International Journal of Communication

and Media Studies (IJCMS)

MODALITY IN THARU: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE

KRISHNA PRASAD PAUDYAL

This paper examines the morphosyntactic structures characterizing the notion of modality in two different
Tharu languages: Dangaura and Chitoniya, from a comparative perspective. Being the members of the same language
family, both of these languages share the vector verbs sʌk used to express the notions of possibility, ability and
permission, and pʌr expressing that of necessity and obligation, though there are other verbs like chai/cahĩ to indicate
necessity and pa for the notion of permission. However, they exhibit completely different system in the selection and
distribution of devices to express the secondhand knowledge about which the speaker is not sure. Besides, they have a
distinct agreement system of their own.

KEYWORDS: Possibility, Ability, Permission, Obligation, Necessity and Hearsay

Original Article
Received: Jul 15, 2017; Accepted: Aug 03, 2017; Published: Aug 28, 2017; Paper Id.: IJCMSOCT20171

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Tharu, the largest indigenous community of the nation, is one of the components of the multi-ethnicity in
Nepal. Although the population of the Tharu in Nepal is reported to be 1, 737, 470, only 1, 529, 875 of them speak
this language (CBS 2012:4, 144). The ethnonym ‘Tharu’ stands for the ethnic group and the language they speak.
As the habitat of this ethnic group extends from Mechi to Mahakali, a considerable variation is attested in their
language and culture. Based on the differences observed in the linguistic and cultural practices, this ethnic group
along with their language has been broadly classified into four varieties: Rana, Dangaura, Chitoniya, and Kochila
Tharu have been spoken in different Terai and inner Terai districts of Nepal (Paudyal 2014:7-8). The principal
concern of this paper is to examine the morphosyntactic structures used to express Modality, a grammatical
category, in Chitoniya and Dangaura Tharu languages from a comparative perspective.

2. 0 METHODOLOGY

This paper is basically a descriptive presentation of the two Tharu languages from a comparative
perspective. The data for Dangaura Tharu were taken from the selected Tharu communities in the Tulasipur
municipality of Dang district, whereas the data for Chitoniya Tharu were collected from Ratnanagar and
Khairahani Municipalities, and Gardi VDC of Chitwan district. The collected data, mainly the recorded texts, were
transcribed with the help of Audacity, and made an entry in the Toolbox, where the natural texts were translated
and interlinearized. The natural texts were glossed and broken into morphemes following the Leipzig glossing
rules. The grammatical description has been supported with the examples presented as the interlinearized text with
four lines: first the text, second the morpheme breaks, third glosses in English and fourth free translations. The
figures at the end of the examples indicate the references of the corpus.

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2 Krishna Prasad Paudyal

3. 0 MODALITY

Modality is a grammatical category used to indicate the speaker’s attitude. According to Givón (2001a:300), the
speaker’s attitude is based on Epistemic judgment, which is concerned with truth, probability, certainty, belief, and
evidence, and Evaluative (deontic) judgment concerned with desirability, preference, intent, ability, and obligation. For
Watters (2002:285) modality “includes the kinds of notions translated by the words like ‘can’, ‘must’ and ‘should’” in
English”. Modality is expressed morphologically, syntactically or by using modal verbs or separate particles or simply
intonation in different languages (Bybee and Fleischman 1995:2; Palmer 1985:18). However, modality in both of these
Tharu varieties- Chitoniya and Dangaura Tharu- is realized in the form of modal verbs and, sometimes, in the use of
separate particles. This paper makes a comparative study of the grammatical structures used to express the modalities such
as possibility, permission, ability, necessity and obligation in these Tharu languages.

3.1 Possibility

The notion of modality in both of these Tharu languages is primarily expressed through the modal verbs used as
vector verbs in complex predicates. The vector verb used to embody the notion of possibility in both of these languages is
approximately the same: sek/syak in Dangaura and sʌk ‘be able to’ in Chitoniya Tharu.1 It is the modal verb that carries the
tense and agreement markers in both of these languages, as exemplified in (1a-d).

(1) a. panik bʰiṭʌr ṭʌ kãṭ hui syakṭʰa (Danguara)

pani -k bʰiṭʌr ṭʌ kãṭ hui sek -ṭʰ -a

water -GEN in PRT thorn be can -PRS -3SG.NH

‘There may be thorns in the water.’ (FR_YRC.054)

b. ʌṭʰʌwa killa hui seki (Danguara)

ʌṭʰʌwa killa hui sek -i

or nail be can -3SG.NH

‘Or there may be nails.’ (FR_YRC.055)

c. yi bilukʌwa bʰitʌrʌ hʌkʰe sʌkbiyʌ

yi bilukʌwa bʰitʌrʌ hʌkʰ -e sʌk -b -iyʌ

this hole in be.PRS -INF can -FUT -3SG

‘It might be in this hole.’(FS_DR&RM.083)

d. kʌtʰi hʌkʰe sʌktʌyi jʌni mʌrʌd ki?

kʌtʰi hʌkʰ -e sʌk -t -ʌyi jʌni mʌrʌd ki

what be.PRS -INF can -FUT -3PL wife husband or

‘What might have been (the relationship between them), husband and wife?’ (FS_DR&RM.196)

1
Typologically, sʌk is the common vector verb used to express possibility in most of the Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Nepali,
Bhojpuri, and Maithili. aj waris ho sʌkti hɛ (Hindi) ajʌ pani pʌrnʌ sʌkcʰʌ (Nepali) ’It may rain today.’

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Modality in Tharu: A Comparative Perspective 3

The modal verbs syakṭʰa ‘can -PRS -3SG.NH’ (1a), seki ‘can -3SG.NH’ (1b), sʌkbiyʌ ‘can -FUT -3SG’ (1c) and sʌktʌyi ‘can -FUT
-3PL’(1d) express possibility of the actions expressed by the lexical verbs in respective examples.

3.2 Permission

In both of these Tharu languages, the explicators pa ‘be allowed to’ and sʌk/ syak/ sek/ ‘be able to’ are commonly used
to express the notion of permission. These explicators are preceded by the base or purposive form of the content verbs. The
vector verbs are used to carry the modal function and the agreement markers, as illustrated in (2a-d).

(2) a. yi jʌŋgʌlmʌ sʌkkujʌnʌ gʰãs kaṭʌ pʌiṭʰʌn (Dangaura)

yi jʌŋgʌl -mʌ sʌkku -jʌnʌ gʰãs kaṭ -ʌ pa -ṭʰ -ʌn

this forest -LOC all -NCLF grass cut -PURP be allowed to -PRS -PL

‘Everyone is allowed to mow in this jungle.’ (ELCTD_ PG.458)

b. ab ṭʌĩ kʰyalʌ sekbya (Dangaura)

ab ṭʌĩ kʰel -ʌ sek -b -ya

now 2SG.NH play -PURP can -FUT -2SG.NH

‘Now you can play’. (ELCTD_ PG.456)

c. bina rahʌdanise wʌhʌwã hʌine jaye pʌwʌyi (Chitoniya)

bina rahʌdani -se wʌhʌwã hʌine ja -e pa -yi

without passport -ABL there NEG go -INF get -PST.HAB

‘No one was allowed to go there without a passport.’ (PLS.JRC-70.194)

d. yi kʌmʌwã worake tohʌra gʰʌr ja sʌkbʌhʌ (Chitoniya)

yi kʌmʌwã wora -ke tohʌra gʰʌr ja sʌk -b -hʌ

this work finish -SEQ 2SG.PL house go can -FUT -2PL

‘You can go home after finishing this work.’ (ELCTD_BM.281)

In these examples, the vector verbs pʌiṭʰʌn (2a), sekbya (2b), pʌwʌyi (2c), and sʌkbʌhʌ (2d) express the notion of
permission. They carry the concord markers and are preceded by the infinitival, purposive or base forms of the main verbs
kaṭʌ ‘cut -PURP’, kʰyalʌ ‘play -PURP’, jaye ‘go -INF’, and ja ‘go’ respectively.

3.3 Ability

The explicator sʌk ‘be able to’ is a most productive vector verb in many of the Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi,
Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri and all the Tharu varieties. It can function as a device to express possibility, permission and
physical or mental ability. In Chitoniya Tharu we find the basic form that is used in most of IA languages, but in Dangaura
Tharu it gets simple morphophonemic modifications and becomes sek or syak. In this case also, it is preceded by the
purposive, infinitival or base form of the content verb, as demonstrated in (3a-d).

(3) a. kʌisin baṭ kʌrʌ sekbo? (Dangaura)

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4 Krishna Prasad Paudyal

kʌisin baṭ kʌr -ʌ sek -b -o

how talk do -PURP be able to -FUT -2PL.MH

‘How will you be able to talk (to her)?’ (FR_MRC.175)

b. ʌpnʌ sekbi ki nʌĩ kʌrʌ kam? (Dangaura)

ʌpnʌ sek -b -i ki nʌĩ kʌr -ʌ kam

2SG.HON be able to -FUT -2H or NEG do -INF work

‘Can you do the work or not?’ (FR_MRC.196)

c. pacʰe kʌhʌyi ‘baba nahĩ sʌkbʌsu pʌḍʰe’ (Chitoniya)

pacʰe kʌh -yi baba nahĩ sʌk -b -su pʌḍʰ -e

later say -PROG father NEG can -FUT -1SG read -INF

‘Later he said, ‘father, I can’t study.’ (PLS.JRC-70.109)

d. kunõ hʌine sʌklʌyi girawe (Chitoniya)

kunõ hʌine sʌk -l -ʌyi gir -a -e

any NEG can -PST -3PL fall -CAUS -INF

‘None of them could make it (the target) fall.’(JF.BM-78.0202)

Both types of abilities are expressed in these examples. The modal sek or sʌk expresses the notion of mental
ability in (3a) and (3c) and physical ability in (3b) and (3d).

3.4 Necessity

Epistemic necessity in both of these Tharu languages is realized in the form of a vector verb pʌr which can be
preceded by an infinitival or participial form of the content verb.2 Necessity can also be expressed through the use of a verb
cahi (Dangaura) and cahĩ (Chitoniya) ‘is needed’ but it is mostly preceded by a participial or infinitival form of the content
verb or an NP. The examples in (4a-d) clarify the case.

(4) a. ṭʌ u pʰula gʰʌlai pʌri (Dangaura)

ṭʌ u pʰula gʰal -a -i pʌr -i

PRT that flower wear -CAUS -NMLZ have to -3SG.NH

‘(You) have to put that flower upon me.’ (FR_MRC.100)

b. ũhʌn cahi kʌlʌse mʌi bʌloim (Dangaura)

ṭurʰʌ -hʌnʌ cahi kʌlʌse mʌi bʌla -m

2PL -DAT need if 1SG call -1SG.FUT

2
The vector verb pʌr ’is needed to’ is also a common verb in many of teh Indo-Aryan languages. In Nepali, it is simply pʌr but in Hindi
it becomes pʌɖ, as timile yo kam gʌrnu pʌrcʰʌ (Nepali) tumʰẽ ye kam kʌrna pʌɖega (Hindi) ‘You will have to do this work’.

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Modality in Tharu: A Comparative Perspective 5

‘If I need you I will call you.’ (FR_MRC.123)

c. ʌre yawʌ dewʌ, boke nahĩ pʌrtʌyi (Chitoniya)

ʌre ya -ʌ de -ʌ bok -e nahĩ pʌr -t -ʌyi

VOC come -INF give -IMP carry -INF NEG have to -FUT -3PL

‘Let him come. We will not have to carry him (on our back).’ (JF.BM-78.0111)

d. mor pʰʌl cahĩ (Chitoniya)

mor pʰʌl cahĩ

1SG.GEN fruit need

‘I need fruits.’ (JF.BM-78.0323)

3.5 Obligation

The vector verb pʌr also embodies a denotes obligation in both of these Tharu languages. Even in this case, it is
preceded by the infinitival or purposive form of the content verb. As usual, the inflectional suffixes are affixed to the
vector verb pʌr, as illustrated in (5a-b).

(5) a. nahĩ bʌṭohi pʌrṭʰa (Dangaura)

nahĩ bʌṭa -hi pʌr -ṭʰ -a

NEG tell -EMPH have to -PRS -3SG.NH

‘No, you must tell.’ (FR_YRC.091)

b. jaye pʌrlʌyi, behan bʰelʌyi (Chitoniya)

ja -e pʌr -l -ʌyi behan bʰe -l -ʌyi

go -INF have to -PST -3PL morning become -PST -3PL

‘It has become morning, I must go now.’ (JOW.BRM-56.019)

Here we can notice that both the notions of epistemic necessity and deontic obligation are encoded in the same
morphological structure in both of these Tharu languages, though necessity can also be embodied in the form of cahi or
cahĩ in Danguara and Chitoniya Tharu respectively.

3.6 Hearsay

The modality of Hearsay refers to the way how the notion of second hand knowledge is expressed. Both of these
Tharu languages embody this notion differently. Dangaura Tharu realizes the notion with a particle hũ ‘it is said’, whereas
a distinct lexical item sunte ‘it is heard’ is used in Chitoniya Tharu for the purpose. They are also different from the
distribution of these devices: the particle hũ always concludes the sentence, whereas sunte generally introduces one.
However, there are evidences in our corpus where it is distributed differently. We have plenty of such expressions as it is
so frequently used in narrative discourses. The examples in (6a-d) illustrate the situations.

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6 Krishna Prasad Paudyal

(6) a. ekṭʰo rʌjwa rʌhʌ hũ (Dangaura)

ek -ṭʰo rʌjwa rʌh -ʌ hũ

one -NCLF king remain -3SG.NH HRS

‘It is said that there was a king.’ (FR_MRC.006)

b. hũkahar sʌkku bʰuṭla swanʌk rʌhʌli hũ

hũkahar sʌkku bʰuṭla swan -ʌk rʌh -l -i hũ

3SG.GEN all hair gold -GEN live -PST -3SG.NH HRS

‘Her hair was all made up of gold.’(SR_PRC.010)

c. sunte bʰag lʌcʰmikʌ jʰʌgʌɖa bʌɖʌu lagʌlʌ

sun -te bʰag lʌcʰmi -kʌ jʰʌgʌɖa bʌɖ -ʌu lag -lʌ

hear -HRS Bhagya Laxmi -GEN quarrel be.PRS -3PL start -PTCP

‘It is heard that there is a quarrel between Bhagya and Laxmi.’ (BL.FM-79.023)

d. ʌre bʌbuwa tu sunte mor beṭiyase byahʌ kʌrʌyi kʰojʌyi (Chitoniya)

ʌre bʌbuwa tũ sunte mor beṭiya -se

VOC baby 2SG.NH HRS 1SG.GEN daughter -INS

byahʌ kʌr -yi kʰoj -yi

marriage do -PROG search -PROG

‘Hey baby, I hear that you want to marry my daughter.’ (BL.FM-79.089)

The use of hũ and sunte in these examples indicate that speakers are not sure about the propositions they are going
to make. They are saying so based on what they have heard. This feature is used to distinguish the firsthand knowledge of
the second hand information.

4.0 SUMMARY

As both of these Tharu languages belong to the same- Indo-Aryan- language family, there are many lexical and
grammatical similarities, especially in the use of vector verbs to express different modalities. We have noticed that not only
in these Tharu languages, but also in many of the Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi, Nepali, Bhojpuri, Maithili, the notion
of possibility, permission, and ability are embodied with the same vector verb sʌk ‘be able to’, and that of necessity and
obligation are characterized in the form of pʌr ‘is needed’. In both of these languages the concord markers are carried by
the vector verbs which are attached to the infinitive, purposive, or base form of the content verbs. However, in the case of
Hearsay, they are completely different in the selection and distribution of the devices: a particle hũ, which is distributed at
the sentence final position, is attested in Dangaura, whereas Chitoniya Tharu characterizes a lexical item sunte, which is
distributed at the sentence initial position. Although we find some similarities in lexical items, they are completely
different in the grammatical systems like person, gender, and agreement.

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Modality in Tharu: A Comparative Perspective 7

ABBREVIATIONS

~ nasalization 1 First person 2 Second person

3 Third person ABL Ablative ACC Accusative

CAUS Causative COND Conditional DAT Dative

EMPH Emphatic FUT Future HRS Hearsay

Hon- Honorific HORT Hortative GEN Genitive

IMP Imperative INF Infinitive LOC Locative

NEG Negative NH Non-honorific NCLF Numeral classifier

NMLZ Nominalizer OBL Oblique PRT Particle

PL Plural PRF Perfect PRS Present

PROG Progressive PST Past PST.HAB Past habit

PTCP Participial REFL Reflexive SEQ Sequential

SG Singular VOC Vocative

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8 Krishna Prasad Paudyal

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