanacocha within the silicic (vuggy quartz) zones, whereas
sulfide veins, may indicate a position beneath the quartz- fresh sulfide occurs at the surface in adjacent argillic zones
alunite lithocap. However, the intrusive complexity of por- (Harvey et al., 1999). The oxide-sulfide interface typically is
phyry systems must be kept in mind. Added to this com- subhorizontal because the position of the paleowater table
plexity is the rapid erosion or even sector collapse of some is a critical control (Chavez, 2000).
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 271

The effect of oxidation on metal recovery by cyanide leach- Atmospheric oxidation of sulfides during weathering of
ing can be dramatic, from a recovery of more than 90 percent high-sulfidation deposits (e.g., Goldfield, Rodalquilar,
gold for oxidized ore, to less than 35 percent for nonoxidized Summitville) has led to the development of surficial acid-
ore. If the gold is distributed mainly along fissures and frac- sulfate blankets. Supergene alunite at Rodalquilar and else-
tures (e.g., Yanacocha and Cerro Crucitas), rock that is only where forms white to yellow porcellaneous veins consisting
partly oxidized may still yield acceptable recovery rates. of fine-grained (commonly less than 50 pm) pseudo-cubic
Supergene oxidation allowed the economic mining of alunite with subordinate kaolinite, jarosite, and hydrated
part of the Pueblo Viejo high-sulfidation orebody, because amorphous silica (Table 6). Oxidation at Rodalquilar
it affected about one-third of the overall deposit. The bal- occurred as a result of dramatic drop of the water table and
ance of the deposit, about 100 Mt at -4 g/t Au, occurs as increased erosion during partial desiccation of the Mediter-
refractory sulfide material and remains a resource only, ranean Sea during the late Miocene. In the Andes as well as
awaiting technological advances that will allow economic the western United States, formation of supergene alunite
processing of the gold-bearing sulfide. Soil samples col- during the middle to late Miocene appears to be related to
lected here at the bedrock surface are a good indication of regional tectonic episodes (Sillitoe and McKee, 1996).
the gold content of the underlying oxidized rock, whereas Noble et al. (1997) suggested that hypogene oxidation
silver was significantly depleted (Russell et al., 1981). At the caused the destruction of sulfides at Pier-ma, and also intro-
La Coipa high-sulfidation Ag-Au deposit most of the silver duced gold. A similar oxidation process has been suggested
occurs as secondary halides and native silver. Nevertheless, for the Sauzal deposit in Mexico. Our field observations on
despite the steep topography, both gold and silver anom- both deposits do not suggest processes any different from
alies in talus fines define the area of the ore bodies (Oviedo those ascribed to weathering of many other high-sulfidation
et al., 1991), indicating that these two metals were not deposits. Sillitoe (1999) outlines a series of arguments
highly mobile in the supergene environment. By contrast, against hypogene oxidation, and notes that the covellite
there is evidence that copper was significantly remobilized rims on remnant sulfide bodies at Pier-ma are equivalent to
during supergene alteration. the oxidation front in any copper deposit that has been
The El Indio high-sulfidation Au-Ag-Cu deposit consists affected by supergene processes. Similar rims or patinas
of a series of veins (Jannas et al., 1990,1999) that have been were observed in drill core beneath the well-documented
little affected by supergene processes except within several supergene zone at Rodalquilar (Arribas et al., 1995a).
meters of the surface. Talus fines are highly anomalous in Practical recommendation: Documentation of supergene
Au, Ag, As, and Pb, and correlate well with each other, alteration processes and features should be a critical com-
whereas Cu and Zn were depleted because of supergene ponent of exploration programs for high-sulfidation
leaching. Arsenic is more widely dispersed than gold owing deposits. As mentioned above, however, the presence of sul-
to its occurrence as scorodite and other supergene arsen- fide at the surface within the alteration zone (e.g., with clay-
ates, formed when the veins of massive enargite and pyrite altered rock) may not indicate the depth of the oxidation
were oxidized (Siddeley and Araneda, 1986). front within the silicic core (which extends to depth of 400
Turner (1997) compared the geochemistry of primary sul- m at Yanacocha Sur). Distinction of advanced argillic alter-
fide and supergene oxide samples from Yanacocha core. He ation of supergene origin is important because it com-
found little evidence for enrichment or depletion of gold in monly masks the core of hypogene alteration, and can also
the oxide zone, whereas Ag can exceed 1,000 ppm in some result in a large and misleading alteration anomaly due to
areas, despite concentrations of only -10 ppm in sulfide ore. oxidation of fine-grained disseminated pyrite within a
There is a weak correlation of Au with As, Sb, Hg, and Ba, weakly argillic-altered and barren zone.
with the poorest correlation in deposits that are all oxide,
suggesting some secondary mobility of this suite of elements. Geochemistry
Barite is an insoluble gangue mineral that commonly accom- A review of the discovery history of 54 hydrothermal
panies high-sulfidation sulfide mineralization, and it remains deposits in the circum Pacific (Sillitoe, 1995b) noted that
even after complete oxidation of sulfides. geochemical sampling played a principal role in the discov-
Supergene modification of low-sulfidation veins, particu- ery of 37 of the deposits. However, of the 20 epithermal low-
larly those with a low sulfide content, is limited, particularly sulfidation and high-sulfidation discoveries, geochemistry
in regions of rapid uplift (i.e., most of the prospective arcs was significant in all but two, with the discoveries at Bullfrog,
of the circumPacific) . Supergene minerals are rare and low Nevada and Hishikari based in part on minor workings from
in abundance in epithermal deposits of the tropical south- nearly a century earlier. Of the 18 deposits where geochemi-
western Pacific (White et al., 1995), and are only slightly cal sampling was a factor, rock chip sampling was important
more common in southwestern North American deposits at 16 prospects, and soil, talus, and drainage sampling at
(Buchanan, 1981). The most typical minerals in arid areas four, three, and two, respectively; a combination of geo-
are cerargyrite (AgCl) and iodargyrite (AgI), both in high- chemical anomalies was employed at eight of the discoveries.
sulfidation and low-sulfidation deposits, whereas limonite, Drainage sampling can be an effective tool to first iden-
scorodite, jarosite, and goethite occur primarily in high- tify epithermal and porphyry prospects, particularly where
sulfidation deposits, largely in arid terrain but also locally in cover, either rock or vegetation, masks the alteration zone.
some tropical areas along with Mn oxides. This technique was a major factor leading to discovery of
272 HELIENQUIST ET AL.

Kelian and Gunung Pongkor, both in the tropics of Indo- ations of related igneous activity (Sillitoe et al., 1998), and
nesia. The -80 or -200 mesh fractions of stream sediments the variable effects of climate, supergene oxidation, erosion
and panned concentrates were both anomalous at Kelian, rate, depth of erosion, etc. For these and other reasons, an
but only the -80 mesh fraction was anomalous at Gunung orientation survey is essential at the start of exploration in
Pongkor (Basuki et al., 1994). The BLEG (bulk leach every district to determine what type(s) of samples, metal
extractable gold) method, developed for the arid drainages suite, and threshold values are appropriate.
of Australia, served to identify the Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au
Geophysics
system, as well as the seafloor high-sulfidation gold orebody
of Lerokis, both deposits in eastern Indonesia. A regional Geophysical techniques that are applicable to the assess-
drainage survey over 25,000 km* in northern Per6 by the ment of epithermal deposits are outlined below; White et al.
British Geological Survey first identified Cu and Pb-Zn-Ag (1995) and Sillitoe (199513) also review these techniques. The
anomalies in the region including Yanacocha. There are timing and appropriateness of their use varies from prospect
variable stream-sediment anomalies in the Yanacocha area to prospect, and depends on many factors from regional set-
for elements such as As, Pb, and Cu, and an early survey of ting to deposit style. The important aspect to remember is
gold showed that it is anomalous in both -80 mesh and that geophysics provides a variety of tools, one or more of
BLEG samples within several kilometers of the orebodies which may contribute information to the overall exploration
(Turner, 1997). model being constructed.
Geochemical anomalies have been used successfully dur- Sillitoe (1995b) notes that geophysics played a surprisingly
ing epithermal exploration despite the range of settings, minor overall role in the discovery histories of 54 hydro-
from arid, temperate, or tropical climates, although talus thermal deposits in the circum-Pacific, with only seven of
sampling is confined to the arid portions of the Andes. Such the discoveries resulting directly from the integration of
talus sampling was critical in definition of the high-sulfidation geophysical results with geologic or geochemical surveys.
deposits at El Indio, Pascua and La Coipa, whereas rock- Of these, only one such discovery was epithermal, the
chip sampling was the method used at Yanacocha. Indeed, Hishikari low-sulfidation vein deposit. By contrast, geo-
at Yanacocha only three out of every 100 rock samples first physical surveys were more useful in the post-discovery
collected contained over 500 ppb Au, and did not define delineation stage, being considered important in onequar-
coherent anomalies. It was not until chipping was expanded ter of the developments. The use of a geophysical tool was
to encompass 6 m centers that the surface anomalies critical in three of the epithermal delineation projects. All
defined the present ore bodies (Turner, 1997). This is now three were low-sulfidation veins where resistivity anomalies
the standard method to assess the potential of silicic cores of defined with induced polarization (IP) surveys were used to
high-sulfidation prospects, in some cases chipping over 12 m help site drillholes. For example, an IP survey at Gunung
centers or more in order to homogenize the microfi-acture Pongkor helped to define the strike and continuity of low-
control on gold distribution (e.g., at Pier-ma). Of interest is sulfidation quartz veins hosted by argillic alteration (Basuki
the early introduction of anomalous gold at Yanacocha, et al., 1994).
most likely during the initial leaching stage, with broad Airborne magnetic surveys provide information about
areas of 50 to 200 ppb Au accompanying the silicic event regional setting, geologic boundaries, and structures. Mag-
with minor pyrite (Harvey et al., 1999). netic highs are associated with magnetite-bearing I-type
Blankets of chalcedony are common in low-sulfidation and intrusions, and the method also allows the detection of mag-
highsulfidation prospects, and in most cases they are not geo- netite associated with the biotite cores of porphyry systems.
chemically anomalous except for Hg, commonly as cinnabar In addition, the method provides information about hydro-
or me&cinnabar. Exceptions can occur when a falling water thermal alteration, such as the destruction of primary mag-
table results in the chalcedony horizon overprinting a zone of netite signatures of igneous rocks by high-sulfidation and
underlying mineralization. Nevertheless, a chalcedony blan- low-sulfidation systems, resulting in a magnetic low. Ground
ket in a position proximal to the upflow zone may create a magnetic profiles over hydrothermally altered rocks are
barren cover, causing an orebody to be blind. smooth owing to destruction of near-surface magnetite in
Practical recommendation: In addition to analyzing for Au the epithermal systems.
and Ag, a standard suite of As, Sb, Hg f Tl, Se is typically Electrical methods are particularly well suited to assessing
employed during epithermal exploration, expanded in the silicic core of high-sulfidation deposits and also barren
high-sulfidation terrain to include elements such as Ba, Cu, lithocaps, because the vuggy quartz is typically a strong elec-
Zn, Pb, MO, Te, Sn, and Bi. It is not possible to assign a suite trical resistor in dry conditions. This silicic core can be
of elements that is always anomalous, either in the epither- detected clearly with the IP method, although chalcedony
ma1 deposit itself or in dispersion trains; nor is it possible to blankets may interfere. The method can determine the
generalize the concentrations of individual elements that shape, and lateral or depth extent, when using 3-D inter-
constitute anomalous levels. The variation within the pretation tools. The lateral extent of the silicic body can be
epithermal environment causes a huge variability in geo- estimated from IP traverses, although several traverses are
chemical signatures. These include differences between necessary, particularly on the uphill side of the target.
high-sulfidation and low-sulfidation systems, the wide vari- There may be an IP chargeability response from pyrite if
ety of basement and host-rock types, the compositional vari- sulfides are not oxidized, and conductive clays in the
 EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS 273

advanced argillic and argillic zones should also be detected. somatized mantle, as also noted by Sillitoe (1997), may be
Argillic halos to low-sulfidation veins also can be detected. important in creating a hydrous, oxidized melt at mantle
depths, with ascent of this melt to shallow crustal depths facili-
Giant Epithermal Gold Deposits: tated by intersections of trans-crustal or trans-lithospheric
Are There Fundamental Controls? structures. The oxidized magma prevents sulfide satura-
There are at least 18 epithermal deposits around the Pacific tion, leaving metals available to be exsolved upon water
rim that are known to contain a total of greater than 200 saturation. Their oxidized nature is reflected in their
tonnes Au (-7 Moz; Sillitoe, 1997). Six of these deposits are SO,/H,S ratios, which are typically as high as 10, compared
high sulfidation in style (Pueblo Viejo, Yanacocha, Pierina, El to ratios of 1 to 10 for talc-alkaline volcanic discharges
Indio, and Pascua-Lama plus Veladero, Argentina) and, given (Hedenquist, 1995); in addition there is a low HCl content
the recent exploration successes for this style of deposit, more from alkaline magmatic discharges. The low-sulfidation
are sure to be discovered. Are there fundamental controls on epithermal deposits associated with alkalic magmatism have
the formation of such giant epithermal gold deposits, con- isotopic signatures indicating a large magmatic component
trols that may help guide exploration efforts? in the hydrothermal system, larger than is typical for other
Most of the largest porphyry Cu-Au deposits are similar types of low-sulfidation epithermal systems (O’Neil and Sil-
to each other in overall character, whereas the large epi- berman, 1974; Simmons, 1995). To date, high-sulfidation
thermal deposits are highly variable, reflecting the geologic counterparts to these low-sulfidation deposits have not
variability within the near-surface, epithermal environment. been recognized.
This variability includes the lithology and permeability of Lithocaps of silicic and advanced argillic alteration occur in
the rocks themselves, the structural development, the little-eroded portions of the Bolivian Sn-Ag belt, where min-
nature of the volcanic edifice, topographic relief, and the eralization is centered on felsic domes (Sillitoe et al., 1998).
reactivity of the fluid between low-sulfidation and high-sul- The vuggy quartz portion of the lithocap at Potosi contained
fidation systems. Sillitoe (1997) speculated on the funda- the world’s largest Ag resource, 86,000 tonnes (2,800 Moz)
mental controls on formation of large deposits, and sug- prior to exploitation. Tin and base metal-bearing massive
gested that there are no unambiguous answers, for porphyry sulfide veins are hosted by sericitic alteration underlying
or epithermal systems, although both appear to be associ- these lithocaps, although the sulfides differ from Au-rich
ated with atypical arc settings near the end of their tectonic high-sulfidation systems in having a relatively low-sulfidation
development. In order to form a huge gold deposit, the state. Sillitoe et al. (1998) argue that magma chemistry,
starting point is most likely in the mantle, which is the ulti- reduced ilmenite- versus oxidized magnetite-type intrusions,
mate source of metals (Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994). is the fundamental control on whether a lithocap is miner-
Partial melting of stalled lithospheric slabs in the mantle, alized by Ag-Sn-Sb or Au-Cu-As, respectively.
soon after collision or arc migration, may promote the oxi- Both high-sulfidation and intermediate sulfidation-state
dation of the mantle and release of gold. Decompression epithet-ma1 deposits occur in andesite-rhyodacite arc terrain,
will facilitate melting of the mantle, possibly related to iso- commonly in association with porphyry deposits. By contrast,
static changes. In turn, rapid uplift and crystallization at true end-member low-sulfidation deposits have no apparent
shallow crustal depths cause the exsolution of Au-bearing spatial association with high-sulfidation deposits. Indeed,
fluid, unless gold is incorporated in magnetite, pyrrhotite, there are no high-sulfidation deposits in the bimodal rhyolite-
or chalcopyrite prior to fluid saturation (Rowins, 2000, and basalt rift terrain of northern Nevada (John et al., 1999).
references therein). John (1999) found that the oxidation state of magmas asso
A disproportionate number of giant gold deposits are ciated with low-sulfidation deposits (Sleeper, Midas) of the
associated with relatively rare, highly potassic igneous northern Nevada rift are 3 to 4 orders of magnitude more
rocks. Richards (1995) examined the association of epi- reduced than magmas associated with the high-sulfidation
thermal gold deposits with alkalic igneous rocks. These and intermediate sulfidation-state deposits of the western
magmas contain a high alkali-element content, and also andesite arc of Nevada (Goldfield, Comstock Lode). John
tend to be high in volatiles, with particularly high SO,. noted that this difference in magma oxidation state matches
Rocks as diverse as syenites, trachytes, phonolites, and the difference in oxidation state of the sulfide assemblages,
shoshonites are all alkalic, although these rock types, and pyrite-pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite in the low-sulfidation deposits,
the characteristics of the associated deposits, are not sepa- compared with enargite-tennantite-chalcopyrite-pyrite and
rated by a hard boundary from other igneous rocks and tennantite-chalcopyrite-pyrite in the high-sulfidation and
epithermal deposits. The ore deposits associated with alkalic intermediate suhidation-state deposits, respectively.
rocks include Ladolam, Porgera, Mount Rare in Papua New Clearly magmas do more than simply drive convection
Guinea, Emperor in Fiji, those in the Montana alkalic cells of meteoric water during the formation of epithermal
province and Colorado Mineral Belt, and Cripple Creek, deposits. There is abundant evidence for magrnatic compo-
Colorado. Jensen and Barton (2000) discuss deposits asso nents in the ore fluid during formation of high-sulfidation
ciated with alkalic rocks in more detail. as well as low-sulfidation deposits (Simmons, 1995; Anibas,
The alkalic magmas associated with these large gold 1995; Cooke and Simmons, 2000). In addition, there is also
deposits appear to be products of post-subduction tectonic a fundamental relationship between oxidized versus
adjustments, or back-arc activity. Partial melting of meta- reduced magmas and the style of epithermal deposit, high-
274 HELXNQUIST ET AL.

sulfidation and intermediate sulfidation-state versus end- Acknowledgments

member low-sulfidation, respectively. Metal complement,
Au-Cu-As versus Ag-Sn-Sb, is also related to the oxidation R.W. Henley, R.H. Sillitoe, and N.C. White have con-
state of the magma. These empirical observations allow the tributed to this review, both in discussions over a long
explorationist to predict the style of epithermal deposit to period of time and in the papers they have written. We also
expect in a district. Continued research on the relation acknowledge A. Arribas M., M. Einaudi, A. Jackson, D.
between magma chemistry and epithermal as well as por- John, and P. Kowalczyk for more recent discussions, plus
phyry mineralization may eventually lead to criteria that many exploration geologists during field visits, too numer-
can help to identify whether or not a magma exsolved an ous to identify individually. We thank R.H. Sillitoe for allow-
ore fluid, information that may help rank the prospectivity ing us to use and modify some of his published diagrams.
of a district. Such research may also eventually identify the We appreciate the patience of the editors, and thank N.C.
factors that combine to form the giant deposits. White, D. John, S. Ebert, and P. Brown for their reviews of
the paper.
Concluding Remarks
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7. For example: (1) lithologically controlled and dissemi-
nated, non-refractory, open-pittable and low strip ratio high-
Questions sulfidation deposit (e.g., Yanacocha, Pierina). The cut-off
may be as low as -0.2 g/t Au. (2) Structurally controlled,
1. What are the various but synonymous terms used to underground, bonanza low-sulfidation or high-sulfidation
describe epithermal deposits that are hosted by silicic vein deposit (e.g., El Indio-high-sulfidation; Hishikari,
altered rock, with an intimate association with hypogene Midas-low-sulfidation) . (3) Structurally controlled, under-
advanced argillic assemblages? Hosted by quartz-adularia ground or open pittable breccia and/or replacement
veins with a halo of clay minerals? Disseminated in silicified deposit with high As, refractory ore. For example, Che-
rock and accompanied by adularia or illite? Lying beneath lopech or Pueblo Viejo. Here the cut-off grade may be 4 g/t
a silica sinter? Au or greater, more than an order of magnitude higher
2. What are the typical silicate and sulfide mineral than the low-cost deposits discussed above.
assemblages for low-sulfidation deposits in general? For
end-member low-sulfidation deposits, and intermediate
sullidation deposits? For high-sulfidation deposits?