University of Gothenburg

Department of Physics

Solutions to Stellar structure and evolution,

ASF060/RRY110

Date: May 28th, 830 - 1330

Location: V
Examiner: Ulf Torkelsson, phone 031-786 9168 (work), 031-451404 (home),
0733-261681 (mobile), e-mail: [email protected];
Allowed equipment: Physics Handbook or similar tables (the tables must be
free of personal notes, except for corrections of misprints or errors), calculator
(the memory of the calculator must be empty).
The solutions will be available on the course web page on Monday May 30th.
Results will be available at the latest on Tuesday June 14th. The exams can be
inspected at Physics, Room O5113, on Tuesday June 14th 11.30 - 12.00.

Each problem gives a maximum of 3 points. Grades: Failed: 0 - 8 points; Passed

(G) 8.5 - 13 points; Passed with honours (VG) 13.5 - points. Exams will also
be graded using ECTS-grades.
Provide complete solutions to the problems. All significant steps must be in-
cluded in the solutions.

1. It is thought that the star formation rates in the galaxies were much higher
when the galaxies were young than what it is today. The Milky Way at
present consists of about 1011 stars. Assume that all of these stars formed
within 108 years, and that their mass distribution is described by the birth
function
Φ (M ) ∝ N M −2.35
for 0.08M ≤ M ≤ 60M , where N is a normalisation constant.
a. Calculate the expected number of supernovae assuming that all stars
heavier than 10M explode as supernovae.
b. If 0.1M is converted to energy in each supernova, and 10−4 of this
energy is converted into light, what will the luminosity of the galaxy due
to the supernovae be.
c. Compare this to the luminosity of 1011 main-sequence stars that follow
the mass distribution Φ(M ), and whose luminosities are given by
 4
M
L = L . (1)
M

1
 Solution: a. The fraction of the stars that will go supernovae is
R 60 60
− 1.35 M −1.35 10
 1
NSN 10
N M −2.35 dM
= R 60 = 60 =
Ntot N M −2.35 dM 1

0.08 [− 1.35 M −1.35 0.08
−60−1.35 + 10−1.35
= 1.35 × 10−3 . (2)
−60−1.35 + 0.08−1.35
Therefore the total number of supernovae will be 1.35 × 10−3 × 1011 =
1.35 × 108 .
b. The luminosity due to the supernovae is

M c2 NSN η
LSN = , (3)
t
where η is the fraction of the released energy that appears as electromag-
netic radiation, and t is the time interval during which the radiation is
released.
0.1 × 2 × 1030 c2 × 1.35 × 108 × 10−4
LSN = = 7.7×1034 W = 2.0×108 L .
108 × 86400 × 365
(4)
c. The luminosity is
R 60 R 60
0.08
M −2.35 L (M ) dM 0.08
M 1.65 dM
L = Ntot R 60 = Ntot L R 60
0.08
M −2.35 dM 0.08
M −2.35 dM
1 2.65 60
 
2.65 M 1.35 602.65 − 0.082.35
= Ntot L  0.08
60 = Ntot L = 2.5 × 101 3L . (5)
1
− 1.35 M −1.35 0.08 2.65 0.08−1.35 − 60−1.35

2. Derive the Eddington limit to the luminosity of a star assuming that the
opacity is given by electron scattering.

Solution: Radiative energy transport gives

dT 3 κρ F
=− , (6)
dr 4ac T 3 4πr2
which we can re-write as
4aT 3 dT dPrad κρ
= =− . (7)
3 dr dr c
On the other hand the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium gives
dP Gmρ
=− 2 . (8)
dr r

2
 Combining these two equations we get
dPrad κF
= . (9)
dP 4πcGm
We know notice that since P = Prad +Pgas , and that all pressures decreases
with increasing radii we must have that
dPrad
< 1, (10)
dP
so that
κF < 4πcGm. (11)
At the surface of the star m = M and F = L, so we have that
4πcGM 4πcGM M M
L< = = 1.3 × 1031 W=
κ κes,0 M M
M
3.2 × 104 L . (12)
M

3. Calculate the density distribution in an isothermal corona around the

Sun. Assume that the density at the coronal base is 10−14 kg m−3 , the
temperature is 106 K and it consists of fully ionised hydrogen, so that
the molecular weight is 0.5 g mole−1 . Show that the density at infinity is
finite, and calculate the pressure at infinity. The pressure of the interstellar
medium is about 3 × 10−14 Pa. What is the implication of this?

Solution: The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium gives

dP GM
= −ρ 2 , (13)
dr r
and the equation of state is
R
P = ρT. (14)
µ
Since the corona is assumed to be isothermal we can write the equation
of hydrostatic equilibrium as
R dρ GM
T = −ρ 2 , (15)
µ dr r
which we re-write as
1 GM µ dr
dρ = − . (16)
ρ RT r2

3
 We integrate this equation from the base of the corona at R , where the
coronal density is ρc , outwards
Z r  r
ρ GM µ dr0 GM µ 1
ln =− = =
ρc R RT r02 RT r0 R
 
GM µ 1 1
− , (17)
RT r R

where we solve for

  
GM µ 1 1
ρ = ρc exp − . (18)
RT r R

In the limit of R → ∞ we have that

 
GM µ
ρ = ρc exp − , (19)
RT R

and then the pressure at infinity is

 
R GM µ
P = T ρc exp − =
µ RT R
G × 2 × 1030 × 0.5 × 10−3
 
R −14
6
× 10 × 10 exp − = 1.7 × 10−9 Pa. (20)
0.5 × 10−3 R × 106 × 7 × 108

The coronal pressure is much larger than that of the surrounding inter-
stellar medium, and shows that the solar corona cannot be in hydrostatic
equilibrium. Instead it expands outwards to form the solar wind.
4. Derive the condition for when a layer in a star becomes convective. What
is meant by dredge-up in a star?

Solution: Consider a gas element at a level where the pressure is P and the
density is ρ. We now assume that pressure and density in the gas element
vary according to the adiabatic equation P/ργ =constant as it moves. Our
gas element moves a distance δz upwards so that pressure and density in
the gas element decreases to P − δP and ρ − δρ, respectively. We have
that
P − δP P
γ = γ. (21)
(ρ − δρ) ρ
For small δP and δρ we can write
P γ P γP
(ρ − δρ) ≈ γ ργ − γργ−1 δρ = P −


P − δP = γ
δρ, (22)
ρ ρ ρ

4
which gives us
γP
δP = δρ. (23)
ρ
The pressure and density in the surrounding medium have changed to
dP
P+ δz, (24)
dr
and
dρ
ρ+ δz. (25)
dr
The pressure must be the same inside and outside the gas element
dP
δP = − δz, (26)
dr
which gives us
dP ρ
δρ = − δz. (27)
dr γP
If the gas element is lighter than its surroundings
dρ
ρ − δρ < ρ + δz, (28)
dr
then it will continue to move outwards and we get convection. This hap-
pens when
dP ρ dρ
δz < δz, (29)
dr γP dr
which can be written as
ρ dP
> γ, (30)
P dρ
because dρ/dr < 0. For an ideal gas we can re-formulate this in terms of
the temperature T . The equation of state P ∝ ρT can be written as
ln P = ln ρ + ln T + konst, (31)
which we can then differentiate
dP dρ dT
= + , (32)
P ρ T
which can also be written as
P dρ P dT
1= + . (33)
ρ dP T dP
Introducing this into the criterion for convective instability
P dT 1
1− < , (34)
T dP γ

5
 which can be written as
P dT γ−1
> , (35)
T dP γ
which can eventually be written as
dT γ − 1 T dP
< , (36)
dr γ P dr
but notice that the gradients are negative. This means that if
   
 dT  γ − 1 T  dP 
 
 dr  > , (37)
star γ P  dr star

then convection sets in.

Dredge-up happens when an outer convecion zone during the course of
stellar evolution grows so thick that it extends down into a shell of matter
that has been processed by the nuclear reactions. Thus the convection
starts to transport processed material to the surface of the star, where the
lines of the processed material can be observed in the stellar spectrum.
5. Describe how we can test our models of the interior of the Sun.

Solution: Helioseismology study vibrations in the surface layers of the

Sun. These vibrations are due to waves in the interior of the Sun. The
frequencies, wave lengths and amplitudes of the vibrations depends on the
speed of the waves in the interior of the Sun. For sound waves the speed
is set by the temperature and chemical composition in the Sun. Other
waves can also depend on the rotation of the interior of the Sun.
Neutrinos are formed in the nuclear reactions in the core of the Sun.
They pass right through the Sun, but a very small fraction of them can
be detected in neutrino detectors on the Earth. These detectors have
observed too few neutrinos from the Sun, but we do now understand that
the neutrinos can oscillate between different states, which are not detected
at the same rate in our neutrino observatories.

6. Describe the evolution from the beginning of the main-sequence for a star
that ends up as a neutron star.

Solution: Stars that eventually form neutron stars have initial masses
larger than 10M . Such stars start as blue main sequence stars that burn
hydrogen to helium through the CNO cycle in their cores. As the core
runs out of hydrogen it will start to contract, which leads to that the
hydrogen burning continues in a shell surrounding the core. At the same

6
time the surface layer expands and the star evolves into a red supergiant.
When the temperature and density are large enough the core will start to
burn helium to carbon through the triple-α-process. When this happens
the core will expand again and the surface layer contracts. After some
time the core runs out helium and it contracts again. Both the hydrogen
and helium burning continue in separate shells then. In several further
steps heavier and heavier elements will burn, first in the core and then in
a shell. This goes on until the core of the star consists of iron. At that
time it is not possible to derive any more energy from nuclear fusion, and
the core will collapse. When the density in the core exceeds that in an
atomic nucleus it will bounce and send out a shock wave that propagates
out through the star, which explodes as a supernova. The neutron star is
what remains of the star after the supernova.