Chapter 01.

01
Introduction to Numerical Methods

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. understand the need for numerical methods, and
2. go through the stages (mathematical modeling, solving and implementation) of
solving a particular physical problem.

Mathematical models are an integral part in solving engineering problems. Many times,
these mathematical models are derived from engineering and science principles, while at
other times the models may be obtained from experimental data.
Mathematical models generally result in need of using mathematical procedures that
include but are not limited to
(A) differentiation,
(B) nonlinear equations,
(C) simultaneous linear equations,
(D) curve fitting by interpolation or regression,
(E) integration, and
(F) differential equations.
These mathematical procedures may be suitable to be solved exactly as you must have
experienced in the series of calculus courses you have taken, but in most cases, the
procedures need to be solved approximately using numerical methods. Let us see an
example of such a need from a real-life physical problem.
To make the fulcrum (Figure 1) of a bascule bridge, a long hollow steel shaft called
the trunnion is shrink fit into a steel hub. The resulting steel trunnion-hub assembly is then
shrink fit into the girder of the bridge.

Trunnion

Hub

Girder

Figure 1 Trunnion-Hub-Girder (THG) assembly.

01.01.1
01.01.2 Chapter 01.01

This is done by first immersing the trunnion in a cold medium such as a dry-
ice/alcohol mixture. After the trunnion reaches the steady state temperature of the cold
medium, the trunnion outer diameter contracts. The trunnion is taken out of the medium and
slid through the hole of the hub (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Trunnion slided through the hub after contracting

When the trunnion heats up, it expands and creates an interference fit with the hub.
In 1995, on one of the bridges in Florida, this assembly procedure did not work as designed.
Before the trunnion could be inserted fully into the hub, the trunnion got stuck. Luckily, the
trunnion was taken out before it got stuck permanently. Otherwise, a new trunnion and hub
would needed to be ordered at a cost of $50,000. Coupled with construction delays, the total
loss could have been more than a hundred thousand dollars.
Why did the trunnion get stuck? This was because the trunnion had not
contracted enough to slide through the hole. Can you find out why?
A hollow trunnion of outside diameter 12.363" is to be fitted in a hub of inner
diameter 12.358" . The trunnion was put in dry ice/alcohol mixture (temperature of the
fluid - dry ice/alcohol mixture is  108F ) to contract the trunnion so that it can be slid
through the hole of the hub. To slide the trunnion without sticking, a diametrical clearance of
at least 0.01" is required between the trunnion and the hub. Assuming the room
temperature is 80F , is immersing the trunnion in dry-ice/alcohol mixture a correct
decision?
To calculate the contraction in the diameter of the trunnion, the thermal expansion
coefficient at room temperature is used. In that case the reduction D in the outer diameter
of the trunnion is
D  DT (1)
where
D = outer diameter of the trunnion,
  coefficient of thermal expansion coefficient at room temperature, and
T  change in temperature,
Given
D= 12.363"
Introduction to Numerical Methods 01.01.3

  6.47  106 in/in/ F at 80F

T  T fluid  Troom
=  108  80
 188F
where
T fluid = temperature of dry-ice/alcohol mixture
Troom = room temperature
the reduction in the outer diameter of the trunnion is given by

D  (12.363) 6.47  10 6   188 
=  0.01504"
So the trunnion is predicted to reduce in diameter by 0.01504" . But, is this
enough reduction in diameter? As per specifications, the trunnion needs to contract by
= trunnion outside diameter - hub inner diameter + diametric clearance
= 12.363 – 12.358 + 0.01
= 0.015"
So according to his calculations, immersing the steel trunnion in dry-ice/alcohol
mixture gives the desired contraction of greater than 0.015" as the predicted contraction
is 0.01504" . But, when the steel trunnion was put in the hub, it got stuck. Why did this
happen? Was our mathematical model adequate for this problem or did we create a
mathematical error?
As shown in Figure 3 and Table 1, the thermal expansion coefficient of steel
decreases with temperature and is not constant over the range of temperature the trunnion
goes through. Hence, Equation (1) would overestimate the thermal contraction.
7.00E-06
6.00E-06
Coefficient of Thermal
Expancion (in/in/oF)

5.00E-06
4.00E-06
3.00E-06
2.00E-06

1.00E-06
0.00E+00
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Tem perature ( oF)

Figure 3 Varying thermal expansion coefficient as a function of temperature for cast

steel.

The contraction in the diameter of the trunnion for which the thermal expansion coefficient
varies as a function of temperature is given by
01.01.4 Chapter 01.01

T fluid

D  D  dT
Troom
(2)

So one needs to curve fit the data to find the coefficient of thermal expansion as a function of
temperature. This is done by regression where we best fit a curve through the data given in
Table 1. In this case, we may fit a second order polynomial
  a0  a1  T  a2  T 2 (3)

Table 1 Instantaneous thermal expansion coefficient as a function of temperature.

Instantaneous
Temperature
Thermal Expansion
F μin/in/F
80 6.47
60 6.36
40 6.24
20 6.12
0 6.00
-20 5.86
-40 5.72
-60 5.58
-80 5.43
-100 5.28
-120 5.09
-140 4.91
-160 4.72
-180 4.52
-200 4.30
-220 4.08
-240 3.83
-260 3.58
-280 3.33
-300 3.07
-320 2.76
-340 2.45
The values of the coefficients in the above Equation (3) will be found by polynomial
regression (we will learn how to do this later in Chapter 06.04). At this point we are just
going to give you these values and they are
a 0   6.0150  10 
6

 a    6.1946  10 9 
 1  
a 2   1.2278  10 11 
to give the polynomial regression model (Figure 4) as
  a0  a1T  a2T 2
 6.0150  10 6  6.1946  10 9 T  1.2278  10 11 T 2
Introduction to Numerical Methods 01.01.5

Knowing the values of a 0 , a1 and a 2 , we can then find the contraction in the trunnion
diameter as
T fluid

D  D  (a
Troom
0  a1T  a2T 2 ) dT

2 2 3 3
(T fluid  Troom ) (T fluid  Troom )
 D[a0 (T fluid  Troom )  a1  a2 ]
2 3
(4)
which gives

 6 9  ( 108) 2
 (80) 2
 
6.0150 10  (108  80)  6.1946  10 2 
D  12.363 
12 (( 108)  (80) )
3 3
 
  1.2278 10 3 
=  0.013689"

Figure 4 Second order polynomial regression model for coefficient of thermal expansion as
a function of temperature.

What do we find here? The contraction in the trunnion is not enough to meet the required
specification of 0.015" .
So here are some questions that you may want to ask yourself?
01.01.6 Chapter 01.01

1. What if the trunnion were immersed in liquid nitrogen (boiling temperature

 321F )? Will that cause enough contraction in the trunnion?
2. Rather than regressing the thermal expansion coefficient data to a second order
polynomial so that one can find the contraction in the trunnion OD, how would you
use Trapezoidal rule of integration for unequal segments? What is the relative
difference between the two results?
3. We chose a second order polynomial for regression. Would a different order
polynomial be a better choice for regression? Is there an optimum order of
polynomial you can find?
As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, we generally see mathematical
procedures that require the solution of nonlinear equations, differentiation, solution of
simultaneous linear equations, interpolation, regression, integration, and differential
equations. A physical example to illustrate the need for each of these mathematical
procedures is given in the beginning of each chapter. You may want to look at them now to
understand better why we need numerical methods in everyday life.

INTRODUCTION, APPROXIMATION AND ERRORS

Topic Introduction to Numerical Methods
Summary Textbook notes of Introduction to Numerical Methods
Major General Engineering
Authors Autar Kaw
Date December 31, 2017
Web Site http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu