PATTERNMAKING

PATTERNMAKING
A TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND
APPLICATION OF PATTERNS, INCLUDING
THE USE OF WOODWORKING TOOLS, THE
ART OF JOINERY, WOOD TURNING, AND
VARIOUS METHODS OF BUILDING PATTERNS
AND CORE-BOXES OF DIFFERENT TYPES

BY
JOSEPH A. SHELLY
INSTRUCTOR IN PATTERNMAKING AND WOODWORKING
MEMBER OF PATTERNMAKERS' LEAGUE OF NORTH AMERICA

FIRST EDITION
SECOND PRINTING

NEW YORK
THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS
LONDON: THE MACHINERY PUBLISHING CO., LTD.
 COPYRIGHT, 1920
BY
THE INDUSTRIAL PRESS
NEW YORK

COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING BY THE PLIMPTON PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS.. U. S. A.

 PREFACE

THIS treatise on patternmaking deals, in its sixteen chap-

ters, with two general and important subjects which include,

first,the principles governing the production of castings by

forming suitable molds from patterns, and, second, the actual

construction of patterns and core-boxes of different types.
Since patterns are used to reproduce castings, patternmakers
must understand the principles of molding; for this reason,
the application of various types of patterns and their relation
to the work of the molder have been explained before consider-
ing the building of patterns. The types of patterns which
problems in the pattern shop and foundry
illustrate different
have been carefully selected, in order to demonstrate every
important variation liable to arise in practice. As the con-
struction of wooden patterns involves considerable skill, espe-

cially in the art of joinery, the use of hand- and power-operated

woodworking tools, and the particular classes of work for which
they are adapted, are fully described and illustrated.
In dealing with the general subject of pattern construction,
the idea has been to explain very thoroughly the elements or
fundamental features of this work. For instance, much atten-
tion has been paid to the exact procedure in the fitting or join-

ing of different parts, and to the building up and formation of

various shapes common to pattern construction, because it was
considered more important to explain fully how parts are sawed,
chiseled, planed, turned, and fastened together, than to fill the
book with miscellaneous and unrelated examples of pattern
work. While many examples are included, they have been
selected either to illustrate different well-known methods of

construction, or the various types of patterns in common use

and their application.

1553
vi PREFACE

While this treatise is intended primarily for those interested

in patternmaking as a vocation, it should also prove of value

to draftsmen, the reason that the origination of designs
for

which are practicable from the viewpoint of the patternmaker

and molder requires a knowledge of the fundamental principles
of patternmaking. The
various subjects treated have been so

arranged and divided throughout the book that the student

interested more in general principles than in the actual work of
construction may readily select whatever sections are con-
sidered essential.*
THE AUTHOR.
NEW YORK, October, 1920.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I

TYPES OF PATTERNS AND THEIR RELATION

TO MOLDING PROBLEMS
PAGES
General Application of Patterns Various Branches of
Patternmaking Examples illustrating Different Types of
Patterns and their Relation to the Mold Use of Core-

prints 1-23

CHAPTER II

HAND OR BENCH TOOLS USED IN

PATTERNMAKING
DifferentTypes of Planes, Chisels, Bits, Saws, and Other
Hand-manipulated Tools Sharpening Bench Tools The
Bench and Vise Clamping Devices 24-43

CHAPTER III

PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY AND ITS OPERATION

The Saw Bench
Circular Band Saw Jointer Sur-
facer Trimmer Sanding Machines 44-66

CHAPTER IV

PATTERN JOINERY
Testing and Planing Faces and Edges Different Forms of

Joints Gluing Dowels and their Use Working to

Lay-out Lines Fitting to Cylindrical Forms 67-103

vii
Vlii CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK

PAGES
Laying out and Sawing Heads for Staved Work Sawing,
Planing, and Assembling Staves Staved or Lagged Core-
boxes Building Stepped Cylinders, Pipes, and Core-boxes
Segment Construction applied to Pattern Work 104-129

CHAPTER VI

THE LAYING OUT OF PATTERNS

General Points to be Considered Contraction or Shrinkage
Finish Allowance Tools for Laying out 130-146

CHAPTER VII

TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK

Construction of Miscellaneous Small Patterns Patterns
forSteam Chests, Pistons, Cross-heads, Pipes, Air Chambers,
and Engine Beds 147-169

CHAPTER VIII

CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION

How Cores are made Boxes for Square or Rectangular

Cores Right- and Left-hand Core-boxes Boxes for Round
Cores Core-box Plane General Features of Core-box
Construction 170-189

CHAPTER IX

PATTERN TURNING

The Lathe used Turning Tools Preparation of Stock

for Turning Roughing and Sizing Work Miscellaneous
Examples. .
190-223
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER X
PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS
PAGES
Steam Engine Cylinder Patterns Core-boxes for Steam
and Exhaust Ports Pump Cylinder Patterns and Core-
boxes Core-boxes for Jacketed Cylinders 224-246

CHAPTER XI

WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS

Patterns for Wheels having Webs, Flanges, and Arms or
Spokes Making Wheels without a Pattern Screw Pro-
peller Patterns 247-271

CHAPTER XII

GEAR PATTERNS

Fastening Tooth Blocks to Blanks Laying out Teeth

Band-sawing, Planing, Jigging, and Sanding Gear Teeth
-
Worm and Screw Patterns 272-284

CHAPTER XIII

SPECIAL PATTERN WORK

Use of Stopping-off Pieces Molds made with Cores
Part Patterns Patterns made on Follow-boards Plaster
Core-boxes Skeleton Pattern and Core-box Work Match-
plate Work Pattern Work for Loam Molding 285-305

CHAPTER XIV

FINISHING PATTERN WORK

Wood, Leather, Beeswax, Putty, and Metal Fillets Finish-

ing Corners Sandpapering Pattern Varnish or Shellac

Pattern Letters General Hints on Finishing 306-318
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER XV
PATTERN LUMBER
PAGES
Lumber used
Varieties of Lumber
Selection of Straight-
and Quarter-sawed Lumber Shrinkage of Lumber and its
Effects Storing Lumber Life of Wood Patterns 319-324

CHAPTER XVI

FILING AND SETTING SAWS

Jointing Hand Saws Filing Cross-cut and Rip Saws
Setting Saw Teeth Filingand Setting Band Saws Brazing
Band Saws Truing and Filing Circular Saws 325-332
 CHAPTER I

TYPES OF PATTERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO

MOLDING PROBLEMS
A PATTERN may be defined as a model of anything, so con-
structed that itmay be used for forming a mold or impression
in damp sand or other suitable material. This mold, when
filled with molten metal or substances that solidify, forms a
reproduction of the pattern and is known as a casting. The
essential difference between a true model and a pattern ac-

cording to the general usage of these terms is that, in making

the former, the question of reproduction by casting is not a

factor, while in making a pattern the principles of molding and

the needs of the molder must be considered. A
true model is
used to illustrate an idea or to demonstrate some mechanical
movement or appliance, or it may be designed for copying by
means other than molding and casting. Another point of dif-
ference between a model and a pattern is the contraction or

shrinkage allowance placed on the pattern ;

this is an oversizing
to compensate for the shrinkage of the metal in passing from
a liquid state, and it differs widely for different metals.
The outward appearance of a pattern for a simple casting
does not differ very much from the casting itself, as the pattern
isoften a complete model, but if the casting is to have interior

passages with external openings, its appearance will be changed

"
by the addition of projections called core-prints," so placed
as to form bearing surfaces in the mold to support the separate
bodies of sand or cores that are used to form these passages or

openings in the casting. These cores are for the most part
"
formed in wooden molds called core-boxes," and the prints on i

the pattern are distinguished by being painted a different color

from the pattern itself. A pattern, in order that it may be
2^
l
PATTERNMAKING

removed easily from the molding material, is given a certain

amount of taper or draft, and the act of removing the pattern*
"
is called drawing "; a pattern is said to draw nicely or not,
according to the amount of trouble the molder experiences in
removing it from the sand in which it is imbedded.
The Application of Patterns. The application of patterns
in one form or another will be found wherever articles of orna-
ment or utility are made by casting. Sculptors' model patterns
of statues in clay and wax, that are used to form molds for cast-
bronze reproductions, and rare objects of art are sometimes used
to make molds for furnishing cast plaster replicas to museums
and collectors. The molds for the latter are made of a gelatinous
mixture which is very elastic and permits the molder to ignore
most of the principles of molding, particularly in releasing under-
cuts on the pattern; the mold is distorted to draw the pattern
and the elasticity causes it to return to its true position again
when the pattern is free. This also happens when the plaster
casting is taken from the mold so that the same mold can be
used for making a number of castings.
The direct application of patterns is not required for what
is known as " die-casting
"
or the making of alloy castings in
machined metal molds, but the principles of molding are care-
fully observed in constructing the molds in order that the cast-
ings may be removed without damage. The making of concrete
garden furniture and similar objects is effected by means with
which all patternmakers and molders are familiar, as the wooden
molds in which they are formed are similar to core-boxes and
circular bodies are frequently formed by the use of a spindle and

sweep.
Patterns are ^constructed of a number of materials chief
among which are metal, plaster, and wood, and the patternmaker
isdesignated according to the material of construction used
and is known either as a metal, plaster, or wood patternmaker.
Metal Patternmaker. The metal patternmaker is a ma-
chinist or toolmaker who has been trained in molding methods
and is skilled in brazing and soldering. He works in iron, brass,

steel, aluminum, and the softer alloys in constructing the smaller

 TYPES OF PATTERNS 3

patterns intended for multiple production by either hand or

machine molding. Many metal patterns are finished castings
" "
made from a wooden pattern called a master pattern
which is made with a double allowance for contraction and
machining to make up for the double casting and machining re-
quired to procure a finished casting. A metal pattern is often
made of a metal that differs from the casting metal; for example,
a pattern made of aluminum may be intended for something
that is to be cast in iron so that, in figuring the contraction
allowance, one aluminum and one iron contraction must be
added to the pattern dimensions.
Plaster Patternmaker. The plaster patternmaker is, in

reality, a modeler skilled in the

manipulation of plaster, clay,
wax, and other plastic compounds, usually with a litharge base.
His specialty is the ornamental work on columns used in building
work, gas fixture decorations, and much of the work that was
formerly done by the wood-carver. A great deal of this work
consists in making decorative castings in plaster and wax that
are used on wooden patterns; these are modeled first in clay and
from this a plaster mold is made for making the reproductions.
Wood Patternmaking. Wood patternmaking is the most
important branch of the trade and requires greater all-round
skill and technical knowledge than either metal or plaster work.

It consists largely of joiner work and in the use of joiners' tools

and machines, and also requires a knowledge of wood carving
and turning, but it cannot be considered a woodworking trade
in the same sense as cabinet-making or carpentry. A pattern is
not a finished product, but only a means of producing castings at
the minimum cost; and, for this reason, the wood patternmaker
is constantly required to exercise his judgment in determining
how much time to spend in making and finishing a given

pattern. He joins the pieces that form the pattern according to

the requirements in each case, and does not adhere to standard

joints, as does a carpenter or a cabinet-maker. Wood pattern-

making is divided into three specialized branches known as: (i)
Architectural or house patternmaking; (2) stove patternmaking;
and (3) machine patternmaking.
4 PATTERNMAKING

Architectural Patternmaker. The architectural or house

patternmaker constructs patterns for the castings used in house

or other building construction. Some of this work requires a
high degree of skill, but much of it is rough and does not call
for the same refinements in the way of accuracy or finish as are
demanded by machine work, and it is generally confined to a
comparatively few standard structural forms. Owing to the
increased use of steel in structural work, architectural pattern-

making does not occupy the important position it once held.

Stove Patternmaker. The stove patternmaker is a special-
ist who devotes his time entirely to those patterns used in
making stoves and furnaces. This work requires a high degree
of skill and accuracy. Stove patterns are usually light and are
built on wooden foundations or follow-boards that hold them
in shape while being assembled and afterward while being molded.

They are usually master patterns. The ornate work which

formerly embellished stove patterns requires a high degree of
skill in wood carving, but modern design has eliminated much of

this.

Machine Patternmaker. The machine patternmaker rep-

resents the highest development of the art; he must possess
unusual skill in building and finishing odd forms of every de-

scription, as machine design does not adhere to any large number

of standard forms. To be a successful machine patternmaker,
one must be expert in interpreting the ideas of the designer as
indicated by drawings or sketches, and he should be able to
visualize what is represented in order to see the finished job
at the start, and to wOrk from both his own and the molder's

point of view. The machine patternmaker should have a

thorough knowledge of mechanical drawing and applied geom-
etry, in order to lay out his work to 'the best advantage and
to supply those details of construction that the draftsman-is not

required to include on the drawing. It requires an 'intimate

knowledge of molder's working materials, appliances, and

methods as well as some knowledge of machine shop practice,
in order to determine the amount of finish to allow on different

parts and the means that should be provided 'for holding /the
 TYPES OF PATTERNS 5

casting while being machined. Good judgment and experience

are necessary in choosing the best method to make patterns
that may vary in size from the small pieces used in a typewriter
up to the enormous patterns such as are used for casting the

larger parts of presses designed to stamp automobile bodies

from sheet steel.
" "
Types of Patterns. The term type of pattern refers
to patterns designed to solve certain
molding problems resulting
from the external or internal form of the casting and is not
related to the number of pieces or form of joinery that enters
into the construction of the pattern. Types of patterns will
be used to illustrate the more common molding problems and
their conventional pattern shop solution. It must not be
inferred that the problem presented in each case is confined

exclusively to a particular type of pattern, as all of the problems

referred to could be embodied in a single pattern; they are pre-
sented one at a time to avoid confusion. The patterns selected
as types are simple ones and the descriptions are purposely
made brief, as the same types will be shown a number of times
in the more complicated forms to be referred to later; but a
careful study of the simpler types is essential if the principles
they represent are to be understood and recognized when they
occur in other forms. The ability to do this is necessary in deter-
mining the type or combination of types to use for a given job.
As this is not a treatise on molding, no effort will be made to
show the proper location of gates and runners or to explain the
intricacies of venting and other details of the foundryman's
art. There are unquestionably a number of alternate methods
of molding the examples shown, but these will be disregarded
except in cases where it would affect the parting of a pattern, or
in order to demonstrate in some cases that the alternate method
does not change the pattern parting.
A Solid or One-piece Pattern. A
pattern that is made to
be molded without joints, partings, or any loose pieces in its
" " " "
construction is called a solid or one-piece pattern. It

may be a complete model of the required casting or may be

partly cored. A simple one-piece pattern that is a complete
 PATTERNMAKING

model even to the central hole is shown in the mold in

Fig. i.
The draft or taper to facilitate its removal from the sand is
shown somewhat exaggerated, and the direction in which it is
to be drawn from the mold is indicated by the arrow; this taper
or draft on any pattern or loose part of a pattern should be made
with the larger part on the drawing side.
In molding this pattern, it is placed on a bottom or molding
board as at A with the larger side down, and the bottom or

MOLDING BOARD

MOLDING BOARD'
Machinery

Fig. 1. One-piece Pattern and Method of molding

" "
drag part of the flask is placed centrally over it; fine mold-
"
ing sand, called "facing sand, is then riddled over the surface
of the pattern and rammed tightly in and around it, and the
remainder of the drag filled with coarser sand which is rammed
flush with the top of the drag. A bottom board is next placed
on top of the drag which is then turned over, and the first board
removed, exposing the cope or larger side of the pattern. The
exposed side of the drag is now dusted with parting sand and
" "
the cope side of the flask is put in place and rammed with the
 TYPES OF PATTERNS 7

gate pin in position. Before the cope is lifted, the mold is vented
by making a number of perforations through the cope and drag
with a vent wire to facilitate the escape of gas and air when the
metal enters the mold.
When the cope has been removed, the molder moistens the
sand around the edges of the pattern with water applied with a
swab to strengthen the edges so that they will resist the rapping
and drawing strains. The rapping is accomplished .by driving
a pointed iron bar into the exposed face of the pattern and
striking this bar on all sides to loosen the pattern which is
drawn by the same means. The mold is finished by " sleeking "
the surface with trowel-shaped tools to remove loose sand and
make it firmer, and a sprue or runner is cut to connect the mold
with the opening made by the gate pin. This gate is enlarged
to a funnel shape on the top to permit free entry of the molten
metal. The gate, runner, and mold are coated with black lead
or other facing before the mold is finally closed for pouring.
The cope side of the pattern that is illustrated in Fig. i is a
straight line and the flask and mold partings are straight lines,
but not always the case; if the outer corners on the cope
this is

side were rounded, and a recess turned in the cope as at A,

Fig. 2, the pattern would be rammed in the drag in the same

manner as before, but the parting would have to be cut down
allaround the edge of the pattern to the place where the round
part begins, as indicated at A, in Fig. 2, the lines a indicating
" "
where the parting has been made. This is called coping down
and means that the mold parting is carried below the flask
parting to include some of the pattern in the cope. It is con-
stantly resorted to in molding patterns that have rounded
corners or cope sides of irregular form. If a recess comes within
a pattern with a flat cope, it can be included in the cope with-
out digging away the joint.
A more common, and perhaps more practical, method where
the round corner or part of pattern to be included in the cope is
continuous (that is, extends completely around the cope edge)
is shown at B, Fig. 2. Here the parting aa is made a straight
line by bedding to the parting line in the cope side of a flask or a
I K
8 PATTERNMAKING

specially prepared bed in the floor. The method of parting

makes no difference in the way the pattern is made.
The flasks in the examples illustrated are shown standing
on molding or bottom boards. These are commonly used for
small and medium-sized work, but are not an absolute necessity.

They are handy and in many cases save the labor of preparing a

Machinery

Fig. 2. (A) Parting cut down to meet Rounded Edge of Pattern.

(B) Pattern bedded to secure a Straight Parting Line

sand bed to mold on, but in localities where the cost of lumber
is prohibitively high, they are often dispensed with. Where it
is necessary to make a parting first, as at B, Fig. 2, the molding
board cannot be used.
Solid Patterns Arranged for Coring Holes. Examples of
solid patterns arranged for coring central holes are shown in the
molds at A and B, Fig. 3. These patterns, instead of being
 TYPES OF PATTERNS

complete models, have in place of the central holes a core-print

on the drag and cope sides to support the dry-sand core that is
made in a separate core-box. The core-prints for the cope side
have a large amount of taper, and the end of the core is tapered
to suit, so that, when the cope is put in place, it will center the
core without crushing the mold. These core-prints prevent
placing the pattern in an upright position on a solid molding
board, but this is overcome by boring a hole in the board for the

Machinery

Fig. 3. (A and B) Molds containing Patterns arranged for Coring Holes. (C and
D) Molds with Patterns withdrawn and Cores inserted

print or by making the prints with pins fitted to central holes,

which permits removing and replacing the print, or by bedding
the print in a sand bed. Sectional views of the molds after the
patterns have been withdrawn are illustrated at C and D, Fig. 3.
These views show the dry-sand cores in place. A core is used
atC because the hole is too small and long to leave its own core;
at D is chambered or larger at the center than at the
the hole
ends, and a core is necessary, as a pattern having a hole of

this shape through the center could not be withdrawn from

the mold.
10 PATTERNMAKING

The Parted or Two-piece Pattern. The simplest form of

parted pattern is the one made in two sections that are held in
their proper relative positions by means of dowel-pins fastened
in one piece and fitting holes bored in the other. A cylinder with
end flanges that prevent its being molded on end is a good illus-
tration of a parted pattern. Such a pattern is molded by placing
one half on a board or a prepared sand bed, with the drag side
of the flask over it, as shown at A, Fig. 4. After ramming, the

Machinery

Fig. 4. Method of molding a Parted or Two-piece Pattern

drag is turned over and the cope side of the flask and pattern is

placed in position for ramming, as shown at B.

The advantage two-piece pattern construction is
of this

that a straight joint is secured and it is not necessary to dig

away the parting and cope down to the center, as would be the
case were the pattern made solid. There is, however, another
"
way of molding a solid pattern of this type known as bedding
in." To do this, the flask is placed on the board with the joint
side up and is rammed full of sand; a cavity is then roughly
 TYPES OF PATTERNS II

dug in it large enough to receive the pattern up to the center or

parting line, as shown at A, Fig. 5, when it is ready for the cope.
Aside from the extra labor of making the joint, the cope side of
the flask must be lifted away from the pattern, while with the
parted pattern one half out with the cope and there is less
lifts

danger of damaging the mold.

Another method sometimes used to make the parting in
molding a solid cylinder pattern is shown at B, Fig. 5. The

Machinery

Fig. 5. (A) Solid Pattern molded by

" bedding in." (B) Another
Method of molding a Solid Pattern

pattern is placed on a board into which it fits up to the center

line, and the flask is placed over it. When the drag has been
rammed, it is turned over to make the cope.
Patterns too large to be molded in a flask or too heavy to
be turned over are always molded by bedding in, and they may
be parted even if the molding is done in this way. For example,
in column foundries, the patterns for round columns are parted
patterns and molded in flasks by bedding in to avoid turning
12 PATTERNMAKING

them over. These patterns are sometimes made so that the

end prints which carry the core project through openings in the
end of the flask that keep the pattern joint flush with the flask
joint. When molding a piece in the foundry floor by bedding
a level bed is prepared and this is
in, dug away to accommodate
the pattern. Another adaptation of the two-part idea in pattern
work occurs when there are projections on the cope that will
"
be difficult to lift away or cope off." To avoid damaging the

Machinery
"
Fig. 6. Three-part" Pattern molded in a Three-part Flask

mold, these projections are doweled to lift away with the cope,
and the pattern is said to have a loose cope side. If the cope
side is straight, it is a good plan to make all the projections
such as lugs, bosses, and prints to lift away.
The Three-part Pattern. A three-part pattern usually
consists of two pieces, but its form is such that it cannot be

drawn if made in a flask with but one parting, but must be

molded in a flask having three sections. The pattern shown in
Fig. 6, rammed up in a three-part flask, is a typical example.
The larger flange on this pattern was twenty-four inches in
diameter and was connected to the smaller flange by six ribs
 TYPES OF PATTERNS

radiating from the central column. The pattern parting was

on the This parting does not coincide with the flask
line aa.

parting and necessitates digging away some of the sand in the

"
cheek," or central section of the mold, which is rammed up
first in order to bed the smaller flange in it. The flask is dis-
jointed to release the pattern by lifting the cope away from the
tapered core-print and facing piece, and drawing the pattern
through the top of the cheek and then lifting the cheek away to
release the small flange which is partly in the cheek and partly

Machinery

Fig. 7. Pattern for Same Shape of Casting as Pattern shown in Fig. 6,

but of Different Construction

in the drag. A
smaller pattern of this same design might be
made as in Fig. 7, and by eliminating the round corner on the
smaller flange, the parting could be made on lines aa, but this
would not alter the parting as made in the pattern.
It is quite possible to mold some three-part patterns in a
two-part flask. An example is shown The molding
in Fig. 8.
isdone by ramming up the drag, turning it over, and digging the
joint away all around the pattern on the line marked a and using
a strickle to sweep a bed for the green-sand core that is to make
the V-groove in the pulley. Parting sand is then dusted over
 PATTERNMAKING

the bed or joint thus formed, the cope side of the pattern is put
in place,and the V-shaped green-sand core is formed as shown;
this core, in turn, is treated with parting sand and the cope

Machinery

Fig. 8. Three-part Pattern molded in a Two-part Flask

rammed up. By the cope, one half of the pattern may

lifting
be removed; the cope is then replaced, the mold turned over,
and the drag lifted to release the other half of the pattern.

Machinery

Fig. 9. Example of Molding illustrating Use of Covering Core

Another method of handling a job of this kind in a two-part

by the use of a covering core. The pattern shown in

flask is
the mold in Fig. 9 is an illustration. The covering core is made
 TYPES OF PATTERNS

to over the drag print and form the facing piece on the smaller
fit

flange. In molding, the drag is rammed up and a parting made

on line aa. The small flange is then drawn and the core slipped
over the drag print and the balance of the drag rammed up
when it is turned over to finish the cope.
Two other applications of the covering core are shown at
A and B, Fig. 10. A section of a small bed or baseplate is shown
at A with the top rail parted from the body of the pattern on
the lines aa. The faces of these rails are provided with core-

prints to carry the cake or covering cores. The method of

Machinery

Fig. 10. Other Examples of Molding illustrating Use of

Covering Cores

molding is about the same as that described for Fig. 8. If

the top of the rails were flush from end to end, the core-prints
could be dispensed with, but as they are usually depressed in
spots to form facing pieces and to avoid machining the entire
face, the prints are necessary to locate the cores which are made
in short lengths. The discharge pipe B, Fig. -10, is for a duplex
pump; itmolded partly in the floor and with a covering
is

core used to draw the flange which parts from the pattern on the
line a up through the cope. The covering core scheme is also
used to release a necked flange that projects from the side of a
pattern at right angles to the direction of the draw.
i6 PATTERNMAKING

Skeleton Patterns. Skeleton patterns are wooden frames

designed to aid the molder in forming a portion of the pattern
in sand or clay. The sand or clay is rammed inside the frame
and worked form by pieces of wood with suitably shaped edges
to
"
called strickles "; the act of working a surface to form with a
"
strickle is called strickling." A casting is shown at A, Fig.
n, and the skeleton pattern used to produce it, at B. The
pattern ribs are fastened to the bottom flange and to the rail at

Machinery

Fig. 11. (A) Casting. -(B) Skeleton Pattern. (C and D) Strickles

used with Skeleton Pattern

the top which also holds the boss with its core-print. The ribs
conform to the outline of the casting and represent a section of
it. The strickles C and D are used to form the outside and inside
of the frame when with sand. In molding, the frame is
it is filled

set on a sand bed with the flange down and is filled with
level
sand. The sand pattern is formed by strickling off the outside
with strickle C. A half flask is placed over it and the surface
of the sand pattern is dusted with parting sand. The flask is

then rammed up and lifted away, after which the surface of

 TYPES OF PATTERNS

the sand pattern is scraped away and strickle D is used to form

the inside or core before the frame is removed. This is a typical
job and should suggest other applications. One of the main
requisites of any strickled job is that there be good means for
keeping the strickle in the path in which it should travel.
Part Patterns. Part patterns are sections of a pattern so
arranged as to form a complete mold by being moved to form
each section of the mold. The movements of a part pattern are
guided either by following a line or by the use of a central pin

Machinery

Fig. 12. (A) Segment Pattern used for forming Wheel Rim Mold.
(B) Shell Pattern

or pivot. These patterns are generally applied to circular work,

such as rings, wheel rims, gears, etc. A part pattern in the
form of a segment guided from a center and used for forming
the outside of a wheel rim is shown at A, Fig. 12. Another
type of part pattern is the frames used for making plate castings.
Instead of a full pattern, a frame two or three inches wide is
made, conforming in thickness and outside dimensions to the
required casting. This is molded by bedding in and the sand
in the open part of the frame is swept away with a strickle.
Part cores, too, are commonly used where long cores of the same
cross-section are required. Instead of making one long core
 i8 PATTERNMAKING
a box to make a short length is constructed and a sufficient
number of these placed end to end to give the required length.
Shell Patterns. The shell pattern is used largely for

drainage fittings and pipe work. A typical example is shown

at B, Fig. 12. The pattern usually made of metal and parted
is

along the center line, the two sections being accurately doweled

+L

Machinery

Fig. 13. Method of molding Bends or Fittings which are cast in Pairs

together. These short bends are usually molded and cast in

pairs. One half of each pattern is laid on a molding board;
A and B Fig. 13, are the patterns, and C and
y
are prints D
having the shape of the core in cross-section. They are fixed
to the molding board E and locate the patterns as they project
inside them. The drag half of the box F is now laid on and after
 TYPES OF PATTERNS

sieving on facing sand, floor sand is filled in and rammed. The

box is nowrolled over and the board E removed, leaving recesses
in the mold where the prints C and D were. The insides of the
half patterns and the recesses are now filled and rammed to
form the core, a suitable core iron for supporting purposes being
bedded in. A piece of twine is laid alongside for venting pur-
poses at the same time. This is withdrawn after the core is

completed, leaving a vent hole. The top halves of the patterns

are now given a swab of water inside in order to hold the sand
when they are turned over, and are then filled with sand and
rammed firm. They are next turned over and jointed to their
neighbors in the mold, being rapped close in the joints with a

Machinery

Fig. 14. Forming Mold with a Spindle and Sweep

mallet to joint the core, just as is usually done with a core-box.

The parts above the prints C and D
in the drag have now to be
made up and the core firmed in at the ends of the top halves of
the patterns. The top part is now put on and rammed up, then
parted. As a rule the top halves of the patterns are lifted with
the box. The core is now lifted out and set on nearby stools.
The broad pieces at the ends of the core-iron are for resting on,
also for lifting, as those cores are never turned over. The patterns
are next drawn, the gates cut, and the mold finished. Then the
core is put back in position, resting in the recesses left by C and
D. The mold is now
and made ready for casting.
closed
Spindle and Sweep Work. This is a method of forming
circular molds by revolving a sweep attached to a spindle, the

edges of the sweep forming the mold. The spindle is fitted to

20 PATTERNMAKING

a flange that embedded in the floor while the upper end is

is

supported by an arm that is fastened to a wall or convenient

column. The spindle is adjusted by means of a plumb-bob and
the sweep with a spirit level. The arm to which the sweep is
bolted is kept in position on the spindle by means of a collar

provided with a set-screw. Molds may be formed in part or

completely by this method and, when so formed, are said to be
"
swept up." This method may be applied to green-sand, dry-
sand or loam work; it is illustrated in Fig. 14, and may be
applied to cores as well as to molds.
" "
Patterns Molded with Drawbacks. Drawbacks are
iron plates inserted in a mold to carry under-cutting projec-
tions that cannot be drawn into the mold, or they may be integral
LOOSE PIECES

LOOSE COPE

Fig. 15. Pattern having Loose Pieces which are removed from
Mold separately

parts of the pattern itself. They are called drawbacks because

an open space is left back of them into which they are drawn
with the portion of the mold they carry. They are used fre-

quently on jobs molded in the foundry floor or in dry-sand work

in flasks.
Patterns with Loose Pieces. Many patterns are of such
shape that the projecting parts form under-cuts which prevent
their being drawn with the main body of the pattern. These
under-cuts may come in the cope, drag, or cheek of a mold, or
they maybe under-cutting projections on loose pieces, and the
pieces forming them should be fastened in place with loose
" 9'
This permits the
dowels or skewers, as they are called.
 TYPES OF PATTERNS 21

freeing of the pattern by the removal of the skewers, the loose

pieces remaining in the mold when the pattern is drawn and,
in turn, being drawninto the cavity left by the pattern. The

pattern A, Fig. 15, has loose pieces in both cope and drag, and
the mold sections at B
show how they are drawn; this is called
"
picking in." When the cavity is smaller than the piece to be

picked in, it is made in two or more pieces, each being picked

in separately. In order to pick in projections on the sides of
large boxes or beds that leave their own cores, it is customary to
ram the inside up on an iron plate provided with eyebolts for
the purpose of lifting the core away to release the projecting

parts. To avoid picking in or using drawbacks, projections on

castings are often formed by making the projecting part in a
core-box, placing the core against the pattern in its proper place,
and ramming them up together; or a core-print may be pro-
vided to set the core after the pattern is molded. Trunnions and
hinge lugs on boxes are often formed in this ways.
Core-prints. The projections placed on patterns to locate
"
or support cores are of four general types known as cope and
" "
drag prints," joint or parting prints," balancing prints," and
"
tail, heel, or drop prints." Cope and drag prints are so called
because they are placed on the cope and drag side of a pattern.
The cope-print should be made with considerable draft, as the
cope must be lowered over the end. There is no rule fixing the
length of core-prints. Up to three inches in diameter, the length
of a drag print might be made equal to its diameter and the
corresponding cope-print, one half the diameter. The larger
the core and the greater the bearing surface, the shorter the
print. The small core requires a long print for supporting it,
while a print is used only as a means to locate a large core, and,

in such a case, a cope-print would be superfluous. Many large

flat cores are located in the mold entirelyby measurement.
Joint or parting prints may be solid or parted in the same way
as the pattern, depending entirely upon whether the cored

opening is above, below, or central with the parting. They

are used to support the ends of cores that cut through the sides
of the mold.
22 PATTERNMAKING

Balancing Core-prints. When a core is supported at one

end only and extends a considerable distance into the body of
the casting, it should be made long enough to balance the weight
of the unsupported end as shown at A, Fig. 16; or if a long print
is not practicable, the print used is sometimes enlarged at the

end to give greater weight to the core and so balance the un-
supported end. These methods can be applied only within
reasonable limits. It would be of no use to attempt to balance

LOOSE BOSS

Machinery

Fig. 16. (A) Core which balances Unsupported End. (B, C, D, and E) Examples
illustrating Use of Tail-prints. (F) Section of Mold formed by Pattern E, with
Core in Place

a core with a print five or six feet long. In such a case, the un-
supported end must be held up by chaplets. When an opening
cuts through one side wall above or below the parting, the
print may be made loose and be picked in. The core-print in
this case should be long enough to balance the overhanging end
of the core.

Tail, Heel, or Drop Tail prints are used when an

Prints.

opening is to be cored above or below a parting. They may be

of any size or shape and should be made with plenty of side
 TYPES OF PATTERNS 23

taper or draft. The casting B, Fig. 16, has a projecting piece

or lug on one side through which an opening is cored. A
portion
of the pattern for this casting with the tail prints in place is
shown on an enlarged scale at D. The stopping-off piece C
isa duplicate of the projection or lug up to the center line of
the hole and is cut out to fit over the core. After the pattern
has been drawn and the core set or put in position, the stopping-
off piece is dropped into place and the void left by the tail print

is filled Another condition requiring somewhat

in over the core.
shown at E. The lug has a projection or
different treatment is
boss on one side that must be made loose and picked in. It
would be inconvenient to put a tail print on the boss side on
account of the rib there; therefore, a particularly long one is
placed on the plain This print must be a trifle longer than
side.

the length of the hole to be cored plus a fair amount of bearing

or supporting surface. The view at F shows a section of the
mold with the core in place. Tail prints can be made in a core-

box, but this usually makes an unsightly mark on the casting

that is avoided by stopping off.
When some doubt exists as to the best method of molding
a pattern, the molder or foundryman should be consulted,

particularly if the job is a large one, as the rigging and appliances

he has on hand will be a factor in determining how the pattern
should be molded.

2 K
 CHAPTER II

HAND OR BENCH TOOLS USED IN PATTERNMAKING

THE employed in patternmaking do not differ from
tools
those used by other woodworkers, excepting the special tools
that the particular needs of the trade have developed. In
order to successfully work different forms to accurate shapes
and dimensions, the patternmaker must excel in the skillful use
of a large number of tools. The principal types which are ma-
nipulated by hand are described and illustrated in this chapter.
The Jack-plane. The jack-planes A and B, Fig. i, are
used for rough-planing and for removing considerable amounts
of stock. The plane-iron or bit C should be ground rounding,
so that the shaving removed will be much thicker in the center
than at the edges. The cap should be set back so as not to
interfere with the cutting edge. (The purpose of the cap is

explained the paragraph on the block-plane.) Jack-

later in

planes are from 14 to 16 inches in length; a jack-planed surface

will present a series of shallow parallel grooves or waves.
The Fore-plane or Jointer. The fore-plane or jointer Z),

Fig. i, is used for making plane surfaces and straight edges.

The range in length is from 18 to 28 inches. The iron or bit
should be ground perfectly straight along the cutting edge,
except that it is tapered a little at each end to prevent the
corners from cutting. The plane cap should be set close to
the cutting edge for fine work.
The End- wood Plane. The plane used by the pattern-
maker for end-wood planing, E, Fig. i, is designated in cata-
"
logues as a jack-plane." It is 14 inches long and sharpened
in the same manner as the fore-plane.
The Block-plane. Theblock-plane is designed for plan-
ing end wood, but is rather small for the long end-wood edges
24
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS

that a patternmaker is frequently called upon to true up, but

it is nevertheless a handy tool for pattern work. The planes
already described are fitted with what are known as "double
irons," consisting of a cutting bit and a cap fastened to it by
a screw. The object of the cap is to break the fibers in long

shavings and have them come from the plane curling instead
of in a stiff piece. The block-plane, being designed to cut the
fibers of the wood crosswise, would not make a shaving and is,
"
therefore, fitted with what is called a single iron." The cut-

Fig. 1. Different Types of Planes used by Patternmakers

ting angle in a block-plane is lower than in the other planes,

and the iron is set with the ground or angled side upward.
The Rabbet-plane. The rabbet plane is used for planing
rabbets, dadoes, etc.; it differs from other planes in that the
iron or bit runs completely across the face. The wooden rabbet-

plane A, Fig. 2, may be procured with either a straight or skew

iron; the skew iron is inclined so that the cutting edge is at
an angle, which is an advantage in planing across the face, as
it gives a shearing cut. The
a rabbet-plane is measured
size of

by the width of the face, and the wooden ones may be had in
26 PATTERNMAKING

Fig. 2. Other Forms of Planing Tools

widths from \ to 2 inches, advancing by quarters. Iron planes

with straight bits are shown at B and C. The plane shown at
B is a popular tool with patternmakers because it is a con-
venient size; it may be obtained in f-, i-, and if-inch sizes.

Style C may be had in widths of i-, ij-, and i|-inch.

 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS
The Router. The routers D, E, and F, Fig. 2, are used for
smoothing the faces of panels and depressed surfaces. This
type of plane has a body with a bit that can be adjusted to
cut at different depths below the face of the body. Plane isD
provided with a screw adjustment to regulate the depth of cut,
but planes E
and F are, perhaps, better adapted to pattern
work, as they are lighter and less clumsy than D. Two counter-
sunk screw-holes should be drilled through the plane body for

c\

Fig. 3. Paring Chisels and Gouges

fastening to a wooden face, in order to increase the span. The

router is a handy tool for cutting dadoes in stock that is not

straight across the grain, as it makes the dado the same depth
all the way across, whereas the rabbet-plane cuts in a straight
line from side to side. When provided with a curved wooden
be used to smooth the bottom of depres-
1

face, the router may

sions or recesses cut across a half-round core-box.
28 PATTERNMAKING
The Circular Plane. The
is made with acircular plane
both convex and concave
flexible steel face that is adjustable to

surfaces, and is used for finishing them. Two styles are shown
atG and H
Fig. 2; both have if -inch adjustable bits.
y

The ParingChisel. The paring chisel is a long thin chisel

designed for patternmakers' use. They may be procured in

MIDDLE SWEEP % TO 2 INCHES

FLAT SWEEP M TO 2 INCHES REGULAR SWEEP % TO 2 INCHES

" " "

Fig. 4. Flat," Middle," and Regular Sweeps for Patternmaker's
Paring Gouges

widths varying from | to 2 inches, and with either squared or

beveled edges, or with straight or offset tangs, as illustrated at
A and J5, Fig. 3. the patternmaker's principal tool, and
This is

it requires long
practice to develop skill in its use. A chisel i|
inch in width and preferably one with beveled edges is the
most convenient size for general use, and should always be kept
on the bench. The patternmaker does not, as a rule, cut right
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 29

to his lay-out lines with a saw, but leaves about rV inch and
works the surplus stock back to the lines either with a chisel
or a gouge. Wherever possible, the lay-out lines are placed on
both sides of the piece to be formed, and the general practice is
to cut to these lines, as shown in Fig. 5,and then pare across
from side to side, testing for straightness with a straightedge.

Fig. 5. Use of Paring Chisel on Part having Lay-out Lines

on Both Sides

Even if the piece worked with a plane, it is first

is to be
cut to the lay-out lines with a chisel or gouge, and the edge
darkened with a lead pencil as a guide to prevent cutting below
the lines. There are two general methods of using the chisel.

Figure 6 shows how it is held in paring a shoulder on a half-

lapped corner joint, and this same method is used always in
cutting when there are lay-out lines on but one side of the
piece. The chisel should be given a sliding movement as it is

pressed downward in order to make a shearing cut. When

 PATTERNMAKING

there are lay-out lines on both sides and the piece may be held
in the vise, it is used as shown in Fig. 5. In this case, the shear-
ing cut cannot be attained by a side movement, so that the
chisel is held at an angle while being pushed straight across
the piece. This gives the same result, but if a broad flat sur-

Fig. 6. Paring a Shoulder on a Half-lapped Corner Joint

face was being finished, the shearing cut would be the result
of a sidewise movement.
The Paring Gouge. The paring gouge
C, Fig. 3, is a com-
panion to the paring chisel. These gouges are made long and
thin 'and in widths varying from J to 2 inches, and in three
" "
sweeps known as "flat," middle," and regular" (see Fig. 4).
They are ground on the inner or concaved side and are called
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS
" "
inside-groundgouges. Like the chisels, they may be had
with either straight or offset tangs or shanks. The advantage
of this offset in the tang of a chisel or gouge is that a piece wider
or longer than the tool may be pared from one side or from the

Fig. 7. Cutting a Fillet with a Paring Gouge having an Offset Tang

end (see Fig. 7). The offset prevents the hand or handle of
the tool from coming in contact with the work. This type of
gouge is most convenient in roughing and finishing half-round
core-boxes. The paring gouge is used in the same manner
as the chisel, except that the shearing cut in cross-grain work
is secured by slightly revolving the gouge. Paring tools should
 PATTERNMAKING

not be used with a mallet or hammer as they are not designed

for this work and are apt to snap off.

The Outside-ground Gouge. The outside- ground gouge

is shorter and heavier than the paring gouge. It is ground on

Fig. 8. Three Forms of Carving Tools

the outside or convex side. These gouges are made in different

widths and sweeps and are used for roughing and finishing
places that the paring gouges will not reach. Being heavier, they
may be used with a mallet without fear of damage to the tool.

Fig. 9. A Few of the Shapes or Sweeps for Carving Tools

Carving Tools. Carving tools are manufactured in an

almost endless variety of widths and sweeps. Those com-
monly used by the patternmaker are known as "straight,"
" "
long-bend," and short-bend" tools (see Fig. 8). A few of
the sweeps that may be procured in the different bends are
shown in Fig. 9. A number of different sweeps of each style
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 33

are usually found in the patternmaker's kit. They are used

for carving parts of patterns and core-boxes that cannot be
worked with the ordinary chisels and gouges. Figure 10 shows

Fig. 10. Method of forming Fillet in Chambered Section of Core-

box with Short-bend Carving Tool

how the fillet in the chambered section of a core-box is worked

out with a short-bend carving tool.

The Bit-brace. The bit-brace is used for boring, drilling,

countersinking, and for driving and removing screws. There

are two styles, the ratchet brace A, Fig. n, and the plain brace
B. The size of a brace is determined by the diameter of the
circle described by the throw of the crank. The chuck is usually
made to hold a square-shanked tool, although some braces are
fitted with a chuck to hold both square and round shanks.
The ratchet brace be adjusted to turn the chuck either
may
to the right or left while the crankis turned through a
part of
a revolution, and the chuck will remain stationary while the
crank is turned back to its original position. The advantage
34 PATTERNMAKING

of this is obvious when boring holes or driving or removing

screws in a position where the brace cannot be turned continu-

ously with a full circular motion.

The Hand and Automatic Drills. The hand drill C, Fig.
n, is used for light
drilling. The chuck is usually made to
accommodate round straight-shanked drills.
The automatic drill D is a hand tool for very light work.
It operates by pressing downward on the handle. A spring

Fig. 11. (A and B) Ratchet and Plain Bit-braces. (C) Hand Drill.
(D) Automatic Drill

causes the handle to return to its original position while a ratchet

arrangement releases the chuck.

Auger Bits. Auger bits A, Fig. 12, are used for the finer
and more accurate kinds of pattern work. They come in sets
or may be purchased separately, the sizes ranging from TS to
i inch,
varying by sixteenths. The sizes stamped on the shank
are the numerators of a fraction the denominator of which is

16; thus an auger bit marked 8 is ^

inch in diameter. The
central screw feeds or draws this bit ahead when it is turned
and the lips remove the stock between the screw and the two
spurs that cut the circle.
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 35

Bit File. The bit file shown at B is designed for sharpen-

ing auger bits. cutting and shape adapts it to
Its peculiar

filing the inside of the spurs and the edge of the lips. The

spurs should always project below the lips and the bit should
never be filed on the outside, but the roughness should be re-

moved by laying it on a straight oilstone and revolving.

Fig. 12. Various Forms of Bits

Modified Gimlet Bit. The bit C is a twist bit somewhat

similar to the old gimlet bit, except that it has not a threaded
end. It is used for drilling screw-holes, and the numbers marked

on the squared shank usually indicate thirty-seconds of an inch.

The Center Bit. The center bit D is an excellent bit for
boring holes in thin stock, as it has a triangular center instead
of a screw, and is not apt to split the stock. The bits are made
in sizes varying from J to 2\ inches, but are not very accurate
as to size.
 PATTERNMAKING

The Forstner Bit. The Forstner bit E bores a hole with

a flat bottom; adapted for some pat-
for this reason, it is well

ternmaking operations, such as boring out depressions to re-

ceive rapping plates or making recesses that are to be finished
with the router plane.
The Expansion Bit. The expansion bit F has an adjust-
able spur and lip designed to bore holes of different sizes. They
are made in two sizes; the smaller boring holes from J to i^

Fig. 13. Boring and Countersinking Tools

inch, and the larger, from J to 3 inches. Each size is provided

with two cutters to give this range of sizes. Cutters may be
procured for these bits to bore holes up to 5 inches in diameter,
but 3 inches is about the limit for hand boring.
Bit-stock Drills. Bit-stock-drills A, Fig. 13, are stand-
ard twist drills made with a square shank to fit a hand brace.
They are made in sizes ranging from rV to i^ inch, and their
chief advantage is that they are not easily damaged by con-
tact with nails or screws.
The Pod or Spoon Bit. The pod or spoon bit B is used
chiefly for boring holes for screws. It does not make an accu-
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 37

rately sized hole, but does bore without splitting. They are
made in sizes of from -fs to f inch, advancing by sixteenths.

Countersink Bits. Countersink bits are used to bevel the

corners of screw-holes to fit the beveled under side of the screw-
heads. Two styles are illustrated at C and D\ C is a rose
countersink, and Dis called a "snail."

Bit Stop. The bit stop shown at E and F, Fig. 13, is a device
to stop a bit from boring when a depth has been reached.
definite
The same result may be achieved by boring a hole through a
block of wood and permitting the bit to project the desired

Fig. 14. Back-saw and Key-hole Saw

depth. The depth that an auger bit will cut can be determined
quite accurately by counting the number of turns and allowing
re inch for each turn, as this is about the pitch of the feed-screw.
Hand Saws. With the exception of the back-saw A Fig. ,

14, the patternmaker in a modern shop has, or should have,

but little use for the hand cross-cut or rip saw. The key-hole
saw B is frequently found handy in places where the power
saw cannot be used. When using a saw (whether a hand or
power) it is well to bear in mind that it has thickness, and in
making joints this thickness or width of saw cut should fall in

the waste or that .portion of the stock that is to be cut away to

form the joint. The cut should be made at the line on the
waste side and not through the line or on the wrong side.
 PATTERNMAKING

Patternmakers' Hammers. Every patternmaker should

have a medium-weight claw hammer in addition to the ham-
mer shown in Fig. 15, which is designed to meet the require-
ments of the trade. The long slender end is used for driving

Fig. 15. Patternmaker's Hammer

Fig. 16. Oilstones of Different Cross-sectional Shape

nails in and reaching corners that cannot be reached

fillets

with the ordinary hammer.

Sharpening Bench Tools. For sharpening or honing
bench tools, oilstones of different cross-sectional shape are
used. Those that are rectangular or circular in shape, as at
A and B, Fig. 16, are called "oilstones" and those of special
form, as at C, D, , etc., are called "slip stones" or "slips,"
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 39

although, as a matter of fact, they are all oilstones. Oilstones

are of two general kinds; manufactured stones which may be
had in many degrees of coarseness or fineness, and a great
variety of forms, and the natural stones of which no two are
ever exactly alike. Of the natural stones, the Washita, which
is suitable for ordinary tools, and the Arkansas, which is better
adapted to the tools requiring a very fine edge, are the best
known. The manufactured stone has almost entirely sup-
planted the natural stone as it is more reliable as far as even-
ness of grit, etc., are concerned and not so easily broken by falls
from the bench.
Oilstones should be kept clean and lubricated with kerosene
oil when honing tools, in order to float the particles of steel
cut from the tool and prevent them from being ground into

Fig. 17. Method of sharpening Chisels or Plane Bits

the honing face. The faces of a stone that are meant to be

straight should be kept in that condition by being trued up

occasionally on a piece of emery cloth or other abrasive. In
sharpening chisels or plane bits, the tool should be held on
the stone with the ground edge flat, as at A, Fig. 17, and be

pushed back and forth either in a straight line or with a slight

side movement to the right and left in order to cover the entire

stone; the tool must not be rocked, however, as the idea is to

preserve the angle and keep it as straight as possible. To re-
move the burr, the tool is laid flat on the stone, as at B, and is
rubbed back and forth. Some mechanics like to hone tools
with a rotary movement and, for this reason, prefer the cir-

cular stone.
All tools, after being honed, should be stropped to bring
3K
 PATTERNMAKING

the edge to the finest possible degree of keenness. piece of A

clean leather belting will be found suitable for this purpose.
The inside- and outside-ground gouges and most of the carving
tools can be honed best with the slip stones. To sharpen the
inside -ground gouge, it is grasped by the handle with the left

hand and back down, at an angle on the corner of the

rested,
bench while the slip is rubbed back and forth on the edge;
another way is to fasten the slip in the vise with the rounded
edge and hone the gouge in the same manner as a chisel, re-
moving the burr on the oilstone. Gouges ground on the out-
side can be honed on the oilstone, but this has a tendency to

Fig. 18. Patternmaker's Vise and Bench Hook

cut ruts in the stone so that it is better to use a slip in the same
manner as when honing a turning
gouge. round-edge slipA
willhave to be used in order to remove the burr. The angle
given for the cutting edges of chisels, gouges, and plane bits is
from 25 to 30 degrees, but patternmakers prefer long bevels
and usually give them all they will stand.
The Bench and Vise. The bench used by a patternmaker
should be substantially constructed, high enough to be com-
fortable, and should be provided with drawers to hold small
tools.The bench should be fitted with a good vise, there being
a number of styles from which to select. The quick-acting
type is handy but is more apt to get out of order, so that care
must be exercised to select one of good quality. One design
of vise suitable for the pattern shop is shown at A, Fig. 18.
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS
The bench hook B, Fig. 18, is used for holding small pieces
and to protect the bench while they are being sawed or chiseled.
It should be made hard wood (preferably maple) and its
of

place is on the opposite end of the bench from the vise.

Pinch-dogs. Pinch-dogs shown at A, Fig. 19, are used
largely where hand screws or clamps will not do. They are
made in different sizes, the size being determined by the dis-

AS A REGULAR HAND ONE JAW OVERLAPPING

SCREW THE OTHER

IN POSITION FOR BEVELED WORK

c

Fig. 19. (A) Pinch-dogs. (B and C) Hand Screws

tance from point to point measured on the legs. The common

sizes are f, ij, 2, 2$, and 3 inches. The outsides of the legs
are parallel and all the taper is on theThis is what
inside.
" "
causes them to pinch when driven two adjoining pieces.
into
Hand Screws. Fig. 19 shows two types of hand screws.
The standard hand screw (B) has been in use for years; the
length of the jaws varies from 4 to 21 inches, increasing by 2
inches from one size to the next, with jaw openings varying from
o to 15 inches. Hand screw C is a patented device with pivoted
 PATTERNMAKING

metal screws, which permit it to clamp surfaces that are not

parallel. Hand screws should be adjusted to the pieces to be
clamped before the glue is applied.
Bar Clamps. For comparatively wide plates and large
pieces, the bar clamps, Fig. 20, are used. These have a ca-
pacity up to 8 feet or more. Clamp A has a wooden bar and

Fig. 20. Bar Clamps

B and C are metal-bar clamps. They are equally effective, how-

ever, as the wooden bar, being wider, will stand up, which is

an advantage; this defect in the metal bar may be overcome

by using stock with notches cut in it to take the thin part of
the bar and hold it in an upright position. Hand-screwing the

pieces between two straightedges keeps the bars from squeezing

the pieces out of a straight line.

Wedge Clamps. Sometimes the surface to be clamped is

too wide or long for clamps; then the patternmaker will have
to improvise clamps to overcome the difficulty. Wedge clamps
squeeze by wedging (see Fig. 21). Clamp A is made by fasten-
ing cross pieces at each end of the bar; one of these is square
 HAND OR BENCH TOOLS 43

with the sides while the other is tapered to suit the wedge.
Clamp B is sawed from solid stock and is suitable for
light work.
Distance Marking Gage. The distance marking gage A ,

Fig. 22, is used to gage lines on edges that are not square, or

-Hf

u LL _!

L .,. I

Fig. 21. Wedge Clamps

Fig. 22. Distance Marking Gage

for scribing over-raised projections. Sketches and C illus- B

trate two applications of the gage. This gage is simple; the stock
is made of hard wood with a hole for the dowel-pin beam, and
round umbrella wire may be used for a scriber. The beam
and scriber, held by friction, should fit the holes tightly.
 CHAPTER III

PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY AND ITS OPERATION

THE modern pattern shop is equipped with several different

types of power-driven machine tools, the number and variety
being governed principally by the size of the shop and the num-
ber of patterns constructed. These woodworking machines
not only make it possible to do work rapidly, but accurately.
They include power-driven saws of the circular and band types,

jointers, and surfacers for planing true surfaces on lumber and

various pieces which enter into the construction of patterns,
the sanding machines for producing smooth surfaces, the disk
sander, or grinder, for finishing edges, etc., especially in stave
and segment work, the lathe for turning parts of circular cross-
section and other types of machines designed for mechanical

operation. Regardless of the number of machines in use, it

should be the particular duty of someone to see that they are
kept in good condition for the work they are expected to do
and that all possible danger points in connection with their
operation have been carefully safeguarded.
The Circular Saw Bench. The circular saw is one of the
more important machines used in pattern work for ripping,
cross-cut sawing, grooving, and numerous other operations. A
"
popular machine for this work is what is known as a com-
bination saw bench" (see Fig. i). It is provided with both

rip- and cross-cut saws, either of which may be brought into

action by turning the handwheel A without stopping the saw;
this handwheel also regulates the height the saw will project
through the table, and it may be locked by means of a thumb-
nut on the side of the table. The table B may be tilted at any
angle from o to 45 degrees, by means of the handwheel C, and
the angle is shown by a pointer F and suitable graduations.
44
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 45

The fence D used for ripping and may be

(see also Fig. 2) is

clamped at any distance from the saw by means of a clamping

screw; when the fence is set in this way, and still needs further
adjusting, the screw E, which will give a movement of about
one inch, is used; this also may be locked after the final adjust-
ment. The fence is also arranged to tilt to angles from o to

Fig. 1. Combination Saw Bench

45 degrees for sawing beveled edges on narrow pieces. A slide

is used in
cross-cutting pieces to length. This slide (which
may be seen at G, Fig. 2) supports the stock and serves as a

gage for cutting to different lengths or at an angle. The slide

has a tongue which engages groove H
in the table, and, when

cutting off stock, the latter is held against the supporting side
of the slide, which is pushed along the table to carry the stock

past the saw. The slide can be set at an angle so that, in com-
46 PATTERNMAKING

bination with a tilted table, compound angles may be sawed.

The slide is also fitted to receive rods of different lengths with
a sliding stop that can be clamped at any point in the length
of the rod and is used for cutting pieces to length.
Common Causes of Circular Saw Accidents. There are
four possible danger points that should be guarded against in

Fig. 2. Proper Position of Hands when pushing Work past Saw

operating a circular saw. The liability of accidents to the

hands while working from the front of the saw table has been
minimized through the use of properly designed guards, but
these must be removed for certain work, and the danger still

exists, although in a lesser degree. The most effective safe-

guard against this

danger to keep the saws sharp and well
is

set, as most of the cutting accidents are due to a slipping of the

hands (and sometimes the feet) while trying to push a piece
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 47

of stock against a dull or improperly set saw. As little of the

saw as possible should be exposed; it should project above
the table only far enough to cut through the stock. Reaching
over the saw while it is exposed and in motion is a second source
of danger. Loose pieces can be more safely brushed out of
the way by going to the rear of the saw table, and if they are
small and lie near the saw, a stick should be used for the pur-

pose. Accidents due to pieces coming in contact with the

back of the saw and being thrown toward the operator may be
avoided by keeping the table clear at all times, and never using
it to pile the stock on after sawing.

The most common form of accident is caused by what are

called "kickbacks"; the stock in passing through the saw
sticks and is thrown back against the operator with great force
and unfortunately, in many instances, with fatal results. The
tendency to "kickback" is reduced if the saw is in good order,
but the stock will sometimes close in on the saw as it goes
through and bind; if it shows a tendency to do this at the
beginning of the cut it should be carefully drawn back and
the cut started over to enlarge the kerf or path left by the saw;
it may be necessary to reverse the piece and start the cut from

the other end. Long pieces will often run clear for about half
the length and then begin to bind; this is overcome by having
someone drive a wedge in the kerf some distance beyond the
saw to open it. If the back part of the fence is set closer to the
saw than the front, this will cause the stock to wedge and bind.
The remedy is, of course, to readjust the fence so that the front
part is a little nearer and the back part a little further away
from the saw.
Operating the Circular Saw. The circular saw should
always be operated from the front with the operator standing
as close as possible to the bench. When ripping, the operator
should stand slightly to the left of the line of the saw with the
righthand placed on the stock opposite a point between the
saw and the fence and the left hand at a point outside of the
saw or holding the piece at the left-hand edge, as illustrated in
Fig. 2. The right hand should never be passed between the
48. PATTERNMAKING

saw and the fence unless there is plenty of room; if the

space is
small, a stick with a notch cut in the end should be used to
push the stock through. In ripping long pieces, one should
have help to start the cut and to pull the stock through at the
end. The piece should not be pushed against the saw by bringing

Machinery

Fig. 3. (A) Use of Saw. (B and C) Sawing

Jig in Connection with Circular
Shoulders. (D) Sawing Narrow Pieces to Length

the stomach or any other part of the body against the end of the
board; the operator should stand on the left-hand side facing
the saw and grasp both edges of the board in his hands.
When making grooves for splines, the saw should be set
above the table the desired depth and the first cut made in
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 49
each piece with the face side against the fence, before the second
cut, which should be to the exact width, is made. Both cuts
should be made from the face side, although it is permissible
to work from each side, if the stock is known to be
exactly
parallel, but the former is the better way. The stock left

Fig. 4. The Band Saw

between the two cuts may be removed with a chisel or by mak-

ing additional saw cuts.

Jigs may be used in connection with the circular saw for

making a number of duplicate straight-sided pieces. As an
illustration, the jig A, Fig. 3, is used for making wedged-shaped
pieces, and the same idea can be applied to a number of other
forms. The cross-cut saw is used for squaring ends, for cut-
 PATTERNMAKING

ting to length, and for cutting shoulders for half-lap and other
forms of joints. In cutting shoulders, the stock should first
be squared on one end and cut to length; the slide is used in
connection with the fence to bring the shoulder cut the cor-
rect distance from the end, as illustrated at B, Fig. 3.

By moving the stock away from the fence, a number of cuts

can be made (see sketch C) which will give a good
pare line to
to. they will have to be cut
If the shoulders are for tenons,
from each face and the material should be of equal thickness.
In cross-cutting wide pieces to length, one end should first be
squared and the stop on the slide set to the required length.
Narrow pieces may be sawed to length by placing a block
against the fence, as at Z), the distance from the block to the

Speeds of Circular Saws for Wood

saw being the required length. It is unsafe, however, to at-

tempt to do this by putting the end of the piece against the
fence, as the tendency is to turn the piece that is cut off, causing
it to bind between the saw and fence and to be thrown back.

Speed of Circular Saws. The speed of saws is measured by

the cutting speed of the teeth in feet per minute; for circular
"
saws, this is about 9000 feet. The accompanying table Speed
of Circular Saws for Wood" gives the number of revolutions

per minute for saws varying from 8 to 72 inches in diameter.

The Band Saw. The band saw, Fig. 4, consists of a frame
carrying two wheels over which runs an endless saw. The
size of the machine is determined by the diameter of these

wheels and is known as a 32-inch or a 36-inch, accordingly.

 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY

Above and below the through which the saw

slot in the table

runs are two guides, the upper one of which, A, may be seen;
these are to support the back of the saw and to keep it from

running out of line sideways. The upper guide may be moved

up or down to suit different thicknesses of stock, and the table
B is arranged to tip at any angle from o to 45 degrees for saw-
ing draft or tapers. It is shown set at an angle in the illus-

tration, handwheel C being used for this angular adjustment.

Machinery

Fig. 5. Example illustrating Use of Jig on Band Saw

To accommodate saws of different lengths, the distance be-

tween the centers of the wheels may be changed by means of
the handwheel D, and the tension of the saw is kept constant
by a counterweight which hangs in the frame and takes up the
variations in lengths caused by changes in temperature or the

heating of the saw. The saws used for pattern work range
in width from f to i inch, although the wider saws are used
only on the heavier work or for cutting up stock. The band
saw is used for all kinds of curved and combinations of straight
 PATTERNMAKING

and curved sawing on the outside, both square and beveled,

and it is even economical at times to break a saw and braze it
through a ring that is to have a great deal of sawing on the
inside. Many patterns can be made entirely on the band
saw and all cutting should be as close as possible to the lines,
in order to reduce hand
finishing to a minimum. When saws
are changed, be necessary to tilt the upper wheel slightly
it may
(by means of screw E) in order to make the saw track properly.
Jigs and holders can be devised for sawing a great variety
of pieces that ordinarily would take a long time to lay out and

Machinery

Fig. 6. Another Example of Jig Work on Band Saw

finish if means were employed. The pattern of a strainer
other
basket flange, shown at A, Fig. 5, is a good example. The
outside of this pattern was cut to form with the jig B, and the
other lines were gaged from the outside with no further lay-out.
The piece was held between the two sections of the jig and, by
sawing to the circle x (see plan view), the required form for the
outside of the pattern was obtained. The blades on pattern A,

Fig. 6, are another example of band saw and jig work. These
blades were cut to fit against the hub while held in a jig as at B.
The Jointer. The jointer, Fig. 7, is used for truing sur-
faces, squaring edges, and a number of other operations that
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 53

will be The machine is composed of a back and

illustrated.

front table, A
and B, both of which are movable, and a cir-
cular cutter-head located at C which carries the knives or cut-
ters which are straight and set equidistant from the center of
the cutter-head at all points. The back table is set so that the
top of the table is just tangent with the cutting edges and is

Fig. 7. The Jointer

locked in this position and never disturbed except for readjust-

ing. The front table is moved in a plane parallel to that of
the back table by means of the handwheel D, and this move-
ment what regulates the depth of cut. The fence E is ad-
is

justable and may be clamped at any point in the width of the

table and it is used for squaring edges or planing them at an

angle. This angular adjustment is obtained by turning hand-

54 PATTERNMAKING

wheel F. In planing a surface, the piece is laid on the back

table, the palms of both hands are placed upon it, and it is
rocked to note the high spots. It should be balanced on these

UTTER-HEAD

Machinery

Fig. 8. Different Methods of using the Jointer

while being pushed across the knives, as the idea is to cut down
the high places; if the stock is thin, care should be taken not
to spring it by pressing too hard. In squaring edges, the fence
should first be tested with a try-square to see that it is square
with the table, and the edge of the stock is passed over the
knives with the face pressed tightly against the fence.
Arabbet of limited depth may be cut by setting the fence
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 55

back from the table edge and passing the stock over the knives
with a portion of it overhanging the table edge, as illustrated
at A, Fig. 8. Tenons may also be cut by setting a stop to

regulate the distance they will extend from the end and setting
the front table down the depth of the cut, as at B. If a deep
cut is required, it is advisable to divide it into two or three
cuts. To
taper wide pieces from edge to edge or in a cross-
wise direction, the fence is set from the edge of the table a

Fig. 9. Single Surfacer, which is the Type used for Pattern Work

distance equal to half the width of the board and the front
table is regulated to make a cut one-half as deep as the desired

taper, as at C. The fence is then moved over to take the full

width of the board which is held on the table as shown at D.
Lengthwise tapers are made by clamping a stop on the front
table to fix the point where the taper is to start, and setting
the front table down below the back one an amount equal to
4K
 PATTERNMAKING

the taper, as at E. If the taper is not to extend the full length,

a stop may be fixed on the back table.

The Sur facer. Thesurfacer or thickness planer is used
to dress opposite sides of lumber parallel and to the required
thickness. In the pattern shop, this machine is used in com-
bination with the jointer; one face is first trued on the jointer
and then the board is reduced to the required thickness on the

Machinery

Fig. 10. (A and B) Methods of planing Boards tapering on a Surfacer. (C) Method
of planing Triangular Fillet Stock. (D) Use of Jig Block for Cutting Pieces
of Uniform Length on Trimmer

surfacer. Surfacers are either single or double, depending upon

whether they dress one or both sides of the stock at a single
operation. The type used for pattern work is the single
surfacer

shown in Fig. 9, consisting of a frame carrying a cutter-head set

between a bed A, provided with rollers and
feed-rolls over

capable of being raised or lowered by means of the

handwheel B,
to accommodate different thicknesses of lumber. The distance
between the knives and the bed rollers is indicated by a scale
and pointer, at C, located just below the adjusting handwheel.
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 57

By means of a taper board, stock

be planed tapering
may
from edge to edge, as illustrated at A, Fig. 10. To make the
taper board, a piece of stock of the required width is prepared
and a and about ^ inch
strip equal in thickness to the taper
wide is bradded along one edge(see sketch B)\ the taper is
then planed by passing the piece through the surfacer and tak-
ing a series of light cuts. Wood fillet stock may be dressed to

Fig. 11. Trimming Machine used for Squaring Ends, Fitting

Segments, and Cutting Miters

uniform section, after two edges have been squared on the

jointer, by means of a board provided with a V-groove as
at C.
The Trimmer. The trimmer or trimming machine, Fig. n,
isa hand-operated machine used for squaring ends, fitting seg-
ments, and cutting miters. It consists of a bed or base with
an adjustable fence at each end and is provided with two knives
 PATTERNMAKING

located in a plane at right angles to the base. The knives are

moved horizontally by means of a lever on the smaller sizes
and a spoked wheel on the larger sizes, which are geared. Jig
blocks can be used in connection with the trimmer in great

variety; a suggestion of the possibilities along this line is the

block used for cutting a number of short pieces to uniform
length, as illustrated at D, Fig. 10.

Fig. 12. Jig Saw used for Inside Sawing that cannot be done
on the Band Saw

The Jig Saw. The jig saw, Fig. 12, is used for inside
sawing that cannot be done on the band saw. A high-class
machine of this type, if kept in good condition, is capable of
good work, but, generally speaking, they do rough work and
are very disagreeable machines to operate. The cut is started

by inserting the saw through a bored hole. The particular

machine illustrated has a spindle for boring this hole.
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 59

Sanding Machines. There are four types of sanding

machines used in the woodworking industries, two of which
are particularly suited to finishing pattern work. The belt
sander, consisting of a traveling belt, and the revolving cylin-
der sander are designed for finishing large surfaces in cabinet
shops where a smooth finish is more desirable than an accurate

Fig. 13. Finishing a Cylindrical Part on a Disk Sander

surface. The revolving disk and the upright-roll sanders are

most desirable for pattern work as they can be adjusted to
perform the most accurate work and, when used in combina-
tion, all manner of curves, both concaved or convexed, may be

accurately finished.
The Disk Sander. The disk sander, Fig. 13, is a ma-
chine equipped with a revolving disk coated with an abrasive
6o PATTERNMAKING

paper and provided with a table for holding the work. This
tablemay be moved up and down and can be tilted to any
angle from o to 45 degrees; it is also fitted with gages for grind-

ing compound angles, making duplicate pieces, and a circle-

generating gage for finishing circular pieces of different radii.

The disk sander may be used for much circular work which
is turned in the lathe and also for many operations for which
the trimmer and jointer are used. Figure 13 illustrates the

Fig. 14. Finishing the Edges of Sector-shaped Pieces on a

Disk Sander

use of the sander for finishing a cylindrical part. Another

typical operation is shown in Fig. 14, which illustrates how
the edges of sector-shaped pieces are finished. The use of the
protractor or "square gage" is shown in Fig. 15. This gage is
graduated from o to 45 degrees in either direction, so that, by
using these graduations in conjunction with those for the tilting
table, any combination of angles may readily be obtained. A
double angle being ground on the end of the piece illustrated.
is

Attachments are sometimes used in conjunction with disk sanders

for grinding the teeth of gear patterns to the correct form.
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 6l

The speed of the disk at the rim should be about 7000 feet
per minute. The sandpaper may be fastened to the disk by
means of belt grease. The stick of grease is held against the
surface of the revolving disk and the sandpaper is applied
before the grease hardens; this method is rapid and permits

renewing the sanding surface at frequent intervals.

Fig. 15. Grinding End of Piece to a Double Angle on Disk Sander

A typical jig for use on a disk grinder in making large num-

bers of tail-prints is shown at A, Fig. 16. It consists of a piece
cut smaller than the print, an equal distance all around, and
provided with three spurs to hold the piece to be ground. The
prints are band-sawed a little over size and are placed on the
62 PATTERNMAKING

jig which held in contact with a raised stop fastened to the rest
is

in front of the disk, as at B. This type of jig may be readily

applied to a number of forms. The lathe may be used as a
disk grinder (if a machine designed especially for this work is

not available) by fitting a suitable disk to the threaded end

of the live spindle and placing a rest on the bed for holding
the work.
The Roll Sander. The roll sander consists of a substan-
tialmetal bench with a stationary level top provided with
an adjustable throat or opening through which projects the

Machinery

Fig. 16. Jig for Finishing Duplicate Parts on a Disk Sander

spindle carrying the sanding roll. This is a metal roll covered

*
with abrasive paper, and it may be tilted for sanding, tapering
or conical work. The machine is adapted for both internal
and external work with either perpendicular or inclined faces.
Figure 17 shows the method of finishing an internal inclined
curve. This is typical of a class of work which is frequently
met with in almost every pattern shop, the piece shown being
the head of a core-box for an ordinary straight core. For

handling this work, the roll is tilted to an angle of 20 degrees

and the operator simply follows the line which has been laid
out on the work. By means of a regular screw, the speed
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY

may be varied from 2000 to 6000 revolutions per minute. The

rolls are 7 inches long and from 2 to 6 inches in diameter, and
the spindle carrying them has an up-and-down movement to

prevent the sanding material from cutting ridges in the work.

The Core-box Machine. The core-box machine is used
for finishing half-round core-boxes of any size up to the limit

Fig. 17. Roll Sander finishing One Section of a Core-box

of the machine. Loop-shaped adjustable cutters are used to

finish the boxes which are built up or roughed out in the usual
manner. Elbow and bend boxes are finished by means of an
adjustable arm swinging from a center.
Tool Grinders. A
fast-cutting grindstone should be in-
cluded in every pattern shop equipment for the rougher grind-
ing on turning tools, etc. The diameter should be about 3
feet and the face width about 4 inches. The stone should be
 PATTERNMAKING

mounted a cast-iron frame and be provided with means for

in

supplying a constant stream of clean water. As an aid to the

rapid grinding of chisels and plane-irons, the rest shown at A
in Fig. 18, fitted to the rear of the grindstone frame,is very

effective. Without such a

rest, the chisel or plane must be
held on the stone near the top, as the stone turns toward the

operator, who stands in front holding the tool by the handle

Machinery

Fig. 18. Grindstone fitted with Rest for Grinding Chisels and Plane-irons or Bits

with his right hand while he steadies the edge with his left, so
that the angle ground will be straight. The position of a chisel
for grinding on top of the wheel is shown at B in the illustra-

tion. Whengrinding outside-ground gouges they are held

in

this position and slowly revolved. For grinding trimmer knives,

a block C is fastened to the front of the grindstone frame with
a raised strip to keep the angle right.
The face of a grindstone rapidly becomes rutted and un-
 PATTERN SHOP MACHINERY 65

true and it should be turned off occasionally. A piece of }-

inch pipe may be used and the stone should be run dry while
truing it. The inside-ground gouge should be ground on a
stone with a rounded face. Some grinders are fitted with these
stones or they may be placed on a mandrel and used in the
lathe. Another device used for this purpose is an emery cone
that is fastened to a screw chuck and used in connection with

Fig. 19. Sharpening Paring Chisel on an Oil Grinder

the T-rest; most of the oil grinders are equipped with these
cones. The oil grinder, Fig. 19, is provided with a coarse
wheel to take the place of the grindstone and a finer wheel
that is used in place of the bench oilstone. It is designed to
grind all kinds of bench tools as well as the cutters and knives
used in the machines.
66 PATTERNMAKING

Universal Wood Milling Machine. The wood milling ma-

chine is used for forming or finishing straight, curved, or irregu-
lar surfaces or edges on pattern work by means of revolving
cutters of various forms. The machine consists of a vertical
column fastened to a baseplate to which is also attached a
swiveling bed which may be revolved either by hand or power
feed. A table for holding the work has a longitudinal travel
on the bed as well as a cross-feed and an independent swiveling
movement, all controlled either by hand or power feed. A
horizontal arm with a vertical adjustment on the column carries
the cutter spindle which is attached to the end of the arm as a
part of an adjustable or swiveling head. All adjustable or
swiveling parts are graduated, either in inches and fractions of
an inch or in degrees, as required, and automatic stops are pro-
vided for all feeds. The spindle speed may be regulated to run
from 1250 to 5000 revolutions per minute.
This machine covers a wide range of work in forming and
routing on patterns and core-boxes of every description. With
suitable cutters, gear patterns can be quickly and accurately

produced.
Care
of Belts in Pattern Shop. Belts in a woodworking

shop should be cleaned of the accumulated dust every five or

six months by scraping with a wooden scraper and rubbing
them clean with a rag moistened in kerosene. To keep the
grain side of the belt soft and adherent, a dressing should be
applied consisting of two parts of beef tallow to one of cod-fiver
oil (by weight); the tallow is melted and allowed to cool until
a ringer may be inserted without injury; the cod-liver oil is
then added and the whole stirred until it is cool. This prepa-
ration should be applied lightly. Belts should always be placed
on the pulleys with the hair or grain side next to the pulley rims.
 CHAPTER IV

PATTERN JOINERY

THAT branch of patternmaking which may properly be

referred to as "joinery" includes, as the name implies, the
fitting and joining which enter into the con-
of different parts
struction of patterns and core-boxes. Various forms of joints
are used in connection with this work, and it is essential to
know how they are made, and also the advantages or disad-

vantages of each form. Joinery involves such work as plan-

ing straight edges on various parts which are to be assembled,
forming true or plane surfaces on the sides or "faces" of flat
stock, cutting grooves, mortises and dovetails, sawing, planing,
or trimming edges to angles, especially in connection with
stave and segment work, fitting parts to circular or irregular
forms, and many other operations of this general nature. The
joining of parts requires,
first, fitting and, second, fastening the

parts together by the different approved methods. This chap-

ter deals with the standard types of joints, the procedure in

making them, the different methods of attaching one part to

another, and includes general information on the art of fitting
and joining.
Working Face of a Board. The working face is the first
side of a board that is planed, and it is used as a starting point
for certain operations. The working edge is squared
basic
from this face, the thickness is gaged from it, and the width,
in turn, gaged from the working edge. The success of the
results of these operations willdepend entirely upon the accu-
racy or truth of the working face. The working face may be
tested by means of a single straightedge, by bringing it into
contact with every point on its surface. The straightedge is
compared with the surface both across and with the grain and
then diagonally from corner to corner, as indicated by the
67
 68 PATTERNMAKING

dotted lines shown at A, Fig. i. If no light shows between

the straightedge and the surface, then it is true. It is custom-

ary to chalk the straightedge when making this test, and to

rub the chalked edge back and forth at different points to note
where the stock should be removed.
Winding Strips. Winding strips are parallel straight-
edges also used to test working faces. They are so named from

'HIGH CORNER
Macnlnen

Fig. 1. (A)How to test Working Face of Board.

(B) Method of planing Working Face

the custom of speaking of a surface as being

of wind," according to whether it is straight or twisted. In
practice, the winding strips are set up on each end of the piece;
then, by sighting across from the top edge of the rear strip to
the top edge of the forward, strip, the high and low corners

may be noted. If the edges show parallel to each other, the

piece is out of wind.
Planing a Working Face. In planing a working face that
is in wind, the high corners should be noted and the stock re-
 PATTERN JOINERY 69

moved with a jack-plane. The

plane stroke should be on
first

the edge, either beginning or ending at a point near the longi-

tudinal center of the board. The next shaving should be some-
what shorter, and they should continue to decrease as the

planing proceeds towards the cross center of the piece, as at

B, Fig. i. When the wind has been removed, the planing is
finished with the fore-plane, the testing across the grain being
done with a chalked straightedge.
Cross-planing. Cross-planing is planing across the grain
to straighten the piece in that direction. The plane is not

pushed across at right angles to the grain, but at an angle of

about 45 degrees to make a shearing cut. Wide surfaces are

usually first planed in this way and finished by planing with

the grain.
The Working Edge. The working edge should be straight
and square with the working face. To test the edge for square-
ness, the try-square is held in the left hand and the inside of
the beam pressed tightly against the. working face while the
edge is compared to the inside edge of the square blade. The
square is drawn along the face and edge in this position to test
the edge at every point in its length.
The working edge can be tested for straightness by bring-

ing it in contact with some true surface, such as a planer bed,

or it may be compared edge to edge with a proved straightedge.
The edge of the bench top is sometimes kept true and used for
this purpose. The working face and edge should always be
marked with a pencil for identification.
Making a Straightedge. To make a straightedge when
there are no means at hand for testing it
by comparison, select

a nice dry piece of stock of suitable thickness, width, and length;

plane it on both faces and true up one edge on the power jointer.
Lay the piece on a smooth board somewhat longer than the
straightedge and, while holding it so that it cannot move, draw
a line on the board with a hard, sharp pencil, using the
straightened edge as a ruler; then turn the piece completely
over and note if the edge varies any from the pencil line; mark

such variations, and hand-plane with a fore- or jointer-plane

 PATTERNMAKING
until the straightedge rules a line that will match the edge
when it is turned over.
Shoot Chute Planing.
or "Shoot planing" means to
straighten the edges of thin stock by laying the pieces to be
planed on a piece of board to lift them above the bench while
the projecting edge is removed by a plane worked on its side.
A shoot board A, Fig. 2, is sometimes used for this purpose
and also for planing segment ends. The shoot board is some-
times made with a projecting piece on the bottom for fasten-

ing in a vise, as shown at B.

Machinery

Fig. 2. (A and B) The Shoot Board. (C and D) Fastening Joints with Screws.
(E) Plug Cutter

Gaging to Thickness and Width. Thicknesses are gaged

with the marking gage. The gage should be set so that the
distance to be gaged is the distance from the inside of the spur
to the head and not the distance from the point to the head.
Wide surfaces are gaged to width with the panel gage.

Squaring Ends. One end of a piece should be squared

with the working edge and face before it is cut to length. To
prevent breaking the corner when planing the end wood, it is
customary to clip a piece from the corner opposite the working
edge. For this reason, it is a good plan to plane pieces to
length before planing them to width. If the width is planed
 PATTERN JOINERY 71

first, the end planing will have to be done from each edge meet-

ing in the center.

Fastening Joints with Screws. Before two pieces are
united with a screw, a hole should be bored through one of
them with a brace and bit, as at C, Fig. 2. This hole, which
must be large enough for the screw to slip through, is called
"
a pilot hole." To accommodate the beveled underside of
the screw-head, the hole is milled out with the countersink.
The angle of the milling surface on a countersink for wood-
screws should be 41 degrees. Many of the commercial counter-
sinks do not have this angle and are, therefore, not the best
for the purpose.
Counterbored Screw-holes. A counterbored screw-hole
(see sketchD, Fig. 2) is employed when it is desirable to hide
the screw-head or when the screw is not long enough to reach

through the piece to be fastened. A hole is first bored with an

auger bit somewhat larger than the diameter of the screw-head
and the pilot hole is then bored in the center made by the auger.
To regulate the depth of the counterbore, a bit stop is used
(see "Bit Stop," page 37). To hide the counterbore hole, a plug
is driven Counterbore plugs are usually cut with a plug
in.

cutter E, Fig. 2. These cutters are made either for use in the
lathe or in a bit-brace, and in sizes of from | to f inch, advancing

by sixteenths of an inch. The usual practice is to make a stock

of plugs about | inch long. To do this, the cutter is driven
in J inch from each face of a piece of ij-inch stock, cutting as

many circles in each face as possible. The stock is then ripped

on the power saw \ inch thick from each face, which releases
the plugs. It is preferable to use stock not more than 3 or 4
inches wide for this purpose.

Joints for Light Framework. Light frames formed of

narrow members may be joined where the member connects
in a number of ways. The butt-joint A, Fig. 3, is the simplest
form, although it has but little strength, even when properly
glued. can be greatly strengthened by the use of corru-
It

gated fasteners. If the frame is thick enough, this joint can

be improved by doweling.
SK
 PATTERNMAKING

The Checked Joint. The checked joint B, Fig. 3, may be

screwed or nailed from the edge which gives it an advantage
over the butt-joint. Corner fillets can also be provided for in
this form of fastening.
The Half-lapped Joint. The half-lapped joint is the best
all-around fastening for light frames. There are three kinds
in general use; the corner or end lap C, Fig. 3, the cross lap D,

Machinery

Fig. 3. Different Forms of Joints used in Pattern Construction

and the center lap F\ the center lap is sometimes dovetailed

as at E. When fastened with glue and screws, it makes a very
should
strong joint. In making a half-lapped joint, the stock
be planed to width and thickness, and the face sides marked;
at A, Fig. 4, the face sides are marked /. The distance that
the pieces are to lap into each other is laid off with a sharp
knife, as illustrated at A A
lay-out line is on the face side
.

of one piece and on the opposite side of the other. These lines
should be squared halfway through the thickness on each edge.
 PATTERN JOINERY 73

The gage should be set to half the thickness of the stock and

the gaging done on the sides and ends from the face side. This
is most important as one line is gaged from the face from which

material is to be removed, and the other from the face that

is to remain intact, the lap being formed on the opposite face.

This method will make

the section that remains equal to the
section removed and bring the joint exactly flush on the face

regardless of whether or not the gage was set exactly to half

the thickness. In making all joints, it is good practice always

to gage from face sides, as this will bring one face of the joined
pieces flush, even if the stock is of varying thicknesses.
On the half-lapped type of joint, as well as on the tenon
half of a mortise-and-tenon joint, the part marked a (see sketch

Machinery

Fig. 4. Method of making the Half-lapped Joint

B, Fig. 4) is called the "face" or "flank" and the part 6, the

"shoulder." In making an end lap, the face cut should be
made first by placing the piece in a vise and cutting from the
end back to the shoulder line, leaving about re inch for par-

ing. The shoulder cut is then made, usually leaving about rg-
inch to pare back to the line; this paring is unnecessary, as
the shoulder may be cut perfectly with the back-saw. As a
guide for keeping the saw to the line, the lay-out line is deeply
scored with a sharp knife and a groove cut as shown in C. This
method is also followed in cutting shoulders on end rabbets or
dadoes. The waste material or that which is to be removed
is shown section-lined. When
removing the waste in making
a cross joint or one-half of a center-lap joint, the work can
be facilitated by making a series of saw cuts and removing the
74 PATTERNMAKING

waste with a chisel. The cutting is done from each edge to

the center, working to within yV inch of the gage line. If the
halving does not run completely across as in the case of the
dovetail at G, Fig. 3, the saw cuts can be made only from
the gage lines on the edge to those on the face; the excess stock
is then removed with a mallet and chisel. To insure an equal
depth, the bottom may be smoother with a router. When a
dovetail half-lap is to be made, the dovetailed filler should be
made first and used as a templet to lay out on the face the
part to be cut away.
The Mortise-and-tenon Joint. The mortise-and-tenon
joint is not in general use in pattern work, but it can be em-

Machincry

Fig. 5. Mortise-and-tenon Joint

ployed occasionally with good results. This joint may be

"
either "through" or blind." If through, the tenon fits a
mortise cut completely through the second member; if blind,
the tenon fits a mortise cut but part way through. The through
mortise-and-tenon joint shown at A, Fig. 5, is designed to come
in the center or some distance from the ends of the mortised

piece. Mortises and tenons for the ends of connecting pieces

are illustrated at B and C. The mortise at B does not extend
to the end the full depth, but is made about J inch deep adja-
cent to the end, and this is filled by a projection on the tenon
"
left for this purpose; this is called a "haunched" or relished"
mortise-and-tenon joint. Joint C is open right through to
 PATTERN JOINERY 75

the end and is called an "open" mortise-and-tenon or "slip"

joint.
A through mortise is laid out on both edges of the piece
and the cutting is done from each edge with a mallet and mor-
tising chisel, meeting in the center. If the mortise is very

large, it will be advisable first to bore a series of holes; but

if it does not exceed f inch and is to be cut in soft wood, a better

G Machinery

Fig. 6. (A) Splined or Feathered Frame Joint. (B) Butt-joint. (C) Rabbet Joint.
(D) Rabbet and Dado Joints. () Method of forming Fillets on Pieces
joined by Rabbet and Dado Joints. (F) Rabbet-Dado Joint. (G) Special
Rabbet-Dado Joint

and quicker job can be done without boring, providing the

mortise is laid out the exact width of the chisel that is to be
used. The open mortise may be sawed in from the end and
the piece taken out with a chisel. The making of the tenon

requires the same general operations as the half-lapped joint.

The Butt-joint. The butt-joint, previously referred to in
connection with Fig. 3, and also shown at B Fig. 6, is better t

adapted to deep frames and boxes than it is to thin work, be-

cause the joint can be secured with either nails or screws.
76 PATTERNMAKING

The Rabbet Joint. The rabbet joint C, Fig. 6, is a better

construction than the butt-joint, as the rabbet in the sides

prevents the ends from being pushed or rammed in. The

rabbet joint is laid out and the shoulder cut right to the line
with a back-saw. The stock is then roughed out with a chisel
and finished to the gage line on the ends and edge with the
rabbet plane. The finished end is shown at x (sketch D). The
circular saw is the usual means employed in making these joints.
The Dado Joint. The dado joint illustrated at y (sketch
D, Fig. 6) is used for securing the ends of ribs let in the sides
of boxes and frames. The dado joint should be laid out on

Machinery

Fig. 7. (A) Tongued-and-grooved Joint. (B) Splined or Feathered Joint

the face of the piece to be dadoed and squared on each edge

to the gage line indicating the depth. The back-saw is used to
cut to the lines and the stock between the cuts is removed to
within A inch of the gage line with a chisel. A rabbet plane or
router is used to finish the dado to depth.
The Rabbet-dado Joint. The rabbet-dado joint F, Fig. 6,
is sonamed because the side pieces are dadoed to receive the
ends. This is a very good joint for boxed construction and
is good inward or outward pressure.
for resisting A modifica-
tion of the rabbet-dado joint is shown at G.
The Tongued-and-grooved Joint. The tongued-and-grooved
joint A, Fig. 7, is
generally used on light plate work to hold it
straight, and for fortifying butt-joints between ribs, etc.
 PATTERN JOINERY 77

The Splined or Feathered Joint. The splined or feathered

joint B, Fig. 7, is used for the same purpose as the tongued-
and-grooved joint. A groove is made in each member to be
" "
joined and a separate piece, called a spline" or feather," is

fitted to the grooves. Both of the joints shown in Fig. 7 are

Machinery

Fig. 8. Dovetailed Joint

generally made with the circular saw. The splined or feathered

joint A, Fig. 6, is
very good framework of this general form.
for
It secures the connecting members, and corner fillets may be

provided for quite easily. The different members should be

carefully jointed and the grooves for the feathers cut on the
circular saw or with a grooving plane. To secure greater
strength, the grain in the spline should run across the joint.
The Dovetailed Joint. The dovetailed joint A, Fig. 8,
isused on the corners of light beds and open-sided boxes where
there is not much chance of fastening with nails or screws.
78 PATTERNMAKING

There are no fixed proportions used for laying out dovetails.

The tenons or pins and the spaces between them are very often
made equal except at the edges where the space x is usually one-

half the distance y, unless the spacing y is so small that the

mortise would be too weak at the base corners nearest the
edges or at x. In this case, the edge spacing should be in-
creased to give greater strength.
The angle of the sides of the tails or tenons should be from
10 to 12 degrees in order to obtain the best results, as greater

angles will weaken the mortise near the ends and it will be
apt to break when the tenons are forced home. In laying
out the lines on the stock, the depth line a (see sketch B, Fig. 8)
is squared completely around each piece to be joined, a sharp
lead pencil being used to make the lines. These lines should
be drawn a distance from the ends yV inch greater than the
thickness of the stock, so that the tenons and ends will project
that much when
the joint is finished. The lines representing
the wide faces b of the tenons are laid out and squared from
the ends with knife lines or gaged from the sides back to the

depth line.

The
angle lines c are laid out on the end with a knife and
bevel and the narrow faces of the tenons squared back to the

depth line on the opposite side of the stock. The depth line
is laid out onthe pieces to be joined, but the end bevels
all of

are laid out on one piece only, and these are transferred to a
second piece by clamping it to the laid-out piece, face to face,
and transferring the. lines with a bevel as at C. The tenons
are cut to the lines with a back-saw from the lay-out on the
ends back to the depth line, and the stock between them re-
moved with a by cutting from the depth line on each
chisel,

side, the chisel

being held at an angle so as to form an under-
cut at the center, as illustrated by section e-e. The stock at
the outer edges should be removed by cutting on the squared
lines with a back-saw. To lay out the mortises, the tenoned
piece is placed in position on the piece to be mortised, as at
Z), and the lines transferred with a knife or scriber. It is neces-

sary to lay them out only on one side, but they should be squared
 PATTERN JOINERY 79

across the ends as a guide for back-sawing to the depth line.

In making these cuts, the saw should be held to cut to the
lines on the lay-out and at a slight angle so that the mor-
side
tises will be a trifle smaller on the opposite side; this angle

may be gaged by the squared lines on the ends. A beveled-

edge chisel is used to remove the surplus stock, the cutting
being from the depth lines on each side and meeting to form
an undercut at the center in the same manner as for the tenons.
This undercutting is for clearance when the pieces are forced

Machinery

Fig. 9. Different Methods of forming Comer Fillets

together,and the taper on the mortises is to bring the joint

on the outside.
close together

Squaring Framework. Large frames should be squared by

measuring diagonally from corner to corner with a rod, and

moving the sides of the frame until the diagonals are equal.
Large box work should be squared in the same way and have
a batten nailed to the face to hold it square until the glue sets
or the corner fillets have been fastened in place. It is better
to use the steel square first and check with the rod.
8o PATTERNMAKING

Corner Fillets for Thin Framework. Corner fillets on thin

frames often be provided for as in the half-lapped frame
may
corner A, Fig. 9. It is not always economical to frame in this

way, particularly if the fillets are of large radii, in which case

they should be put in separately. Sometimes the fillets are
made of two pieces mitered at the corner as at B, or they may
be made in one piece and checked as at C. This latter method
isa good one as it does away with feather-edges. It will be noted
that the grain in these fillets runs in the same direction as the

grain of the frame. They are usually glued in place roughly

and worked to shape with a suitable paring gouge. They
should always be nailed, but care must be exercised to set the

Machinery

Fig. 10. Corners Strengthened by Use of Blocks or Reinforcing Strips

nail-heads so as not to damage the gouge. These corners are

sometimes made with the grain running lengthwise through the
depth or thickness, as at D. This makes a nice, but not very
durable, fillet, unless the frame is quite thick.
Joints Deep Frames and Boxes.
for The joints best
suited to deep frame and box constructions are the butt-, rab-

bet, dado, mortise-and-tenon, and dovetail joints. The half-

lapped joint is also suitable up to a depth of 3 inches, or even

more, if the members to be lapped are wide enough to give
a good gluing surface.
Hardwood Corners and Reinforcing. Hardwood is used
to strengthen corners and edges of pine patterns that will be

subjected to hard
usage in the
molding processes. The
strengthening pieces are usually fitted into rabbets cut in the
 PATTERN JOINERY 8l

pattern, and in the case of open boxes, the corners are very
often fastened to the sides and ends by means of the tongued-

and-grooved or splined joints. Ribs are frequently edged

with hardwood and the two outer courses of segments on the
rims of flywheels and pulleys are often strengthened in this
way. Corner blocks are used to strengthen the inside corners
of boxed work, as at A and J3, Fig. 10, and the outside corners
of core-boxes. They should be nailed as well as glued.

Open Joints. Open joints are used to permit of free ex-

pansion and contraction on wide surfaces. They are usually

Machinery

Fig. 11. Joints for Loose Pieces

put together with the joints open about A inch and are held

together by glued at intervals between joints.

short pieces
The tops and bottoms of large pistons are frequently made in
this way. Open joints are sometimes doweled.
Joints for Loose Pieces. Loose pieces that are to be left

in the mold with the drawing of the pattern are usually fastened
"
with loose dowel-pins called skewers," or with pins made
of wire or nails. The metal skewers are used on the smaller
work and the wooden pins on the large pieces. When first-

class work is required, a dovetail is cut and a piece to fit it

82 PATTERNMAKING

fastened to the back of the loose piece as illustrated by the

example at A, Fig. n. The dovetail should be laid out with

plenty of taper in the direction of the draw (see sketch B),
and the piece to fit it should be planed up about half an inch
longer and a trifle thicker than the depth of the dovetail from
the face to the bottom; this permits planing the dovetail piece
flush with the pattern faceand the additional length allows the
cutting off of stock at the bottom, in case the dovetail should
be cut a little big at the start. To cut the dovetail socket, a

II

FILLET FASTENED
TO COPE

Machinery

Fig. 12. (A) Block for Guiding Saw when cutting Dovetailed Sockets.
(B, C, and D) Examples of Fillets on Loose Pieces

back-saw is used, cutting as close to the line as possible and

as far as the lines will allow. The balance of the stock may
be removed and the socket finished with a chisel, or it may
be finished to depth with a router. The dovetail may be
chalked on the edges in fitting it to the socket. A good plan
on large dovetails is to cut a recess x on each side at the bottom,
to permit cleaning out the sand that collects in the corners.
Where dovetail sockets or dadoes are to be cut from side to
side of a piece, the use of a block A, Fig. 12, will be found a
great help in guiding the saw. It may be bradded to the face
 PATTERN JOINERY

of the work with the brads extending only far enough to hold
it securely.
Fillets To provide fillets on loose pieces
on Loose Pieces.
"
that are to be picked hi," or on a loose cope, is always bother-
some, because the fillets come to a feather edge and are easily
broken. To overcome this defect, the loose piece is gained
into the pattern to give the fillet a thicker and stronger edge

Machinery

Fig. 13. Patternmaker's Box used as a Foundation for Some Patterns

(as at Bj Fig. 12) and frequently this thick edge is used to

form a dovetail, as at C. The fillets on loose copes are made
by making the fillets part of the cope side of the pattern as at
D, which shows a loose rib with the fillets fastened to the cope
side of the pattern. The may be worked from the piece
fillets

fastened to the cope, but more frequently leather fillets are

used for this purpose.
Battens. Battens are wooden bars fastened across the
grain of wide pieces or patterns to hold them straight. Loose
84 PATTERNMAKING

core-boards are usually secured in this way, screws alone being

used to fasten the battens to the boards. The screw-holes
should be drilled rather large to permit the board to expand
and contract freely, and under no circumstances should the
battens be glued, as this prevents expansion and contraction
and results in a twisted or crooked board. Battens are some-
times applied to patterns, either to straighten or to hold them
straight; they are molded with the pattern and "stopped
" 1 '

off." (The expression stopped off means that the impres-

sion formed in the mold by the batten is filled in with sand

Machinery

Fig. 14. Illustrating Points on Joining Material for Gluing

by the molder.) In order that the battens mold cleanly, they

should be given plenty of draft on the sides and ends. In
order to indicate to the molder that the batten is to be stopped
off, the patternmaker marks it with broad stripes of a con-
trasting color or with stripes of chalk.
The Patternmaker's Box. The box construction may be
employed in making many patterns, especially if of regular
outlineand rectangular form. The patternmaker's box used
as the foundation for such patterns (see sketch A, Fig. 13) is

designed to bring as few pieces of end wood as possible into

contact with the sides exposed to the draw. The top and
bottom are fitted between the sides and ends so that there is
 PATTERN JOINERY

no danger of these members ever projecting over or falling

short of the sides through shrinkage or other causes. The box
may have rabbeted ends to support the top and bottom as at
B y
and is provided with a central rib for the same purpose.

Machinery

Fig. 15. Different Types of Glue Cookers

Extra pieces x are sometimes nailed and glued to the inside

of a box to form this rabbet, as illustrated at C.

Jointing Material for Gluing. When making joints which

are to be glued, care must be exercised to have the edges of
the pieces to be joined perfectly square so that, when fastened
together, the faces will present a straight line and not be hoi-
86 PATTERNMAKING
low or rounding when placed together, as at B, Fig. 14, and
tested with a straightedge. When planing the edges, it is a
good plan to test for squareness by squaring from the edge to
the face, as at A, as greater accuracy can be secured in this

way; a very slight error in squaring will be greatly increased

at the end of the square blade and be easily seen. Semicircular
pieces that are to be joined to form a full circle can be more
conveniently clamped together with hand screws, if a projec-
tion or lug is left on each end of both pieces, as at C. These
lugs are cut off after the glue has set.
Glue Cookers. Glue cookers are always of the double
boilertype to prevent burning the glue. These cookers range
from the simple container fitting into a larger vessel containing

Machinery

Fig. 16. Two Methods of building up Block for Forming Half-round Section

water and hanging over a gas jet, to the more elaborate steam-
and electrically-heated cookers. The steam cooker is the one
most generally used and these are of two general types; one
heats the water by means of a separate steam compartment
or jacket, and the other by mixing the steam directly with
the water. The first type is shown at A, Fig. 15; the heat
is regulated by raising or lowering the water container on the

steam ring. This cooker is suitable only for a small shop or

for individual use, as it contains but one pot. The cookers
shown at B are of the second class previously mentioned and
are madefrom one to sixteen pot capacity. The illustrations
in
show two methods of mixing the steam and water. The heat
is regulated by a valve at the steam inlet. An individual
electric heater is shown at C. These are of two types
also; one heats by direct contact of the heating disk with
 PATTERN JOINERY 87

the glue vessel, and the other heats water, as in the steam
cooker.

Gluing and Sizing. Surfaces that are to be joined by

gluing should be in contact all over and free from dust or

any-
thing that will interfere with the glue being pressed into the
pores of the wood. If large surfaces are to be glued, they
should first be warmed and the glue applied to both surfaces
quickly, and while very hot and rather thin. Thicker glue
may be used for smaller pieces or for uniting end wood, but
end grain should always be treated first with a coat of sizing
or thin glue, which is applied hot and allowed to dry before

attempting to unite the pieces. If time does not permit of

sizing in this way, glue should be applied to the end-wood sur-
faces and rubbed in with the finger tips. The glued surfaces
should be rubbed back and forth to force the glue into the
wood.
If the joining of the wood is perfect, the glue may be applied
and the pieces rubbed' together, and set aside to dry, with satis-
"
factory results. This is rubbed joint" and requires
called a

high-class joiner work to be successful, but frequently the

joining is imperfect or loss of valuable time would result in
waiting for joints to dry; therefore, means to hold and draw
the joint together must be employed. For small pieces, nails
and screws willdo very well; if the nails will be in the way
when the glue has dried, they may first be driven through
thin strips or blocks. These strips or blocks are easily re-

moved, leaving the nail-heads exposed for pulling.

Arranging Grain of Stock to be Glued. In gluing up stock
for large patterns or parts of patterns, the natural tendency
of lumber to warp in a certain direction and the finished form of
the pattern should be taken into consideration. A board under
normal conditions will warp toward the outside of the tree
from which it was cut. If two pieces or more are to be put to-

gether, they should be arranged so as to bring two outside or

two inside surfaces together, or if there are more than two
pieces, they could be arranged so that the warpage would be
in opposite directions. (See "Effects of Lumber Shrinkage"
6K
88 PATTERNMAKING
in Chapter XV.) The relation between the form and the
method of gluing is illustrated in Fig. 16. Cutting the piece
to the form shown laid out on the end would result in feather

edges the stock were arranged as at A, but if the material

if

were arranged as at B, this would be largely avoided. The

tendency of the lower face or joint to warp is also minimized
when the glued together as shown at B. Wide plates
stock is

composed of narrower pieces should also be arranged to mini-

mize the effects of warpage by reversing every other piece.
This method is illustrated at F, in the sketch accompanying
Chapter XV. Material is sometimes formed of three or more
layers glued with the grain crossed or running at right angles.
"
This is called laminating" and pieces so glued together are

Machinery

Fig. 17. Two Methods of inserting Dowel-pins

said to be "laminated." The objection to this plan is that

the shrinkage, being at right angles, has a tendency to pull
the pieces apart; to overcome this, the grains are sometimes

arranged to cross at an angle of 45 degrees.

Wood Dowels. So many patterns are parted that many
patented devices in the way of pins, sockets, etc., are in use
for locating and holding the parted pieces in proper relation to
one another. The metal dowels are superior to all others for

parted work, but the old birch dowel rod, on account of its
cheapness and the ease with which it may be applied, is still
largely used. These dowels are made of white birch, in three-
foot lengths, and come in bundles of 100.
The easiest way to dowel two pieces is to clamp them to-
gether and bore a suitable hole through one piece and part
way through the other, as at A, Fig. 17. A bit-stop may be
 PATTERN JOINERY

used to avoid boring too deeply. The pin through one side
is, however, some cases objectionable and the doweling will
in
have to be done from the joint, as at B. To do this, the two
pieces are clamped together with one side flush, and lines are
squared across where the dowels are to be. The two pieces
are then taken apart and these lines squared across both joints;

by gaging from the edges, the centers for boring the pin-holes
are accurately located. is not always possible to square
It
and gage but the centers can be very accu-
lines for centers,

rately located by making prick-marks with a scriber on the

Machinery

Fig. 18. Metal Dowels and Dowel-plates

joint where the pin centers are to be; then, by placing a piece
of bird-shot on each scriber mark, the centers may be trans-
ferred to the other half by placing it carefully on the bird-
shot and striking it a sharp blow with a hammer.
Pointing Wood Dowels. Wood dowels for use in parted
pieces should be tapered or pointed, as shown in Fig. 17, so
that the joined pieces will part freely. This taper may be
made with a chisel, but is more easily done on the disk grinder.
It should start about A
inch below the joint so that the pin
will fit the hole at the joint and prevent the joined pieces from
moving. Dowels for glued joints are not tapered, but should
be slightly chamfered at each end, so that they will enter the
holes easily. Wood dowels that are used to skewer loose parts
90 PATTERNMAKING

to a pattern should be chamfered on the entering ends, and the

projecting ends should be slightly flattened on each side so
that they may be easily removed. It is important that skewers
fitthe pin-holes rather loosely, as the sand and dampness will
otherwise cause them to stick. A file is, perhaps, the best
kind of a tool to use in reducing the diameter. The pin should
be laid on the bench top and revolved between the thumb
and forefinger while it is filed lengthwise.
Metal Dowels and Dowel-plates. Two styles of metal
dowels are shown at A and B, Fig. 18. These are made in
different sizes and are applied in the same manner as the wooden
dowels. Aside from the fact that they are of metal and do not
swell or shrink, they are inferior to wood, as they are easily
shifted from position. Two different styles of dowel-plates
that are in common use are shown at C and D. They are

comparatively easy to apply and are hard to move, which makes

them very desirable for the better class of pattern work. The
rectangular metal dowel-plates C have raised ridges around
the central hole and screw-holes that are used to locate the
plates and transfer the location to the other half of the pattern.
A depression must be cut into the joint of one-half the pattern,
to bring the plate flush, the socket side being fitted first. With
the socket fitted, the pin side is set in place and the other half
of the pattern is placed in position on it and struck a sharp

blow. The raised portions around the screw-holes on the back

of the pin side cut into the wood, which serves to locate the
pin side. Care should be taken in cutting the recess to receive
the socket side, as quite easy to move it from its proper
it is

position. A sharp-pointed knife is best for marking around

the plate for cutting the recess. The round dowel-plate is D
fitted in the same manner, although the centers may be laid
out as for wooden dowels and the circles drawn with a pair of

dividers. This is, perhaps, the best way where great accuracy
is required. The recess for the round dowel-plate should be
bored inside the circle and then cut to the line with a suitable
paring gouge, as it is almost impossible to make a bit run true
to a given circle when boring wood.
 PATTERN JOINERY

Doweled Joints. Another form of doweling has to do

with pieces that are not to be taken apart. In this case, the
dowels are used either to strengthen the joint or to keep the
faces of the adjoining pieces flush with each other. Dowels
are used in the joints of plates composed of a number of pieces,
and the joint is laid out in the following manner: After the
stock for the two pieces to be joined has been prepared and
the working faces and edges marked, the pieces are placed face
to face with the marked faces outward and with both working

edges up and securely clamped. The cross centers for the

pin-holes are gaged from both faces and the longitudinal centers
are laid off by squaring knife lines from either face.

JO] [oi

Machinery

Fig. 19. Use of Dowels to Strengthen Pieces that are cut away

Doweled Frames. Dowels areused to strengthen

also

pieces that are to be cut away, thus leaving weak spots between
openings as shown at A, Fig. 19. Dowels may also be used to
add stiffness to thin lugs as at B. In boring the dowel holes
in the plate A, the centers are laid off on each edge and the

holes are bored from each side, meeting in the center. The
same method is employed in boring the hole in the lug
at B. The chances of getting the hole through the center of

the piece are better if it is done in this way. Frames or

plates of the kind shown at A should be made in two pieces,
and the openings band-sawed before the pieces are finally
fastened.
 PATTERNMAKING

Working to Lay-out Lines. To secure the best results,

the lay-out lines on a piece of work should be sharply-cut knife,
scriber, or divider lines, and all center lines should be scored

deeply enough to be seen distinctly after the pattern is finished.

Pencil lines should never be used as working lines, except as a

guide in rounding corners, although a hard pencil sharpened

to a chisel point is necessary to darken the lines and make
them more visible.

In working to lines, the piece is first roughed by hand or

saw, somewhere near the line, and a sharp chisel or gouge is

Machinery

Fig. 20. Three Methods of providing Fillets

used to cut to the line at the edges. The slanting cut should
be from the working or lay-out lines on each side towards the
center of the piece which is to be formed. It is only neces-

sary then to work the piece straight across to finish it. In

order not to lose the line too quickly, it is customary to mark
the edges with a lead pencil. When using saws, it should be
determined what is to be waste material before beginning to

cut, and the saw cut should always be a part of the waste even
when cutting to a line. The gage spurs should be adjusted
to project about yV inch and be sharpened to cut a fine line.
Reducing the Amount of Hand Work. A great deal of
pattern work was formerly carved from solid pieces, but with
the introduction of woodworking machinery, this
precision
has been largely done away with, except on small work or where
it may be done to save time. The fillets on ribs, for example,
 PATTERN JOINERY 93

were formerly made a part of the rib as at A, Fig. 20, and the
surplus stock was laboriously worked off and the fillet cut by
hand. An improvement on this method was to form the fillet
on a separate piece, as at B, which allowed both rib and fillet
to be hand sawed; but with the advent of the leather fillet,
this method was superseded, as the rib could be made in one
piece and the fillet applied afterwards, as shown at C. These
three methods are employed at the present time, although, as

previously intimated, fillets are not worked from solid pieces

as much as they used to be; beeswax or metal fillets might also
be used in place of the leather fillet illustrated at C.

THICKNESS OF BAND SAW

B Machinery

Fig. 21. Example of Pattern Work on Band Saw

When planning work, the aim should be to save as much

hand work as possible, by utilizing the machines. Many
patterns can, for example, be made almost entirely on the
band saw and in a fraction of the time it would take to make
them by hand-manipulated tools. As an illustration, assume
that casting A, Fig. 21, requires a pattern. The outline of the
pattern is laid out on a block which is somewhat wider than
actually required, to allow for band-sawing and to keep in
one piece the waste w on which the outline of the hub and ribs
is scribed. The first saw cut is to the lines shown at B on the
side of the block. The waste piece w is then fastened tem-
porarily to d so that the lines shown at C may be used as a
94 PATTERNMAKING

guide when sawing part d. The block e which was removed

by the first saw cut is placed beneath d to hold it level while
sawing to lines C; the band-saw table is also tilted at a slight

angle to provide draft on the pattern. This method leaves

but little hand work to do, aside from rounding corners, put-
ting in the leather fillets, and sandpapering.
Working Parts to Shape before Assembling. Portions of
patterns that will be difficult to work to shape after the pat-
tern has been put together, should be laid out and cut as closely
as possible to the lines before gluing. Framework that is to
be shaped on the inside where it will be difficult to machine
afterassembly should be assembled for laying out and then
taken apart and sawed. Such work may be fastened with

Machinery

Fig. 22. Approved Method of fitting and constructing Bosses

screws or dogs while being laid out. Pieces that are to be

fitted in corners should be finished even to sandpapering before
being fastened in place.
Fitting to Cylindrical Forms. When fitting to cylindrical

pieces, the usual practice is to chalk cylindrical parts either

with white or colored chalk, and rub and cut the piece to be
fitted until it forms a tight joint. As far as possible, this fit-
ting should be done on the band saw, and if there is additional

fitting todo afterwards, a little chalk will help, but it is useless

to attempt to secure a perfect joint by rubbing and hand fit-

ting, because the leather fillet covers the joint. Another point
in this connection, that will save gluing large pieces when mak-
ing bosses, is to use the thickest lumber on hand and fit as far
as possible around the cylinder, as shown at A, Fig. 22, and
 PATTERN JOINERY 95

then fill in with one or more pieces after the boss or hub is
fastened. Another illustration of this method of fitting a boss

is shown at B.
Fitting Circular Boss to Cylindrical Form. Another ex-
ample of fitting to a cylindrical form is shown in Fig. 23, which
illustrates the method of fitting a circular boss or branch to a

cylindrical body (see sketch A). One way of doing this and
the best unless the boss is very small is to
perhaps way, lay
the boss out as at B, saw it on the band saw to fit the cylinder,
and then saw the boss to the required outline, using the waste

Machinery

Fig. 23. Method of fitting Circular Bosses to Cylindrical Form

piece x to hold the boss in the proper position on the saw table.
If the boss is small and it is thought desirable to work a fillet,

it may be turned as at Z), in which case it should be fitted with

a gouge and the fillet worked from the sides to meet the turned
fillet, as shown at C. In fitting one piece to another with a
gouge or round plane, the surface to which the part is being
fitted should be chalked and the piece rubbed on it to see where

the stock should be removed.

Fitting Turned Branches Bodies of Equal Diameter. -
to

Fitting turned branches in pipe work is a job frequently met

with and one that consumes a great deal of time if attempted
by the cut-and-try method. When the pieces to be fitted are of
96 PATTERNMAKING

equal diameters, it is only necessary to cut the branch at an

angle of 45 degrees each side of the center line as at A } Fig. 24,
and then cut to the lineproduced by this angle in order to
obtain a perfect fit. The branch may be fastened to an angle-
plate with one or two screws as at D, when sawing to the line
x which corresponds to the curvature of the other cylindrical
body; if the branch is small, a cradle C may be used to hold
it in position for band-sawing instead of an angle-plate.

:
<..]

Machinery

Fig. 24. Fitting Turned Branch to Body of Equal Diameter

Branches that are perpendicular to the plane of the parting

may be quickly fitted by this method. In this case, the branch
is made in halves and glued together after the two pieces have
been sawed. (See sketch B.)
Turned Branches to Bodies of Unequal Diameter. -
Fitting
When cylindrical parts to be fitted together are unequal of

diameters, the problem differs from the one previously referred

to. The method to be described is applicable to branches that
are either at right angles to the axis of the body or at some
 PATTERN JOINERY 97

other angle. A full-size lay-out, at least of that part to which

the piece is to be fitted, is made and the branch is placed in
position on this lay-out, as illustrated in Fig.
pair of 25. A
dividers or trammels the cylinder radius and then
is set to

with one point on the center line and the other touching the
branch, a curve is drawn. The dividers should be held so that
each point or "leg" is in a plane perpendicular to the surface
of the lay-out board. maintaining this position and sliding
By
one point along the center line while the other travels over the
surface of the branch, the curve or "fitting line" is developed.

Machinery

Fig. 25. Fitting Turned Branch to Body of Unequal Diameter

The center line on the lay-out should be made quite deep for
this purpose.

Fitting Branches by Use of Paper Patterns. Another

method of fitting branches is by the use of paper patterns on
which a developed line is laid out and then transferred to the
piece to be fitted. When the branch and body are cylindrical
and at right angles, a half circle drawn, as at A, Fig. 26,
is first

having a radius equal to that of the body, and another half

circle B represents the branch. Semicircle B is divided into
an equal number of parts designated in the illustration by the
numbers from o to 6. These points are projected to intersect
with half circle A. A piece of paper with a length x, equal to
98 PATTERNMAKING

the length from o to 6 on the circumference of the half circle

B, is tacked to the lay-out board and divided into a correspond-
ing number of equal parts. By projecting from the intersection
of the first set of lines with circle A to corresponding lines on
the paper, a series of points will be located which, when con-
nected by drawing a curved line through them, will give a
pattern or templet that may be used for laying out the branch
to be fitted.

Fitting Branches at an Angle. When the axes of the

branch and body are at an angle, it will be necessary to draw a

Machinery

Fig. 26. Fitting Branches by Use of Paper Patterns

plan showing that part of the pattern to which the branch

joins, as the points on the paper pattern are developed by pro-

jecting from the plan at right angles to the axis of the branch
(see Fig. 27). The method of developing the points on the
plan similar to the procedure described for a branch at right
is

angles. The length x of the templet is equal to the length

from o to 6 of the half circle as in the previous case. In such
cases,a templet which takes in the full circumference of the
branch will be required and the lay-out curve is developed by
applying the foregoing principles.
 PATTERN JOINERY 99

Fitting to a Sphere. If required to fit a branch to

it is

a spherical body, the branch placed on the lay-out and di-

is

viders or trammels are set to the radius of the spherical part;

a curve is then drawn on the branch which represents the line
of intersection between the branch and sphere. While drawing

Machinery

Fig. 27. Fitting Branch at an Angle by means of Paper Templet or Pattern

this curve, one point of the dividers or trammels is kept on

the center of the sphere lay-out while the other point is drawn
across the surface of the branch.

Fastening Long Projections to Patterns. Projecting pieces

such as core-prints or small cylinder feet, having but a slight
bearing surface, are rather difficult to fasten securely unless
100 PATTERNMAKING

they are the body of the pattern. Examples of how this

let into

difficulty is overcome are shown at A, B, and C, Fig. 28. Ex-

amples B and C are similar, except that in B the shouldered part
of the print is flattened and the check is worked with a router.

Fitting and Fastening Feet to Cylinders. Cylinder feet

that are to stand at right angles to the joint of a parted cylinder
can be most securely fastened by flattening a portion of the
cylinder square with the joint, and, if a fillet is to be worked

Machinery

Fig. 28. Fastening Long Projecting Parts to Pattern

on the foot, enough of the cylinder is cut away to provide space

for an extra piece out of which the fillet may be planed, as
shown at A, Fig. 29. If the foot is above the bottom of the
cylinder, as at B }
a rabbet is cut to receive it; the rabbet is

laid out on the ends and the lines gaged along the cylinder body
with a distance marking gage; the fillet, in this instance, is of
leather. As a guide in fitting to large flanged cylinders, it is
customary to fasten them to a lay-out board and nail two guides
or braces a (see sketch C) near each end to insure locating the
side of the foot in the right position, and square with the joint.
If the foot is to be connected to the cylinder by brackets, these
should be fitted and fastened before the guides are removed.
 PATTERN JOINERY IOI

Planning to Save Time. While work should be planned to

save time, economy in the use of materials should also be prac-
ticed, but should always be secondary to the time feature.
Work that is to be machined should be laid out so that the
machining can be done with one trip to the saw or planer, in-
stead of several, as is often the case, and when small pieces
are to be cut, the back-saw and bench hook will often be quicker
to use than a machine.
The work bench should always be kept clear of shavings
and chips, and if the top becomes out of true, through use or

Machinery

Fig. 29. Attaching Feet to Cylinder Patterns

other causes, it should be planed true again. No more tools

than those actually in use should ever be kept on the bench.
All the material for a job should, as far as possible, be cut at
one time, and what is not to be used immediately should be
set to one side to dry out. To do this effectively, it should be
stood on edge or piled cob-house fashion so that the air can
freely circulate around it.

Glue for Patterns. Glue is extensively used for uniting

the different parts in pattern work, and it comes in two forms
102 PATTERNMAKING

and many grades. The liquid or cold glue is very handy for

small work or in caseswhere the assembling must be done

slowly. It is slow setting and not as strong as the hot or cooked

glue that is in almost general use.

Cooked glue is an animal glue and comes in flake, sheet,
and pulverized form. A good quality of flake or sheet glue is
rather thin and of amber color. The pulverized form is quickly

prepared, but it is hard to determine the quality when it comes

this way, as the grinding changes the appearance, and it is an

easy matter to substitute inferior glue. Freshly cooked glue

is strongest, and with each successive heating and cooling its

strength becomes less; therefore, it is a good plan to gage the

Steel Wire Finishing Nails

amount required for each day's work as closely as possible,

and so manage to have fresh glue constantly on hand. When
the glue is of good quality, it may be drawn out into thin threads.
Nails and Brads. Nails or brads, as the smaller sizes are

usually called, are used in pattern work to reinforce glue joints

and to fasten the different parts of the pattern in place. The
steel wire nail used exclusively for this purpose. These
is
"
nails come in two styles known as the flat-head" nail and the
"
"bung-head" or finishing" nail; the latter form is used most,
as the head may be set below the face of the nailed piece (by
using a nail set) with little danger of splitting. Nails are desig-
nated by size, their length measured over all, and a gage num-
 PATTERN JOINERY 103

her. The sizes 2d, 3d, 4d, etc., are read

penny, 3 penny, and
2

4 penny. The terms formerly were used to indicate the weight

per thousand of the different sizes cut nail. Suitable sizes for
general pattern work are as follows: | and J inch, No. 20;
f inch, No. 19; f and | inch, No. 18; i inch, No. i6j; ij inches,
No. 15 J; i^ and if inches, No. 15; 2 inches, No. 13! 2\ inches, ;

No. 13; 2\ and 2\ inches, No. 125 and 3 inches, No. nf.
;

Wood-screws. Screws are used to fasten the different

joints in patternmaking and to hold parts that are to be taken

apart. The flat-head screw is the common form. The length
by which this type is known is measured from the point to the
top of the flat head. The thickness is designated by a gage
number and the higher numbers represent the thicker screws.
The screws ordinarily used for pattern work are as follows:
f inch, No. 8; i and i| inches, No. 10; i, ij, and i^ inches, No.
12; ij, if, 2, and 2\ inches, No. 14; and 2^, 3, 35, and 4 inches,
No. 1 6. The included angle of the beveled under side of a
wood-screw head is 82 degrees.
 CHAPTER V
STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK
WHEN a pattern or core-box is so large or of such a form
that it cannot be made economically from a solid piece, or
when such a method would result in a pattern of little strength
or excessive weight, it is customary to use one of three other
methods of construction. These three methods are known,
respectively, as (i) staved or lagged, (2) stepped, and (3) seg-
ment work. All three are frequently used in building the
different parts which, when assembled, form a complete pattern.
Staved or Lagged Work. Staved or lagged work consists
of fastening narrow pieces called "staves" or "lags" to foun-
dation pieces called "heads." The illustration at A, Fig. i,
shows the staves fastened to heads that are half a regular poly-
gon, the object being to make a cylinder or barrel that is to be
parted longitudinally through the center. This is the standard
method of building large cylindrical work that is to be finished
either by hand or by turning; it gives the maximum amount
of strength and permits building close to the finished outline
of the pattern so that there is comparatively little excess stock
to be removed to bring it to the required form. In building
pieces that are not cylindrical, the heads are frequently cut to
follow a line parallel to the finished outline of the pattern, so
that the staves, when fastened in place, will closely approxi-
mate this outline. An example is shown at B, Fig. i. To do
this work properly, the stock for the staves should be planed
to an even thickness and be ripped in narrow pieces that are

slightly beveled on each side to make the joint show tight on

the outside.
The staves are fastened to the heads by means of glue, and
nails or screws. When screws are used, it is a good plan to
104
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 105

counterbore for the screw-heads and plug the holes so that

they will not show in the finished pattern. The joints should
be further reinforced by gluing blocks on the inside in the corners
where the staves and heads meet.
Number of Staves. The number and thickness of staves
to use largely a matter of judgment and experience, but there
is

are two things that must always be taken into consideration.

The firstthe strength of a parted pattern at the joint or
is

open side where the unsupported staves are subjected to pres-

sure in the foundry, and the second is the amount of gluing

MarMnery

Fig. 1. Staved or Lagged Construction applied to Pattern Work

surface between the staves. The greater the number of staves,

the nearer to finished form the pattern may be built and the
thinner the stock used. The gluing surface at the lag joints
should not be less than f inch; this will make a fairly good joint
for medium sized jobs, as each stave increases in thickness at
the middle and will be strong enough to resist the pressure of

ramming.
Laying out Heads for Staved or Lagged Work. In laying
out the heads for a cylinder, a circle is scribed on a lay-out
board corresponding to the outside diameter of the cylinder
plus the amount allowed for pattern turning. If it is decided
io6 PATTERNMAKING
to make the heads with 8, 1 6, or 32 flats, a center line is drawn

dividing the head into two half sections and the dividing is
continued by bisecting. (See sketch A, Fig. 2.) If 6, 12, 24,
or 48 is the number of staves required, the radius of the circle
is used first for dividing the circle into six equal divisions; the
sub-divisions are then found by bisecting. At B, Fig. 2, is
shown the lay-out for a cylinder with twelve staves. The
outside diameter is laid off and the half circle divided into
three parts. One of these parts is then divided by bisecting
and the radial line a drawn. The chord b is then drawn and

-OUTSIDE DIA. OUTSIDE DIA.

3UTSIDE DIA. + TURNING >-j OUTSIDE DIA. -j- TURNING-

A B

Mnrltinery

Fig. 2. Laying out Heads for Staved or Lagged Work

parallel to it the line c, which must be tangent to the circle

representing the outside of the pattern before turning. The

distance between lines b and c represents the thickness of the
stave and fixes the diameter of the circle for constructing the
heads.
"
Dividing or Spacing Circles. Table Lengths of Chords
i,
for Dividing Circles," will be found useful in the pattern shop
in connection with segment or other work requiring the spac-
ing of the circumferences of circles into equal parts. By means
of this table, regular polygons having any number of sides
from 3 to 100 may easily be constructed. The table is based
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 107

on circles having a diameter of i for other diameters, the

;

value given in the table should be multiplied by that diameter.

For example, suppose a circle 20 inches in diameter is to be
divided for constructing a polygon having 32 sides. The
chordal length given in the table for 32 spaces is 0.098 inch;

hence, the length for a 2O-inch circle equals 20 X 0.098

= 1.960
inches.

Marking and Sawing Heads. To save time and material,

one head is laid out and carefully finished by hand. This is

Table 1. Lengths of Chords for Dividing Circles

This Table is Based on Circles having a Diameter Equal to 1. For Circles of

Other Diameters Multiply the Length Given in Table by Diameter of Circle

then used as a templet for marking off the other heads required,
the marking being done with a sharp knife point. The piece
from which the heads are to be cut should be jointed on both
edges and the marking done as shown at C, Fig. 2. The band
saw is the best machine for cutting the heads. The saw should
be sharp and the cutting done right to the line, as it is a sign
of poor workmanship to have to use a hand plane after sawing.
If the heads are not too large or heavy, it is good practice to

fasten a number of pieces together and saw them at one time.

Sawing and Planing Staves. When the stave stock was
jointed, one edge should have been trued up to work against
io8 PATTERNMAKING
"
the saw fence" and for squaring the ends and cutting to length.
One end ofeach stave is first squared and then cut to length on
the circular saw. The unplaned edge of the stave is then
beveled on the circular saw by setting the saw table at an angle,
either by the angle gage on the front of the table or by a bevel,
"
the angle being taken from the lay-out B, Fig. 2. If novelty"
saws or other smooth-cutting saws are used, both edges may
be cut to the exact width, but if the saw is not working well,
an allowance of f inch will be necessary for planing. Four of

'Machinery

Fig. 3. Assembling the Staves and Heads

the staves, called "joint staves," are always left a little wider
to allow for hand-planing the joint.
Assembling the Staves and Heads. To assemble the
staves and heads, an absolutely smooth, straight board or plate
should be used. Acenter line is drawn parallel to one edge,
and lines representing the length of the pattern are squared
from this edge across the board. The heads are set to these
lineswith their center lines matching the center line on the
board, as at A, Fig. 3. To fasten the heads to the board tem-
porarily, nails are toed into each end. The building is begun
by fastening the second stave from the bottom in place, using
glue, and either nailing or screwing it to the heads. The ad-
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 109

is then fastened and the building continued until

joining stave
the second stave from the joint on the opposite side is in place.
The nails are then removed from the heads and the work is
turned over and the wider or joint staves applied. These staves
will project beyond the head jointsand will have to be planed
flush by hand. The joint staves are shown in place at B.
machine work has been good, it will not be necessary
If the

to do any hand-planing other than on the joint staves, but if

the machine equipment is poor and does not permit of good
work, the joints will have to be fitted with a bevel and hand

Machinery

Fig. 4. (A) Assembling Second Half of Pattern to be Finished to Cylindrical Form.

(B) Head built of Segments. (C) Framed Head

plane. In gluing the joints between staves, pinch-dogs should

be used to draw them together. The second half of each head
should then be doweled to the first and the two fastened to-

gether with pinch-dogs driven in both sides of each head (that

is, inside and outside), as illustrated at A, Fig. 4. The joint
staves on each side of this half-section of the pattern are fitted

first, and the building continued from these. The dogs on the
inside of the heads should be removed before the last stave is

fastened in place.

Rapping and lifting bars are used for a three-fold purpose;

they not only provide the means for rapping and lifting in the
no PATTERNMAK1NG

foundry, but add great strength to the pattern by tying the

heads together. The three heads shown at B, Fig. 5, are con-
nected by one of these bars. Thick joint staves are intro-
duced when it is desirable to have an added width at the joint,
as shown at A, Fig. 6.
Heads for Cylinders to be Finished by Hand. Many
patterns are portions of cylinders fastened to bodies of other
form. The cylindrical portion could be turned and fitted to
the neighboring piece, but in most cases so little of the cylinder
is exposed that to turn and fit would result in loss of time and

Machinery

Fig. 5. (A) Staved Heads. (B) Three Heads connected by Rapping and Lifting Bar

a weak pattern. The lay-out for the heads and the construc-
tion of such a pattern do not differ much from the plan pre-

viously described, except that the amount for finishing should

be as small as possible, as the work is finished by hand.
Framed Heads. Framed heads, of the kind shown at C,
Fig. 4, are used on very large work where great strength is
required. Half lap joints are generally used for the flush fram-
ing and are covered with a comparatively light sheathing. If
the face of the frame is not required to be flush, the pieces are

lapped and screwed together.

Heads for staving are sometimes built of three courses of
segments, as at B, Fig. 4, but this is not the general practice.
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK III

It has the advantage, however, of minimizing shrinkage, and a

cylinder so constructed will stay perfectly round for a long
time. The number of heads to use for a given job will be de-
termined by its length and the thickness of the staves or cover-
ing material. For the general run of work there should never
be more than 26 inches between heads.
Staved heads are used when the difference in the size of

the cylinder and core-print is too great to permit them to be

turned from a single thickness of stave, as illustrated at A,
Fig. 5. Another method of overcoming this difficulty, that

Machinery

Fig. 6. (A) Thick Joint Staves to Secure Additional Width at the Joint. (B) Pieces
glued inside of Staves to Increase Thickness at Ends

will work within certain limits, is to thicken the staves on

the inside at both ends by gluing in pieces, as shown at B,
Fig. 6.
Staving or Lagging on Formed Heads. Sometimes inex-
pensive work or work that is required in a hurry can be eco-
nomically handled by cutting the heads to the outside outline
of the pattern less the thickness of the covering material and

lagging them with narrow strips, as shown at B, Fig. i. The

stock for these strips, as previously mentioned, should be planed
to an even thickness and be ripped with enough taper on each

edge to make a close joint on the face side of the pattern. These
strips should not be over f or i inch wide, and should be
fastened with glue and nails. The narrower the strips, the
nearer the pattern outline will conform to the desired form.
112 PATTERNMAKING

Staving on Round Heads. Staving may be done on round

heads by concaving the inner or narrow face of the stave to fit
the head. The pattern may be solid or parted, but, as an ex-
ample, the pattern for a lining that is to be molded on end and, con-
sequently, is a solid or one-piece pattern, will be used. The heads
for such a pattern, as illustrated at A, Fig. 7, were built in seg-
ments and fastened to a connecting piece of box construction.
This was centered in the lathe and both heads turned to size.
Concaving Staves on Circular .Saw. The lay-out for this
work will not be much different from that used for an ordinary

Machinery

Fig. 7. Concave Stave Construction applied to Round Heads

piece of stave work, except that a circle is to be built on in-

stead of a flat. The staves are planed and beveled in the usual

way, and the radius of the circle is laid off on the end of one
of them, as at B, Fig. 7. The easiest and best way to concave
staves is by passing them over the circular saw at an angle,
with the saw projecting above the table on the last cut a dis-
tance equal to height x, and the straightedge swung at such an
angle that the saw will cut only the width of the narrow side of
the stave.
The correct angle for setting the straightedge or "fence"
for concaving the staves may be found by first adjusting the
 STAVED, STEPPED. AND SEGMENT WORK
circular saw so that it projects above the table a distance #,
as mentioned. On a set-square, lay off a distance equal to y\
then lay a straightedge on the saw table with the edge against
the back of the saw, as shown by the plan view, Fig. 8. Place
the set-square against the straightedge and adjust the straight-

edge until the distance d on the set-square is equal to the dis-

tance from the straightedge to the front of the saw. Lay off
lines a distance d from the straightedge at each side of the
saw, and shift the straightedge to these lines and clamp it to

the saw table. The straightedge will have to be moved back

slightly from these lines on account of the bevel on the edges of

Fig. 8.
u u \
Diagram showing how Circular Saw is used to
Machinery

concave Staves

the staves. straightedge is now in position

The for grinding
the staves while concaving the inner sides.
If the amount of stock x, Fig. 7, is as much as \ inch, three
cuts will have to be taken to remove it, but no matter how
small the amount, at least two cuts should be taken. The last
one should be very light not over -^ inch and the stock
should be fed over the saw very slowly if smooth work is de-
sired. The saw should be sharp and well set and the cut should
always be against the saw, the stock being moved in the direc-
tion indicated by the arrow in Fig. 8. If a large amount of

material has to be removed, it had better be ripped on the

114 PATTERNMAKING

circular saw, the fence being tilted to remove a triangular shaped

shown at C,
piece, as Fig. 7.
Tapered Lagging. Cylinders with different end diameters
will have to be built tapering. Lay-outs are made for the large
and small diameters, and if there is an intermediate head, that

Fig. 9. Stave Construction applied to Tapering Pattern

Machinery

Fig. 10. Method of building Long Cylinder for Turning

also will have to be shown, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The longi-

tudinal lay-out is the best, as it will give the angle at which
to cut the heads, and if it is made on a good board, it can be
used to build the cylinder on. The widths at both ends of the
staves may be taken from the lay-out, but it would be better
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK
to make the staves parallel and to the greatest width, and

taper them in the jointer if the difference is not too great. On

this kind of work, it will be necessary to leave a little on the

edges of the staves for hand-finishing. The heads, however,

should be cut to the lines on the band saw, the saw table being
tilted to the proper angle.
Building Long Cylinders for Turning. Long cylinders are
always hard to turn without having the joint open near the
center, as there is considerable strain, particularly if the lathe

Machinery

Fig. 11. Staved or Lagged Construction for Core-box

is run at a high rate of speed. A good way to keep the joint

closed, which also does away with the use of pinch-dogs while
turning, to build one half of the cylinder in the usual way
is

and then add the projecting pieces seen in Fig. 10 beside each
head. These pieces are fastened to the staves and heads on
one side of the cylinder, and are cut to correspond to the heads
on the other side, but are not fastened to them. This provides
a means of screwing the joint staves temporarily while turning
and also a way of putting the cylinder together, as no dowel-
pins are needed.
Staved or Lagged Core-boxes. The principles involved in
the construction of staved core-boxes are the same as for pattern
n6 PATTERNMAKING

work, only in reverse, the inside of the staves being finished

and the outside braced or supported. The ends of staved
"
boxes are called heads" and in good work they are connected
by bars at the bottom and face, as shown in Fig. n, which

represents a half-round core-box and lay-out.

The heads for staved boxes are laid out in the same man-
ner as for pattern work, except that, instead of working from
the outside or pattern diameter, it is worked from the inside or
core diameter. All of the methods of staving patterns may

Machinery

Fig. 12. Different Types of Staved Core-boxes

be applied to core-boxes; some of these are shown at A, B,

and C, Fig. 12. A framed head is shown at D; battens are also
put on the inside of single-piece heads.
Round heads are used to stave long boxes (see Fig. 13)
and the outside bracing may either be added or omitted and
t*he end heads depended upon to keep the box together. The
staves for these boxes are concaved on the circular saw and
built on a board, the same as a cylinder. If the box is very

long, several heads may be used to build on, and then be re-
moved after the box is put together. This construction gives
a very true box and has the added advantage of being finished
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK
when the staves are put on. Small staved boxes without heads
or bracing of any kind are frequently constructed as at A and

B, Fig. 12.

Stepped Work. Stepped work is so named because the

stock, whenfastened together, resembles steps. This method
is used for building cylindrical work such as straight and curved

Machinery

Fig. 13. Method of constructing a Long Core-box

Machinery

Fig. 11. Building a Cylindrical Pattern by the Stepped Method

pipes up to 8 or 9 inches in diameter that are to be finished in

the lathe, or for elbows and bends of all sizes that are to be
finished by hand.
Building a Stepped Cylinder. To build a parted cylinder
pattern by the stepped method, first make a lay-out A, Fig. 14,
by drawing a semicircle to represent half the cylinder and
n8 PATTERNMAKING

another for the core-print. Then draw two more semicircles,

each ^ inch greater in radius than those already drawn, to
represent the amount to be left for turning the pattern. The
lumber used should be planed to thickness and the number of

steps will depend upon the thickness of the stock available.

Divide the vertical center line of the larger semicircle into

equal parts that will be a little less than the thickness of the
lumber it is proposed to use. Draw horizontal parallel lines
through these division points on the vertical center line and
erect perpendicular lines where the horizontal lines intersect

Machinery

Fig. 15. Pattern for Pipe Bend, built by Stepped Method

with the outside circle. Next erect perpendicular lines where

the horizontal lines intersect with the larger inner circle. The
width of the two top pieces and of the different steps may then
be measured on the lay-out.
The steps are assembled on the top pieces, lines being gaged
on the ends to locate each piece. They are glued and either
clamped or dogged in place. In gluing pieces like these steps
to a line, a very good plan to toe-nail a ij-inch brad in
it is

each end to keep the piece from shifting while the clamps or
dogs are being applied. The pieces for the prints are fitted
last after the glue has dried, as illustrated at B. The joint
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 119

step should be made somewhat thicker than the others, so

that there will be enough stock to true up the face on the

jointer. The number of pieces to use in building a pattern

this way will depend entirely upon the diameter of the pattern
and the thickness of the stock on hand. The sum of the dif-
ferent thicknesses should equal the diameter plus the amount
allowed for turning, but if it is a choice between two thicknesses,
the greater thickness should be selected to insure having enough
stock.

Stepped Pipe Bend. In building patterns for a pipe bend,

A, Fig. 15, by the stepped method, a lay-out for the body of
the pipe is made
as at B, and the core-prints and flanges are

disregarded, as they are made separately. The lay-out is made

as in the preceding example, only greater accuracy must be

observed, as the body is to be finished with hand tools. It

will be noted that the step divisions are projected across to
the line x-x (see sketches A and B) so that the trammels

may be set to the different radii directly from the lay-out B.

The thicknesses of the steps must be figured accurately so
that the sum will equal the radius of the pipe, and the stock
should be planed true and perfectly parallel to make a good
job. The radii of the different steps should be carefully laid
out as well as lines showing the lap or projection of each step.
The heads should be set up on a plane board to which they
should be fastened with screws as at C. Begin building by
laying down the joint steps No. i, and follow with the others.
To fasten the joint steps, it will probably be necessary to screw
them to the heads; the others may be fastened with glue and
nails. Nail the upper pieces near the edges, so that the nails
may be removed when the time comes to work the bend to
shape. A
center line should be laid off on the top piece as an
aid in working the surface to a templet. Work of this kind
should be so carefully built that the joint line between each step
willbe an accurate guide for working the bend to shape.
Stepped Core-boxes. The stepped construction is largely
applied to building both straight and curved core-boxes, and
the principles are the same as when applied to patterns, except
SK
I2O PATTERNMAKING
that the general arrangement is in the reverse order. The
pattern is to be used for forming a mold, whereas the core-box
is a mold for shaping bodies of sand. The lay-out for a core-
box differs but little from that used for a pattern, except that

the box will be built on a foundation or bottom board, as at A ,

Fig. This bottom board must be heavy enough to permit

1 6.

working the bottom part of the core-box from it and still leave
enough thickness to withstand some hard usage. To lay out
the circles on the ends of these boxes, the device shown in the

Machinery

Fig. 16. Stepped Construction applied to Core-box

illustration is used. This issimply a cross piece having a center

for the dividers. It may be made at the time to suit the work
in hand, or it may be of more elaborate construction with a
small piece of brass let in the face for the divider point. A core-
box for a Y-pipe built by the stepped method is shown at B,
which shows clearly the construction.
Segment Work. The purpose of segment work is to
have the grain of the wood follow the outline of the pattern as
far as possible, thus insuring greater strength as well as ren-
dering easier
it to finish the pattern. Segment work is par-
ticularly well adapted to patterns which require turning, as
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 121

the end wood mostly eliminated and a smooth job results,

is

but it is frequently used for building curved ribs and pieces of

similar nature. It means the building up of successive layers

of wood called "courses," their sum being equal to the thick-

ness of the required piece, when a complete circle is to be con-
structed. These courses are usually divided an equal
into
"
number of divisions called segments," as illustrated at A,
Fig. 17.
There is no rule for fixing the number
of courses for a given

job; this will depend largely upon the thickness of the stock

< -COURSE
< -JCOURSE

Machinery

Fig. 17. Examples of Segment Work

on hand and how it corresponds with the total thickness re-

quired. Rings, etc., should never be built of less than three
courses, as they will not stay straight. It is, however, the

practice in some shops to make loose flanges in one course with

splined or feathered joints as at B. The easiest way to deter-
mine the number of courses is to make a lay-out of a section

of the piece as at C and divide this to suit the lumber. For

medium-sized work, courses i inch or less in thickness will be
found suitable, while for larger work, the thickness may be
increased to 2 inches. In sketch C, the heavy black lines in-
dicate the allowance for machining.
122 PATTERNMAKING

Six segments to a course are the number usually allowed

for work up to 7 or 8 feet in diameter, but for larger work, a
greater number will be required in order to conserve lumber
and eliminate end wood at the joinings. Comparatively small
work, that is to be turned on the outside only, may be built
of four courses, but the piece is to be turned inside, six
if is the
smallest number that should be used, as four leaves too much
end wood at the joint for inside turning, causing the corners
to break.

Laying out Segments. The easiest way to lay out seg-

ments for cutting is to first make a templet of thin material

(see sketch A, Fig. 18), allowing a little extra on each end to

Machinery

Fig. 18. Laying out Segments

permit of trimming the stock. This templet is used to mark

the outline on the stock, as at B, and it facilitates cutting the
stock in the most economical way.
The length of a segment, when there are six to a course, is
equal to the radius of the circle, while four may be laid off with
the steel square as at C. The length of any segment, from three
to twelve to a course, may be determined by the use of Table 2,

"Segment Lengths and Angles for Setting Trimming Machine."

Sawing and Trimming Segments. Segments should be
sawed on the band saw and as closely to the lines as possible.
If there are a large number of rather thin segments, time may

be saved by bradding several pieces together, as at D, Fig. 18,

and sawing them as one. The trimming machine, of which
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK I2 3

there are a number of different sizes, is used for cutting the

ends of the segments to the correct angle. The beds of these
machines are laid out with a protractor giving the angles of
regular polygons up to twelve sides. The angle of set for any
number of segments in a course, from three to twelve, may be
determined from the table. The stop (see diagram A, Fig. 19)
should be set against the back of the segment and clamped.
By allowing an equal amount on the ends, it will be possible

Table 2. Segment Lengths and Angles for Setting Trimming Machine

to cut the segments near enough to length without measuring.

All of the segments for a job should be trimmed on each end,

except one for each course which is trimmed on one end only
and kept for fitting.
The method does very well for segments that do
foregoing
not extend beyond the edge of the trimmer bed, but, for long
" "
segments, the cut-and-try way is probably as quick as any,
especially as the ends have been sawed very close to the angle.
124 PATTERNMAKING

Lay the segment on the trimmer bed with the sawed end against
the side of the knife and push the stop against the segment
back and clamp. Trim the ends of two segments and test
the angle by pressing the trimmed ends together and compar-
ing the segments with a circle on the lay-out board as at B,
Fig. 19. When
the joint is right, the outside of the segments
should coincide with the circle.
Stock for small segment work should be planed up before
being sawed, but, for large or wide segments, it will sometimes
be found advantageous to saw first and to plane afterwards.
The result of this is a saving on the thickness of the stock,
as it is then possible to plane the smaller unit to a greater
thickness.

Machinery

Fig. 19. Trimming Ends of Segments to Correct Angle

Gluing and Fastening Segment Work. The different

courses in segment work are glued together with the segment

joints of one course falling half-way between the joints

of the

course above and below. The glue used should be fairly thick
and be well rubbed into the segment ends in order to size them.
Nails should be used to reinforce the glue whenever possible,
but, if the turned piece is to be cut or carved afterwards, it will
have to be fastened with hand screws. This is much slower
than nailing, as time must be given the glue to set, and the

setting and handling of twelve or more hand screws is also a

time item. Sometimes work is encountered that is too thin

to be either nailed or clamped. In this case, draw and hold
the joint together by toe-nailing, three nails being located in
the outer edge of each segment. These nails should be rather
slender and the heads should be allowed to extend about f inch
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 125

so that they be easily withdrawn with a pair of pliers.

may
The glue for narrow surfaces should be much thicker than
for the larger areas.

Building Rings for Turning. Rings to be turned are built

directly on a faceplate that has been trued for the purpose.
When truing the plate, the center is found and a circle drawn
corresponding with the outside diameter of the ring. This
circle is divided into as many parts as there are segments in the

course and radial lines are drawn the width of the course. To
prevent the glue from fastening the segment to the faceplate
or building board, a newspaper is glued over the radial lines.
The segments of the first course are glued at each end to these
pieces of paperand either left to dry or immediately fastened
with screws from the back and the building continued. Even
when they are left to dry, they should always be secured with
screws in the interest of safety. If the segments are not given
time to dry, at least one screw will have to be placed in the
center of each segment, but, if the glue is hard, a screw in every
other segment will be sufficient, unless the work is very heavy.
If the stock has been planed parallel, the building may pro-

ceed, but if the material is not parallel or is planed on one side

only, it will have to be faced in the lathe. The second course
should be laid with the joint midway between
the joints in the
first course, and this procedure should be followed with all

the succeeding courses. In laying the courses, the nails should

be started before the glue is applied, and pinch-dogs should
be used in order to draw the joints together. With planed
stock, it may be found necessary to smooth the joint by
hand, but very little stock should be removed. As the build-

ing proceeds, it should be tested frequently to prevent getting

it out of true.
Building Rings in Halves. To build a ring in two pieces
means that two joints in each course must remain unglued, and
that two segments in every other course must be cut in two.
In building the first course, a straightedge is bradded to the

faceplate, the working edge running directly through the cen-

ter, and one half of the course is laid down as illustrated at A,
126 PATTERNMAKING

Fig. 20. The straightedge is then removed and the rest of the
course laid. In building rings in halves, the joint segments,
or those coming against the straightedge, should be laid first,
as each half is built, and the other segments fitted between
them. The
straightedge used for this work should have one
true faceand the working edge should be perfectly square with
it. A fair amount of stock should be left on the ends of the
segments for trimming, and in fitting the last segment in each
course, a bent scriber will be found useful in marking the amount
to be taken off.

Building Curved Ribs. Segments are used in courses for

building the curved sides of beds and ribs of different contour.

I W&

Machinery

Fig. 20. (A) Building Rings in Half Sections. (B) Method of forming Curved
Sections of Beds and Ribs

An example of segment work applied to the side of a bed is

shown at B, Fig. 20, the curved part being connected to the
straight section with a lapped joint. The curve should be laid
out on a perfectly plane surface and be built in the same man-
ner as a complete ring, except as the method of finishing it may
affect the building.If the curved part is narrow enough to

be band-sawed to shape after it is built, J inch extra stock will

not be too much to allow and the saw can be set over to give
the proper amount of draft. On the other hand, if the curved
 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK 127

part must be finished by means of a spokeshave or flexible soled

plane, it must be built with greater care. The first course
must be made the exact thickness the piece is to be at the bot-
tom and it must be built this same thickness up to the required
height. It is essential that the building be perfectly square.
The draft is furnished either by gaging linesfrom the inside
and outside edges and working from these to the bottom thick-
ness, or the lines may be laid out with trammels and worked
in the same way.
Finish Allowances for Segment Work. In making lay-
outs for segment work, always lay out the pattern or section

STIFFENING PIECE

Machinery

Fig. 21. Patternmaker's Lay-outs for Segment Work

full size; then add the allowance for machine shop finishing,
and finally the amount for finishing the pattern. These allow-
ances will vary with the size of the work and the method to be
employed in finishing. A small amount of finishing may be
desirable in one case while in another enough must be allowed
for a good saw cut. For medium-sized lathe work J inch all
over, the surface will be enough. The amount to be turned
from small pieces is immaterial, as it can be done very quickly,
but it takes so much time to remove a large amount of surplus
material from large work that the extra time required to build
it closer to size is more than compensated for. Patternmakers'
lay-outs for typical work are shown at A, B, C, and D, Fig. 21.
128 PATTERNMAKING

Segment Core-prints and Flanges. Core-prints, both solid

and parted, are frequently built of one course of segments,, as
shown by the illustrations at A and B in Fig. 22. In this

Machinery

Fig. 22. Segment Core-prints

case, the segment is sawed on the thickness of the stock and

on the outside only. Both halves of the parted print are
built separately and are jointed afterwards.

x^X^x
/ A SEGMENT ^k \

B
Machinery

Fig. 23. Segment Flanges

Flanges for cylinders are frequently built of segments in

one or three courses. When built of three layers, they do not
differ from the segment work already described, but, when a

single course is used, it is customary to fortify the joint with a

 STAVED, STEPPED, AND SEGMENT WORK I2Q

spline or feather, as at A, Fig. 23, or a tongue and groove.

When these joints are used, the flange may be fastened to-

gether and fitted to the pattern afterwards, but, when made

with a butt-joint, each segment must be fitted in place sepa-
rately. One way to strengthen a butt-joint in segments is to
bore a hole with the joint as a center and glue pieces or dowels
in the holes as shown at B. This does not add much
strength endways, but does keep the segments from shifting
sideways.
 CHAPTER VI
THE LAYING OUT OF PATTERNS
IN order to make patterns with the greatest economy of
time and materials, it is usually advantageous to have a full

size drawing or lay-out to work to. The lay-out should be

made on a smooth board, the lines being scribed with a sharp
knife, gage, or divider points. The drawing should be made
as accurately as possible according to the contraction rule
measurements and should show clearly all details of construc-
tion as well as all partings, core-prints, core joints, and the
location of loose pieces. The amount of draft and finish should
be noted, and the finish is often indicated by blacking the lines
with lead to indicate the amount allowed. Sections on the lay-
out are section-lined by hand or by chalking the spaces between
the lines. If the lay-out is so large that it has to be made on
the floor, it is whitened with chalk where the lines are to be.
A
lay-out not required unless a job is more or less com-
is

plicated or has angles or curves that cannot be transferred

directly from the draftsman's drawing to the pattern. An
entire drawing is not always necessary; very often laying out
a single section full size will answer every purpose. The ad-
vantages of the lay-out are that it clears up obscure points on
small scale drawings and gives a chance to show pattern struc-
tural details as well as the pattern and loose-piece partings and
core joinings. Angled and curved faces may be checked by
bringing them into contact with the lay-out, and a number of
men can work to greater advantage than they could from a
drawing. A patternmaker's lay-out for a steam cylinder is

shown in Fig. i.

Right- and Left-hand Patterns and Core-boxes. Many

patterns are required to be in pairs, and when their form is such
that they cannot be reversed and have the centers of hubs,
130
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS

bosses, etc., opposite and in line, they must be made right-

and left-hand. If the pattern is a small one or if a great
many
castings are to be made from it, the better way would be to
make two patterns, but if the pattern is large or if only one
or two castings are required, the work should be laid out and

planned so that the required pieces may be moved from side

to side or from end to end in order to change the pattern from
right- to left-hand. The bracket shown in Fig. 2 is an example.
The hub A and the foot flange B are fastened with screws and

Machinery

Fig. 1. Patternmaker's Lay-out for Steam Cylinder

are moved from side to side to make the pattern right- and left-

hand, as indicated by the dotted lines. The ribs are also loose;
rib C is reversed, but right- and left-hand ribs D
are required,
because of the angle at the lower edge. Cores made in half
boxes must frequently be right- and left-hand, and by good
planning a single box can often be utilized. This practice will
"
be explained more fully in Chapter VIII on Core-box Con-
struction."
Provisions for Machining Castings. In planning a pat-
tern, some consideration should be given to the shop facilities
132 PATTERNMAKING

for handling the casting during the machining operations. A

very little extra work in the pattern shop will often save hours
in machine shop work. A small boss cast on pieces that can-
not otherwise be fastened conveniently to a faceplate (see
example A , Fig. 3) or a bridge left in each end of a hollow cylin-
der to accommodate the lathe centers (see example B) often
greatly facilitates the machining of castings of this type. Lugs
a and feet & on a casting of the general type shown at C are
frequently used to facilitate leveling and clamping for the
machining operations. Ring pipes D, used for making piston

Machinery

Fig. 2. Right- and Left-hand Pattern

rings, are ordinarily provided with lugs for fastening to a face-

plate. The number of lugs used should be regulated by the
slots in the shop faceplates; four are the usual number, but,
on small rings, sometimes only two lugs are provided, with
the addition of two feet for steadying. The lugs may project
eitheroutward or inward, depending upon the size of the pipe
and the size of the faceplate to which it is to be fastened. If
the pipe as large or larger than the faceplate, the lugs should
is

be placed on the inside, but if it is smaller than the faceplate,

the reverse method is used. The lugs, instead of being fastened
bottom of the ring, are more often made with an
directly to the
added thickness between the lug and the ring, as shown at E.
This permits using the entire ring.
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 133

Tool Clearances. Tool clearance spaces are sometimes

formed on a pattern to provide an open space for the tool to
enter when finishing portions of the casting that are partially
or entirely enclosed. Holes that are to be tapped for screw
pipe connections in bosses or other thick portions of castings
should be provided with a chamber or recess larger than the out-
side diameter of the tap so that the end of the tap will have a
clearance space (see sketch A, Fig. 4). Frames that are to be

BRIDGE FOR L*THE CENTER

MarMnery

Fig. 3. Examples illustrating Provisions made on Patterns for

Machining Castings

machined inside should have tool clearance provided at the

corners, as at D. Slots closed at one or both ends should be

similarly arranged as at B. Flanges that are to be turned,

when it is not possible to make a complete revolution on ac-
count of projections, should have tool clearance arranged as
at C. These examples cover but a few of the cases that arise
in practice, but they are typical and serve to emphasize the
importance of considering the work in the machine shop.
134 PATTERNMAKING

Coring Bolt and Pipe Tap Holes. The lay-out should al-
ways take into consideration the difficulty of drilling holes in
inaccessible parts of large castings and arrange to core them
whenever possible. Foundation bolt holes in beds, bases,
large cylinder feet, etc., should be cored, and also holes that
are to be tapped for pipe connections. Bolt holes are cored
over size so that the bolts will slip through easily, but a cored
hole for a pipe tap or other tap must have an allowance for

machining, as the tap is never forced into the rough cored hole.
The proper amount to allow for finishing will vary with condi-
tions. This can be obtained from a table giving the tap drill
sizes for pipe, by allowing finish on the drill dimensions.

Machinery

Fig. 4. Patterns provided with Tool Clearance Spaces

Draft on Patterns. Draft isa tapering of all the vertical

faces of a pattern to permit its removal from the sand without
excessive rapping on the part of the molder. There is no rule

fixing the amount of draft to give a pattern. A good plan is

to give as much draft as possible without distorting the pattern.

This draft may vary from A A
to inch or may even be as much
as \ inch per foot of height. The draft always runs away
from the pattern face; thatis, the pattern face is the larger side

of the pattern. If none of the faces is at right angles to the

pattern face, then no draft will be required. Very small pat-

terns and those of larger sizes to be used in molding machines
are often made without draft.
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 135

Contraction or Shrinkage. Contraction or shrinkage al-

lowance is the amount that a pattern is made over size to com-
pensate for the contraction of the casting metal. The total
amount that a casting will shrink depends largely upon its
size and shape. If it is long and rather light, it will shrink
more than a casting of the same weight but of more compact
shape, even when cast in the same metal and under the same
conditions. Cylinders and column-shaped castings will shrink
more lengthwise than radially. They will shrink about TS
inch per foot lengthwise, while the radial shrinkage will be from
^o to T inch per foot.
A rule used by foundrymen producing columns for build-

ing purposes is to allow J inch per foot on the length and

Shrinkage of Castings

nothing on the diameter. A shrinkage of rfr inch per foot is

considered the standard for machine castings, and although it
is not the proper amount for all forms of castings, it
averages
up pretty well and does away with the confusion that would
naturally follow the use of a number of shrinkages for differ-
ent parts of a job or different forms of castings. Although
thereis no fixed rule governing this question, experience has
shown that the amounts given in the accompanying table,
"Shrinkage of Castings," are approximately correct.
Contraction or Shrinkage Rule. The contraction rule is

a special rule with the shrinkage of the casting metal added.

It is made of steel or wood and in appearance does not differ
from an ordinary rule, but when compared with a standard rule
it will be found longer. A two-foot contraction rule for J inch
QK
136 PATTERNMAKING

shrinkage to the foot will be J inch longer than the standard

rule. These rules may be procured for all the standard shrink-
ages, including the steel rules in one- and two-foot lengths and
the wooden ones in the straight two-foot size, as well as the
same length with a single fold or hinge at the center.
Finish Allowance. In addition to the shrinkage allow-
ance, there another allowance to be made, and that is
is still

the finish or amount that will have to be added to certain parts

of the casting to permit them to be finished or machined to

Fig. 5. Squares used for Laying out Patterns

the proper size. This amount varies widely, depending upon

the size of the casting, the methods of machining it, and the

degree of finish required. Castings to be finished from the

rough on disk grinders require but little finish allowance. It
is the practice in some shops on this class of work to let the
molder's rapping allow for the finish. On small or medium-
sized work that is to be finished in the lathe, planer, or milling

machine, about J inch will be enough for the machining opera-

tions, but for the larger pieces, such as engine beds, flywheels,

etc., the finish will vary from J to f inch. An extra finish allow-
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 137

ance is usually made on the cope side of large castings to per-

mit machining to the sound metal that lies beneath the dirt
that always floats to the top of a mold while the metal is in a

liquid state.
Stock List. A
stock list should be made of all the pieces
that are to be used in the construction of a pattern. This list
should give the thickness, width, and length of all pieces re-
quired. In cabinet shops, the stock list sizes are "neat" or
exact finished sizes, and allowance for machining must be made
in roughing out stock. This is a good plan to follow in pattern
work, but it would be safer to let the width and length go until
the pieces are to be used.
Lay-out Boards. Lay-out boards, of which there should
be a number of different sizes in every shop, are made of light,
soft preferably white pine, and battened to keep
material,
them straight. They should be planed perfectly smooth and
one edge .should be absolutely straight. All gaging and squar-
ing should be done from this edge.
Lay-out Tools. The tools used for laying out work include
the try-square, set-square, steel framing square, bevel, marking

gage, panel gage, trammels, wing dividers, protractor, straight-

edge, and knife.
The Try-square. The try-square A, Fig. 5, is used for draw-
ing all cross lines. The blade should be long enough for the
work in hand, but when used in connection with the straight-
edge, as illustrated at C, the line maybe extended beyond the
limits of the square blade. The adjustable combination square
B is very popular with patternmakers, as it may be used in
places where the fixed-blade square would be useless. This
square is usually sold in combination with the center head
shown in the same view. A protractor head may also be pro-
cured, which increases the scope of the tool. The size of a
square is determined by the length of its blade. For pattern
work, the square will be from 6 to 24 inches. For general
bench work, two blades, 6 and 12 inches long, respectively,
are useful. If the adjustable-blade square is used, one 1 2-inch
blade is satisfactory for general work. An 1 8-inch size is handy
138 PATTERNMAKING

for lay-out work, but lines of any length may be squared when
the square is used in connection with a straightedge.
The Set-square. The set-square A, Fig. 6, is a thin
wooden triangle used in connection with the straightedge for
squaring from lines at angles to the edge of the lay-out board.
A protractor is frequently laid out on one face of the set-square,
to set the bevel to various angles.
The Steel Square. The steel square A, Fig. 7, is useful
in lay-out work, because it will lie flat on the board or pattern.

Machinery

Fig. 6. (A) Set-square. (B) Bevel

The graduations on this square are omitted in the illustration.

The wider and longer section is usually 2 inches wide and 24
inches long, and is called the "body" or "blade"; the narrow

part is ij inches wide and from 16 to 18 inches long, and is called

the "tongue." The side with the maker's name stamped on
the "face," and the edges are graduated in sixteenths,
it is called

twelfths, eighths, and quarters of an inch. It has various

scales for laying out rafters, braces, and for solving other prob-
lems met with in building construction. The Essex board
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 139

measure will be found on the back of the blade. The figure 12

in the graduation marks on the outer edge represents a i-inch
board, 12 inches wide, and is the starting point for all calcula-

tions; the smaller figures under 12 represent the length. To

determine the square feet in a board 6 inches wide and 8 feet
long, find the figure 8 under the 1 2-inch graduation mark, and
then pass the pencil to the left on the same line to a point below
the graduation mark 6, representing the width of the board,

Machinery

Fig. 7. (A) Steel Square. (B) Trammels. (C) Knife for ruling Fine Lines.
(D and E) Dividers. (F) Bevel Protractor

and the result will be read as 4 board feet. If the stock meas-
ured is 2 inches thick, the result will have to be doubled.
The Bevel. The bevel B, Fig. 6, used for laying out and
is

testing angular surfaces. It consists of a stock with a slotted

blade that can be set and locked at any angle. The winged
thumb-screw at the end of the stock is used to clamp the blade
in position.
The Marking Gage. The marking gage A, Fig. 8, is used
for drawing lines parallel to the working edge. It consists of
a head or stock a and a bar or beam b provided with a spur c.
The beam is fitted to the through mortise in a and is secured
140 PATTERNMAKING

at any point in its length by the thumb-nut d. By clamping

the bar so as to bring the spur a given distance from the stock,
a like distance may be gaged from any straightedge. The back
of the stock sometimes provided with a shoe e which facili-
is

tates gaging from convex and concave edges. The beam is

usually graduated in inches, subdivided into sixteenths. In
pattern work, these graduations should be disregarded. The
gage should always be set to a rule, the gage being held in the
right hand and the rule in the left, the measurement from spur
to gage-head being made on the edge of the rule. The final

Machinery

Fig. 8. (A) Marking Gage. (8) Panel Gage

adjustment in setting is made by tapping the ends of the beam

on the bench to move it in or out.
The Panel Gage. The panel gage B is used for the same
purpose as the marking gage. It is larger and has a longer
beam, but otherwise does not from the marking gage.
differ

The Trammels. The trammels B, Fig. 7, are used for

scribing large circles. They are used in connection with a
wooden bar to which they are clamped with thumb-screws.
In drawing large circles with a long bar, the vibration of the
bar will cause the scribing point to chatter. To overcome this
a bar too large for the opening in the trammel is
difficulty,

used, and it is cut down on the ends to fit.

The Dividers. The winged dividers D are used for draw-
ing medium-sized circles, generally not exceeding 12 inches in
radius. The size is designated by the leg length. The spring
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 141

dividers E are used for drawing small circles and for accurate

spacing, as for gear teeth, etc.

The Bevel Protractor. The protractor is used for lay- F
ing out the smaller angles. The size with an i8-inch blade is
very handy for lay-out work. Protractors for setting a sliding
T-bevel are sometimes laid out on the set-square as shown at
A, Fig. 6.

The Straightedge. The straightedge is used for ruling

lines and in connection with the try-square and protractor.

r -f-
"L 4 FT .

Machinery

Fig. 9. (A and B) Laying out Angles. (C) Laying out Arcs

of Large Radii

Several lengths should be on hand in every pattern shop, and

it is an
advantage to make them with parallel edges.
The Knife. The knife is used in connection with the
straightedge or square for ruling fine lines across squarely or
at an angle to the working edge of the pattern or lay-out board.
It is also used for rounding the corners on small pattern work.
The knife may be of the type shown at C, Fig. 7, or an old
pocket knife may be ground for this purpose.
Laying out Large Right-angled Triangles. Large right-
angled triangles may be accurately laid out by what carpenters
142 PATTERNMAKING

call the "three, four, and five rule." This rule is based on the
fact that the square root of the sums of the squares of the base
and altitude of a right-angled triangle will equal the hypote-
nuse. To construct a triangle this way, a base line xx of con-
venient length is laid out and on it two points a and b are marked
four feet apart, as at Fig. 9.
,
With b as a center, a 3-foot arc
is scribed to intersect a 5-foot arc struck from
point a. line A
drawn from through the intersection c of the two arcs will be
b

at right angles, or 90 degrees, from the base line. These num-

bers may be increased by multiplying both by the same figure,
or decreased by dividing both by the same figure without chang-
ing the proportions.
Laying out Angles. Any angle can be accurately laid

out by means of a table of natural tangents. As an example,

suppose it is desired to lay out an angle of 29 degrees. First a
base line yy is drawn (as at A, Fig. 9) of indefinite length, and
a perpendicular zz is erected. A point is marked on the base
line exactly 10 inches from the perpendicular. By consulting
the table of tangents, it will be found that the tangent of 29

degrees 0.55431; multiplying this by 10 gives 5.5431 (or 5!!

is

inches, approximately), which is the distance to lay off on the

perpendicular measuring up from the base line. Connecting
the point thus obtained with the point on the base line gives
the desired angle. The angularity of two lines may also be
determined from the table of tangents by dividing the height
on the perpendicular by the length on the base line; the quotient
thus found equals the tangent, and the corresponding angle will
be found in the table.
Laying out Angles of 45 and 60 Degrees. Angles of 45
and 60 degrees and equal divisions of them may be quickly
laid out without reference to a protractor or table. For a 45-
degree angle, draw a base line xx and erect a perpendicular yy,
as at A, Fig. 10. With e as a center, draw a quarter circle of

any convenient radius, and then, with / and g as centers, de-

scribe two arcs. A line drawn from e through the intersection
h of the two arcs will be at an angle of 45 degrees to the base line
xx. A 6o-degree angle may be laid out as at B by drawing a
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 143

quarter circle from point j and then describing an arc from k

with a radius equal to the radius of the circle. A line drawn
through the point of intersection at / will be at an angle of 60
degrees with the base line. Equal divisions of these angles can
be made by bisecting.
Laying out Arcs of Large Radii. To lay out the arc of a
circle which is so large that it would not be practicable to use
a pair of trammels, the length x of the chord (see diagram C,
Fig. 9) and the height or rise y must be known. This gives
three points d, e, and/ through which the arc must pass. Brads
are driven at these points so that they will project about an
inch above the surface on which the circle is to be scribed. A

MacMnery

Fig. 10. Laying out Angles of 45 and 60 Degrees

triangle is constructed of two straightedges, each of which

should be longer than the chord; these are placed against the
brads with their ends in, contact at e, where they are fastened
together with a batten. The brad at e is then removed and a
scriber or pencil substituted. This will describe the desired
arc when the triangle is moved
to the right and left with the
inner edges bearing against the brads at d and /.
When laying out arcs of large radii by this method, the
height y of the chord may be assumed and the length x calcu-
lated by the following rule: To determine length x of the chord
for a given height y subtract y from the diameter of the circle
y

of which the arc forms a part, and multiply the remainder by

height y
then extract the square root of the result and multi-
y

ply the square root by 2, thus obtaining the length x of the

144 PATTERNMAKING

chord. The height y should be selected so that the length of

the chord will neither be too short nor too long. If the length
is too short, this will also limit the length of the arc which may

be drawn, and if it is too long, it will be necessary to use straight-

edges, which are also long and unwieldy. By considering an
imaginary arc of the required radius, the relation between the
height of the chord and the length of the arc may be deter-
mined approximately.
Equal Spacing between Parallel Lines. The space be-
tween parallel lines can be quickly laid off into equal divisions
by holding a rule at such an angle that the distance indicated
can be divided easily. For example, the distance between

Machinery

Fig. 11. Simple Method of spacing between Parallel Lines

the two parallel lines shown in Fig. n

is 7 inches, and this

distance is to be divided into six equal parts. The rule is placed

at such an angle that the distance indicated is 9 inches, which
can easily be divided by six. Thus 9 -T- 6 =
ij; hence, points
laid off along the rule i| inches apart will divide the 7 -inch

space into six equal spaces.

Bevels for Hopper Patterns. Laying out the bevels for

hopper patterns a good example of laying out work. The

is

drawing A, Fig. 12, represents a rectangular hopper, one side

of which is set at a different angle from the others, while B is
a hopper, one side of which conforms to an equilateral triangle
in shape, while the other side is a section of a hexagon. The
two drawings are lettered alike so that one description, with
a little variation, will apply to both. A perpendicular is first
 LAYING OUT PATTERNS 145

erected at a, and a distance ah is laid off equal to the width of

the stock, or ab. A line drawn through h parallel with the
base represents the upper edge cc. The length of this edge is
the same as that at cc on the plan, so that, by erecting per-

pendiculars at each end from c or directly from b on the eleva-

tion, the points c\c\ are obtained; then by drawing lines from
aa, the side angles may be obtained. To obtain the angles
across the edge of the board, lay off the board thickness from
h to k and draw through k a line parallel to CiCi. To obtain

d,

Machinery

Fig. 12. Method of laying out Bevels for Hopper Patterns

the angle for a miter cut, a perpendicular is drawn from d to

d\\ then by drawing a line from di to c\ the angle to which
the bevel should be set is obtained.
To obtain the angle for a butt-joint, a perpendicular is
erected from / to /i, which would be a point in the butt-joint
if the top edge of the board were level, the board being in a
vertical position. The board or side of the hopper, however,
is inclined; the outer edge is lower than the inner one, and
point o is level with the corners g. A vertical line is erected
from point 0, and the distance from corner b to line oi is trans-
146 PATTERNMAKING

f erred to fai. A line drawn from

ei to Ci corresponds to the

angle for the butt-joint. This end or edge of the board would
be square in the case of a butt-joint, if the side of the hopper
were vertical instead of being inclined.
"
Transferring Lay-out Lines to Stock. In picking up"
or transferring lines from the lay-out to the stock, not much
trouble will be experienced with those that are straight, even if

they are not square with the lay-out edge, as they may be drawn
any length, the stock being laid on the lay-out in proper posi-
tion and the line transferred by marking the points where they
coincide with the edges. It is often necessary, however, to
transfer lines that may be either irregular curves or arcs of
"
circles. These
may be "picked upby using small flat-headed
wire nails, about the cigar-box size, laid flat with the heads in
a row in the line to be transferred and placing the stock on top
of the nail-head edges; the line may then be transferred by
striking the stock a sharp blow with a mallet, which causes the
nail-heads to mark the stock.
 CHAPTER VII

TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK

SMALL patterns are usually carved from solid pieces of some
hard wood like mahogany, and this work requires a high degree
of skill in the use of chisels and gages, as well as considerable

patience. It is not practicable to part very small patterns,

but the draft should always be arranged so that the molder
can make his partings without trouble, There are a large num-
ber of patterns made that are complete models of the required
casting and do not present any very difficult molding problems,
but that do require considerable skill to produce economically.
The provision of draft on small work is not so important as on
larger pieces, and when the draw is but an inch or so, it may be
ignored entirely unless there is a projection that must be
coped, in which case it is advisable to leave as much draft as
possible.
Lever Patterns. Lever patterns are what might be termed
examples of simple pattern work, althoughsometimes they are
very crooked and must be molded in three-part flasks. It was
formerly the practice to carve small straight levers from a
solid piece. A piece of stock of the proper thickness was first
prepared, and the lever laid out as at A, Fig. i, the bosses being
carved from the solid after using the band saw to cut the pat-
tern as near as possible to the lines, as at B. This is a very

good method when the web tapers as at C, but, to simplify

matters, many designers make the webs parallel and, as far as
possible, of equal thickness so that a number of levers may
be laid out at one time, as at Z); the bosses, which are turned,
are fastened in place with glue and nails. The centers must be
laid out on both sides, and when the bosses are attached the
lever is sawed on the band saw and finished either by hand or
147
148 PATTERNMAKING

on the disk grinder. The corners, which are rounded, are

finishedby hand with a spokeshave or knife.
A handled lever B, Fig. 2, must be centered and the handle
turned before it is have to be worked
sawed to shape, and it will

from the solid. If it is a bellcrank lever E, Fig. i, the two

pieces forming the web can best be joined with a corner lap
joint, and if it is the type of double lever shown at C, Fig. 2,
it have to be parted to mold in a three-part flask. When
will

levers are double and have a connecting piece as at Z>, Fig. 2,

Machinery

Fig. 1. Lever Patterns

orwhen they have a circular section as at E, they should be

made parted. When a number of levers are being laid out at
one time, the bosses on the cope side will often be of different
heights which will interfere with the band-sawing; in such
cases, they will have to be put on afterward. To locate a
filleted boss when there is not room to lay out the fillet diam-

eter, it is squared at three points with a paring chisel, as at

A, Fig. 2, and these flattened spots are set tangent with the
boss circle. Levers should be sandpapered carefully to avoid
distorting the bosses.
Wrench Patterns. Webbed and ribbed wrenches are made
by working the space between the ribs to shape on each side
down to the web (using a router to obtain the correct depth
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 149

and a small outside-ground gage to make the fillets) before

the outside and the jaws are cut and pared, as this makes it

easier to hold the block in the vise. A Forstner bit is a good

tool to bore away the stock before using the router, or it may
be roughed out with a gage. A box wrench C, Fig. 3, should
be cut to form and the handle pared to thickness before the
nut opening is cut. The pattern should be laid out on both

Machinery

Fig. 2. Additional Examples of Lever Patterns

sides to give a little draft, and should first be bored, then pared
with a chisel, and finished by rounding the corners.
Key-socket wrench patterns B are turned with the center
part of the handle left square so that a fillet may be made in
the corner where it joins the wrench shank. A
pin is turned
on the shank to fit a hole bored in the square part of the handle.
The core-print is turned round and worked square or hexagonal,
as may be required.Such a pattern will not, in most cases,
be made to part. Piston nut wrenches D
are double-ended
sockets designed to fit a different size at each end. As these
 PATTER NM AKING

nuts are quite large, the pattern may be parted and the core
made to run from end to end and with side projections to make
the holes for the cross-rod that is used to turn the wrench and
nut.
Patterns Requiring Small Cores. It sometimes happens
that a core for a small pieceis to extend through at an angle

and there will be very little chance to make the core-print

loose, in which case a hole may be bored the required size and
at an angle through the pattern, and a core-print turned to
fit it. This print should have a handle and a shoulder to stop

Machinery

Fig. 3. Wrench Patterns

it when it has reached the proper depth (see A, Fig. 3). It is

pushed through the hole after the cope is lifted and is drawn
out before drawing the pattern.
When
a great many small holes are required in a thin piece,
it isalways troublesome to put draft on them, but this may
be overcome by boring the holes a little under size and ream-
ing them with a tapered iron rod of suitable diameter, the rod

being heated sufficiently to char the wood slightly but

first

not enough to cause it to burn. Small turned rings and other

pieces designed to leave their own core should be turned with
the grain of the wood parallel to the axis. It is easier to turn
them this way and they can be sized more accurately and will
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK

draw better. Beeswax is used for making small fillets and for

filling screw holes.

Making Duplicate Patterns. It is often desirable to have
more than one pattern of small pieces that are to be
cast in quantities, and many patterns require large numbers
of pieces that are exactly alike. A
forethought will oftenlittle

enable such work to be done easily and quickly. pair of A

small elbow patterns, A, Fig. 4, and a core-box can be, made
with very little more labor than would be required to make a
single pattern, as the ell section is usually turned in four pieces

Machinery

Fig. 4. Methods of making Duplicate Patterns

and only two are used; the same is true of the core-box. An-
other illustration of this a pattern B for casting a number of
is

hexagonal nuts at one time. This is a parted pattern, and a

single straight core runs from end to end.

Large numbers of tail-prints are frequently required and

these are most easily made by making them in fairly wide units
as at C, and then ripping them to the required thickness. These
prints can be made alike by sanding them in a jig somewhat
similar to that used for sanding gear teeth. When a number
of facing pieces to fit an angle, or a number of bosses or hubs

to fit a cylinder, are to be made, it is always quicker and more

satisfactory to plane the stock to the angle or to fit the round

on a long piece and then saw the duplicate parts to shape, as
152 PATTERNMAKING

at D
and E, instead of trying to make them singly. The stock
can always be blocked level with the saw table. Bosses or
hubs that are designed to fit cylindrical or spherical shaped
bodies should be turned, as they can be fitted by turning to a

templet.
Bracket and Frame Patterns. Brackets are usually de-
signed either with a central rib as at A Fig. 5, or with ribs on
}

the edges as at B. Bracket A is a simple form having a turned

boss, and a foot, rib, and fillets in place ready for the band saw.

Machinery

Fig. 5. Bracket Patterns

When is a low boss it should also be fitted in place and

there
a strip the same height bradded to the web at the bottom to
keep it level on the saw table. If the boss is to be loose, it
should be doweled in place and taken off for the sawing opera-
tion. When the bracket is small and ribbed on each edge of
the web, the boss and ribs can often be more economically
made in a single piece as at B. This method provides a fillet
where the rib connects with the boss, and a fillet connecting
with the foot may also be provided for. When the bracket
is large the ribs should be notched into the boss and also into

the foot as at C, as this makes a stronger job and is easier to

fit. To make the fillet on the rib, the latter is made thick
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 153

enough for that purpose as at D. Brackets that are ribbed

equally on _both sides are usually parted through the center of
the web as shown by the illustration at E.

Chipping strips or other projections on the top of bracket

feet or bosses that interfere with the draw should be made
loose, and as these are usually small, the skewers should be
made of nails or wire. The webs of frames are fastened in a
number of different ways, and the ribbing is usually joined to
hubs and bosses in the same manner as on brackets. Projec-
tions on the cope side of frames should be made loose, but when

Machinery

Fig. 6. Crank and Eccentric Patterns

ribbed on both sides, the ribs are made fast, as the molder
carries his parting on the outside up to the bottom of the round
corner of the cope rib, as at A, Fig. 6, and lifts the inside out.
Instead of the draft running from the center of the web in both
from the top of the cope
directions, it should extend straight
rib. Large hubs or bosses should, however, be made loose.
Fly brackets and delivery frames in printing press work are
without ribs, and frames of that type will stay straighter if
fastened with mortise-and-tenoned joints; the same thing
applies also to side frames.
Cranks and Eccentrics. Many cranks are levers, gener-
ally ribbed for greater strength, and they are handled in the
154 PATTERNMAKING

manner previously described for levers, but the counterbalanced

disk crank is another proposition. If it is Jarge it should be
built ofsegments and turned, and the inner part fitted to it as
at B, Fig. 6. A fillet is turned where the flange connects with
the web, so only necessary to leather-fillet the piece that
it is

is fitted. A
small crank or a crank that is required in a hurry
can be made economically of two pieces that have been laid
out and band-sawed on the inside and glued together as at C.
Dogs are used to hold the two pieces together, and the inside
should be sandpapered before the web, which is a separate
piece, is fastened in place. The outside should be band-sawed
after the inside is finished and the web is in place.

MacJiincry

Fig. 7. Cam Patterns

Eccentrics resemble cranks, except that they do not have

webs, and they may be handled in the same way, although
they are usually heavier on the outside and the pattern is more
substantial when made as at Z), Fig. 6. A groove is sometimes

required in the rim, in which case it would perhaps be better

to turn a core-print on the outside and make the core in a part
core-box. Eccentric straps and caps may be built up, but
small ones are usually carved from a piece of hard wood, as

nothing is gained by making them of a number of pieces. If

the valve-stem sleeve is made so that it can be removed, a
single pattern will do for both the strap and cap. A strap pat-
tern is shown at B, Fig. 8.
Cam Patterns. Most cams may be divided into two
"
general types known as "plate cams" and cylinder cams."
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 155

Plate cams may be plain or ribbed, and templets are frequently

furnished the patternmaker to give him the correct shape; to
these he must add a finish and contraction allowance. This
is done on small patterns, when the contraction is not much of
a factor, by setting a pair of spring dividers an amount equal
to the finish, and scribing with these around the templet. In
making ribbed cams, the web should be laid out and worked
to form first, as at A, Fig. 7, making it a trifle large so that a
little draft may be given the outside of the ribs. The ribs are
fitted in segment form, as at B\ they are scribed from the
web and sawed and, perhaps, spokeshaved a little before the

Machinery

Fig. 8. (A) Cam Pattern. (B) Eccentric Strap Pattern

thickness is gaged. If the ribs are deep, the joints should be

reinforced with a spline or a piece let in to cross the joints at
the top.
The cylinder cam A, Fig. 8, owing to its form, must be
parted to mold in a three-part flask. A paper templet to wind
around the cylinder to form the proper helical groove is re-
quired, and is usually furnished by the drawing office. It is

possible to make a band-saw parting on this type of pattern

while it is in a block form and to dowel the two pieces together
before cutting it circular. This parting will not follow the
parting line indicated, but willcome between the two sides of
the groove and will not always be central but it will do for
156 PATTERNMAKING

molding purposes in this case. The templet should, however

be used to lay off the groove, irrespective of the parting.
Pillow-blocks and Caps. Pillow-blocks are made to mold
either face down or on the side. In the first case, they can leave
then- own cores, and if they are lightened by a recess in the bot-
tom this can be coped as at A y Fig. 9, but when made in this

way an excessive amount of draft on the

there will have to be
sides (see the end view), as the molder must cope down his

parting, following, in a general way, the dotted lines at A\

this will look like back draft as viewed from the end. This
same pattern could be made to part through the center of the
lug with the top and bottom cored, and this is very often done,

Machinery

Fig. 9. Pattern for Pillow-block and Cap

but if two lugs on each side, this would not be prac-

there were
ticable. Besides, it requires two core-prints and two boxes,
which add to the pattern cost. Small caps, with the exception
of the end bosses, are best made of a solid piece, as the lugs
and fillets can be carved quite easily. If the cap is large (see
sketch B) leather fillets for the lugs or bosses can be more eco-
nomically applied in the corners. If there is to be an oil-cup
it can be fastened on to leave its own core unless the pillow-

block is of the angular type; then the oil-cup will have to be

set at an angle to bring the top level, and it will be cored and

loosely doweled to the top with the dowel-pin holes bored paral-
lel to the draw. If there are hinge lugs for a cover, these should

be dovetailed to the oil-cup to be "picked in."

 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 157

Linings, Bushings, and Boxes. Linings, bushings, and

boxes are castings that are fitted into different parts of a ma-
chine for the following reasons: (i) To provide for easy re-
newal in case of wear; (2) because they possess anti-friction
qualities not possessed by the material of which the machine
is and (3) because they are needed for taking up wear.
built;

Linings and bushings are usually complete cylinders with or

without flanges, and patterns for them may be made to mold
on end or by parting, the method depending largely upon the
size. If short in proportion to the diameter, they can safely
be made on end, but if long and slender, it is perhaps better

Machinery

Fig. 10. Patterns for Linings, Bushings, and Boxes

to part them, although it is the practice in some shops always

to mold them endwise so that any length can be made from
"
one pattern by drawing up." Of course, they should be
given a fair amount of draft for this purpose. Metal patterns
which leave their own core are often used for large linings, and
various lengths are made by the same process.
What are known as removable linings are used in some
pumps and other cylinders. They are provided with a flange
for bolting either to an inside
facing in the end of the cylinder
or to the flange on the outside, the
lining flange coming be-
tween the cylinder head and flange. In the latter case, there
must be openings through the lining where it crosses the port
158 PATTERNMAKING

at the flanged end. These patterns are turned to the size of

the bore at this point (see view A, Fig. 10) and the connecting
bars or grids are fitted in place, those that under-cut being

loosely skewered in place for "picking in."

Boxes are usually made in two pieces and are used to line
bearings; they may be plain half cylinders with or without
flanges, or they may be of cross-sections such as shown at B,

Fig. 10. The end pieces are usually turned or otherwise worked
out first, and fastened to the piece that forms the central por-
tion, the working of the half-round openings being left until

last. In using turned ends, a little more than half the circle
is required on account of the draft and this makes a little back
draft which may be disregarded if it is small and the amount
of finish the ends are of good size they may be
is slight; but if

turned in halves and pieces glued to the joint to make up the

finish. Half-round boxes are laid out on both ends and the
inside is roughed out and finished before the outside; or if a
good band saw is available, they may be cut inside and out

close to the line, leaving very little hand work for finishing.
A method of making numbers of half-round linings for fill-

ing in branches in a core-box is as follows: Plane the inside

with a core-box plane and then fasten two of the linings with
screws to a mandrel in the lathe and turn the outside. This
is also an economical waymaking maple boxes for wood
of

pulleys. A
large box, however, should be built up on two or
three forms, as at C, Fig. 10, which are left in the pattern to
hold the shape and are "stopped off" in the foundry. The
forms should have plenty of draft on each side to mold easily.
Steam Chests and Slide-valves. Steam chests for direct-
acting pumps are designed for operating what are known as
"steam-thrown" valves. There are many styles of these
valves, and the chests are more or less complicated, correspond-
ing to a sort of small engine that actuates the valve. The chest
for an ordinary slide-valve is a square box with a hub on one

end a stuffing-box for the valve-stem, and a pad on the

for
other end or on one side with an opening for the entrance of
the steam pipe. The chest is constructed usually so as to
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 159

make its own with the projecting pieces on the sides or

core,
"
ends skewered for picking in." As a rule, there is a projecting
flange on the inside at the top and bottom, and one of these
must be loose to mold in a three-part flask. One of these flanges
is machined for fitting the projection on the breast face, and
also to provide a guide for the valve. Clearance should be
cut in the square corners for the planer tool. When there are

openings in opposite ends, a lug is sometimes cast in the center

I V^V
Fig. 11. (A) Section of Steam-chest Pattern. (B) Section of Slide-
valve Pattern. (C, D, and E) Pump Valve-seat, Stem, and Cage

of the steam opening as at A, Fig. n, so that the valve-stem

will be supported at both ends; this lug is placed in the core-
box that makes the opening. The holes for the studs are usually
cored under size for drilling in a jig. To avoid drilling a num-
ber of deep holes, they are chambered so that the drill acts on

only about J inch of the metal at each end, as shown by the

section at A.
Slide-valves or "D-valves," as they are sometimes called,
have one or more cavities on the face. The pattern is made B
i6o PATTERNMAKING

being worked from the central piece,

of three pieces, the cavity
and the two side pieces being made thick enough to form the
corner fillets.

Valve-seats and Stems. Pump valve-seats should be

made of hard wood, turned with the grain of the wood running
it is easier to work the ribs when made
parallel with the axis, as
in thisway and the pattern is stronger and not likely to shrink

unevenly. The spaces between the ribs at C, Fig. n, are bored

Machinery

Fig. 12. Piston Patterns

away with an auger bit and finished with a chisel and gouge
with about -% inch draft on each side. The outside should be
tapered f inch per foot, which is standard.
A valve-stem D
screws into the seat and holds the spring
against the valve; it has an internal hexagonal recess for a
socket wrench. The pattern is turned up to the top of the

fillet, flatwise of the grain, and the round stem is made with a
pin to fit a hole bored in the pattern, as indicated by the dotted
lines. A valve cage E is used to confine a ball valve to its
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK l6l

seat. The pattern is made with the recess in the top to leave
its own core. A round lifting handle extends across the recess,
and this is notched in at each side to make the joining fillets,
and is parted at the center to draw each way when the cope is
lifted. A single dowel-pin in the center keeps the pieces in
their proper relative positions. This pattern is turned to a
templet inside and is laid out and cut away to form the four

fingers that encircle the ball.

Piston Patterns. Patterns for pistons do not present any

very difficult they are generally built of

molding problems;
segments, and if they are of the ribbed type, the ribs on the
cope side are left loose. Cored or hollow pistons are plain
cylinders with a central core-print for the piston-rod hole and
a number of prints for holes to support the interior core, as
shown at A, Fig. 12. The pattern shown has segments with
the heads let in, and is furnished with a cross-brace extending
across the grain of the heads to provide for rapping and lifting.
The core-box, in this instance, was a full turned box with the
interior core holes cut through the bottom and a hub to pro-
vide metal around the piston-rod. These pistons often have
ribs or partitions that divide them into equal spaces with an

opening through each connecting rib. In such a case, the core-

box usually a part one, as illustrated at B, with a half rib in
is

each side which parts through the center of the rib opening
as shown by the sectional view C.
A
trunk piston F may be parted or made to mold on end;
on account of the projecting bosses it has to be cored, and the
box may be either a half or a whole one. The half-box D has
a cross-rib at the joint and two loose bosses. The bosses are
connected with a half-round print which makes the opening
through which the round core is pushed to form the hole in the
bosses. A batten doweled across the face of the box with the
loose pieces fastened to it is used to locate these pieces. Plun-
ger E a long piston which is parted in the center. Some
is

types of plungers are plain hollow cylinders with a small open-

ing in each end, chambered inside to reduce the thickness of
the metal. When they are of this form, the pattern should
162 PATTERNMAKING

be made to mold on end, and it should be about two inches

too long in orderprovide a riser to catch the dirt that
to

always rises to the top of the mold, because it is necessary

that a plunger should be of sound metal throughout.
Cross-head Patterns. The two cross-head patterns shown
in Fig. 13 will serve as illustrations of the principal types. The
style shown at A
used on some pumping engines; it rests in
is

a horizontal position on the guides and is not adjustable for

wear. The pattern is made as illustrated, unless it is very large,

Machinery

Fig. 13. Cross-head Patterns

in which case thesides and cross-piece are framed. This pat-

tern is
parted, and the wrist-pin, bosses, and connecting-rod
end are turned and fitted to the pattern; the two raised strips
on each side are also applied. In fitting the wrist-pin, the
bosses are put in place and a socket is cut in each side to take
the pin, which is turned long for this purpose. To lighten
the casting, rectangular openings are sometimes cored through
the sides from end to end, and this requires core-prints and a
core-box. When designed to be cast in steel, all the corners,
even those that are to be machined square, should be filleted,
as it is impossible to make square corners on steel castings.
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 163

A cored cross-head B is made by building the side thickness

on a block large enough to make the body of the cross-head
extend up to the line where the turned piston-rod hub is fastened
on. Another method to plane a block the full thickness,
is

and then shape or cut it down to form the print at the end.
This block must be parted and doweled together. The side-
prints, bosses, and core-prints on each side are made separately
and applied. A half core-box is required to make the inside
with bosses around the wrist-pin holes, as well as these holes
and the hole through the piston-rod hub. Separate cores are
sometimes used for the wrist-pin holes, as it is easier to set the
main core when these are separate, and the hole is sure to come
in the center of the hub. This cross-head has shoes fastened
on each side for use in a bored slide, but the sides themselves
are sometimes curved to the guide, in which case the cross-
fit

head will be open at one end or perhaps the core will cut through
at the piston-rod hub end and core-prints will be required to

support it.

Pipe Patterns. Pipe patterns are usually turned in sec-

tions and fitted together to form the different combinations of
curved and straight parts, but many pipes are of such form
that they can only be partly turned or must be worked to form

entirely by hand. When a single bend of any size is required,

it is more economical to work it by hand to a templet, first

reducing the bend to octagonal form. The sections of built-up

pipes are fastened together by inserting screws through the
heads, but smaller pieces made of solid stock will have to be
fastened by screws driven at an angle, at the joint. It is not
the usual practice to glue the sections together, as they are
used for making any needed combinations. In some shops
they are connected by pieces let into the joint as at A and B,
Fig. 14; these pieces are, as far as possible, of standard sizes
and interchangeable. Pipe flanges are usually made of stand-
ard size so that they can be used with standard fittings if it is
desired to do so. This is also the case with air-chamber flanges
and other flanges and pads designed for pipe connections. If
flanges to fit the ends of bends are turned on the prints, as at
164 PATTERNMAKING

C, this will save fitting the prints and insure centering, but ii
the flanges are large, they will have to be turned on a face-

plate and the prints will probably be turned with the grain the
opposite way. Large prints having a good bearing surface
are easy to fasten by screwing through the face side. A small
steam pipe with a bend at each end that is to be worked from the

Machinery

Fig. 14. Pipe Patterns

solidhas the straight part turned as at Z), and the bends cut
as indicated by the dotted lines. Another example of a part-
turned pattern is a governor elbow E\ the straight section is
turned and the rest worked by hand. This is also a good illus-
tration of a parted pattern where the pattern and molder's

parting will not coincide. A full core-box is used for this kind
of pipe, and one half must be thick enough to make the hole
where the core turns at a vertical right angle. This hole
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK

should be given plenty of draft and the core-print made to

suit.

Flanged branches at an angle to the axis of the pipe will

have to be made loose, and the flanges also will be made loose,
unless they form a right angle, when the branch may be fast
and the flange loose; these are molded with a covering core
as previously explained. In making the different sections of
pipe, great accuracy is required if the pieces are to be assembled
with the minimum amount of fitting.

Machinery

Fig. 15. Air-chamber Pattern and Core-box Construction

Air-chamber Patterns. Small air chambers are turned

from solid pieces and have a long core-print to help hold the
core, as there is usually no opening at the top. It is not pos-
sible, in most cases, to balance the core, and the molder usually
has to use chaplets to support the core and secure a uniform
thickness of metal. The turning is done to a templet, and
the spur center should be set in the large end, on which a straight
boss is turned for one end of the templet to rest on. The other
end has a bearing on the print, which is first turned to size.
1 66 PATTERNMAKING

Owing to the large differences in diameters, which tend to

cause the joint to open as the stock is turned away, an extra
screw should be placed in the center to hold the pieces together.
If the pattern is large, both the pattern and core-box will

have to be built either by the stepped or stave methods or by

a combination of these methods, as shown at B and C, Fig. 15.
If the core-box is small, the stock may be jointed through the

center and the circular part turned as at A. This will permit

laying the rest of the box out on the joint as well as on the
face, which is very helpful when gouging it out, as there are

a LI

w
Machinery

Fig. 16. End of Pattern for Engine Bed

two sets of lines to work to. Large air-chamber patterns are

constructed with a view to possible alterations, and are fastened
with screws but without glue. A plan of the joint of a pattern
constructed in this way is shown at B. The same plan is fol-
lowed in constructing the core-bo'x C. This core-box is built
on a bottom board, and the feature of its construction is the
means employed to make the core right and left by means of
right- and left-hand elbows e that can be changed at will. The
ends of this box may be turned, but if it is quite large it will be
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK I6 7

found more economical of both time and lumber to build it

up and work out the form by hand.

Engine Beds. The lighter types of engine beds are usually
made to leave their own cores, with the exception of the pillow-
blocks which are lightened by cores located by prints placed
on the under side. These bed patterns have particularly in-
teresting constructional features. The end rib is sometimes
dovetailed and the intermediate cross-ribs dadoed into the
sides and screwed from the outside. The spaces between the
ribs are rammed up on iron plates and lifted out to draw the

Machinery

Fig. 17. Details of Engine-bed Pattern Work

pattern and free the loose projecting pieces on the sides. This
is also the
way lathe and planer beds are molded. A cored bed
should be boxed on good stout pieces, as indicated in Fig. 16;
or, if large enough to warrant on framed partitions fastened at
it,

the corners with half-lapped joints, glued and screwed as shown

at C, Fig. 17. This system of framing should be carried out at
the pillow-block end where the tendency is to ram the pattern
either in or out unless the framing is very stiff. By making the
framing of fairly heavy stock and putting the cross-pieces quite
close together, much lighter material can be used for the sides.
II K
i68 PATTERNMAKING

The cross-head slides are made separate, with a core-print

on the face where the core cuts through, and the projecting
"
side pieces are skewered for picking in." The half bosses on
the pillow-blocks are loose, as is also the core-print on the face,
which is cut in three pieces so that the under-cutting portions
may be drawn in when the central section is taken away. The
central piece should be wider than the other two, as shown at A.
This is also the case with the core, which is made in a skeleton
box B and is cut into three sections by pieces of sheet iron
fitted into the box. This box has loose pieces on each side

INSIDE FLANGE-

DISTANCE PIECE SECTION a-b

Machinery

Fig. 18. Other Details of Engine-bed Pattern Construction

to form the ledges or projections for holding the babbitt; the

projections on the ends are formed by a strickle. single core- A

box of the same length as the longest section between the ribs,
plus the thickness of the thickest rib, is used to make all of the
principal cores. One end of this box is square and the other
corresponds to the taper of the end of the bed. It is a good
plan to lay out the length of the cores on a rod for the guidance
of the core-maker, numbering them i, 2, 3, 4, etc., beginning
at the pillow-block end. Each section will probably have one

rib, and these are usually cut away to clear the cylinder flanges
and other projections that come below the top of the bed.
Where the rib is cut away it will have to be backed up by a
 EXAMPLES OF PATTERN WORK 169

blank rib to make

the end of the core, as shown in Fig. 18. At
the rear end there is usually an internal flange that must be

placed in the box by screwing to the end. In locating the ribs

to make the different lengths of core, they are not fastened,
but bear against distance pieces placed loosely in the box that
hold them in the right places. Figure 18 shows the box set to
make a length of core from the rear end to the next rib.
For the pillow-block end, a frame is constructed to fit in-

side the core-box so that a suitable thickness of metal will be

formed around the sides and under the sloping floor between
the pillow-blocks. Pieces are fastened to the sides of the box
with battens and the top of the core is strickled. The inside
of the cross-head slide is made in a separate box, which is the full

length of the slide with a loose rib in each end cut to form a
semicircle at the top to clear the key wedges in the connecting-
rod. The bolt holes in the side lugs should always be cored,
and the centers should be located quite accurately, as it is cus-
tomary to send plans to customers for building foundations and
locating foundation bolts. Owing to the taper on the sides
of the bed and slide, there is no necessity of making the core-
box part. The slide should have an extra allowance for finish-
ing to insure machining centrally with the pillow-blocks.
its

Certain types of narrow baseplates with pockets in the under

side that do not open through are made as though to leave
their own core, but a core-boxis made to form cores that fit

into these pockets, and they are fastened to bars in the cope
for lifting away.
 CHAPTER VIII

CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION

COREMAKING is a branch of the foundryman's craft devoted

to the making of the separate bodies of sand that form interior

passages or openings in castings. It was formerly a branch of

the molder's trade, but is now practically a trade by itself.
Cores are formed in wooden molds called "core-boxes" or by
the use of frames and strickles or spindles and sweeps. The

major part of all cores used is made in dry sand; green-sand

and loam cores are largely used, but are usually made by the
molder. In making cores, they are reinforced by metal rods
that are rammed up with the sand to add stiffness to it, and
with large cores it is frequently necessary to make cast-iron
frames or arbors for this purpose. Flour and other ingredients
are added to the core sand to assist the mass in adhering when
subjected to the baking process, called drying, which takes
place in a specially constructed core-oven. It is not customary
for the patternmaker to supply boxes for straight, round cores,
most foundries are equipped
particularly in the smaller sizes, as
with machines for making cores up to 2 J inches in diameter and
many of them have boxes for making a much larger range of
"
sizes. These are called stock cores" and, if it is necessary
that the ends should fita tapered cope-print, it is the usual
practice for the molder to file the taper on the core. A great
many cores are made in halves and pasted together to form an
entire core after they have been dried. This is not done so
much to economize in the pattern shop as to prevent marring
or distorting the core. For example, a large round core made
in a fullbox would have to be turned out on a flat plate and
its weight would make a flat spot on the rounded side.

To avoid this, a frame would have to be constructed and filled

170
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 171

with sand to form a bed for the core to lie in and thus prevent
damaging it. This frequently done when a core is of such
is

form that it cannot be conveniently made in more than one

piece. Short, round cores be safely made in a full box
may
if their diameter large enough to provide a good base for
is

the core to stand on, the box being rammed up endwise on the

plate. If the core is light enough to be turned out on the plate

without damage, it may also be made solid or in one piece.

Coremaking a very important department of the foundry-

is

man's work and, consequently, the making of the wooden

molds or core-boxes results in
perplexing problems in the
many
patternshop in order to determine the best and most economical
methods of construction. The patternmaker should take ad-
vantage of every opportunity to save on the pattern work,
but it should not be done at the expense of the foundryman.
The use of a skeleton or some makeshift device for forming a
core may a saving in pattern work, but the added
result in quite
cost of making the core with the devices mentioned is not justi-
fied unless but few castings are required or better work is pro-

cured as a result of their use.

Allowance on Core-box for Swelling of Core. The nature
of the materials used in making cores causes them to swell
and increase in size, and the larger cores tend to become still
larger as the result of settlement and spreading due to their

weight. The increase in size through swelling is, however,

largely confined to the surface, and while adding an appre-
ciable amount to the bulk of the core by increasing diameters,
etc., itdoes not greatly change the positions of the centers of
side openings or branches and is not taken into consideration
in locating these centers. The allowance to counteract this
increase in size is not given a great deal of attention in making
small core-boxes, although it is the custom to make a box

slightly smaller than the core-prints; but for cores of great

bulk, this allowance is a factor that has to be taken into con-

sideration. would be impossible to lay down a rule as to

It
the amount
to allow, as this will vary in every locality and

according to the materials used. A

rule that is applied, in
172 PATTERNMAKING

some shops, to round and half-round boxes is to make the core-

prints to the shrinkage rule and the core-box to the common
or standard rule for diameters up to 12 inches, and allow TG
inch for every additional foot. The allowance for length is

-rg inch per foot.

Boxes for Square or Rectangular Cores. The standard

core-box for square or rectangular cores is made with the end
dadoed into the sides as at A, Fig. i, and parting at diagonal
corners to release the core. The loose corners are usually

MarMnery

Fig. 1. Core-boxes for Square or Rectangular Cores

fastened with a screw or screws which are removed to part the

box. To indicate that certain screws in a core-box are to be
removed in order to release the core, customary for the
it is

patternmaker to draw a circle around such screw-heads with

black varnish. In order that the boxwill part freely, it is good

practice to make the dadoes on the loose corners more shallow

than those on the fastened corners. The fastened corners are
reinforced with corner blocks that should be securely glued
and nailed in place.
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 173

Where
fillets are required in the corners, they are glued in

place at the fastened corners, but at the partings they must

be made as a part of the side of the box, as illustrated at B,
Fig. i. To eliminate the feather-edge, the exposed edge of
the fillet is made or J inch thick and the ends of the box cut
away to suit.
A cheaper form of core-box construction is to make the
core-box with butted joints, nailing, screwing, and corner-block-

ing the fast corners, and using one or more dowel-pins in the

Machinery

Fig. 2. (A) Core-box for Thin Core. (B) Rapid Method of making Core-box.
(C) Core-box formed by Means of Fillers

parted corners to insure a return to their proper position, as

at C. In making this box, one end is fastened to each side and
the box is clamped together for boring the dowel holes through

the sides into the ends. The doweled parting, shown at Z>, is
standard for boxes made in two pieces. The illustration shows
the parting extending through the diagonal of the square core
which gives the maximum amount of draft.
For small thin cores the box A, Fig. 2, is frequently used;
if it is thick
enough, dowels may be used at the partings but
more often the clamps are depended upon to hold the parts in
place. When rapid work is required, the box with a band-
sawed parting as at B will be found useful. The parting should
 174 PATTERNMAKING

be laid out and band-sawed first and the box

shape laid out
with the saw cut as a center-line. The two-piece doweled
joint or the band-sawed joint boxes are as equally well adapted
to round or other shaped cores as they are to those of square
or rectangular section.
Precautions should be taken in constructing core-boxes to
make the sides thick enough to withstand the ramming, as

any bulging of the sides will result in a distorted core. A type

-PARTING
TTOM BOARD
SECTION ll-b

Machinery

Fig. 3. Method of forming Projections on Top and Bottom of Rectangular Core

of box that is in common use in column foundries for making

long cores of square or rectangular section, is formed of two

parallel straightedges held the proper distance apart by cleats
fastened with nails on the uppermost edges of the straightedges.
Such a box without ends and the nails are only driven part
is

way into the sides so as to be easily removed. It is suitable

only for rough work, as the unsecured side is apt to bulge un-
less the work is done with a great deal of skill.

Fillers for Rectangular Core-boxes. Fillers are blocks

placed in rectangular core-boxes to change their outline (as

 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 175

shown at C, Fig. 2) or for making a core shorter or narrower

than the box, or for both purposes; a piece may also be made
to fit in the bottom to reduce the depth, although the same
result as to depth may be attained by the use of a strickle.
Fillers may either be fastened in the box or be placed loosely
in position. If the fillers are located in the corners and the

same box is to be used for a number of cores, they should be

by loose skewers running through the side or

loose or located
ends of the box and their proper positions should be clearly

Machinery

Fig. 4. Methods of forming Round Comers on Cores

marked. If they are placed in a box to form side or end pro-

jections on the core, they should be loose so as to readily draw
away from the body of the core.
Projections on Top and Bottom of Rectangular Cores.
Projections on the top of rectangular cores are formed by means
of a plate with openings cut in it (see Fig. 3). This plate is
located by means of dowels. The projections on the bottom
of rectangular cores are formed by openings cut through the
bottom board. A piece is fastened to the bottom board to

prevent the sand from going through.

Fillets on Top and Bottom of Cores. The fillet on the
bottom of a core is formed by a fillet that is a part of the bot-
tom board (see sketch A, Fig. 4). Enough of the sides and
i 76 PATTERNMAKING

ends of the box are made a part of this board to form the fillet.
On the top side, the fillet is formed by means of a strickle which
"rides" on the top of the box. This strickle is usually made of
hard wood and is halved together so as to present a flush face.
An enlarged detail view is shown at B.
Core-box Clamps. Clamps instead of screws are used to
hold the corners of large core-boxes. These are usually made

Machinery

Fig. 5. Core-box Clamps

of rods having threaded ends fitted with wing-nuts and pro-

vided with washers as shown at the left in Fig. 5; or a mor-
tise maybe cut through the dado and a long tenon made on
the end to fit through and extend beyond the sides, as shown

by the right-hand view. A wedge, fitting a mortise with a

tapered side, is used to draw and hold the box together. Small,
shallow core-boxes are usually not fastened at the loose corners,
the coremaker preferring to use a wire clamp of his own make.
Bottom Boards for Core-boxes. Bottom boards should
not be used on core-boxes unless they are to form a part of the
core or are needed to hold the box together. If a core-box is

fairly large, the patternmaker should always plan to make it

 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION I 77

in such a manner that the coremaker can ram up the core on a

plate and remove the box without disturbing the core. A bot-
tom board prevents this and makes it necessary for the core-
maker to reverse the box and core, with the danger of straining
the core, to say nothing of the time consumed in handling a

body of damp sand which may be cumbersome.

Core-boxes without Partings. Many cores are of such
form that the boxes in which they are made can be solid or

LOOSE PIECE FITTED TO BOX

LONGITUDINAL SECTION CROSS SECTION

LOOSE PIECE

Machinery

Fig. 6. (A) Example of Coreformed in a Solid Core-box. (B and C) Loose

Pieces applied to Core-boxes

without partings of any kind. A box for forming a half-round

core is an illustration of this. A box for making the core shown
at A,Fig. 6, will not require parting as its form provides plenty
of draft.

Core-boxes with Loose Pieces. The joints and devices

used for fastening loose pieces to patterns are also used for the
same purpose in core-box work. Bosses, hubs, and core-prints
are skewered to the sides or ends, the skewers, where possible,

drawing through the sides or ends from the outside of the box.
i 78 PATTERNMAKING

The dovetail is also used to locate loose lugs and similar pieces.
Pieces for forming side projections on cores are located by fit-

ting them to the box as at B. This piece could be fastened to

the side of the box to draw away with
it, but the danger of

breaking the projecting pieces of core will be lessened if it is

made loose. When the side openings are small or numerous,
they are very often formed by separate cores. To carry these
cores, prints are fastened to the loose piece fitted to the core-
box. On a solid or imparted box, only one half of this plate
is loose, as at C. There are cases where a loose piece cannot
be drawn in one direction but
must be parted to draw in
opposite directions, as is shown
in Fig. 7. The turned plugs a
fit holes cut through the sides
of the box and meet at the
center. One plug has a pin
turned at the parting and the
other a hole to correspond.
Machinery These plugs are drawn in
Fig. 7. Loose Piece in Core-box parted the directions indicated
to draw in Opposite Directions by
the arrows.
Right- and Left-hand Core-boxes. Right- and left-hand
core-boxes are necessary when two half cores made in the same
box cannot be pasted together to form an entire core. This
happens when the amount of core each side of the center-line
of the box varies or is of different shape. It is often possible
to save the expense of an extra core-box by making both ends
of the box the same and inserting removable blocks at each
end to stop off what is not required, as at A, Fig. 8, which
shows an exhaust-port core-box treated in this manner. The
blocks a are located by dowels and stop off the ends right and
left. The same effect may be obtained in boxes of other forms
by making parts of the box right and left. As an illustration,
the core-box for an air chamber is shown at B, Fig. 8. This
box forms a right- and left-hand core by having two curved or
elbow parts to the box. The parts forming this box are fastened
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 179

permanently to a bottom board, except the elbow part, which

is doweled and may be removed to change from right to left, if

necessary.
Boxes for Cores Formed Partly by Strickles. Many cores
are flat on one side while the reverse side some irregular
is of
form that can be economically made only by means of strickles.
There are three general methods of doing this, and examples

Machinery

Fig. 8. Right- and Left-hand Core-boxes

are presented. The core-box at A, Fig. 9, is for the opening

in an oval hand-hole plate, the inner side of which is to abut

against a cylindrical core. The hollow side of the core is formed

by concaving that side of the box to fit the cylindrical body
core and then strickling the core to a concave shape. In this

case, the formed side of the core is cylindrical and the strickle
is a straightedge with one edge beveled; it is worked back and
forth over the concave face of the box parallel with the central

parting.
i8o PATTERNMAKING

When
the core presents one face that is not a straight line
from end to end, but is curved, so that a plain straightedge
cannot be used, it will have to be made as at B. In this case
the strickle rides on the formed ends of the box and the

edge of the strickle is made to give the required shape to the

top side of the core. A stop on one end of the strickle abuts
against the outer end of the box to keep it in the proper position.
A core that curves longitudinally is formed on the upper
side by a strickle that follows the curved side of the box as

Fig. 9. Box for Cores formed partly by Strickles

illustrated at C. Many turned core-boxes are arranged to form

the top side by means of a strickle guidedby a central pin that
permits swinging the strickle in a complete circle. When cores
are of unusual form on both the top and bottom sides, it will
be necessary to make the bottom board to form one side.
Laying out Round Core-boxes. When the patternmaker
speaks of a round core-box he usually means a half-round box.
To lay out a box of this type for finishing, the stock should
be planed true on the face and on one edge, and should always
be squared on the ends and cut to length. The diameter re-
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 181

quired for the box is subtracted from the width of the piece
and a distance equal to half the remainder is gaged from the
working edge. A piece is .bradded to each end of the stock
to provide a center for the dividers and a circle is drawn on
each end which coincides with the gaged line on the face, as
shown at A, Fig. 10. The
opposite sides of the circles are con-
nected either by gaging or drawing a line with a straightedge.
The margin on the face of the box each side of the diameter

Machinery

Fig. 10. (A and B) Laying out Cylindrical Core-box. (C) Core-box roughed out on
Circular Saw. (D) Use of Set-square for testing Depth of Core-box

should not be less than one inch. If the box is of stepped or

lagged construction, the circles are laid out by use of the de-
vice shown at B.

Roughing out Core-boxes. Core-boxes from the solid

should be roughed out by passing the stock over the circular
saw and making a series of cuts as at C, Fig. 10; the fins be-
tween the cuts are easily removed with a gouge. Stepped or
lagged boxes should be roughed out with the bent-tang gouge.
The Core-box Plane. The core-box planes shown in Fig.
ii are constructed to work on the geometrical proposition that
182 PATTERNMAKING

an angle constructed within a semicircle will be a right angle.

The wings are at an angle of 90 degrees to each other and the
iron or bit is on the face side of one wing to the cor-
set to cut
ner where it joins the other wing, but must not project beyond
it. The planes illustrated are manufactured or commercial
types. The smaller one, A, is suitable for boxes of from & to
2 inches in diameter and the larger one, 5, without the exten-
sion wing, will plane boxes of from i to 2^ inches in diameter;

Machinery

Fig. 11. Core-box Planes

with extra wings, which may be procured, the range may be

increased greatly.A very good core-box plane for small boxes
can be improvised from an ordinary wooden rabbet plane with
an extension or wing fastened on one side. Core-boxes up to
14 or 16inches in diameter can be planed with the core-box

plane, but for these larger sizes the wings will have to be well
braced to prevent forcing them out of square.
How Core-box Plane is Used. To start a core-box plane,
a thin guide strip (A, Fig. 12) should be bradded to the face
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION

of the box along one of the lay-out lines and a rabbet about A
inch deep planed with the edge of the plane placed against the

guide strip. The strip should then be reversed and a similar

rabbet planed at the opposite lay-out line, the two sides being
cut down as at B. Care should be exercised in setting the

guide strip as these rabbets fix the diameter of the box. With
the strip removed the planing is continued from each side, finally

meeting in the center at the bottom. Tapered boxes may be

planed in the same way, providing the taper is not too great,
the planing being with the taper on one side and against it on

Machinery

Fig. 12. (A) Starting a Core-box Plane. (B) Core-box after Cuts have been
started on Both Sides

the other. A produce a fairly smooth box, but if

fine cut will
a heavy cut is
taken, the result will be a rough surface that
will require finishing with a gouge or round plane. The face
of a box planed with a core-box plane will have to be refaced
as the action of the plane wears away the corners. The work
should be tested with an accurate go-degree set-square and the
faces planed until the corner of the square just touches the
bottom of the box when held as shown at D, Fig. 10.
Geared Type of Core-box Plane. Another form of core-
box plane has a fence which is held against the edge of the
12 K
 184 PATTERNMAKING

stock by a flat spring on the inside of a projecting piece on the

opposite side. The cutter is fed by a pawl and ratchet wheel
operated by moving the plane handle. An adjusting screw
regulates this movement and controls the amount of cutter
feed. One advantage of this tool is that it does not wear away
the box corners and so produces a perfect semicircle. It may
be used for boxes varying from f to 6 inches in diameter.
The Round-soled Plane. The round-soled plane, Fig. 13,
is a plane with removable bottoms or soles of varying radii.
It is used for working large core-boxes, fillets, etc. The soles

Machinery

Fig. 13. The Round-soled Plane

furnished with the plane illustrated correspond to diameters of

and 20 inches.
4, 6, 9, 12, 16,
Core-boxes ofVarying Diameters. Large core-boxes of
varying diameters are usually made in sections and fastened
together to make the complete box. If the sections are lagged,
they are fastened together by screws through the heads as at
A, Fig. 14, and may be further secured by checking the heads
for longitudinal rails or bars at the top and bottom. When
the sections are of solid or stepped construction, it is the usual

practice to fasten them to a bottom board as at B. Another

method making two or more diameters in a box is by filling
of
in. In box is made the full length to the largest
this case, the
diameter and then filled in to suit. If the box is comparatively
small, the filling-in piece may be a half bushing, as illustrated
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION

at C. This be made complete and fastened in place, or if

may
the box is to have but two diameters, the bushing block may
be glued in place and the inside planed with a core-box plane.
Large core-boxes are usually filled in by lagging or by nailing
narrow strips around the inside. If the box is to be used for
other purposes, it is better practice to plane up the lagging and
fasten it in place with screws so that it may be easily removed.

Machinery

Fig. 14. Core-boxes of Varying Diameters

Fillets for Round Core-boxes. The corner fillets in round

or half-round core-boxes are usually made of leather, but on
small boxes it is often more economical and results in a better

job if the different parts composing the box are so arranged

that the fillet may be worked from the solid wood, as at A,
Fig. 15; perhaps easier done before the box is finally as-
this is

sembled, although it may be worked out afterward with a

short-bend carving gouge. In laying out boxes similar to A,
i86 PATTERNMAKING

the material should be planed up and clamped together and

the face of the box laid out from a center line. On the margin

crossing the joints, lines should be scribed with a sharp knife,

these lines serving as a guide for reassembling the different

Machinery

Fig. 15. Fillets for Round Core-boxes

HARD WOOD % THICK

Machinery

Fig. 16. (A) Core-box Square. (B) Scriber. (C) Method of using
Square and Scriber

parts of the box. The lines may be observed crossing the

joints in the box shown at A. A method of making large fillets

that are to be fitted to a round or half-round box is to fasten a

ring of segments to a faceplate and turn them (see sketch B).

 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 187

Enough stock should be left on the outside to band-saw the

segments to the radius of the circle they are to fit. It is a
good plan to make them a trifle thick on the edges and work
them to a feather-edge with a gouge after the glue has set.
The Core-box Square. The core-box square A, Fig. 16,
is used in connection with the scriber B for marking lines across
a half-round core-box. The square consists of two pieces of
wood about f inch thick, fastened together at right angles.
The scriber B is a straightedge of hard wood with a piece of
steel wire fixed in one end; the wire is ground to a sharp point
and is set so that the point is in line with the bottom of the

./L
J\

\J

Machinery

Fig. 17. Core-box of Circular Cross-section but of Irregular Longitudinal Section

straightedge. Sketch C shows how the square and scriber are

used.
Core-boxes of Irregular Outline. Core-boxes of circular
cross-section but unusual longitudinal section may be quickly
made by clamping a sufficient number of parallel pieces together
to make up the required length and laying out the outline on
the joint or face side. An example is illustrated at A, Fig. 17.
The pieces are then taken apart and semicircles drawn on each
side of each piece to conform to the section diameters indicated
on the face. These pieces are band-sawed to the smaller circle
and re-assembled, using nails and glue. It is sometimes advis-
able to work each piece to the lines on both sides before assem-

bling. This permits using the spokeshave for finishing and

iB8 PATTERNMAKING

results in a box that is almost ready for sandpapering as soon

as it is assembled. In addition to a well-defined center-line,

an extra a should be scribed on the margin as a guide when
line

putting the different sections together. Another application

of this idea is made to elbow and crooked pipe core-boxes.
The pieces in this case, instead of being parallel, are wedge-
shaped, the joints being radial lines as illustrated at B.

Machinery

Fig. 18. Pipe Core-boxes

Pipe Core-boxes. Small pipe core-boxes are carved from

solid piecesbecause this method is quicker than trying to fit a
lot of small pieces together. To form the straight part of a
box with the least effort, it is sometimes planed from end to
end with the core-box plane, and filled in for carving the "ells"
or curved sections, as shown at A, Fig. 18. The remaining
straight parts are made with an inside-ground gouge and the
curved sections with an outside-ground gouge, using a templet
or the corner of the set-square to test the roundness. When
the box is built up of pieces, as at B, the straight sections of
the same diameter are planed in a long piece and then cut to
 CORE-BOX CONSTRUCTION 189

length and the different pieces assembled on a bottom board.

It will be noted that the joints at the central chamber are
covered with reinforcing pieces glued and nailed to the outside.
A good way to finish these core-boxes is to form the ells after
assembling, so that they will be sure to match the pieces made
with the core-box plane. A
core for a branch that stands at
an angle is usually made separate to abut against the main

Machinery

Fig. 19. (A) A Half Core-box. (B) Plug inserted in Core-box to form
End of Core. (C) Core-box made in Half Sections to permit
cutting Openings with Band Saw

core. Ahalf core-box with one end cut to fit the abutting core

(A, Fig. 19) or a block B made to fit a box to give the required
curvature, is all that is required unless the branch is off center,
in which case two blocks will be necessary. Where a number
box side, much time will often be
of openings cut through the
saved by making the box in two pieces so that the openings
may be band-sawed (see sketch C) or, if it is a staved box,
the joint staves could be left loose for this purpose.
 CHAPTER IX
PATTERN TURNING

PATTERN turning differs from ordinary wood turning in hav-

ing an entirely different objective. The patternmaker en-
deavors to do his turning as accurately as possible, both as to
size and form, while the wood turner strives for smoothness of

finish and artistic effect, and the question of accuracy in sizing

is secondary importance, being largely a matter of judgment.
of
The wood turner does most of his turning with a gouge and
skew chisel; the latter is slid skillfully along the rest with the
edge held in such a way that it skims the work with a knife-like
action that removes rather long thin shavings and leaves a
smooth surface that needs no finishing. The patternmaker, on
the other hand, must proceed slowly, using the scraping tools
that remove but a small amount of stock at a time, calipering
his work for size, and testing it with templets for form as the
work proceeds; he must stop at frequent intervals to oilstone
his tools, as the rapidly revolving work dulls scraping tools

very quickly, and accurate work cannot be done unless the

tools are in good condition. An excessive amount of sandpaper-
ing will be required to obtain a smooth finish if the turning is
rough, and this should be avoided on work requiring accuracy.
Pattern turning may be divided into two parts: turning
between two centers, and turning work held in a chuck or
fastened to a faceplate which may be called "faceplate turn-
ing." In turning between centers, the grain of the wood, as a
parallel to the axis of rotation, while
general rule, will be in

faceplate work the wood be fastened flatwise and the turn-

will

ing will be across the grain on the faces; end wood will also
be encountered on the edges unless the work is built of segments.
190
 PATTERN TURNING IQI

To turn this end wood smooth and to size necessitates the use
of very sharp tools, because if the tool is dull and requires un-
due pressure to make cut, the tendency will be to remove
it

more stock across the grain than at the end wood sections.
The be a rough job that will be out of round. Some
result will

shops are equipped with a lathe having a slide-rest, and with

boring, and turning straight and
all sorts of tools for facing,

tapered work. These are a great convenience and when pro-

vided with an index-plate can be used to space circles into

Fig. 1. Patternmaker's Lathe made by the J. G. Blount Co.

equal parts for laying out centers for bosses, gear teeth, and
similar work.

Wood-turning Lathe. The pattern shop has usually one

or more speed lathes for small work and a patternmaker's lathe,
such as shown in Fig. i, for turning larger work; this lathe
has a spindle threaded at both ends to receive faceplates of
different sizes and floor stands for holding the T-rests when

turning the larger work on the outer end of the spindle. A

floor stand equipped with a T-rest is shown at the left of the
lathe illustrated in Fig. i. If the shop handles much large
turned work it will also have a lathe intended exclusively for
faceplate work. Such a lathe is shown in Fig. 2.
IQ2 PATTERNMAKING

Lathe Speeds. The lathe speed is regulated through the

cone pulleys on the countershaft and lathe spindle, except on
some electrically driven machines that are controlled by a rheo-
stat which gives a much larger range of speeds than is obtained
by the use of cone pulleys. The turning speeds for pattern
work range from 1000 to 2500 feet per minute at the cutting
edge, but no fixed rule can be laid down owing to the large
variations in diameters
that often occur in the
same piece.
Adjusting the Lathe.
-The lathe should al-

ways be kept clean and

the running parts well
oiled and adjusted. When
preparing to turn on the
faceplate the end play in
the spindle should be
taken up by means of the
device provided for that

purpose on the outer end

of the spindle. On some
lathes this end-play ad-

justing device must be

removed
Machinery to turn on the
Fig. 2. outer end of the spindle,
Lathe intended for Faceplate Work
in which case the end play
can be taken up by placing a piece of wood between the centers
and tightening the tailstock spindle until there is no endwise
movement.
Starting and Stopping the Lathe. Before starting the
lathe, all the adjustments and clamps should be tested to see
that everything is secure, and the work should be revolved by

pulling the belt by hand to see that the work clears the rest.
It is better to start turning at a safe speed and increase it if

necessary after the work is rough-turned and is running true.

The lathe should never be run at a high rate of speed if parts
 PATTERN TURNING 193

of the work areoff center or out of balance. If the part to be

turned out of balance, it should be counterbalanced, although

is

this may not always be possible. A parted pattern of any

considerable size cannot be turned at as high a rate of speed
as a solid piece of the same size, owing to the tendency of cen-

trifugal force to pull the joint apart at the center. To stop

the lathe, the belt is shifted and braking is accomplished by

placing the left hand on one step of the cone pulley; but large
faceplate work should not be stopped too suddenly in this
way, as there is danger of its unscrewing from the spindle. A
nice, smooth piece of work can besafely stopped by braking on
the job itself, using a handful of shavings or smooth turnings to

~ V / C
Machinery

Fig. 3. (A and B) Lathe Centers. (C) Center with Driving

Dog in Place

prevent burning, but the work should never be stopped by

placing the hand on the back or edge of the faceplate, as there
are likely to be projecting nails or screw points, although these
should always be removed after a faceplate has been used.
Lathe Centers. The spur or live center A, Fig. 3, is used
for driving small and medium-sized pieces that are to be turned
between centers. It is tapered to fit the hole in the spindle,

and the driving end has a point and either two or four spurs
for driving purposes. inserted in the piece to be turned
It is

by setting the point in the center and driving the spurs in by

striking the end of the center with a mallet; the piece should
be placed on a bench or something equally substantial while
doing this. The spur center is removed from the spindle by
means ram-rod that is pushed through the hole in the
of a

spindle on the outside and used to drive it out. It is neces-

194 PATTERNMAKING

sary to put a distinguishing mark on one side of the center, so

that, by placing a corresponding mark on the work, it may be
removed and replaced in the same relative position with the
center.
The dead or tailstock center used to support the right-
hand end of the work is usually self-discharging and may be
removed from the spindle by drawing the spindle back with

Machinery

Fig. 4. Center Plates which are fastened to the Ends of Heavy

Pieces for turning on Centers

the handwheel as far as it will go, when the center will be auto-

matically pushed out. When in use, the dead center should

be kept well oiled.
The cup center B, Fig. 3, is a tailstock spindle center used

by the patternmaker in turning parted pieces. Unlike the

pointed center, which tends to force the parting open, the cup
center draws it together, the angle on the inside of the circular

ridge acting like a pinch-dog.

Center Plates. Center plates are wooden or metal plates
fastened to the ends of heavy pieces that could not safely be
centered in the wood itself. They are made in pairs and are
of different forms, as shown in Fig. 4. One of each pair is
 PATTERN TURNING 195

fitted to thespur center and the other to the dead center, and
they should have well-defined center lines, as well as screw-
holes each side of the center line. The central hole should be
drilled to fit a 3 -inch brad. Centers A and B are made of
hard wood, and C and D are of metal. Center C is designed
for use with a lathe dog, while D is provided with a driving pin
to fit a faceplate slot. The dead-center plate used with is D
without projections. The center plates are sometimes similar,

Machinery

Fig. 5. Screw and Cup Chucks

both being made for a dead center, and designed to be used in

connection with a driver.
To locate and fasten center plates in position, the central
hole and the center line or both are used. If the stock is solid,

it centered, a nail being put through the hole in the plate

is

into the center of the stock and the plate screwed in place; if
a parted piece is to be turned, the plate is located by the center
line and the joint between the two pieces.
Drivers. Drivers are devices other than the spur center,
used for revolving the work. There are many forms of drivers;
some are made to be used with a small slotted faceplate and
196 PATTERNMAKING

dog, as in machine shop turning, the center plate having a

projection to which the dog is fastened. Another form of
driveris illustrated at C, Fig. 3. The center has a square shank
over which the dog d fits. This dog engages a stout screw
driven into the end of the work and is fastened to the screw
with a belt lacing. Several lengths of dogs should be provided
to suit the different jobs.
Screw Chuck. The screw chuck A, Fig. 5, is a small chuck
or faceplate, with a single screw-hole in the center, which is

Machinery

Fig. 6. Faceplates used on Patternmaker's Lathe

used for turning bosses and other small pieces. The screw-hole
should be of such a size as to fit a rather thick gage wood-screw.
The work will be held more firmly if the screw is a snug fit in
the hole, and a much shorter screw can be used if it has a rather
coarse thread. In addition to the central hole, some screw
chucks have two holes, as at B, for fastening a wooden face to
the chuck. The face may be fastened in place and a small
hole made in the center through which the screw is driven, thus
 PATTERN TURNING 197

permitting pieces to be fastened to the chuck without remov-

ing it from the lathe, as the pieces may be screwed on and off
at will with the hand. There is a screw chuck furnished with
some lathes, which holds the central screw firmly and has an
attachment for regulating the projection of the screw through
the face of the chuck.
Cup Chuck. The cup chuck C, Fig. 5, has a round or
square recess into which the piece to be turned is tightly driven.
It is used for turning small rings and similar pieces that could
not be held in an ordinary chuck or between centers.
Faceplates. Cast-iron faceplates with hubs threaded to
fitthe ends of the headstock spindle are used for many turning

operations. They contain screw-holes countersunk on the

back for the screws used in fastening the wooden face or chuck

plates. The smaller sizes are sometimes provided with a recess

in the center for rechucking purposes. At A, Fig. 6, is illus-
trated a faceplate with raised ribs for holding a large chuck

plate having arms.

The wooden face or chuck plate is fastened to the iron plate
with screws for holding the work to be turned. These plates
should be made of fairly heavy stock, say i| or i^ inches thick,
so that they will be firm under the tools and will be able to
withstand considerable refacing or truing up without exposing
the points of screws used in their construction. The most
common form of chuck plate, suitable for work up to about 2

feet in diameter, is made by fastening with screws a stiff wide

batten cross-grain to the chuck-plate face, as at B, Fig. 6. For
larger chuck plates the same construction may be used, except
that the plate at the edges should be stiffened with a course of

segments glued and screwed to the back.

The armed chuck plate, shown at C, is applied to the face-
plate illustrated at A] the arms are fastened to the faceplate
with screws, and the segments at the ends of the arms are
fastened with glue and screws. Additional courses of seg-
ments are fastened to the arms with screws to accommodate
work of different size, but these should not be glued, as it will
be necessary to remove them from time to time. Chuck plates
 198 PATTERNMAKING
for small jobs that can be finished quickly may be made of solid

pieces without battens or other reinforcing.

Turning Tools. Patternmakers' turning tools are of two
kinds; namely, those that cut and those that scrape. In the
are the gouges A Fig. 7, which come in widths vary-
first class }

ing from J to 2 inches, and -the skew chisels B, which may be

procured in widths varying from J to i inch, advancing by
eighths of an inch. All other tools shown are scraping tools.
Chisel C is for finishing straight pieces, and it is made with
the cutting edge angled, either right or left, and varying from

B C
V
G H
Machinery

Fig. 7. Patternmaker's Wood-turning Tools

to 2 inches in width; tool D

is a square-nose, tool E, a round-

nose, and tool F, a diamond-point chisel. These tools vary

from | to i inch in width. The sizing or parting tool G is ob-
tainable in |-, f-, and f-inch sizes. Many patternmakers pre-
fer a J- or f-inch mortising chisel to a parting tool. Cutting-off
tools Hmay vary from J to f inch in width. The toothed
plane iron /, which is made with coarse, medium, and fine

teeth, and varies from ^ to 2 inches in width, is used for facing

segment courses; the parallel grooves cut by the teeth give the
glue a better chance to take hold. The fine-toothed iron is
used also to finish surfaces on large work, as the toothed edge
 PATTERN TURNING 199

is not so likely to catch and dig in as a straight scraper. Many

patternmakers use old files ground off smooth and old bench
chisels and these answer very well. Good
for turning tools,

tools are also made from barsteel and require no handles, but

they should never be ground at both ends, as a number of fatal

accidents have resulted from the use of this type of tool.

Fig. 8. Sharpening Wood-turning Gouge

Sharpening Turning Tools. Turning tools, to cut well,

should be ground to good straight bevels, and when the edges
become "dubbed" they should be reground. The gouge and,
perhaps, the round-nose can be sharpened best with the slip-
stone, while all the others are edged on a flat oilstone. To
sharpen the gouge it is held in the left hand, with the handle
13 K
2OO PATTERNMAKING

pressed against the left side by the elbow while the edge is
stoned with the slip, as illustrated in Fig. 8. The burr caused
by the stoning is removed from the concave side with the rounded
edge of the slip held the hollow side, so as not to bevel or
flat in

round the edge. These tools could be stoned on one side with
the oilstone, but this wears ruts in the stone.
The skew chisel is stoned on both beveled edges to remove
the burr, but the scraping tool will not cut unless the edge is
turned or burred. Both sides are stoned first to make the
edge smooth, and the last stoning is on the beveled side to

Machinery

Fig. 9. Tools used for laying out and sizing Turned Parts

burr or turn the edge; the burring is tested by rubbing the thumb
across the edge on the flat side at right angles to the edge.

Sizing and Lay-out Tools. The tools for sizing and laying
out work in the lathe should include both inside and outside
calipers A, B }
and C, and trammels.
Fig. 9, as well as dividers
The latter should be of the type fitted with both inside and
outside caliper points, as well as the ordinary trammel points,
as shown at D; the hemispherical buttons that screw on a

plain point or rod are used to caliper or scribe circles with a

hole as a center. Measuring rods are also used for sizing face-

plate work; these are made of J-inch stock, and are used for

sizing both the inside and the outside a ring.

of
 PATTERN TURNING 2OI

Fastening Parted Pieces for Turning. Parted pieces that

are to be turned should be securely fastened to avoid accidents.
If the pieces are not doweled, greater care should be taken

than they are, as the dowels will prevent the parted pieces
if

from slipping sidewise. Screws are the most convenient means

for fastening, and
in Fig. 10 are shown several methods of using
them. When
a straight cylinder is to be turned, the screws are
inserted as at A The screws should be countersunk sufficiently
.

to clear the tools during the turning operation. When the

ends are to be turned smaller than the body, the parts are held

Machinery

Fig. 10. (A,B, and C) Fastening Pieces (D and E) Locating Centers.

for turning.
(F) Simple Method of determining Amount to remove from
Corners prior to turning

as at or C; in one case the screw-holes are counterbored, and

in the other the stock is cut away at each end to provide clear-
ance. It is a good plan to leave ample stock on the ends of
such pieces, as the screws should be far enough from the ends
to avoid coming into contact with the centers and still leave
room enough to cut the piece off between the screws and the
ends of the pattern.
When tune will permit and it is not necessary to take the
pattern apart before the turning is finished, the parted pieces
may be glued for about an inch at each end. They can easily
202 PATTERNMAKING

be parted by splitting with a sharp chisel. The pinch-dog is a

clamping device that may also be used for this purpose, but it
is not safe to use on pieces that are not doweled, unless nails

are toed into the ends of the pieces to keep them from moving
sidewise, or corrugated steel fasteners are used.
Centering Solid and Parted Pieces. The centering of solid
pieces done by drawing diagonal lines from corner to corner,
is

as at D, Fig. 10. In the case of parted pieces it will be neces-

sary to have some means of determining when the joint or part-

ing is exactly in the center, when center plates are not used. A
good way to provide a check for centering such pieces is to gage
a series of lines on each end as shown at E. These lines should
be gaged from the joint before the two pieces are fastened
together. After the piece has been roughed off with a gouge,
the amount that the joint is off may be noted by turning
center
a space to a perfect circle, about
inch long at each end, and
noting the relation of the circle to the gaged lines. When the
circle coincides with two of the gaged lines one on each
side of the joint the joint is central. If the joint is not cen-
tral it willshow, and the piece will have to be moved by tap-
ping it lightly with a hammer. Another method of testing is
to turn a true spot on each end of the work, and test with a

pair of dividers. When the distance each side of the center is

equal, the joint is, of course, central.

In placing the piece to be turned between centers, the head-
stock end is placed on the spur center which has previously
been driven in, and the tailstock is drawn along the bed until
the dead center is in the center on the other end of the work,
after which the tailstock is clamped and the center driven into
the piece with the tail-spindle feed-wheel while the work is
slowly revolved by pulling the belt by hand; the center is then
backed out slightly to admit some machine oil before it is put
back into place and the spindle clamped to prevent its moving.
The end that is to be turned to the larger diameter should be
next to the spur center.
Removing Sharp Corners. Before starting to turn, it is

a good plan to remove the corners of square pieces, making

 PATTERN TURNING 203

them as nearly octagonal as possible. The circular saw can

often be used for this purpose, but in the case of very heavy

pieces, the corners may be removed with a draw knife after the
work has been centered. To lay out lines for removing the
corners, take a two-foot rule and lay it on the piece diagonally,

Fig. 11. Method of using Gouge for Rough-turning

as at F, Fig. 10. Measure 7 inches on the rule from one edge,

and this will give the distance to gage from the edges to cham-
fer the corners. If the work is small, use a 1 2-inch rule and
measure 3^ inches from the edge, or any other combination
in the same proportion. Adjust the rest at the center height
2O4 PATTERNMAKING

and turn the work around by hand to see if everything is clear.

Make sure that everything is locked securely before starting
the lathe.
Rough-turning with Gouge. The first actual work of
turning is to rough the piece off with the gouge. The handle

Fig. 12. Method of using Sizing Tool

of this tool should be grasped at the end in the right hand, as

in Fig. ii, while the tool itself is held lightly on the rest with
the and turned slightly in the direction of the cut, which
left

should be back and forth from left to right, and vice versa,
starting at the tailstock end of the job and working toward the
 PATTERN TURNING 205

headstock. The
angle at which the gouge should be held will
depend entirely upon the clearance angle of the tool and can
be determined very easily by experiment. The angle should
be varied continually until the one is found at which the tool
cuts with the least resistance.

Sizing Tool. The sizing tool is held on the rest with the
left hand, while the handle is pressed against the left side with
the elbow and forearm, as in Fig. 12. By pressing the tool
against the revolving work, a groove is cut. The calipers are
held in this groove and the instant the groove is deep enough

for the calipers to slip over, the tool is withdrawn and moved

MacJtinery

Fig. 13. Turning Shoulders

along and another groove cut. By turning several of these

grooves throughout the length of a piece, the right diameter
is produced at a number of points, and it is comparatively easy
to turn away the stock between the grooves leaving a smooth
straight cylinder. Straight work should be finished with a
straight scraping chisel and a straightedge. In
tested with

using any scraping tool, it should be held in such a manner

that the upper face of the tool is in the same plane as the cen-
ter or axis of the work.
Turning Shoulders. In turning shoulders, the skew chisel,
held on edge, is used to finish the shoulder as at A, Fig. 13.
The groove is first roughed out, and then sized with a sizing
tool, leaving enough stock for two or three cuts with the skew
206 PATTERNMAKING

which should be held so that the beveled edge is in line

chisel,
with the shoulder. Shoulders on large pieces often have to be
finished with the diamond point, as at B.
Turning Fillets, as a general rule, should be turned
Fillets.

last and finished with a round-nose tool. Small fillets can be

turned accurately enough by first turning so as to leave a square
cornered projection, as at A, Fig. 14, equal to the fillet radius.
Large fillets should be turned to a templet as at B, roughing
them out with a diamond-point tool and finishing with a round-
nose tool. The gouge is rather a dangerous tool to use for

Machinery

Fig. 14. (A, B, and C) Methods of forming Fillets. (D) Testing

Cylinder with Straightedge

this purpose, as it is likely to catch on the corners unless skill-

fully handled. The on long slender hubs cannot be
fillets

turned from the solid stock, and it is customary to turn a pin

and fit a disk with the grain the opposite way, as at C. The
fillet is formed on the disk which is glued and nailed to the hub.

Turning Small Core-prints. Every pattern shop should

have on hand a stock of both straight and tapered core-prints,
ranging from two inches down. Each print should have a pin
to fit some standard size auger bit. The straight prints should
be turned to the exact and perhaps -^t inch
size at the center

over size at the bottom and the top, while the tapered prints
 PATTERN TURNING 207

are made the exact size at the bottom. It is a good idea to

leave about f inch of the tapering print straight to prevent

sandpapering under size and also to help center the core, when
the molder has to file the end to fit.
Turning Cylindrical Patterns. The barrel of a cylindrical
piece should be roughed off with a gouge, and a space the width
of the sizing tool turned to size at each end; if the cylinder is
more than 7 or 8 inches in diameter, the lathe will have to be

stopped when calipering. The more spots that are sized, the
be to turn the piece straight, but it often happens
easier it will

Machinery

Fig. 15. (A and B) How Irregular Forms can be turned. (C, D,

and ) Fitting Flanges and Bands

that the work is sized with the calipers on the ends only, and
has to be turned from one end to the other with the straight-
edge as a guide, as shown at Z>, Fig. 14. As an aid to straight
turning, a straight line is sometimes planed with the fore plane
on one side of the barrel, from sizing point to sizing point. By
turning to this space, which may be chalked with blue to make
it prominent, much handling of the straightedge can be avoided.
The however, should always be done with a straight-
final testing,

edge. This method is also applicable to sizing and turning

tapered or conical work.
Turning Irregular Forms. Irregular shaped pieces are
given the desired form by turning them to fit templets, as shown
 208 PATTERNMAKING

at A, they are parted pieces, they may first be

Fig. 15, or, if

centered in the lathe and then taken apart and an accurate

outline of the desired shape laid out on the joint. By cutting
to these lines on one edge on the band saw, an excellent guide
for turning to shape is obtained when the pieces are put to-

gether again and placed in the lathe. An example is shown

at B.
Thin stock should be used in making templets, and the
edges should be beveled so as not to be over f inch thick; these
templets are chalked and rubbed on the work to see where it is
necessary to remove the stock. In using a templet on work
such as illustrated at A, a section at each end should first be
turned true for the templet to ride on.
Turning Long Slender Pieces. Long slender pieces, like

piston-rods, because they spring away

are difficult to turn,
from the tool and chatter and vibrate so that it is impossible
to turn them round or smooth. A temporary wooden steady-
rest will help to overcome this; the work may be revolved

slowly at first, and a true spot about two inches long turned
in the center against which to set the steadyrest jaws. Care
must be taken not to spring the piece in setting the steadyrest,
and the turning must be done carefully, or else the true spot
willwear away too quickly. When the rest is removed, the
spot turned first may be planed flush with the rest of the rod.
Straight rods are sometimes made by turning each end to size
and planing from one end to the other, finishing them by sand-
papering in the lathe.
Fitting Flanges and Bands. A standard joint for flanges
is shown at C in Fig. 15. A recess is turned in the print to re-
ceive the flange. As a rule, the flange is fastened from the
inside with screws, which necessitates taking the pattern apart.
This is objectionable, as is also the fact that the flange cannot
well be moved after Fitting over the print and
it is in place.

against the shoulder formed by the barrel, as at D, is perhaps

the most satisfactory way, as the flange may be nailed or screwed
from the end, and if it is to be built of segments on the barrel,
it will be found the handiest method, besides lending itself well
 PATTERN TURNING 2OQ

to alterations. The against which the flange fits

shoulders
should be turned under or hollow so that the flange will make
a tight joint. If the flanges are solid or built together of seg-
ments they should not be sawed to size until they are ready to
be used. They will fit much better if this rule is observed.

Long have raised bands, as at

straight pieces will sometimes
E, that will require a lot of time and the removal of consider-
able stock if turned from the solid. To overcome this, grooves
are turned, and the bands built in of segments.

Turning for Squares and Hexagons. Portions of turned

patterns are often made

square or hexagonal to take a wrench,
and it is customary to turn these parts round and divide the
circumference with a pair of dividers in laying off the lines to

Machinery

Fig. 16. Laying out Square or Hexagonal Patterns

cut to. After the circle is on a straight

divided the piece is laid
surface and a parallel straightedge, wide enough to be in line
with the center, is placed beside it, as at A, Fig. 16, for draw-
ing the Two parallel straightedges may also be fastened
lines.

together at right angles and used for the same purpose, as at

B. To determine the size of the round for a given square or
hexagon, it may be laid out full size or calculated. If square,
the distance d, Fig. 17, across the flats multiplied by 1.4142
will give the distance D
across the corner; if hexagonal, the
distance d across the flats multiplied by 1.1547 equals the dis-
tance D across the corners.

Faceplate Turning. Faceplate or chuck plate turning dif-

fers from that previously described in that the work is sup-

ported at one end only, and, for the most part, the wood grain
presented to the tools will run in a different direction. This
210 PATTERNMAKING

branch of turning consists of facing and outside and inside turn-

ing or boring.
Turning Small Bosses. The quickest way to turn a small
boss is to fasten a piece to the screw chuck, turn it to the

diameter at the base of the fillet, and face off the end. The
dividers are set to the radius of the boss, and, with the point of
one leg in the center, a circle is drawn with the lathe running.
The rest is then swung around parallel to the axis of the work,
and the thickness with a second pair of dividers; if
laid off
there are a number of bosses to make, it will save time to have
two pairs of dividers. With a cutting-off tool a groove is turned
about J inch deep at the thickness line. The fillet is turned

D
>|
D=d X 1.4142 D =d X 1.1547
Machinery

Fig. 17. Relation between Diameter and Width across Flats for
Square and Hexagonal Forms

with a round-nose tool and sandpapered and varnished before

the boss is cut off. If a central hole for a skewer is needed, it

can be bored with an auger bit, the lathe being run slowly, but
the hole must not be deep enough to strike the central screw.
In cutting off, the tool is held in the same manner as a sizing
tool and the right hand is used to catch the boss, as shown at
A, Fig. 18.
Another way to turn larger bosses and facing pieces is to
use a suitable wooden faceplate. It should be trued up and
a circle scribed corresponding to the rough outside diameter
of the boss. The piece to be turned is fastened to the face-
plate with three or four brads, driven with the heads protrud-
 PATTERN TURNING 211

ing about J inch so that they may be withdrawn. The outside

is turned with a diamond-point tool, and the fillet finished to
the scribed line with a round-nose tool. The fillet should be

sandpapered in the lathe, but the face should not, as the nails

are in the way. The stock should be planed to the exact thick-
ness before turning. Bosses, core-prints, etc., requiring a cen-
tral pin, be quickly made by planing up the stock and
may
laying out the circles for sawing. In the center of each circle
a hole is bored part way through, and a dowel-pin glued in and

CHUCK PLATE

Machinery

Fig. 18. Examples of Faceplate Turning

allowed to extend the required length of the pin. A hole is

fit the pin and the pieces are fastened
turned in the faceplate to
with nails.
Facing. Turning a surface that is at right angles to the
"
axis of revolution is called
facing," and when a piece is so

turned it is said to be "faced off." In facing, the rest should

be set a trifle below the center, and if the surface is small, say,
2 feet or so in diameter, the roughing off may safely be done
with a gouge. The tool should be sharp and the surface should
be tested with the lathe running, by holding a straightedge
against the face and noting where the stock should be removed.
212 PATTERNMAKING

When the face is as straight across as it can be made with the

gouge, it should be finished with the scraping chisel. The
lathe should be stopped for testing and the straightedge chalked.
If it is straight there will be a chalk line across from side to
side when the edge is rubbed (see sketch B, Fig. 18). If the
piece to be turned entirely covers the faceplate, it is well to
make the latter a trifle hollow, as at C, and if a built-up ring is
to be turned, a space large enough for the ring is all that will
be required. The
outer part of chuck plate D
has been faced
for a built-up ring. A center should always be made on every
faceplate with the trammel or divider points; in fact, a center
should be made on all turned pieces whether the immediate
need for it can be seen or not.
When turning large faceplates, the diamond point will be
found a safer tool to rough off with, particularly if the plate is
considerably out of truth. The finishing should be done with a
scraping chisel, and the surface should be tested with a straight-
edge. Segment courses should be faced with the same tools,
following the same general rules, but for finish courses that
are to be built on, the toothed scraper will be found very useful.
When facing segments, in addition to testing them from side
to side with a straightedge, a segment in each course should
be tested across the face with a square blade, and it is a good
plan to make them slightly hollow so that the next course will
be sure to show tight joints at the edges. On very large work
there is likely to be more or less vibration of the faceplate which
will causea scraping tool to dig in and catch; this can be ob-
viated by finishing the face and outside of such rings with the
toothed scraper and removing the tooth marks with a sharp
block plane set to make a very fine cut. The plane is held on
the face or outside of the ring while it is slowly revolved.
Too much care cannot be exercised in fastening work to the
faceplate. The screws should the holes bored for them, as
fit

three screws in tightly fitting holes will hold more than seven
or eight in holes that are too big. Work that has been glued
to the faceplate does not require as many screws as work applied
dry.
 PATTERN TURNING 213

Building Work on the Faceplate. Large work is always

built on the faceplate without removing the latter from the
spindle. Figure 19 shows a method of building webs or plates
by means of sectors, with the grain running from the center
to the outside. The pieces are nailed, screwed, and glued to
the outer and inner segment rings, pinch-dogs being used to
draw the joints together. A
portable bench may be used for

Fig. 19. Building up Work on the Lathe Faceplate

work of this kind. In the particular job shown under con-

struction in the illustration, the ends of the segments and the

joints between the sectors were finished on the disk grinder.

This method of building is often used for truncated cone-shaped

patterns as at A, Fig. 20, which shows a pattern for the cast-

iron bottom of a steel air vessel in course of construction. The
outside and inside rings are built of segments and turned at
an angle for the staves with the gram running to the center.
These staves were planed with a round-soled plane to fit, and
2I 4 PATTERNMAKING

were nailed and glued to the segment rings. The pattern was
finished outside and rechucked for finishing the inside. To
obtain the thickness of the bottom when turning the inside,
two J-inch holes were bored when the outside was finished, and
pins equal in length to the required thickness were driven in
flush; the inside was then turned in a straight line from one

pin end to the other.

Another cone-shaped pattern for the under support of a
boring mill bearing is partly shown at C, Fig. 20. The top
ring in this case is turned and centered on a support built on

CHUCK PLATE

HacJtlncrt/

Fig. 20. Methods of constructing Cone-shaped Patterns

the chuck face on which the large ring is built and turned.
This support is not shown in the illustration, but may be made
of box form with a top to which should be fastened the smaller
flange; it should be stiff and securely fastened to the chuck
face by screws. The staves are laid out, as at B, by drawing
two concentric circles, representing the large and small diam-
eters at the extreme ends of the staves. The larger circle is
divided into an equal number of parts and lines x are drawn

from the spacing points to the center, giving the widths y and z
at the widest and narrowest part of the stave and also the in-
cluded angle a of the edges in a plane b-b. This angle or taper
 PATTERN TURNING 215

isnext transferred to one edge of a stave, and this edge is planed

by hand to the lay-out lines. This edge may then be used to
set the bevel while the stock is held against the face with the
blade at right angles or in plane c-c. The bevel is next used
for setting the fence on the jointer. A shoulder was turned
on the bottom ring against which the wide ends of the staves
were fastened with glue and secured by toe-nailing into the ring.
Screws were used for fastening at the top. The staves were
made tapering with square edges, then beveled and worked
out on the inside with a round-soled plane, a templet being used
at each end to obtain the right curvature, and a straightedge
to test with in finishing the intervening space straight; the
staves had to be worked carefully, as this pattern was not
turned inside. The rebate to fit against the shoulder was cut
with a back-saw, chisel, and flat gouge.
Tools for Facing Large and Small Disks. Small disks
should be roughed off with a gouge, but the diamond-point
tool will be found more suitable for the larger ones, as it offers
less resistance to the when they come around, and
high spots,
there is little The gouge should be
danger of its being caught.
used, however, on large and small work to reduce it to size, and

should be very sharp to produce smooth surfaces. The edge

should be tested by squaring from the face and the piece should
be brought to within TS inch of size before finishing with the
scraping chisel. The same
may be used for finishing
tools

segment work, but the gouge must be used carefully, if at all,

on the larger jobs. The toothed scraper may be used for finish-
ing outside segment work before the scraping chisel is applied.
Inside Turning. For inside pattern turning, it is safer to
eliminate the gouges and substitute the diamond-point and
round-nose tools. A very good tool for putting a rough hole
through a disk is shown at H
in Fig. 7. It is known as a cut-

ting-off tool; with it a piece 3 inches in diameter and about ij

inches thick may be taken out at one cut. The diamond point,
when used on inside work, should be ground at such an angle
that the leading edge will not strike the faceplate before the

point. Segment work should preferably be roughed off with

14 K
2l6 PATTERNMAKING

the point of the tool as at A } Fig. 21, and finished with the

scraping edge, as at B. Very small holes are always hard to

turn, as the diamond point often cannot be used, but they can
be finished satisfactorily with a narrow square-nose tool that is
ground to cut on the side, as at E, Fig. 18. The end of this tool
may be used for boring the rough hole and the side for finishing.
It saves time to start small holes by boring a smaller hole first
with an auger bit.

Turning to
Templets. The templets used for shaping
pieces on the faceplate need be only half sections of the form
desired, as shown in Fig. 22. In turning elbows and U-pipes C,

Machinery

Fig. 21. Inside Turning

it is and outside diameters and the

better to turn the inside

thickness, and then turn from the center to the outside and to
the inside, using a quarter-round templet, as at A, Fig. 23.
The work may be checked with a half-round templet when
finished. In turning quarter-rounds, it is a good plan to bevel
the corners away.
Rechucking. When a piece that is to be shaped on both
sides has one side finished, it must be reversed and again placed
in a central position on the faceplate to finish the opposite side.
With a small piece, this is done by turning a recess in the face-

plate to fit the outside diameter tightly, as at B. If the piece

is small, no screws will be needed, the friction being enough to
hold it in place, but if it is fairly large, it would be safer to use
a couple of screws. With large pieces, there are objections
 PATTERN TURNING 2I 7

to turning grooves in the faceplate; therefore, it is the prac-

tice to saw segments of from rV to TQ inch thick and attach
them to the faceplate as at C, leaving sufficient stock for turn-

ing to size. These segments may be spaced some distance

apart, and they can be arranged for chucking both inside and

J h CHUCK PLATE

Machinery

Fig. 22. Turning to Templets

CHUCK PLATE

Machinery

Fig. 23. Additional Examples of Faceplate Work

out. The diamond-point tool should be used for this work.

Bosses are sometimes turned on pieces to fit the hole in the
faceplate, as at D, for the purpose of rechucking.
Sizing and Testing Faceplate Work. The outside calipers

may be used for sizing small pieces with the lathe in motion,
2l8 PATTERNMAKING

as previously explained, but for the larger pieces the lathe

will have to be stopped. The inside calipers should never be
applied to work while the lathe is running. The draft in holes
may be tested by measuring the hole top and bottom with the
inside calipers and testing for straightness with a straightedge.
For sizing ring work over diameter, a good plan is to
2 feet in

use a measuring rod, as at A, Fig. 24. This gives the inside

and outside diameters and is used as shown. One end of the
rod has a piece bradded to it to notch over the edge. To test
the draft, a straightedge and square are used as at B. The
square with a sliding blade is well adapted to this work.
Keeping Segment Work Square. In facing segment work,
blocks should be bradded in the center to raise the center about

MEASURING ROC

STRAIGHTEDGE
[5

Machinery

Fig. 24. Sizing and testing Faceplate Work

flush with the segment faces, and the segment edges on every
second course turned true for f inch. This is to prevent run-
ning out of square with the face. A center may be made on
the raised center blocks and a circle scribed on the face as a
new setting line for the next course. Trammels used in this

way are shown in Fig. 25.

Turning Flywheel and Pulley Rims. In turning flywheel

rims, the center course or courses should be turned to a thick-
ness equal to the thin end of the spider arm plus a small amount
left for facing when the ring is rechucked. The object in doing
this is to be able to cut on the glue joint when making the gains
or sockets for the arms. This center course, or courses, is
marked No. i in the view A, Fig. 26. The fillet that connects
the inside of the rim and the arm is turned from course No. 2,
 PATTERN TURNING 2IQ

and course No. 3 extends to the top. Course No. 3 is faced off
until the distance from the face to the center of course No. i
is equal to half the face of the wheel. The center is blocked up
level with the face and the inside diameter laid off with a pair
of trammels. The tapered part and the inside of the bead

Machinery

Fig. 25. Use of Trammels in Connection with Segment Work

course are then turned and a center line scribed. The bead
and fillet are then turned a templet, as at B. The
and fitted to

rim is next rechucked, as at C, the bead finished, and the in-

side and bead sandpapered. The spider arms are then gained
and fastened to the rim; next course No. i, which is now upper-

Fig. 26. Turning Flywheel and Pulley Rims

most, is faced off flush with the arms, and courses Nos. 4 and 5
are applied and finished as at D. The outside of the rings
should be turned off roughly before finishing the inside, so that
the work will run in better balance, but the outside should not
be turned to size until fully built up and finished inside, unless
220 PATTERNMAKINC

there some good reason for it. It is sometimes possible to

is

turn rims on the inside without rechucking, when the face is

wide and the straight part on the inside runs far enough away
from the chuck plate to turn the fillet at the base of the bead.
Turned Partings. Partings for turned work are of the pin
and socket variety. A variation from this is the loose rim
turned to fit a recess that is used for pulleys to avoid parting
the web.
Turning Holes and Recesses off Center. Holes and re-
cesses that are off center may be turned and bored by laying
out the position of the holes, as at A, Fig. 27, and boring a

Machinery

Fig. 27. Turning Holes or Recesses Off Center

f-inch hole through each center and a corresponding hole in

the chuck-plate center. A
J-inch dowel-pin is pushed through
the pattern into the hole in the plate to center it, as at B. The

pin is withdrawn after the pattern is fastened, which may be

done with screws or with nails if the pattern is light in weight.
In turning pieces off center, the lathe should be run slowly and
the chuck plate counterbalanced if necessary. This is an ex-
cellent way of turning countersunk screw-holes that are to be
cast.

Turning Eccentric Rings. The drawing for an eccentric

ring usually has the inside and outside diameters and the thick-
nesses at opposite sides given, as at A, Fig. 28. It is a good
 PATTERN TURNING 221

plan to build these rings as though they were to be concentric,

leaving plenty of stock on the outside. The inside of the ring
is turned first. A cross-piece for a center line is fitted into

place and the outside of the ring laid out with about re inch
left for turning, as shown at B. The ring is then taken from
the faceplate and the square center lines are drawn on the in-
side before the ring is band-sawed on the outside lines. A center
line is next laid out on the faceplate, and on this another center

is located a distance from the true center equal to one half

the difference between the thick and thin sides of the ring.
From this center a circle is scribed corresponding to the inside

Machinery

Fig. 28. Turning Eccentric Rings

diameter of the ring at the bottom, and the ring is rechucked

for turning the outside by setting the inside to the center line
and the circle.

Turning Balls. To turn a parted ball pattern, two pieces

of suitable size are turned to fit together with a pin and socket

A, Fig. 29. The thickness of these pieces

joint as indicated at
should be a greater than the radius of the finished ball
little

with the outside diameter about xV inch over size. Rechuck-

ing is done by means of the pin or socket; the outside is turned
to the exact size and to the required thickness and the corners
turned away as at B. A templet of thin wood or sheet metal
is next used to finish the half ball, as at C.
222 PATTERNMAKING

If the ball is to be a solid one, it is turned carefully to tem-

plet and about re inch over size, as at D. The ends are then
cut off and the ball fitted to a cup chuck to within or J inch A
of the center, as at E. This chuck is turned away on the in-
side so that the ball, when pushed tightly into it, will be held
by a ridge about | inch wide at the face. A
groove is turned
with a |-inch chisel at the center of the ball and to the exact
diameter; the ball is then revolved in the chuck so that an-
other groove may be turned to the same diameter and at right

in.

Machinery

Fig. 29. Turning Balls or Spherical-shaped Parts

angles to the first one. To finish the ball, it is only necessary

to turn away the stock between the grooves, which must be
done carefully to prevent the ball from flying from the chuck.
Sandpapering Lathe Work. Straight turned pieces should
be sandpapered with the paper wrapped around a straight block;
if the inside of a large ring is to be sanded, the block may be
rounded to fit the inside of the ring. Sandpaper wrapped
around a straight dowel-pin will be found an effective means
for sanding very small holes. Fillets and round outlines are
 PATTERN TURNING 223

sanded with the sandpaper held in the hands. It should never

be held in one spot, but moved back and forth so that the abra-
sive will not cut a series of parallel grooves. Coarse sandpaper
should be used and the finishing should be done with a
first

finer grade. Lathe work should always be given a coat of

shellac, which is allowed to dry and is sandpapered before being
taken from the lathe, unless pieces are to be fitted and glued
to it, in which case the shellac would prevent the glue from

sticking.
 CHAPTER X
PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS

STEAM cylinders, such as are used in work, are of

pump
three general styles: (i) the single cylinder with a foot cast as
an integral part of the cylinder or with a pad against which

Machinery

Fig. 1. Pattern for Steam Cylinder

to bolt a foot; the single cylinder designed to bolt to a bed

(2)
with the steam chest on the side; and (3) the duplex form in
which two cylinders are cast en bloc, which means that they are
both part of one solid casting.
224
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 225

The single cylinder pattern, Fig. i, has a staved barrel and

the breast and foot are screwed from the inside. The only
loose pieces are the projecting lugs on the breast face, which is
cut away to receive them; these pieces are usually of hard
wood and fastened with wire skewers. The breast is the first

piece to be fitted. The

pieces that compose it are dogged
together, planed to the barrel circle as at A, Fig. 2, and fitted

to the drag side of the barrel, which is laid on a flat board, as at

B. When both pieces are in place, the outline of the breast

Machinery

Fig. 2. Details of Pattern Work on Cylinder

is laid out, as at C, and cut. The breast face, fitting piece,

and exhaust boss are put in place and the core-prints located,
as at D. When the cylinder is to be mounted on a bed, the

parting must be the opposite way, as at E, and the foot on one

side must be loose to pick in; on the breast side, where the foot

overhangs at each end, these pieces are also loose. In this

type of cylinder, the breast is not central and the steam
ports must follow the contour of the barrel at the ends; the
breast must also be curved to suit (as shown in sketch A,

Fig. 3), running from a point that is square with the part-
226 PATTERNMAKING

ing at the breast face to a circle that is concentric with the

barrel.
The duplexcylinder B, Fig. 3, is parted through the center,
below the breast face and where the foot joins the barrel; it
is molded in a three-part flask. The exhaust, instead of com-

Machinery

Fig. 3. Pattern for Duplex Cylinder

ing through a boss on the side, is brought through the end in

the center, both cylinders exhausting through the same open-

ing. A tail-print is used to carry the exhaust core. These

cylinders may be either single- or double-ported, which will

not affect the arrangement of the core-prints to carry the

cores.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 227

Steam-port Core-boxes. When the breast is central, it is

customary to make only a half core for the ports, and in the
case of small cylinders, these are sometimes made a part of the

body or bore core, as shown at A, Fig. 4. This makes a core

that is fragile and hard to handle; therefore, the general prac-
tice is to make the cores separate. In making this core-box,
the lumber dressed and the ports laid out. The main piece
is

as well as the two side pieces are clamped to a battened bottom-

board and the dowel holes bored (see sketch B, Fig. 4). After

CORE-PRINT

Machinery

Fig. 4. Steam-port Core-boxes

the ports are cut, the dowels are fitted and the pieces will then
go back into their proper places. The ports of the casting are
usually chipped on the sides and ends, T inch being the usual
allowance; thus this "chipping strip" must be provided for at
the ends by fastening a thin piece to the bottom-board between
the openings. Where the
ports abut against the body core, it
is necessary tofasten pieces to the side to make the round.
The ports should be laid out from the center with a pair of
dividers, as everything must be central if the two halves are to
228 PATTERNMAKING

go together and match. It is usual to lay out the exhaust on

this core-box, although the exhaust core is made in a separate
core-box ;
a print, however, must be provided in order to

Machinery

Fig. 5. Details of Steam-port Core-box Construction

center the exhaust core, and this is placed on the steam-port

core-box.
On large cylinders, instead of the cores being together, they
are made separate and to fit individual prints placed on the
breast face and sometimes prints placed in the body core-boxes.
Such boxes are made the full width of the port, as illustrated at
C, Fig. 4. Boxes for ports that are off center are also made full
width, and where a section of the port must follow the cylinder,
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 229

they are built up as at A Fig. 5 the pieces that form the out-
, ;

side of the core-box are made to correspond.

Another type of core-box used on very large work is made
with two side pieces and a bottom to form one side of the core
(see sketch B, Fig. 5). A strickle is used to form the other
side. This style of box can also be applied to cores that are
off center by making a strickle to follow the straight part at
one end and the curve at the other. Upright cylinders with
the breast madeas part of the cylinder head have a short port
and a long port on opposite sides of the cylinder running through
projecting pieces placed on the sides and cutting through the

PIECE FITTED INEACH END OF BOX

TO MAKE IT RIGHT AND LEFT

MacMncry

Fig. 6. One Form of Exhaust Core-box

flange on the ends; these cores are carried by prints on the

ends of the pattern and others placed in the bore core-box.
Exhaust-port Core-boxes. Exhaust-port core-boxes, owing
to their form, must either be whole boxes or, if in halves, they
must be made right and left. The coremaker does not like
small boxes of this type made whole and is very apt to use
them separately and paste the two halves of the core together,
but in making the boxes the patternmaker will obtain a better
"
match" if he dowels the pieces together, even if the pins are
afterward cut off and ends placed on the boxes. In the mold
the core is supported by the print on the boss, and is centered

by the print placed in the steam-port boxes.

230 PATTERNMAKING

To avoid making two boxes, a " double ender" is sometimes

made to stop off right and left, as illustrated in Fig. 6. The
steam is introduced some cylinders through an opening
into
in the side that extends through a boss which is about on a
linewith the exhaust opening, but to the rear of it. The first

opening mentioned cuts into a pocket cored in the breast face,

the core being a part of the steam-port core. The core that
makes the opening is separate and supported by a print on the
boss.

Pump Cylinders. A
pump cylinder, A, Fig. 7, is con-
sidered a rather complicated piece of core work, and although

Machinery

Fig. 7. Pattern for Pump Cylinder

the type shown is not as complicated as some others, it will

serve to illustrate how this kind of pattern work is done. This
is what is known as a "compact cylinder," both suction and

discharge valve plates being cast as part of the cylinder. The

suction opening is on the side and the discharge is through a

separate cover bolted to the top. The opposite to the com-

pact type has separate suction and discharge valve plates and
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 231

separate suction and discharge boxes. These cylinders are

builton heads laid out and made as at A, Fig. 8, the curved
ends being worked to form before the cylinder is staved;
the two half heads are doweled for this purpose. The heads
are fastened to a straight board for staving, and if the cylinder
is long, intermediate heads are put in to add stiffness. The

Machinery

Fig. 8. Details of Pump Cylinder Pattern

barreland the fillet and round corner that connect it with the
worked to shape with hand planes, after the two halves
side are
have been staved and doweled together, dogs being used to
hold them. The plate that forms the top is fastened by screw-
ing to the ends of the heads, and when they are in place, the
pattern should be corner-blocked inside for further strengthen-
15 K
232 PATTERNMAKING

ing and perhaps a bar fitted lengthwise for rapping and lifting
purposes. This bar should be notched into the heads so that
it be about | inch below the joint face; it should be a stout
will

piece as it will receive some hard usage.

Facing pieces to form the projection of the flanges beyond
the ends of the cylinder are next fastened in place; these may
be turned, but are made more quickly on the band saw and
are just as good. Leather fillets may be used. To get the
flange thickness, these facing pieces are backed up, as at B,
Fig. 8. If the barrel is to be enlarged at the ends, as it some-

times is to form a chamber, the enlargements or "swells" should

be fitted. The facing pieces on the top, that come at the bot-
tom of the drag and the top of the cope, must be loose and
may be arranged to dovetail into the pieces at the ends, as
shown at C. When the foot and suction boss have been fitted
and fastened, leather fillets are applied and the corners rounded,
after which the pattern is sandpapered and given a coat of
shellac. There should be a print on the foot, a print at each
end to carry the bore core, one on the suction hub or boss, and
four prints on the top face to help carry the cores that form
the discharge chamber, as shown at D. These prints on the

top face correspond to the valve-seat openings; the cores for

forming the other openings are just long enough to cut through
the metal.

Pump Cylinder Core-boxes. The chambers in a pump

cylinder are connected by passages or ports or by circular open-
ings into which the valve-seats are screwed, unless it is the

type of with separate valve-plates, in which case the

pump
coring problems are greatly simplified. There are many differ-
ent arrangements of valve-plates, and the location of the suc-
tion opening also varies. A
typical lay-out for a piston pump
is shown in Fig. 7. The suction is on the side of the cylinder,
or is sometimes made lower down and brought through that

part of the casting that forms the foot, and the water is drawn
into the suction chamber through the suction valves, into the

cylinder and forced out through the discharge valves at the

top.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 233

Figure 9 shows another arrangement of cores in which the

suction is under the cylinder and enters at the end, the suction

valves being in the bottom of the cylinder. This cylinder is

for a plunger pump, the plunger working in a sleeve fitted into
the opening in the central partition. This arrangement of the
suction is also applied to some piston pumps. The cylinder
in this case is round at the end and opens into a square or rec-

tangular chamber where the valves are placed.

These different chambers are formed by separate cores as
far as possible to simplify the work. In Fig. 7 the core for the

Fig. 9. Another Type of Pump Cylinder

suction opening and chamber is made in one core-box, and the

core for the ports and chamber under the discharge plate is
made in another core-box. The ends of the ports in the core-
box are made circular to fit the bore core against which the
port cores abut. The valve-plate openings are made with
separate cores set in core-prints placed in the boxes; these prints
are usually made \ inch thick and, where possible, they are set

opposite one another in adjoining chambers, so that the small

core will have a seating in both of the larger bodies of sand,
as at B, Fig. 7; this arrangement, however, will often interfere
with the setting of the cores as a whole, so that each core will
234 PATTERNMAKING

have to be one of the larger cores and abut against the

set in

other, as at C. Another arrangement to insure an even thick-

ness of plate is to make the prints smaller than the openings
and the core shouldered as at D. In arranging for cores of this
kind, it must be borne in mind that they are to be pasted in
the print and will have to be made about rV inch thinner than
the lay-out to allow for this.
The bore core for the cylinder shown in Fig. 7 is straight,
but this is not always the case, as the ends are frequently en-

Machincry

Fig. 10. Pump Cylinder Core-box Construction

larged to form a counterbore where the ports cut in, as at C,

Fig. 10. Where a removable lining is to be used, this chamber
at the rear end is larger than at the front, and a facing must
be made for the flange of the lining to fit against. The core for
such a cylinder is shown at D. These enlargements are made
on the bore core and the ends of the port cores must be made
to fit against them; the box is usually made to fit the smaller
end and strickled down to fit the larger, so that there will be
no trouble in changing the box right and left.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 235

The suction core-box A , Fig. 10, is made on a bottom-board

to which the valve-seat prints are fastened, and the frame is
doweled. The frame of the box is fastened at the corners
except on the side where the suction opening comes; here it
parts at the center to release that part of the core. In making
the box for the ports and the discharge, the valve-seat prints
are fastened to a board that is fitted to the box so that it will

slip out with the core, but two of these openings at the joint
are cut out to match the prints placed on the pattern. This
box makes two cores one right and one left and they must
be fastened together to. make a whole core; it is on the circular
ends of this box that the strickles are used to make the ports
fitthe projections on the bore core. This core is sometimes
made in a box that forms a complete core, the side marked x

(sketch B, Fig. 10) being made the bottom of the box; this is
not as convenient as the way previously described, nor does it

lend itself well to alterations. The most common alteration is

the placing of hand-hole openings at the ends, and these are cut
out of the ends of the box. If ribs are required in the ports
to connect them with the walls of the suction chamber to pre-
vent the ends of the cylinder from pulsating when the pump
isrunning, they are made to draw through, the ends being fitted
to openings cut for this purpose and being checked into the
other side of the port.
The main core-box for the type of cylinder shown in Fig. 9
is made with the The ends are half round
joint on the line c-c.
and the center portion square or rectangular. The box is made
to the dimensions of the deepest side measuring from the top,
and loose blocks are fitted to the bottom to form the more
shallow half. Core-prints are fastened to the bottom as well
as to the loose pieces to carry the valve-seat cores.
In handling work of this character, where a number of
cores are put together to form interior, the work should be
an
carefully laid out and the boxes just as carefully made, as other-
wise the total dimensions of the cores may be too small or too
great. It is essential that the valve-seat openings come directly
over each other, and it is the practice to leave | inch finish on
236 PATTERNMAKING

these holes so that they will be sure to machine in line with

each other.
Cylinder Pattern for Vacuum Pump. The vacuum pump
cylinder pattern shown in Fig. n has a valve plate which is
located at an angle. The pattern is boxed with cross-bracing
where needed and is well corner-blocked inside. It is made
to mold with the flange down, the molder's parting running

along the bottom of the flange. The print only is made in the

Machinery

Fig. 11. Pattern for Cylinder of Vacuum Pump

drag,and the portion from this parting to the center of the

barrelis in the cheek and the rest of the pattern in the cope.

The hub on the end at the flange, the feet on the barrel, and
the half flanges with core-prints under the pattern parting are
loose. The two half flanges are let into the ends of the pat-
tern and dovetailed into place. These half flanges and core-

prints are turned, but the barrel itself is planed and the swells
at the ends built on.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 237

An end view of the core-box is shown at B. This view

shows how it was built and angular valve-plate which
also the
holds the discharge valves. A
central rib in the upper half
divides the core, making three cores in one box. The upper and
lower halves of the box are loose from the valve -plate, being
held in position by dowels. These cores could be made in sepa-
rate boxes, but this type of cylinder is very light and great

U CORE-PRINT*!

CORE-PRINT

[-, CORE-PRINT->|

Machinery

Fig. 12. Pattern and Core-box Work on Jacketed Cylinder

trouble was experienced when they were made that way. This
difficulty led to the adoption of the box illustrated. To pre-
vent the core from going in the wrong way, a corner of the
print was cut away and the box filled in to suit; the piece cut
away was small and the box was filled in right down to the plate,
which left a V-shaped corner in the casting, but did no harm.
Valve-seat prints were located on the plate and on the level
part; they were placed on both sides so that the seat cores
 PATTERNMAKING

would project into both larger cores and keep the top ones
from slipping down the incline. The prints on the angular
part of the plate had to be tapered enough to draw when the
plate was lifted in the direction indicated by the arrow at C.
The top of the box was strickled to fit the swells on the bore
core.
Core-box for Jacketed Cylinders. Jacketed cylinders are
those having a space between the outer and the inner walls

Machinery

Fig. 13. Details of Pattern and Core-box Work on Jacketed Cylinder

for circulating cooling water. The core used for making this
space is called a " jacket core" and must fit around the bore
core. It is supported either by openings through the sides of
the cylinder or through the flanges at the end. When the
openings are through the sides, they generally have bosses so
as to give enough metal to tap for pipe plugs to close the open-

ings, as at A, Fig. 12. The core-box B is a half-round box cor-

responding to the outer diameter of the jacket and filled in at

each end to the inner diameter for the strickle to slide on. The
cavity in the bottom is to reduce the amount of metal in the
breast, and there are blocks in this cavity to form metal around
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 239

the straight ports that extend through the breast face. The
jacket core-box must always be filled in where openings extend
from the outside to the inner bore so as to form metal around
such openings. The cavity of this box was filled in to make
the other half of the jacket core.
With most jacketed cylinders, it will be found more con-
venient to build projections on the side instead of at the bot-
tom. These boxes are sometimes built the reverse way, and
the openings will have to be cut through pieces doweled to the
ends and running lengthwise of the box, but a core made in
this way is difficult to handle. When the openings are to ex-
tend through the ends, a print corresponding to the outside

Machinery

Fig. 14. Cylinder Head Patterns

diameter of the jacket is made on the end of the pattern, as at

A, Fig. 13. The openings are cut through the end piece that
isplaced in the core-box, as at the piece parting as shown.
,

The inside diameter of these ends must be the same as the

diameter of the bore core around which the end fits; there-

fore, in order to make

the part between the ends right for the
inner diameter of the jacket, a strickle must be used to remove
the surplus sand, as at C. Small jacket boxes are very often
made complete, and this type of cylinder is frequently poured
with the mold on end to secure a sounder casting.
Cylinder Head Patterns. A
back cylinder head is shown
at A, Fig. 14. The swell on the outside is necessary because
of the recess turned on the inner side to accommodate the
240 PATTERNMAKING

piston-rod nut. The

smaller sizes are usually made of a solid
hard wood, but the larger sizes must be
piece, preferably of
constructed of segments with the rim in three courses, and
the center of a solid piece as at B. Other examples of segment
construction are shown in Fig. 15. In fitting the segment ring
and center together, the recess is first turned in the ring and
the center turned to fit it; the ring is then fastened in place
and the inside turned to a templet. The pattern is next re-
chucked on the fitting piece for turning the outer face; the

Machinery

Fig. 15. Other Examples of Cylinder Head Patterns

finishing of the diameter should be left to the last. A front

head B, Fig. 15, is built in the same way except that, instead of
a swell, it has a hub to form the stuffing box. If it is the type
of head that has a deep projection into the cylinder, which
will comeinto the cope, it should be made loose, and if the
loose piece is doweled to the cope side, there will be no neces-

sity of rechucking the pattern. Water- jacketed heads are made

in a similar manner to cored pistons, one pattern usually being
made to answer for both front and back heads by placing a
hub in the core-box and a boss on the outside to make the
stuffing box.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 241

Cylinder Feet. Cylinder feet are either cast as a part of

the cylinder or are separate pieces bolted to pads placed on the

cylinder for that purpose. Duplex steam cylinders are often

cast separately and bolted to a long foot called, in some locali-
"
ties, a cricket." Small feet are usually what are known as
"open" and have a single central rib or two ribs placed at the
edges. These feet are fastened to the cylinder by gaining the
web (which is made long) flush with the joint and fastening

Machinery

Fig. 16. Different Forms of Feet or Supports for Cylinders

with screws, as at A, Fig. 16. The closed or cored foot B has

a projecting core-print. This core-print must be long enough
to balance the core that is made in a half box which does not

part, as it is possible in a case like this to give the box consider-

able taper. The rounded end is formed by a loose piece fit-

ting into the end of the box. In making these feet, the sides
a (see sketch C) should be thick enough to cut them back to
make the core-prints, and the top piece b should be kept back
so that the flange may be fastened to the sides and also be
242 PATTERNMAKING

nailed through the face into b, as this does away with the neces-
sity of fitting and fastening to a taper. The top part of the
print is put on last and the inside corners should be reinforced

with corner-blocks. This style of foot is fastened from the

inside, which is an easy matter when it is staved; otherwise

TT

SECTION THROUGH <l-b

Machinery

Fig. 17. Cover Patterns

screw pockets will have to be made in the joint and the screws
driven at an angle.
When the face of the foot is parallel to the parting, as at
Dj Fig. 1 6, there no necessity of parting it, and if the lift on
is

the inside is not deep and of such form that it provides plenty
of taper, it may be made to leave its own core. If the lift is

deep and heavy, a print should be placed on the face and a

core-box made. This print need not be very deep, as its only-
function is to locate the core, which in most cases will have to
be hung in the cope.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 243

There are a number of styles of separate feet to bolt on,

the designs E, F, and G being typical. Pattern is solid, E
the sides being nailed to the end pieces, which are worked to

shape and fastened to the top before the sides are nailed and
glued. Pattern F has a central web and is parted and usually
made in two ways; at F the sides are placed between the top
and bottom, and the half web is fastened on each joint, while
at G the top and bottom are placed between the sides which
run to the center and the joint is rabbeted to receive the web.
The construction at G does away with the projecting end wood,

LOOSE PRINT

SECTION THROUGH PATTERN

A

Machinery

Fig. 18. Pattern for Large Cover

which is a good feature, and also eliminates the feather-edge

where the side joins the bottom at F. The draws on some of

these patterns are quite deep, so that plenty of draft should
be provided on the inside. Loose feet are rabbeted into the
barrel in order to avoid fitting to the round.
The style of machine foot shown at H, Fig. 16, is closed on
the bottom and is only partly open at the top; it must be made
with a core to obtain the best results. The core-print is made
flush with the under side of the top pads. The core-box ex-
tends from the end to the center rib, and the round column is

fastened to a batten screwed across the face of the box.

244 PATTERNMAKING

Patterns for Discharge Covers. Patterns for small dis-

charge covers A, Fig. 17, are frequently carved from a solid
piece. Hard wood is best for the purpose. The pattern block
is parted through the center for laying out, the inside finished,

and the block glued together before the outside is touched.

A larger size of cover, such as is illustrated at A, Fig. 18,
will have to be built up. The lower rounded corner should
be worked inside and out up to the point where it meets the
curved top; this point is indicated on the lay-out at a. This
curved part is made like molding and is mitered at the corners

SECTION a-b

Machinery

Fig. 19. Discharge Cover Pattern made to leave its own Core

as shown at B. These miters are cut in a miter-box with a form

to hold the molding in place. Half-lapped joints are used at
the corners where the flange is fitted around the mitered part
and the top is made of two pieces of suitable thickness fitted

into the opening in the mitered frame and resting on the angular

edges. The reason for fitting this piece in halves is to lay it

out on the joint and band-saw the central hole. The hand-
hole bosses are fitted afterward, and the core-prints are left
loose for drawing. If the opening in the mitered frame is too

large to be filled by a piece made in this way, it will have to

be built of comparatively narrow pieces.
 PATTERN WORK ON CYLINDERS 245

Covers are sometimes semicircular in cross-section, as at

B y Fig. 17, in which case it is customary to build a piece the
lengthwise and miter the ends. This piece is built
full section

on forms with feathers in the joints, and it is mitered on the

band saw by fastening a board to the bottom on which the
miter is laid out. By cutting the miter on the straight part
with a band saw, the band saw can be kept to the line by watch-
ing through the arch. The ends are cut in the same manner,
a form being used to hold them in the correct position.
The discharge cover shown in Fig. 19, which has an open-
ing at each end at the top and hand-hole pads on the sides,
presents a more difficult molding problem than the other covers
referred to, altnough the pattern itself is perhaps not so diffi-

cult to make as the one with the arched top. The pattern is

made to leave its own and to mold while in the position

core
shown in the illustration. It must be given a fair amount of
draft on the straight sides, tapering from the top side of the

flange at the bottom up to the parting at the top. The hand-

hole plates, with prints attached, are doweled to the angular
ends with the dowel-pin holes bored parallel to the line of the
draw. The pipe at the top is turned and cut to make the loose
ends below the parting. These short pieces have hardwood
pieces fastened on the ends to make the fillet which is left \
inch thick at the edges and gained into the sides and held in

place with dovetails; a single dovetail piece is placed in the

center of each. In turning the pipe section, dowel-pins should
be placed in the core-prints and the print to carry the core is
made to run through the pattern from side to side on the inside,
so that a single length of straight round core is all that is re-

quired. In making these patterns, the body is made to fit the

inside of the flange which is glued after being framed with
corner lap joints, as this makes a pattern that cannot spread
and can be more securely fastened than if the pattern is built
on top of the flange, which sometimes results in the flange pro-
jecting inside of the pattern and causing an under cut.
The vacuum cylinder cover shown at B, Fig. 19, is a flat,
shallow box with the discharge opening on the top and pro-
246 PATTERNMAKING

jecting over the side. The parting line is indicated in the

illustration. piece below the parting is made loose at the
The
flange. This parting in the mold does not follow the pattern
parting, but runs along the center and extends at an angle to
the corner of the flange. In order that the section over the
flange may away with the cope, it is made as shown, in sec-
lift

tion. Very often hand-hole pads will project on the flange

and cover a spot where a stud hole is to come, and it will be
necessary to place a core-print on the flange and core a pocket
for the nut.
 CHAPTER XI
WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS
THE making of patterns for wheels of different designs is a
common job in pattern shop work. There are two general
classes of wheels; one has the plate or solid center and is called
a "webbed" wheel, and the other has spokes or arms. In the
web design, holes are sometimes cut through the web to de-
crease the weight of the wheel, and armed wheels of wide face
are frequently provided with a double set of arms; the latter

type of wheel, when it is made very long, is generally called a

"drum."
Webbed Wheels. Inbuilding webbed wheels with seg-
ment rims, as is the usual practice, the segments should run in

Machinery

Fig. 1. Method of constructing a Webbed Wheel Pattern

continuous courses to form the face, a recess being turned in

the central course to receive the web, which is circular in form.
This construction is end and side wood of the
to prevent the
web from projecting through the rim and causing under-cuts
or projections as the result of the shrinkage of the web. Wide
webs are often put together with open joints to counteract the
effects of expansion and contraction. The web should fit the
recess turned to receive it and should be glued and nailed in
16 K 247
248 PATTERNMAKING

place as at A, Fig. i, and the segments should be continued to

make the full width of the face, as shown at B. The exposed
side of the wheel is turned to size both inside and out; it is

then rechucked and the cope side is finished with a recess turned
to receive the loose cope hub as shown at C. This forms a thick
.edge on the cope hub, which is not easily broken.
If there are to be ribs, those on the cope side should be
loose (not attached and a dowel-pin put through
to the hub)
one of the ribs to keep the cope ribs in line with those on the

Machinery

Fig. 2. How Ribs may be fitted to Hub

drag side. These ribs are sometimes checked into a turned

hub as at A, Fig. 2, but this does not always make a strong job.
halve them, and if more
If there are four ribs, it is preferable to

than four, they may be extended to the center and the hub
formed by filling in the corners with blocks running the oppo-
site way and D. With the
of the grain, as illustrated at B, C,

exception of the case shown at A, these methods do not provide

fillets where the hub joins the web, and none of them provides
fillets where the ribs join the web or at the inside of the rim at
the rib ends. The fillets are often left to the molder, but if

they are required on the pattern, the hub fillet will have to be
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 249

turned as a raised boss, and pieces will have to be fastened to

the web and the inside of the rim to form them as shown at A,

Fig. 3. Thegrain of the wood is usually made to run in the

direction indicated in the illustration; the fillets are sometimes
fastened to the loose ribs and away with them, but this
lift

results in feather-edges andnot satisfactory.

is When the
ribs are very long, they are sometimes kept in the proper posi-
tion by being tongued into the fillet pieces at the ends as at B.

& WT^^S?

Machinery

Fig. 3. Methods of forming Fillets

The groove should be given plenty of taper so that the loose

cope will lift away freely.
Flanged Wheels. A wheel with a flange on one edge is
built in the same manner as a straight-faced wheel, except that
the segment courses for the flanges should be made larger to
form the flange, which should be in two courses to give strength.
If the flange is very thin, a single course with splined joints
will make a good job. If the wheel has flanges on each edge,

however, it will have to be built differently, as such wheels

are usually made in a three-part flask, and the pattern will
have to be parted accordingly. There are three ways in which
this may be done. The first way is by parting the pattern
through the center of the web as at A , Fig. 4, a pin being turned
250 PATTERNMAKING
in the cope half and a recess for the pin in the drag; this is the
usual method making sheave patterns (see view B) and link-
of
chain wheel patterns. The second way is to leave the web
solid and turn a rabbet to the rim center to receive the cope
side, as shown at C. The third plan is to make one of the
flanges a loose ring as at D. These different methods all have
their advantages. Method A is usually chosen for small wheels,
and those turned from solid pieces are always made in this way.
Coring is another method of making flanged wheels, sheaves,
and chain w heels. It has the advantage of giving a solid pat-
r

Machincri

Fig. 4. Pattern Work on Flanged Wheels

tern that is easy and cheap to construct, and is perhaps the

better way of doing the work if the face of the pulley or the

groove in the sheave is to be machined. A core-print is built

on the rim of the pulley or sheave as shown by the dotted lines
at B, Fig. 4. The print should extend to the center of the
round edge of each flange, should be a seg-
and the core-box E
ment that divides the print into equal parts. For a sheave,
the segment or part core is made in halves which must be pasted
together to complete each part or section. This is the most
economical method, although each segment may be made com-
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 25*

plete by a full box parted through the center or by forming one

half of the core with a strickle. The core-print should project
beyond the rim far enough to balance that portion of the core
that projects into the mold.
Wheels with Arms. When making patterns for armed
wheels, which are those having spokes radiating from the center,

Machinery

Fig. 5. Construction of Patterns having Arms or Spokes

the spokes are worked to form usually before they are assem-
bled, and are fastened to the rim by being built in during the
turning process or after the rim is finished. The assembled arms
are called a "spider/' and there are a number of ways of fasten-

ing them together at the hub or center.

HubJoints for Spiders. In making spiders, the stock must
be wide enough to make the fillets in the corners near the hub

and also where the arms join the rim. If a four-armed spider
is required, it is usually made of two pieces with a cross-lap
252 PATTERNMAKING

joint at the center as at A, Fig. 5, but care must be exercised

not to make the shoulder joints too tight a fit, as there is like-

lihood of springing the stock away from a straight line. If the

spider is to have six arms, these

may be made of three pieces
of stock joined at the center in the following manner: The face
side of each piece is marked and the lines for checking are laid
off on the face of arm a (see view B) and the back of b; these
lines should be at an angle of 60 degrees with the side of the
stock, and the distance between the lines should be equal to
the width of the arm pieces. The marking gage is next set to
two thirds the thickness of the stock and both a and b are gaged
from the face side on the edges for cutting away the stock be-
tween the 6o-degree lines on the face of a and the back of b;
arms a and b can then be put together and the lines for c laid
out. The chuck for arm c is one third the thickness of the
stock, gaged from the face of the assembled pieces. When
arm may be put into place, and the lines to fit the
c is cut, it

angles where a and b join can be marked on the back of c,

which is then gaged from the face side with the last gage
setting, which equals one third of the thickness.
The face
sides in the illustration are designated by /.
To fit and an odd number of arms, it is
join spiders having
most convenient to lay out the arm centers and miters on a
stiff and true lay-out board; the board should be true, because

the spider is to be assembled on it finally. The center lines

should be drawn on the board well beyond the arm ends, so
that the arms, which have a center line on one face and on the
outer ends, may be set to them (see view C, Fig. 5). As soon
as the arms are jointed, they should be fastened to the board

by through the sides and ends, and the central

toe-nailing
miters should be drawn together with pinch-dogs. Each joint
should be numbered and a mark placed on the end of one arm
and the board, so that they may be returned to their proper
positions when being glued. The best way to secure the central
miters is with a feather or spline in each joint, although this is

often dispensed with, the butt joints being glued and the spider

being glued and screwed to the drag hub. When the arms
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 253

have all been fitted, they should be laid out and band-sawed
so as to leave as hand finishing as possible.
little

Tapering Spider Arms. Spider arms usually taper from

the hub to the fillet where they join the rim. This taper must
be laid out on each edge of the arm if it is to be worked by
hand, but if it is to be tapered on the jointer the laying out
may be dispensed with. Where there is a bead on the inside
of the rim, the taper extends to the end, but if the wheel or

pulley has no inside bead, the taper stops short of the end to
provide stock for a fillet. This necessitates rechucking the
work to turn the fillet on the under side; consequently, it is

probably more economical, in most cases, to extend the taper

to the end of the arm and then apply leather fillets where the
arm joins the rim of the pattern. The tapering part is some-
times formed on small spiders by turning, but this is dangerous
work and is not to be recommended. The safety-first rule
should always be followed even though the work may require a
longer time.
Working Spider Arms to Form. In almost every case it
will be found more economical to work the arms to form before
fastening them to the rim, and unless the spider is very small,
the arms should be formed before the spider itself is assembled.
The arms of pulleys and flywheels are generally elliptical in
cross-section, which is usually shown at the hub and rim ends
on the drawing with the dimensions giving the widths and
thicknesses. If the section is elliptical and the proportion of

width to thickness is about 2 to i, an elliptical section for mark-

ing out the templet may be secured by turning a cylinder equal
in diameter to the thickness of the arm, and cutting and plan-
ing it at an angle until the angled section at the center equals
the arm width.
The arm section may be laid out as shown at Z), Fig. 5, by
firstdrawing a square section of the arm, and from the center
scribing a circle equal to the width of the arm. The curvature
made equal to radius r. A section of the arm at
of the sides is
each end should be laid out full size, and lines tangent to the
section curve drawn at the corners of the square section. These
254 PATTERNMAKING

lines arenext transferred to the arms at the points correspond-

ing to the sections and are connected by straight lines; the
arms are then chamfered as at A, Fig. 6. Templets are used
while working the section at each end to form, and the space
between these sections is worked in a straight line with a spoke-
shave and small plane. A straightedge that will just reach be-
tween the templet positions may be used for testing this part of
the work. This same plan is followed in the working of levers
and other patterns that have cross-sections of a similar shape.

Machinery

Fig. 6. (A) Arm and Spoke roughly formed. (B, C, and D) Methods
of attaching Arms or Spokes to Rims

Where the fillet on the end joins into the bead, it should
be left full and finished after the spider is in place. When the
arms are finished, they are reassembled with glue and fastened
to the board until dry. If the arms have been tapered to the

ends, pieces corresponding to the taper will have to be fastened

under the ends to bring them level. A hand-screw should be
used on the end of each arm to draw it down, and it is a good
plan to screw the other end to the board.
Fastening Spiders to Rims. The best way to fasten a
spider in place is to check it in when building the rim as shown
at B, Fig. 6, but this construction costs a little more than to
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 255

notch the rim as at C. In the latter case, the spider arms are
fastened by screws and sometimes with dowels from the out-
side of the rim. If there is no bead, or if the rim is too thin

for checking, the spider will have to be fastened through the

rim, and the fillets formed by fastening hardwood pieces at the
end of the arm as at D, with the grain running at right angles
to the grain in the arm. Spiders for double-armed pulleys are
made in this way and are held in place with loose skewers fit-
ting holes bored through the rim into the end of each arm.
The rims owing to their shape, often afford but
of bevel gears,

little chance to fasten the spider which can only be notched in

a short distance, and they must not be fitted or clamped too
tightly, as it is an easy matter to spring the rim. Standard
pulley patterns are usually made with a metal spider and rim,
and the spider is not fastened to the rim, as it is possible to
make several widths of rim from the same pattern when the
spider is loose.
Wheels Made without the Use of a Pattern. Many wheels
of different kinds are made without a whole pattern, and in some
cases with no pattern at all, the arms being formed by cores
and the rim by a sweep. This is the cheapest method of mak-
ing a wheel from the pattern shop standpoint, but it results in
an increased cost for molding. Small wheels may be made
by making a plain cylindrical pattern corresponding to the out-
side diameter and face width of the wheel to be made. If the
hubs are to come flush with the edges of the rim, a cope and
drag print placed on
is the pattern, but if the hubs are short,
the core-prints may be placed in the arm box. It sometimes
happens that the hubs beyond the rim, in which case
project
bosses will have to be placed on the cope and drag sides to
make up for the part not formed by the core. A print is some-
times provided on the drag to locate the arm cores, but they
may be set by measurement.
Another way of forming the rim, and the one most com-
monly used, is by means of a segment or part pattern that
ismoved in a circle as each section of the mold is rammed, its
movements being guided by a bar connecting it with a central
 PATTERNMAKING

pin driven into the sand bed. For a small wheel, an entire
arm is made in a core-box as illustrated at A, Fig. 7. This
core-box must embrace a sector of the circle corresponding to
the number of arms in the wheel; if there are to be three or four
arms, the sector must include a third or a fourth of the circle,
as the case may be. The arm is parted at the rim fillet and
draws through the side of the box at the hub center in the direc-
tion indicated by the arrow. The side of the box that forms

BOTTOM BOARD'
SECT|ON a . b
A SECTION -/>

Machinery

Fig. 7. Core-boxes used for forming Wheel Molds

the inside of the rim is loose to draw the opposite way. These
cores are usually fastened together before being set into the
mold.
The arm boxes for larger wheels are made with a half arm
as at B, fastened to the bottom board.
This box, which is
rectangular in form, must be wide enough to allow about two
inches each side of the arm or to embrace a sector of the hub

corresponding to the number of arms. The depth of the box

equals half the depth of the deepest part of the wheel, and as
the sides may be given a generous amount of draft, there is no
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 257

necessity for partings at the corners. By cutting the arm

across at the at each end and screwing it to the bottom
fillets

board so that it may be removed readily, the same box may

be used for several sizes by making new arms and ends at the
rim. Such a wheel would have the same size hubs and the
same arm which the box was made.
sections as the one for
In making the wheel, the molder sets the cores on a circular iron
plate (two half cores being fastened together to form each
arm) to center lines which regulate the spacing of the arms.

The space between the arm cores is filled in with green sand
to form the inside of the rim between the cores. segment A
of rim reaching from core to core is used to hold the sand in
place. This space is sometimes finished by a sweep, turning
on a centralspindle, in which case it is usual to sweep the out-
side in the same way, and sometimes the outside is made in
loam with the brickwork built on an iron ring. The plate, with
the arm cores, is lifted away while the outside is being made,
and instead of a sweep, segment, or part pattern, a number of

segment cores are sometimes used for this purpose; but this
method does not give the best results, as the rim will be uneven
and not true unless the cores are made and set exactly right.
Screw Propeller Wheel Patterns. A screw propeller for
driving a boat consists of a central hub and two, three, or four
blades. These blades are sectors of a screw thread and may
be cast solid with the hub or made as separate pieces that are
bolted to the hub. Large propellers are made in the latter way.
The side of the blade that strikes the water first when in action
is called the face or working side. It is flat or straight along a
cross-section while the opposite side, called the back, is round-

ing, being thickest in the centerand running in an arc to an

almost feather-edge at the edges of the blade. The blade also
tapers from the hub to the tip, being made quite thick at the
hub section and rounded to a thin edge at the tip of the
blade.

Right- and Left-hand Propellers. A right-hand propeller

wheel is one that drives a boat forward when it turns to the

right, or in the same direction as the hands of a clock, while a

 258 PATTERNMAKING

left-hand propeller turns in the opposite direction when driving

a boat ahead, the progress of the boat in both cases being viewed
from astern.
Pitch of Propeller Wheels. The pitch of a propeller is the
distance would move forward in one revolution if it were a
it

screw acting in a nut, but water is yielding and this causes some
lost motion and a difference between the theoretical distance

the screw should advance in a given number of revolutions and

the distance it actually drives the boat. This is called the
"slip" or "slippage" and the per cent of slip is calculated by
dividing the slippage by the theoretical distance the screw
should travel. The pitch ratio, sometimes referred to, is the
ratio that the pitch bears to the diameter of the wheel, and is

found by dividing the pitch by the diameter of the wheel. If

the blades are sectors of a true screw, the wheel is called a true
pitch wheel, while if the blade increases or decreases in pitch
from hub to blade tip, it is called an expanding or decreasing
pitch wheel, as the case may be. A
wheel might be a combina-
tion of true, expanding, and decreasing pitch at different points,
in which case it would be designated as compound pitch.
Pitch Angle of Screw. The pitch angle of a screw is found
by laying off on a base line a distance equal to the circumfer-
ence of the screw and on a perpendicular line a distance equal
to the pitch of the screw. By completing the triangle, the
hypotenuse gives the pitch angle of the screw. In the case of
a propeller it is the pitch angle at the blade tip. With a pro-
peller thiswould often mean a very large triangle, so it is cus-
tomary to divide the diameter and pitch by some number that
will give the same proportions on a more convenient scale; a

better plan, however, is to use the radius as the base-line dis-

tance and divide the pitch by 6.28. The constant 6.28 is the

quotient obtained by dividing the circumference of any circle

by its radius.

Propeller Patterns. Except in the case of very small

wheels it is not customary to make a pattern for more than
one blade, as a better balanced casting results from all the
blades being molded from the same pattern. The molder can
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 259

readily move the blade to form a wheel with the desired num-
ber of blades. The draftsmanusually works out all the de-
tails of the wheel to be made, such as the outline of the wheel,

the pitch angle, and sections at different points on the wheel

radius, but practice in this respect varies greatly and some-

times the information furnished is meager and the pat-
quite
ternmaker has to work out many on
of the details for himself
his full-size drawing or lay-out. A true screw is one in which
all the face elements are straight lines radiating from the hub

center to the pitch angle at the blade tip, and is built of layers
or cants of parallel thickness, with the edge that is to coincide
with the face of the wheel a perfectly straight radial line. These
cants (see sketch A, Fig. 8) are made with the hub section as

part of the cant, and to insure the face lines running to the
center a hole is bored through the hub center on each cant to
fita dowel-pin. Enough cants must be used to make the entire
blade equal in width to the widest part. With some forms of
blade it is not necessary to extend all the cants to the center,
as some sections will project above or below the hub, although
it is the practice in some shops to run them all to the center and
cut the hub down to thickness afterward. The thickness of the
cant stock will usually vary from f inch to 2 inches, depending
on the size of the wheel and the stock available. It is essential
that the stock be of even thickness and parallel, as if it is not,
the wheel will run out of true when it is built.
Laying out Propeller Wheels. In laying out propeller
wheels a smooth board of ample size is required. It should
have one straight edge and it is a good plan to sandpaper it to
a smooth surface all over. Figure 8 shows a lay-out for build-
ing a wheel, the pitch angle being found by laying off the cir-
cumference and pitch. A plan of the wheel with a scale of
thicknesses shown is illustrated at A.
in section The radius
of the wheel is divided intoan equal number of parts desig-
nated aa, bb, cc, and dd; and the straight edges of the blade
are continued out to the periphery dd for convenience, as all
cants are to extend from the outside to the center. At B is
shown the hub with the pitch angle dd at the blade tip, inter-
260 PATTERNMAKING

secting the hub projecting aa, bb cc, and dd of lay-out A

center. By
over to B, the pitch angles at these points are determined. For con-
venience these pitch angles and the hub lay-out are transferred and
arranged as at D. The thickness and number of cants is now deter-
mined and gaged from the edge of the board and a center line square

Machinery

Fig. 8. Diagrams illustrating Method of constructing Screw Propeller Patterns

with the face of the blade is drawn on sections a, b, and c. The thick-

ness in the center of each section is transferred with a pair of dividers

from corresponding points on the thickness section on the plan A, and
arcs are drawn intersecting these points and the edges of the blade.
The thickness at the blade tip is shown by a parallel line also taken
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 26l

from the thickness section at dd on the plan. Lines are then squared
from the points where the pitch angles and the backs of the blade in-
tersect the parallel cant lines as at x, y, and similar points. This gives
the widths at the designated positions of all the cants, each of which
will be different. At C is the lay-out for cant No. 5; it is, of course,
laid out directly on the stock by gaging a center line from one edge

Machinery

Fig. 9. One Method of laying out Propeller Pattern

which should be straight and squaring a cross-line for the hub center.
Radii a, b, c, and d are then transferred from the plan to the cant, and
the thickness and hub diameter are taken from the corresponding
sections of cant No. 5 shown at D. A fillet is drawn connecting the
hub circle with the face edge of the cant and a thin batten is used to
draw a line through the points on radii a, 6, c and d\ this will not be a
straight line. A hole for a pin is bored through the hub center and
262 PATTERNMAKING

then the cant is ready to be band-sawed. The procedure for

the other cants is similar to that described. To save time in
laying out, a templet may be used to scribe the radii.
When the pitch angle is determined by laying off the radius
and the pitch divided by 6.28, the propeller may be laid out as
illustrated in Fig. 9. The points a, b, c } and d on the plan are

Machinery

Fig. 10. Patternmaker's Lay-out for Propeller having " Rake Aft"

projected across to the transverse center line of the hub. The

pitch point x is laid out on the axial center of the hub a distance
below the transverse center equal to the pitch divided by 6.28.
By drawing lines from the pitch point x through the intersections
of projections a, 6, c, and d the pitch angles at these points are
y

determined. The rest of the lay-out is the same as in Fig. 8.

 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 263
" Rake Aft." So far we have only
Propellers Having
presented lay-outs for true screws, but there is another type
of propeller in common use that requires considerably more
skill to lay out and build. This is the wheel where the blade is
inclined astern or has a "rake aft," as they say. A drawing
and lay-out for such a wheel is shown in Fig. 10. On the lay-
out the center line of the wheel and the lines representing the

face of the wheel, the rake aft, and the thickness of the blade
from hub to tip are drawn. The pitch point is the same as for
a true screw, but the pitch points for a, b, c, and d must rise to
suit the rake, and are stepped off above the pitch point to cor-

respond to the distances the face of the wheel is offset relative

to the horizontal center at a, b, c, and d. The sections are

laid out in the same manner as for a true screw, but the lay-
out and appearance of the cant will be different; instead of a

straight face it will be curved.

By referring to Fig. n be noted that the pitch points
it will
for 0, bj Cj and d have been laid off above pitch point x and the
pitch angles are drawn from these points through the inter-
sections of a, b : c, and d with the face or rake aft line. To
develop the face curve, arcs are struck from points y on the
horizontal center line. These arcs intersect the points where
the pitch angles intersect with the horizontal center lines. The
face curve is then drawn through the points z. The widths
are then taken from the lay-out, and a curve is drawn for the
back of the cant. The wheels so far illustrated were laid out
with a view to forming the backs by cutting away the surplus
material between the intersections of the glue joints as indi-
cated by the darkened portions of the sections. This method
gives a finished wheel, but is only applicable to comparatively
small wheels say 4 or 5 feet in diameter. The more com-
mon method is to make all the cants alike and work the backs
off to thickness afterward.
The lay-out for a true pitch wheel where all the cants are
alike is shown in Fig. 12 and should require but little explana-
tion. A single cant thickness is shown and lines parallel to
the pitch angles representing the thicknesses of the blade at
17 K
 8

264
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 265

these points, are drawn; this gives the width of the cants at

these points and has only to be transferred to the cant stock

itself. If the blade is to have a rake aft, the same lay-out will

do, but the cant will have to be laid out differently. In the
lay-out shown 13, the pitch angles all extend from a
in Fig.
common point intersecting the center line of the cant at points
y. Next a point is laid off on the vertical line d, a distance x

Machinery

Fig. 12. Lay-out for a True Pitch Propeller

below the horizontal center equal to the rake aft. A diago-

line,
nal line is now drawn from this point to the center of the hub.
Horizontal lines are then drawn through the points where the

diagonal line e intersects the vertical lines a, 6, c and d. These y

horizontal lines are extended to intersect the pitch angle lines /

at points g. With points y as centers and with radii kg, Ig, mg
and ng, arcs are drawn which intersect arcs /?. The face curve
w isthen drawn through the latter intersecting points.
Where the cants are the same, a number may be band-
266 PATTERNMAKING
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 267

sawed at once by bradding them together. All the cants re-

quired for a small wheel should be sawed in this way with a
pin through the holes in the hub. Before they are taken apart,
a line indicating the face lap should be gaged from the face
edge of the cant on the ends as a guide to gluing. The size

Machinery

Fig. 14. Building up Propeller Pattern

of the hole to bore through the hub center will depend largely
upon the size of the wheel. On large wheels the hole should be
big enough to accommodate the molding spindle, but on small
wheels a dowel-pin may be used and the hole for the molding
spindle bored after the wheel is finished, but it is essential that
the pin be straight and net fit the hole too tightly.
268 PATTERNMAKING

Gluing Propeller Cants. Small propeller wheels with all

the cants alike may be glued up by setting each cant to the

gage line on the end and using hand screws to clamp the whole
together. A
thin brad should be toed through the end of each
cant into the one beneath to prevent them from slipping.Such
a wheel when glued will appear as shown at A, Fig. 14. For
larger wheels a gluing up board will be required. The surface
of this board should be perfectly true, as it is used to check
the accuracy of the pattern. The face of all cants should be

parallel to this board. A hole is bored in the board to accom-

modate the hub pin and the first cant is placed in position and
fastened to the board either by means of nails or screws, the suc-
cessive cants being glued and nailed or screwed in place. Screws
are most convenient, but many prefer nails, removing them
before starting to work the face off. It is sometimes advan-

tageous to use hand screws instead of nails or screws, but it

is a slower process, as the glue must set on one course before

another can be applied.

There has always been more or less discussion among pat-
ternmakers as to whether the back or face side of the blade
should be upward in the building, but as the face is the side
that is to be worked off first we will assume that it is the most
convenient side to have facing up on the building board. The
lap at the tips of the cants is usually made by setting to a gage
line or by measurement although some workmen brad a small
thin block on the face of the cant for the next one to abut against
and secure uniformity in this way. When the cants do not run
allthe way to the tip or hub, the lap will have to be laid off on
the face of each cant at the section radii.
When all the cants are the same, the lap is sometimes se-

cured by using the device shown at B, Fig. 14.

This is a block
cut to fit the outside of the wheel and having a thin piece of
wood bent to conform to the curve and nailed to it; this thin
piece of stock is cut to fit the under side of the cants and when
fastened to the building board in the proper position, goes under
the cants and gives the necessary lap without measuring or gag-
ing and prevents the wheel from sagging if it is large. Another
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 269

device for preventing the wheel from sagging in the building

is the angle-block D. This is made to slip under the edges of
the cants which must be worked off for about a half inch to
accommodate it. The block holds the cants in place while
building, but is not an aid in setting them. If the cants are

to be built against a turned hub they will have to be cut to fit

the hub and it may be necessary to support them both at the

point where they fit the hub as well as at the tip.

Forming the Face of the Blade. When the glue has dried
and all nails or screws are out of sight, the face of the wheel
should be worked off with a flat bent-tanged inside-ground
gouge, which should be held at such an angle that it will cut a
straight line from the intersection of one glue joint to the in-
tersection of the next. Spoke-shaves should be used to finish
with, and it is advisable to have several of different sizes with
the faces rounded to reach all parts of the surface. If the
wheel very large an adz judiciously used is helpful in rough-
is

ing off the face. The wheel should be clamped at the hub
to the bench or held in a hand screw clamped in the vise, while
the face is being finished. That part of the hub which joins
the face should also be finished at this stage of the work. When
allthe tool work is finished the face should be sandpapered and

given a coat of varnish. If the blade is very wide a batten

should be screwed to it to hold it straight.
Laying Out and Working the Blade Outline. In laying out
the blade outline a center line should be drawn across the face
of the blade and radii laid off to correspond to the section radii
on the lay-out. The widths of the blade should be marked
offon the radii and the outline drawn through these points.
In measuring the widths of the blade at different points on the
pitch angle lay-out, it must be remembered that the measur-
ing is done in a straight line whereas on the wheel face the line
is an arc of a circle. A corresponding circle should be drawn on
each section of the lay-out and the distance stepped off in half-

inch dimensions for transferring to the blade face. The wheel

will now have
the appearance shown at C, Fig. 14. The blade is
next worked to outline, keeping the edges square with the face.
270 PATTERNM AKING

Working the Back of the Blade. There are three methods

of insuring the proper thickness and section on the back of
propeller blades. The first is to build the blade with the cants
cut to conform to the varying thicknesses, in which case it is

only necessary to work the back from one glue joint intersec-
tion to the next in an arc as indicated by the dark portions at

A, Fig. 15. The second method, which used on very large is

wheels, is to bore a series of J-inch holes at each section arc

and drive pins in to the proper depth to give the correct section
when the blade is worked off to the pins as at B. The third

Machinery

Fig. 15. Methods of forming Back of Propeller Blades

method, which is commonly used, is to work the back to a tem-

plet (as at C) at each section, using a rather sharp-bend inside

gouge for cutting the groove for the templet. After the tem-
plets are fitted to the different sections, the intervening stock is
cut away and spoke-shaved to merge smoothly into them.
Except near the hub, the edges of the blade are not a feather-
edge formed by the arc of the back, but are gaged to thickness
and rounded or "sharpened" to a feather-edge after the backs
are finished. If the hubs have been built up to form, the pro-

cedure in finishing them is apparent, but if the hubs of the

cants have been made alike, they will have to be worked barrel

shaped to a templet.
 WHEEL AND PROPELLER PATTERNS 271

Propellers Made with Cores.Small propeller wheels are

frequently made by placing the blade pattern on a
in cores
follow-board in a core-box with the back up. The box must
include as much of the circle as there are to be blades in the
wheel, and the bottom to which the follow-board is fastened
should be loose, as it must be lifted away to ram up the face
of the blade. The core is made in two pieces and pasted to-
gether after it has dried.
Aerial Propellers. The principles employed in laying out
and building marine propellers are applicable to those used
on the airplane. A built-up or canted airplane propeller may
be laid out in the same way except that two blades will be re-
quired and the wheel will have to be placed on a shaft and
worked to a standing balance.
 CHAPTER XII

GEAR PATTERNS

GEAR patterns may have either completely finished teeth

or they may have an allowance or "finish" added to the teeth
a gear-cutter. If the pattern is for a cast or
for finishing in
uncut gear and a smooth-running gear is desired, the teeth
should be accurately laid out and worked to form. Small
gear patterns are usually made in one piece with the teeth cut
from the solid block or blank after it has been turned up, but
the larger wheels are made with pieces called "tooth-blocks"
fastened to the rim in such a manner that they may be removed
for working to form before fastening permanently in place, or
the teeth may be finished by jigging or sanding and then fastened
to the wheel rim.

Fastening Tooth-blocks to Blanks. The rims of large gears

are usually built of segments the same as flywheels or pulleys,
and the blocks for the teeth are fitted and fastened to the rim
for turning to diameter, the ends of the blocks being flush with
the edge of the rim. The simplest way to fasten the blocks is
to glue and nail them into place, as at A, Fig. i. This is fre-

quently done, but is objectionable because the block cannot be

removed for working it to shape. To overcome this objection,
the methods illustrated at B and C are generally employed.
The old dovetailed method shown at B permits replacing the
tooth-blocks, but is expensive and is now almost obsolete.
The excellent method shown at C is much less costly than
dovetailing. The rim in this case is turned from f to | inch
under size and this difference is made up by
cutting part of the
rim from the tooth-blocks. Every other block is glued and

nailed to the rim while the intervening block is not glued, but
fastened entering each end from the inside of the
by a screw
rim. This permits every other tooth to be removed by working
and leaves room to form the glued tooth while it is in place on
272
 GEAR PATTERNS 273

the rim. Another method of fastening blocks to blanks for

heavy wide-faced gears is to use two dowel-pins and two screws
through the point of each tooth. When teeth are made by the
use of jigs, as described
later, they are finished completely
before being attached to the rim, except that wax or leather
fillets are added afterward. Teeth formed by jigs are illus-
trated at D. Jigged or sanded teeth are fastened to the rim
with glue and nails and are not turned.
Laying out Spur Gear Tooth-blocks. In turning a solid
blank or the tooth-blocks after they are fastened in place, it is

Fig. 1. Different Methods of fastening Gear Tooth-blocks to

Pattern Rim

necessary to lay off the pitch and base circles on both sides.
This should be done with sharp-pointed trammels or dividers
while the blank or wheel is revolved at a slow speed in the lathe;
the blank will require rechucking in order to get the lines on
both sides. With a bevel gear the lines are laid out on the
large and small ends of the teeth. The amount of draft to allow
on spur gear teeth should be small, not exceeding -fa inch in
6 inches, and on teeth of 2 inches or less in face width, the draft
should be very slight in the direction of the draw.
274
 GEAR PATTERNS 275

The first thing to do is to space off the tooth centers and

draw the radial center lines of the teeth. A pair of spring
dividers should be used for the spacing and for drawing the
tooth curves, as they permit of finer adjustment than the
winged type. It is a good plan to draw the pitch circle on
a lay-out board and do the preliminary spacing on it until the
dividers are properly set, when they may be tested by spacing
off on the pitch circle on the gear. This trial spacing should
not start in the center of a tooth-block until the pitch circle
has been divided once to verify the divider setting. If this is
found correct, the centers may be spaced off and the radial
center lines drawn through the center of each block with a sharp
knife. One of these center lines must be accurately squared
across the point of a block to transfer the center line to the

opposite side for spacing that side with the dividers. The
radial centersmay be drawn with a straightedge, but a quicker
way to use
is the center square. The width of the teeth is
next laid out by spacing half the width of a tooth each side
of the radial center on the pitch circle, making this width

slightly less on the drag side to provide draft. Curves to form

the face, the flank, and the fillet at the root of the teeth should
then be laid out. Instead of laying out each tooth separately,
a templet of wood or sheet metal is more often used, as shown
at Fig. i.
,
It should be accurately made and have a sharp
center line and a hole corresponding with a similar hole in the
blank or gear center for a pin on which it can revolve. There
are two kinds of gear teeth used in cast gears cycloidal and
hi volute; they differ in the manner in which the tooth curves
are generated, the cycloidal tooth having two curves and the
involute one, for forming the face and flanks of the teeth. The
proportioning of tooth parts and the laying out of the flank
and face curves is simplified by the use of Grant's odontograph

(see "MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK"). An allowance for back-

lash on the teeth will have to be made to compensate for

inaccuracies in the casting.

Laying out Bevel Gears. In laying out a bevel gear, a half

section on one side of the axial center (see Fig. 2) is required.
276 PATTERNMAKING

The tooth centers should be laid off while the rim is still

fastened to the lathe faceplate. A

central column to form the

apex of the cone is fastened to the faceplate, thus providing a

center for drawing the radial center lines (see sketch A, Fig. 3).
The spacing for tooth centers should be on a circle that falls

slightly inside the outer edge of the rim. If tooth-blocks are

to be used, the same methods may be employed as for spur

gears. The centers are laid out on the blocks after they have
been turned. If the teeth are to be finished before applying

Fig. 3. (A) Bevel Gear Pattern on Faceplate with Central Pin or Column attached
to form Apex of Pitch Cone for laying out a Pattern. (B) Forming
Teeth of Bevel Gear Pattern on Band Saw

them to the rim, the centers are scribed on the rim and the
edge of each tooth, instead of the center, is set to the line. The
teeth should not be nailed to the rim until the glue has set.

The pitch circle,base circle, and circle representing the

points of the teeth on the large end are scribed with E, Fig. 2,
as a center, and lines are drawn from the large end of the tooth
to the apex of the cone. The radii of the circles for the small

end may then be obtained from the lay-out by

of the tooth

measuring from center F. Corresponding arcs are then drawn

from center E for laying off the tooth profiles. The thickness
 GEAR PATTERNS 277

of the tooth at the large end is next laid off and the face curve
drawn; a straight line. With the apex of the cone
the flank is

as a center, the width of the tooth is projected with a pair of

dividers, and a plan is drawn, after which the thickness and

the face curve centers on the large end are laid off. Lines from
these center points are then drawn to the apex of the cone,

giving the width and curve centers at the small end which
may be laid out on the arcs previously scribed from E. If the
teeth are to be "jigged," as explained later, the ends of the jig
blocks are laid out as shown by the shaded sections. Arcs are
also struck from E, and the end forms for the jig laid out as

though it were a wide tooth.

Band-sawing Gear Teeth. Gear teeth may be cut to form
on the band saw by fastening the tooth-block to a jig which
holds it in the proper position, and if the saw is in good condi-
tion very little finishing will be required. The faces and flanks
on small spur gears are best finished in this way and require
laying out only on one side; but the root circle and fillets will
probably have to be cut with a chisel and gouge unless a very
narrow and sharp saw is available. Bevel gear teeth may be
band-sawed by means of the jig shown at B, Fig. 3. A socket
a is turned in the small side of the blank to the spherical-
fit

ended post b which is fastened to a board clamped to the saw

table. The band saw c runs through the center of the sphere.

This jig should be so designed that all lines on the tooth will
intersect with the center; an entire sphere will not be required
in most cases, and it will only be necessary to lay out the teeth
on the large end.
Planing Gear Teeth. Planing gear tooth-blocks by hand
requires great skill and care to produce uniform teeth. If the
fillets are part of the tooth, a rabbet plane will have to be used

and the worked with a gouge after the tooth is glued in

fillet

place. Removable tooth-blocks should be taken off one at a

time and returned to the proper place as soon as they are finished.
It is well to mark each tooth for this purpose.

Jigging Gear Teeth. One of the most economical and

practical methods of forming teeth is by jigging. A hardwood
278 PATTERNMAKING

jig block A, Fig. 4, is used. The tooth-block is fastened to the

jig block by screws through the bottom, and the tooth is planed
until it is flush with the jig. To overcome the likelihood of
taking an occasional slice out of the jig, it may be cut back or
relieved as at B and the plane so manipulated that the cutting

edges start and stop in the clearance spaces at each end. These
jigs are clamped endwise in the vise when in use. Another
method of using jig B is to clamp a long wooden jointer plane
in the vise, face upward, and fasten blocks to the upturned
face to regulate the starting and stopping of the cut. In this
case the jig with the tooth-block in place is drawn over the

cutting edge of the plane, the stops fixing the starting and

Fig. 4. Jig Blocks which serve as a Guide when forming Gear Teeth

stopping of the cut in the clear space at the ends and eliminat-
ing the danger of cutting the jig.
Sanding Gear Teeth. Another method of finishing gear
teeth rapidly is by sanding. A jig is used similar to those al-

ready described, except that a flange is added at the end. A

jig for sanding a bevel gear tooth is shown at A, Fig. 5. The
sanding cylinder B is turned to a diameter of about 4 inches,
and the groove for the sandpaper is made slightly deeper than
the paper thickness so that the ends may be finished flush with
the sand surface after the paper is glued in place. The paper
should not be put on in a wide sheet, but cut in a narrow strip
and wound spirally around the cylinder, as it is easier to apply
and will be smoother when put on in this way. Thumb-tacks
may be used to secure the ends while the glue is drying. The
 GEAR PATTERNS 279

groove for the flange on the jig should be a loose fit; its function
is to aid in holding the jig parallel to the axis each time it is

used. Before starting to sand a tooth, a straightedge should

be sanded to remove any projecting pieces of sand. The tooth-
blocks should be roughed out so as to leave as little material as

possible to be removed by the sanding.

Teeth made by jigging and sanding do not provide for
fillets, and these will have to be made either of wax or of leather.

In fastening finished teeth to a wheel, the edge of the tooth

should be set to the center which, in the case of a spur gear,

Fig. 5. Forming Gear Teeth by Means of Sanding Cylinder and Jig Block

should be squared across the face for this purpose. The glue
should be applied to each end of the tooth, and the nails should
not be driven until the glue has set.

Worm and Screw Patterns. Patterns for worms and

screws are usually parted longitudinally, as illustrated in Fig. 6.
The usual practice is to turn up a cylinder to the outside
diameter of the worm with the prints attached; the grain should
run lengthwise and the centers on the ends of the cylinder should
be carefully preserved in order that the finished worm may be
sandpapered in the lathe.
To lay out a worm, a piece of manila drawing paper as wide
as the worm is long and of a length equal to the circumference,
isused to obtain the pitch angle (helix angle of thread) for lay-
ing out the "spiral" or helix. The paper should have straight
l8K
 2 SO PATTERNMAKING

edges and be square at the corners; it is better to do all the

cutting with a sharp knife and a straightedge. On one of the
edges representing the length of the worm, the pitch or distance
from the center of one thread to the center of the next should
be measured; a line is then drawn from this point to the oppo-
site corner (see diagram A, Fig. 7) and the paper is cut along
this line with a knife. Parallel lines x are next drawn with a

distance between them equal to half the circumference. On

the joint of the drag half of the pattern, the screw sections and

pitch angles are laid out, the lines representing the top of the
thread being carried across the joint with sharp knife lines, as
at C. The paper pattern is then stretched tightly around the

Fig. 6. Worm Pattern

half pattern with the same circumference lines x coinciding with

the edges of the joint, and the spiral line connecting the lay-
out lines on the joint is drawn around the outside of the half
barrel with a sharp pencil which is guided by edge y of the
proper templet. When the lines from one end to the center
of the worm have been drawn, it will be necessary to start
from the other end, as there will not be enough bearing surface
on the pattern for the paper templet. When one half is laid

off, the pattern put together and the lines continued around
is

the opposite half in the same manner. Another method is to

lay out all the lines on a paper pattern and wrap it around the
barrel, fastening the ends with thumb-tacks or glue, and trans-

ferring the lines to the barrel by means -of a tracing wheel.

Forming the Pattern Thread. The thread grooves may
be roughed out by making cuts with a back-saw provided with
 GEAR PATTERNS 28l

a gage to prevent the saw from cutting too deep. Plenty of

stock should be left for finishing to templet B. In using the

templet, the face should be held in a radial position. There is

another method of roughing and finishing the grooves requiring
the use of the circular saw. This involves cutting a shallow
groove in the center of the spaces between the teeth for receiv-
ing a guiding pin that is placed in a long angle-plate extending

Fig. 7. Method of laying out Worm Pattern

completely across the saw table; the saw extends through the
block directly below the center of the worm to be cut. The
angle-plate is clamped to the saw table at the correct pitch
angle and the table is tilted to give the angle of the sides of
the teeth (14! degrees). The worm, which is placed in the
angle-plate with the guide in the groove, is slowly revolved
while the saw cuts the spiral groove.
Making Worms and Screws on a Band Saw. Another
method of making worms and screws is to turn up the barrel
to the root diameter of the thread and make the thread sepa-
282 PAT TERNMAKING

rately. The pattern illustrated in Fig. 6 was made in this way.

A half round bushing A, Fig. 8, is used to make the teeth. The
spirals at the base of the thread grooves are laid out on the in-
side of the half bushing and cut in a half core-box form of jig
fastened to the saw table, as shown at B. This jig is fastened
to an angle-block that can be reversed to saw the rake on both
sides of the teeth, and the piece to be sawn must be manipulated
from the rear of the saw table. A more convenient method is

SAW CUT
'
HELIX ANGLE OF THREAD

Fig. 8. Method of making Worm and Screw Patterns on Band Saw

to lay out the spirals on the outside of the bushing and cut
them on a cylinder raised above the table and set at the proper
angle for pitch and side rake of tooth. It must be borne in
mind that the pitch angle at the bottom of the thread varies
with the diameter.
Patterns for Worm-wheels. Worm-wheel patterns may be
made complete with the teeth or, as is more often the case,
all

the wheel may have a core-print on the rim to carry a segment

or part core that forms the teeth. When made with the teeth,
 GEAR PATTERNS 283

the pattern must be parted to mold in a three-part flask (Fig. 9),

and the two halves drawn by twisting or screwing them out
of the sand, the angle of the teeth preventing a straight draw.
The shape of the tooth section is the same as for an involute
rack tooth. The helix or spiral angle of the tooth at the point
is equal to the helix angle at the root of the worm thread.
The tooth-blocks should be fitted and glued in place, turned,
the tooth laid out on the ends and joint, and worked to form,
the shape being tested with a templet. When the teeth are
finished, the wheel and worm should be mounted on centers in

Fig. 9. Pattern for Worm-wheel

the proper relation to each other and the worm should be re-
volved to see if it drives the wheel. It is customary to chalk
the worm and trim the teeth of the worm-wheel where the
chalk marks the teeth, so as to obtain the proper contact and
clearance. This precaution is always taken; when a segment
with five or six teeth is made fora core-box, this same test is
always applied.
An easier way of making a worm-wheel is to core the teeth
with a segment or part core-box. A core-print is made on the
rim of the wheel, as at B, Fig. 10, and the core-box is made to
include a convenient number of teeth. Care must be taken
to have the part included in the core-box properly spaced so
that the core will form a complete circle when placed in the
284 PATTERNMAKING

mold and make the tooth spacing equal. .The segment in the
core-box to which the teeth are attached should be cut as at
A so that the teeth will draw, and the loose pieces should be
skewered to the side of the box.
Another method of making the teeth is to glue up some
rings of a single course of four segments, with a spline or feather

Fig. 10. (A) Segment or Part Core-box for molding Worm-wheel Teeth. (B) Sec-
tion of Wheel Pattern and Attached Core-print. (C) A Method
of forming Worm-wheel Teeth

in the joint to hold each ring together. The section of these

rings, when
turned, the same as the tooth section (see view
is

C), but the outside diameter must be made large to allow for
fitting to the throat; four teeth may be made from each ring.

Many wheels designed to run with a worm have a straight face

and are practically spur wheels with teeth set at an angle.
 CHAPTER XIII
SPECIAL PATTERN WORK
THERE is more or less specialization in the different branches
of thepatternmaking trade. This specialization has developed
from the efforts that are constantly being made to produce
castings with a minimum amount of pattern work or with
greater rapidity. The adapting of stock patterns to special

jobs practiced to such an extent in steam-pump and engine

is

shops that it is almost a trade in itself. This work is done

largely through the use of stopping-off pieces and results in a
saving in pattern work as well as in the subsequent cost of
storing another pattern. Skeleton core-boxes and patterns are
also largely used in this work. Shops handling very light work
specialize on the follow-board type pattern, while many
of

patternmakers work a lifetime without having occasion to

build a pattern in that way. The use of gated patterns to se-
cure multiple production of small parts is well known, but a

knowledge of the use of match-boards is not so common. Loam

molding is extensively used in certain lines of work and not at
all in others. Many odd jobs have to be produced quickly
and the means for doing them must be inexpensive. Very
often the devices used for this purpose are makeshifts that can-
not take the place of a properly made pattern, but answer
very well for one or two castings.
The fitting of patterns to molding machines is another form
of specialization. Generally speaking, there are two types of
molding machines: one is called a stripping-plate and the
other, a vibrator-plate machine. The stripping-plate machine
requires a special metal pattern which is mounted on a bolster

plate that draws it through the opening in the stripping plate.

This opening is made an exact fit for the pattern so that there
will not be any danger of breaking the corners of the mold
285
286 PATTERNMAKING

when the pattern is drawn. The patterns are usually mounted

so that the cope and drag are made at the same time. Ordi-
nary wood or metal patterns are used on the vibrator machine;
mounted on a plate that is rapidly vibrated by means
these are
of compressed air while the pattern being freed by drawing
is

away the flask and the plate. The flasks are filled either by
hand or by sand fed from a bin through a chute that gives

r TO BE
STOPPED OFF
HERE

Machinery

Fig. 1. Examples illustrating Use of Stopping-off Pieces

enough fall to partly ram the flask, and the sand is evenly com-
pressed by means of a squeezing device. Many so-called mold-
ing machines are not molding machines at all, but simply sand
rammers or squeezers.
Stopping-off. Stopping-off is the process of reducing the
size of a mold made by a pattern that is too long or too wide
for the required castings, the pattern, in other respects, being

right. This stopping-off is effected by the use of cores or of

 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 287

the latter are sections of a pattern with

stopping-off pieces;
one side conforming to the shape desired. They are placed
in the mold to make it the proper size and to form the part

adjacent to the section that is to be filled in or stopped off.

The stopping-off piece is located by contact with some other
portion of the mold or by a heavily scribed line on the cope
face of the pattern, that is transferred to the sand face; thin

strips fastened to the face or side, or a core-print may be used

for this purpose.

Stopping-off Pieces for Cylinders. Cylindrical bodies are

stopped off by the use of a half section of pattern made to set
in the mold, as at A, Fig. i. The
piece is located by means of
lines laid off joint indicating the length, or by two strips
on the
tacked on the body of the cylinder each side of the parting to
indicate the length. If a large cylinder is to be stopped off and

the stopping-off piece will not stand upright, a batten will have
to be fastened across the end to rest on the mold parting and
serve as a support.

Stopping-off Pieces for Square Plates. To stop off a

square plate, a narrow piece of pattern is made to lie in the
mold to form the new end or side. The stopping-off piece is
located by measurements or by blocks fastened to the pattern,

corresponding with similar blocks fastened to the stopping-off

piece; the blocks on the pattern act as prints and those on the

stopping-off piece fit into these prints.

Stopping-off Piece for Round Plate or Ring. A round plate

is
stopped off to a smaller diameter by means of a piece made
to fill in the mold by ramming up sand segments, as illustrated
at Bj Fig. i. The opposite edge of the piece is sawed to con-
form to the smaller diameter and used in filling in the spaces
between the segments of sand caused by the end pieces on the
stopping-off piece. An opening in a ring may be enlarged by
the same method as shown at C. The same results could be
obtained by the use of segment cores, but the stopping-off
method is quicker and gives a better casting.

Stopping off Square Columns. Square columns are stopped

off by fastening blocks or core-prints on the column as at A,
288 PATTERNMAKING

Fig. Instead of the blocks being fastened, they are some-

2.

times located by strips secured to the pattern. The advantage

of this method is that the column can be arranged to stop off
to a number of different lengths before being sent into the
foundry. These square column patterns are made without
end core-prints, as the core is made of green sand rammed up
into the mold. The column or "block," as it is called, is made
to the outside dimensions of the column and long enough to
form the greatest length required. Two pieces, the width of
the sides and of a thickness corresponding to the casting thick-
ness, are made to lie against the sides of the mold after the

STOP-OFF LINE

Machinery

Fig. 2. (A) Stopping off Square Column. (B) Stopping off Bed

blockis drawn and the green sand core is rammed between them.

These columns have rectangular openings in the back formed

by dry sand cores set in the bottom of the mold, and on these
are laid flat cake cores on which the green sand core is rammed.
These side pieces should be made of quarter-sawed dry pine to
prevent warping and twisting, and should be provided with
lifting straps to pull them out of the sand.

Stopping-off Pieces for Beds. Beds are made either to

leave their own cores or to have the inside removed by dry
sand cores. On bed work, these cores must often be set by
measurements, as the print only makes a bed for the core to
stand on. The section of a bed shown at B, Fig. 2, is made to
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 289

leave its own core and is to be stopped off where indicated.

With this type of pattern, the inside or core is lifted out to
draw the pattern which is molded downward on the floor.
A piece x, used to stop off the inside or core, is fastened
in placewith screws and the stopping-off piece y is made in
the form of an end with two short sections of flange fastened
to it.

Figure 3 shows a section of a cored bed that is to be stopped

on the depth. To do this, two stopping-off pieces are made to

TO BE STOPPED OFF ON THESE LINES

CORE-PRINT

STOPPINb-OFF PIECE

PIECE TO FORM NEW FLANGE

Machinery

Fig. 3. Bed to be stopped off along the Line Indicated

lie in each side of the mold. These are used to strickle a bed
upon which are laid the pieces that form the new flanges; after
this the space between the flanges is strickled off to form a bed
for the core which has also been strickled down to suit. The
section through the mold indicates the original line of mold at
a; the first line strickled to is shown at b, and the last line,
at c. The end was stopped off with a new end as in the first

example referred to, except that the pieces of flange were not

required. The internal flange on the end was formed by a

piece placed in the core-box.
290 PATTERNMAKTNG
Pieces for Enlarging Rings or Plates. Rings and circular
plates may be enlarged by supplying the molder with a segment
to lay against the outside of the pattern for ramming up the
mold to the increased size. Plates may be increased in thick-
ness by supplying the molder with three or four strips repre-

senting the added thickness to put under the pattern after

he has molded and drawn The pattern is replaced in the
it.

mold with the strips under it, and a new parting made; the re-
quired thickness is thus obtained. This method is applied to

Machinery

Fig. 4. (A) Frame for enlarging Core. (B and C) Illustrating how Mold may be
made with Cores. (D) Part Pattern used in Conjunction with Strickle

pulley rims, linings, and similar patterns and is called "draw-

ing up."
Frames for Enlarging Cores. Portions of cores may be
enlarged by means of skeletons or frames -placed over the part
to be built up, as, for example, the core A, Fig. 4, part of which
is to be increased in diameter. The addition is rammed inside
of the frame and strickled off. This could also be done by
making a dry-sand core to paste to the larger core, but there
would probably be trouble in fitting it, as such a core is apt to
warp in the drying.
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 2QI

Molds Made with Cores. Molds are frequently made in

whole or in part by the use of cores. Hinge lugs and the trun-
nions on the ends of boxes are formed in this way; the core is
rammed up with by means of prints.
the pattern or located
An example of a simple mold made with cores is shown at B,
Fig. 4. made in the box C,
All cores but the central one were
the end cores being formed by fillers that fitted into each end
of the box. Flanges that lie deep down in a mold are always

B LOOSE LUG, SKEWERED

DRAG SIDE /PATTERN / TO FOLLOW-BOARD

-PATTERN

MacMnery

Fig. 5. (A) Use of Core for forming Flange that is Deep in the Mold. (B, C, D,
and E) Example of Follow-board Work

hard to pick in when made loose, and these are best made by
the use of a core, as at A, Fig. 5. The core is made to slip
over the projecting piece of pattern and is rammed up with it.
Part Patterns for Plates and Pans. Patterns for large
plates and pans, instead of being made solid, are framed with
the center part open and the thickness strickled out as at Z>,

Fig. 4, which shows a section of a mold with the pattern in

place. This is done to avoid turning the mold over when it is
"
made in a flask and to facilitate bed ding in" when it is molded
in the foundry floor, as it is impossible for the molder to ram
2Q2 PATTERNMAKING
the under side of a piece of great area. Portions of beds and
baseplates are often framed to mold in this way and the bottom
thickness is and pots where the pattern is
strickled in boxes

coped off without turning the mold over.

Patterns Made on Follow-boards. Patterns are made on
follow-boards when they are very fragile, or they are fitted to
follow-boards after they are made, to withstand the foundry

ramming. A great many stove and furnace patterns are made

Machinery

Fig. 6. Multiple Pattern on which Plaster Core-box is made

"
on follow-boards, and these are often masters" for casting

metal patterns. The follow-board is usually made first to con-

form to the inside or cope side of the pattern, as at B, Fig. $,
which shows the follow-board on which the light hopper pat-
tern C is to be built. The round corners of hard wood are
fitted first and they are made to extend beyond the cor-
ner radius each way, so that a rabbet, as at Z>, may be cut
to receive the rabbeted ends of the sides. The different

pieces forming the hopper are glued together and fastened to

the follow-board by thin narrow pieces of wood nailed from the
outside. A layer of newspaper should be placed between the
pattern and the follow-board to prevent any glue that may run
through from sticking. The follow-board should be sand-
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 293

papered and varnished, and instead of newspaper being used,

it is sometimes coated with paraffin; but newspaper is prefer-
able for a fair-sized job, as it provides allowance for the varnish

and shrinkage.
Projecting pieces on the outside of a follow-board pattern
may be fastened to the follow-board in some cases, so as to
add to the strength the pattern. The rectangular tank
of

pattern, partly shown in section at E, Fig. 5, had projecting

lugs that were always breaking, so that the pattern was cut
away and the lugs fastened to the follow-board with skewers.
The purpose of the follow-board is, in some not only to
cases,

support the pattern, but to make the molder's parting. Follow-

boards for making partings are very often made in the foundry
of plaster-of-paris or litharge.
Another variation of the follow-board idea is used in making
patterns of boxes that are open top and bottom and have open-
ings through the sides; these openings are made to leave their
own cores, the sides being skewered to the follow-board which
is lifted out after the outside is rammed and the cope lifted.

Plaster Core-boxes. Master patterns of plaster for cast-

ing core-boxes in which small cores are made hi multiple are
easily constructed by first making duplicates of the cores in
wood and fastening them to a board, as shown in Fig. 6. These
core duplicates are given several coats of varnish. A frame is

afterward fitted around them and filled with plaster; a strickle

is used to form the back, the frame acting as a guide for it.
Before pouring the plaster, the form should be well greased
with vaseline or lard to keep it from sticking; the frame, how-
ever, is not greased as it is part of the pattern. To mix the
plaster,a sufficient quantity of water is placed in a can and the
plaster added until the mixture is of the consistency of thick
cream. If the box is of some peculiar shape that is going to
be duplicate in wood, one pattern could be made
difficult to

and used to form a plaster mold for casting duplicates in plaster.

Plaster core-boxes for odd-shaped pieces can be made by
first forming a plaster mold of the piece. A
layer of modeling
clay equal to the required thickness of the casting is then placed
294 PATTERNMAKING

in the plaster mold. This clay can be rolled to an even thick-

ness by using a biscuit roller and two strips of the thickness
required. The clay is fitted over the inside of both halves of
the mold and two half-section plaster castings of the core are
made and used for forming the core-box. The same plan can
be followed in making duplicate plaster-of-paris patterns by
first making a mold in plaster from the original and casting as

many patterns as are desired. In fitting wooden frames around

pieces to be molded in plaster, some means should be taken to

Machinery

Fig. 7. Examples of Skeleton Pattern Work

keep the plaster from coming loose from the frame; this may
be done by boring holes part way through the sides from the
inside or by bradding strips to them or even driving a few nails
and permitting the heads to protrude.
Skeleton Pattern Work. Skeleton patterns are either
frames used for forming the outside of the mold (with dry sand
cores to form the interior) or they are complete framework
models designed to form both the exterior and the interior of
the casting. In making patterns of this type having a top
and a bottom flange, it is customary to notch the ribs into the
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 2 95

inside of the bottom flange and into the outside of the top,
and fasten them with screws as shown at C, Fig. 8. Unless the
flanges are round, it is better to make them with splined joints
so that they can be band -sawed both inside and out.
The crooked pipe A, Fig. 7, is a good example of the first

type of skeleton pattern mentioned, and it is applicable to

elbows, bends, and different forms of pipe work. It is made
by doweling two pieces of one-inch stock together and laying
out and sawing it to the proper outline. The edges should be

STRICKLE

Machinery

Fig. 8. Details of Skeleton Core-box and Pattern Work

rounded to conform to the circle and the and core-prints

flanges
fitted. The pieces for forming the prints and body are half
round less the thickness of the foundation pieces; they should

be made of one-inch stock and, on the bends, the center line of

each piece should be radial with the center of the bend radius.
One strickle, or "strike," as it is sometimes called (see sketch
B, Fig. 7), completes the pattern. This strickle is the same
diameter as the body of the pattern and is used to strike off or
smooth up the clay or loam that is used to fill the spaces be-
tween the ribs. This forms a complete pattern which is molded
in the usual way.
IQ K
296 PATTERNMAKING

Skeleton Core-boxes. Skeleton core-boxes are frames

used to confine the core sand which is formed by means of
strickles by heads fastened to the frame,
guided in their course
over which they are worked back and forth; .the strickles may
also be drawn lengthwise of the frame with the side for a guide.
The strickle for the skeleton box C, Fig. 7, is a straightedge
which slides over the heads. This box is made with the two
side pieces screwed to the heads so that
it may be
changed to
different lengths by unfastening one head and moving it to a
new position. The core is formed in the box D by drawing the
strickle lengthwise; this sketch also illustrates another form of
construction in which the heads are prolonged at each side
and are screwed to the side pieces. This does not lend itself
very well to alterations, but provides a broad space for the
strickle to slide on.
The same types of boxes may be used for forming two or
more diameters, as illustrated at E, which shows a box that is
strickled smaller at one end and has the strickle arranged to
form a round corner at the other end where the small part of
the core is formed by a half-round box made on the head.
When more than one diameter is to be formed by drawing
the strickle along the frame, it will be necessary to fasten a half

ring at the junction of the different diameters, as shown at A y

Fig. 8. It will be noted in this illustration that the side pieces
are fastened to the heads by means of a half-lapped joint. This
type of box is best when the core is long. In making skeleton
boxes, the heads and be stout enough to with-
sides should
stand the ramming as well as rough handling. In some shops
it is the practice to use core-arbors that run through the end

of the box; this necessitates cutting an opening through the

head which should be reinforced with battens, as at B.
The use of skeletons is not confined to the forming of cores
with straight or curved parallel sides, as a large variety of out-
lines may be secured by using frames and strickles of the proper

outline. Hemispherical ends may be formed on the ends of

straight cores by arranging a sweep to revolve on a central
pin as at A, Fig. 9. In making skeletons for pipe bends, it
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 297

must be borne in mind that the core must reverse or be right

and left; therefore, the frame forming the outline must be
made complete with the edges square. It is a good plan to
make the frame with corner lap joints and fasten the heads
with dowels and screws, so that they may be changed from
side to side. Straight skeleton boxes over 16 inches in diam-
eter should have a third frame piece connecting the heads at
the top in the center to add stiffness.

Core-plates. Core-plates are plates of wood or iron that

are made to conform to the outline of the pattern and the core

Machinery

Fig. 9. (A) Method of forming Hemispherical End by Means of

Pivoted Strickle. (B) Core-plate and Strickle for Curved Pipe

is formed on them by a strickle that is

guided by the edge of
the plate in the same manner as when using a skeleton core-
box. In making cores in the box, however, the core is made
on a metal plate and the box is lifted away from it, but when
the core swept up on a plate, it goes into the oven without
is

being removed, so that if the plate is of wood it must be sub-

stantial enough to withstand the heat. In making a wooden
core-plate for the pipe illustrated at A, Fig. 7, the pattern is
laid on a piece of suitable board and the outline marked; the
298 PATTERNMAKING

prints are made the same size as the body of the pipe. The core-

plate and strickle for this pipe are shown at B, Fig. 9. If the
core to be right and left, no battens can be placed on the
is

plate, as a core must be made on each side of it. It is the prac-

tice in some shops to place half-round heads on the ends of

core-plates, and these are often necessary, particularly in form-

ing branches at right or other angles to the body of the core.

Machinery

Fig. 10. Examples of Match-plate Work

In making patterns for iron plates, a double amount of shrink-

age must be allowed. These are usually made of \ -inch stock
and are battened to hold them straight. All strickles should
be beveled on the working edge as at D, Fig. 8.

Match-plate Work. To expedite the molding of small

patterns, they are often mounted on plates with the cope side of
the pattern on one side of the plate and the drag on the other.
The slide-valve casting A, Fig. 10, illustrates this method.
The pattern for this casting is mounted on one side of the board
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 299

and the steam recess is carved out of the other side, as at B.

It willbe noted that the flask pins are fitted through the match-
board so that it will always be in the same place in relation to
the flask. A number of patterns are usually mounted on the

plate and work must be accurately done to secure good

this

results. gate and runners are usually made on the cope

The
so that the molder does not have to touch the mold when it is
finished. An example of turned work mounted on a match-
plate is shown at C. The core-print, in this case, is elongated
to fit a hole bored in the plate and the cope part of the pattern

slips over it, thus insuring that the cope and drag will come in
line.

Chills. Chills are pieces of metal placed in a mold to

harden certain surfaces by having the molten metal come in
contact with the chill. Chills may be used as part of the mold
or in the same capacity as a core. A popular example of chilled
work is a car-wheel rim in which that part of the mold that
forms the rim is of metal. The patternmaker's job, in this
case, is to fit the pattern to the chill as they are rammed up

together; if a round hole is to be chilled, core-prints are fitted

to the pattern and the chill is made with considerable taper so
that it may be driven out. It is sometimes desirable to make
sections of pipe to bolt together without finishing the flanges,
and to do this, metal ends are used in the mold not to chill
the casting, but to form a finished flange. In this case, the
flanges are made long to form core-prints for the metal ends,
the face sides of which are grooved with concentric V-grooves
to give the packing a hold. The core is carried on an arbor
that fits openings turned in the end pieces which are also drilled
with holes through which the bolt hole cores are pushed.
Gated Patterns. Gated patterns are small patterns
fastened to the runners and gate pin to form a multiple pat-
tern which can be used to mold a number of pieces at one time.
The patternmaker is sometimes required to make wood pat-
terns on a gate, but more often he furnishes but a single pattern
from which the molder casts the required number of patterns
and then proceeds to mold and cast them on a gate. This
300 PATTERNMAKING

gated metal pattern is then sent back to the shop to be filed

smooth and have draw iron holes drilled and tapped in it.
Splitting Hubs and Pulley Rims. Pulley and flywheel
rims and hubs, as well as bosses on levers, are frequently cored
part way through so that they be broken after machining.
may
This is done so that they can be placed on a shaft after it is
installed, or to provide for a compression joint to avoid using

keys or set-screws. the core required

If is thick in proportion
to its length and width, a dry sand core may be used for this

Machinery

Fig. 11. Equipment used for Loam Molding

purpose, but often the piece to be removed is very thin and

instead of a sand core a piece of iron plate is used. A core-

print should be provided and the splitting-plate coated with

something to prevent sticking. It is often coated with glue
over which core sand is sprinkled so as to cover it, and it is
then coated with some form of facing.
Pattern Work for Loam Molding. In making molds in
loam, the molder may use a pattern or any of the devices that
are applied in forming molds in green or dry sand; but loam
work lends itself more readily to cylindrical bodies that may
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 301

be formed by the used of sweeps revolved around a central

spindle. The cylinder may have branches, bosses, or other
projections, and patterns are made for these just as though
they were to fit to a cylindrical body that had been built up and

turned. The foundry rigging used for sweep work is shown

Fig. 12. (A) Condenser Casting which is an Example of Loam Molding. (B and C)
Sweeps used for forming Condenser Mold

at A, Fig. ii. It consists of a vertical spindle which is sup-

ported by a plate at the bottom and a pillow-block at the top.

The spindle may be a piece of shafting, but more often it is a
tube closed at one end, and it is usual to have two or three
sizes on hand. To hold the sweeps an arm is fitted to the
spindle; this arm has a slot in it for bolting the sweeps in place
and it is kept in its proper position by a collar and set-screw.
302 PATTERNMAKING

The side of the arm to which the sweep is bolted is in a ver-

tical plane intersecting the spindle center. Instead of the
hole in the arm being made to slip over the spindle, it is more
convenient to make it slotted and have it fastened to the spindle
with a gib and key, as more easily removed.
it is

A loam mold built onisan iron base or foundation plate

provided with three or four lugs, and sometimes provided with
other projections to carry portions that extend beyond the
main body of the mold. A top plate, with lugs corresponding
to those on the bottom, is used to fasten the mold together
after it is finished. Loop clamps are slipped over these lugs
and fastened by driving wedges through the loop at the top.
The jet condenser body shown at A, Fig. 12, is a good ex-
ample of a loam job and will give a fair idea of what the pat-
ternmaker is required to furnish for this type of work. Patterns
were made for the projecting bosses b and the flanged nozzle c;
these were provided with core-prints and boxes were made in
the same manner as if the job were to be molded in green or
dry sand. The recess in the bottom was formed also by a core
for which a box was made. To draw the flanged nozzle through
the side of the mold, a cake covering core was provided to fit
over the core-print. A full-size lay-out was made showing
the thickness of metal, finish, centers of hubs and bosses, and
the seat parting at the bottom corner of the mold.
In starting a loam job, the first thing to ascertain is the
size of the spindle to be used and then to make, from a piece

of \- or f-inch stock, what is known as a "gage stick," B, Fig.

u, on which is indicated the inside and outside diameter of the

job. This used to set the sweeps to, and the semicircular
is

notch in the center should fit the spindle.

Seat Sweep. The seat sweep B, Fig. 12, was made first
to sweep the parting at the bottom of the mold for the con-
denser shown at A. As the bottom recess was to be removed
with a core, a projection to sweep a seat for the core was placed
on this seat sweep. The taper and depth of seat are usually
regulated by some shop standard; in this case the depth was
four inches and the taper, f inch to i inch. If the mold were
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 303

for a cylinder with a flange at the bottom, the seat sweep in

this case would have to be cut away beyond the taper to the
top of the flange, and a piece x fastened to it to form a mold
for the flange, as at F, in Fig. n. This piece is fastened with
screws and is removed to sweep the sand pattern which is formed

Fig. 13. Sectional View of Mold for Condenser Casting shown

at A, Fig. 12

in the mold made with the piece in place; this is done to avoid
an under-cutting finger that would have to be placed on the
mold sweep to form the flange.
The Body and Core Sweep. The body or mold sweep C,
Fig. 12, for the condenser shown at A, was made of ij-inch
dressed stock and had two arms that were halved into it to
304 PATTERNMAKING

make it flush on the face; the arms are sometimes abutted

against the sweep and fastened with battens, which is a good

plan if they are to be taken apart in the molding. The inner
ends of the arms were notched to fit over the hubs on the arm
clamps to abut them against the spindle. On the face of the
sweep the centers of the nozzle and bosses were plainly scribed
and this sweep was cut where indicated so that it could be
removed from the mold, the two pieces being held together by
a batten that doweled and screwed into place.
The core sweep D Fig. 12, did not differ essentially from
3

the body sweep, except that it had but one arm and was centered
to sweep the inside or core.

Beveling Sweep Boards. The sweep

edges were beveled
as at Dj Fig. n, so as to force the loam against the brickwork.
The molder usually holds the sweep and draws it toward him
with his left hand while he applies the loam with his right, the
beveled edge of the board being toward him. The proper edge
to bevel may be determined in this way.

Centering Gage. The center lines on the sweep (see

sketch C, Fig. 12) located the centers for the nozzle and bosses
in a vertical direction, and to locate them circumferentially a

centering gage C, Fig. n, was made of light stock; this gage

fittedaround the spindle and the centers were transferred from
it to the mold. When work of this kind is being done, the
mold is swept first and lifted off the seat to permit sweeping
the core. All loose pieces used in loam work should have well-
defined center lines and these lines should be carried entirely
around the piece. A section of the condenser mold, Fig. 13,
shows the different parts formed by the sweeps and the

patterns.
Loam Patterns and Cores. Loam patterns are sometimes
formed by means a spindle and sweep or by frames and
of
strickles. The usual procedure when operating with the spindle
and sweep is to sweep up the core first and dry it. The outside
of the pattern is then swept up by applying sand to the core to
form the thickness of metal. This sand-pattern is used to
mold with and the sand, formerly applied to obtain the thick-
 SPECIAL PATTERN WORK 305

ness, is removed so that the core is ready for use. Loam cores
are formed by boards pressing the loam against a barrel which
iswound with straw rope and revolves in a horizontal position.
The patternmaker only with the boards that
is concerned
must be shaped and beveled on the edges to give form to the
core.

Partings in Loam Molds. The patternmaker does not

have to concern himself about partings in loam molds to the
same extent that he does when a pattern is made for green or
dry sand work. The principles of molding should be observed,
but, owing to the construction of a loam mold, the molder deter-
mines the location of the parting.
Using Old
Castings as Patterns. When breakdowns
occur, there not always time to make a new pattern to take
is

the place of the broken part, so the old casting must be patched

up and used for a pattern. When there are holes in bosses

and hubs, these may be plugged and this will enable the pat-
ternmaker to attach thin material by brads to allow for finish-
ing the casting. When there is no chance to fasten the "finish,"
the molder should be provided with a piece of the proper size
and thickness to cover the surface and should add on the re-
quired amount. Paper and cardboard are frequently wound
around cylinders and fastened with shellac or tied in two or
three places with a piece of string. Narrow, wooden strips
may also be used in this way. Undercutting bosses can be
utilized by fitting pieces under them to form tail-prints; a
piece is then made to set into the mold while the tail is stopped
off.
 CHAPTER XIV
FINISHING PATTERN WORK
THE finishing of patterns includes the application of fillets,
the rounding of corners, and the final sandpapering and varnish-
ing. The putting in of rapping plates and lifting and drawing

devices, as well as the fastening of pattern letters and the final

checking for errors before sending to the foundry are also a

part of this work. The final appearance of any pattern will

depend largely upon the neatness with which the finishing is

done. It will make but little difference how well made or
assembled the different parts of a pattern may be, a poor look-
ing pattern will result if the corners are not well rounded and
if the fillets are
poorly put in. Any parts that are going to be
difficult to sandpaper after the assembly, should be attended to

beforehand. Core-boxes are often easier to sandpaper before

they are put together, or the ends or sides are put in place.
All glue should be cleaned off before varnishing. The easiest
way to clean the glue is while it is soft and can be taken off with
a sponge or piece of waste saturated with hot water. If this
has not been attended to and the glue has dried, it will have
to be taken off with a scraper. Nails should be used in all
glued joints and, whenever possible, in fillets. The pins in
parted work should be sandpapered until the pieces part freely,
and skewers should be filed or scraped until they withdraw
easily. Loose pieces should be carefully examined to make
sure that they will draw into the pattern cavity in the mold.
Fillets. Fillets are concave connecting or corner pieces
used at the intersection of surfaces. They are either "stuck"
or "planted." A
stuck fillet is one that is worked from the
solid, and a planted fillet is one made separately and applied.
Planted fillets, which are the ones commonly used, are made of
306
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK 307

wood, leather, beeswax, putty, and other plastic materials.

Metal have also been used to some extent, but are not
fillets

very popular, as they are hard to fasten and soon work loose.
Wood Fillets. Wood fillets are used on straight work or
for corners of large radii. They may be purchased, but are

usually made by the patternmaker. Wood fillets are planed

with a round plane (A, Fig. lengths to suit. These planes
i) in
are made in different widths, varying from J inch to 2 inches.

They usually come in pairs, each round or convex plane having

a corresponding hollow or concave plane. The round, how-
ever, is the only one used by the patternmaker. Two edges of

Machinery

Fig. 1.(A) Round Plane for forming Fillets.

(B) Section of Fillet Stock.
(C) Board used for holding Fillet Stock while planing. (D) Edges of
Large Fillet held down by Thin Strips while Glue is setting

the stock are planed to slightly more than 90 degrees, as at J5,

so that the edges of the fillets will lie flat when fastened in the
corner. The stock reduced to a triangular section on
is first

the circular saw, and is then placed on the fillet board for plan-

ing with the round plane. The fillet board C is a board of

suitable length provided with grooves of different sizes for
holding the fillet while it is being planed. A projecting screw
head at the end of each groove acts as a stop.
Wood should always be glued in place and securely
fillets

nailed. A round-ended stick is handy to rub the edges flat.

The applying of glue to one side of the fillet will cause the edges
308 PATTERNMAKING

to curl; to counteract this, the face or concave side should be

wet with water before the glue is put on. The shim or feather-
edges on large fillets should be held down by tacking thin strips
over them, as at D, Fig. i. These are removed after the glue
has set.

Leather Fillets. Leather fillets are

triangular strips of
leather cut in four-foot lengths. Samples are shown at A,
Fig. 2. They come in different sizes, and are in general use
for fillets of one-inch radius or less. The extreme pliability of
leather fillets makes them easy to apply to straight or curved
work or to acute or obtuse corners, as illustrated at B. This

"
Gun " for forming
Fig. 2. (A and B) Leather Fillets. (C) Tube or
Beeswax Fillets. (D) Tool for applying Leather Fillets

pliability may be increased by moistening with water. Leather

fillets may be fastened with glue or thick shellac. They are
rubbed in place with a spherical-ended tool D. If glue is used,
the rubbing must be done very rapidly and before it has a
chance to set. Shellac is perhaps the best for this purpose,
as it permits more time for rubbing. The back or angled side
of the fillet should be coated as well as the corner to which it is

to be applied; if the shellac is thin, several coats should be

put on and allowed to become sticky before the rubbing begins.

Beeswax Fillets. Beeswax fillets are used on small work
"
and applied after the first coat of varnish. The beeswax
gun" a device for preparing
is wax for use as
simple fillets. A
form consists of a tube closed at one end, as shown at C, Fig. 2.
A wooden piston or plunger is fitted to the open end. The tube
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK 309

ispartly filled with beeswax and the plunger inserted; the wax
is forced through the opening in the side of the tube by plac-

ing the gun in a vise and forcing the plunger against the wax.
If the tube is held in hot water before squeezing, the wax will

come out more easily. It will be in the form of a long string,

and its cross-section will be similar to the opening in the side
of the tube, which is sometimes round and sometimes triangular.
A hole A inch in diameter will make a beeswax string suitable
for a J-inch fillet. Beeswax fillets are rubbed into the corners
with the spherical-ended fillet tools. In cold weather these
should be warmed by dipping into hot water; a little oil applied
to the end of the tool will keep it from sticking to the wax.

WOOD SCREW
..WASHER

Y
Machinery

Fig. 3. Type of Gage used for marking Corners preparatory to rounding

Putty and Metal Fillets. Putty fillets are used for cheap
work or for a temporary job. They are sometimes made by
mixing whiting and varnish but are not very satisfactory for
standard work. Metal fillets are made of lead or white metal.
They are hard to fasten securely and do not bend to curves
easily.
Round Corners. Projecting edges on patterns, excepting
the edges of parts that are to be machined or to be fitted to
some other piece, are finished by rounding to a quarter circle.
The smaller corners up to J inch may be worked off accurately
enough to the eye, but even these will have to be gaged. The
ordinary marking gage will not do for this purpose as the spur
 PATTERNMAKING

makes a disfiguring line and the gage will not run freely around
convex and concave curves or sharp corners. The gage shown
in Fig. 3 is well adapted to this purpose; it consists of two

pieces of hard wood a and b. Piece a is slotted and the piece

b has a projection that fits the slot. A round-head wood-screw
permits it to be clamped at any point in its travel. The mark-
ing point or spur is a pencil point.
Tools for Rounding Corners. The tools used for rounding
corners include the large and small block-planes, the long- and
short-handled spoke-shaves A and B, Fig. 4 (for both wood

Machinery

Fig. 4. (A and B) Spoke-shaves for rounding Corners, (C) Corner-

rounding Tool

and metal), and a sharp knife. The spoke-shaves should be

in pairs with both flat and convex rounded faces. Pattern-
makers usually cut the long handles off short as they are often
in the way. It is a good plan, however, to be provided with
both kinds.
The corner rounding tool shown at C makes a complete
corner at one cut; works well with the grain on straight-
it

grained wood, but not so well across the grain. These tools are
made in a number of sizes.
Corner Templets. Templets should be used for trying
corners having a radius of | inch or more, while working them
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK
to shape with the tools. Cardboard templets (C, Fig. 5) will
do very well, but for corners of i-inch radius or larger a templet
made from J-inch stock will be better as it may be chalked and
rubbed to see where the stock should be removed. A good
form of good templet is shown at D.
Rounding Large Corners. In rounding corners of large
radius, they should first be gaged and then chamfered tangent
to the radius at an angle of 45 degrees. To do this accurately,

i i

Machinery

Fig. 5. (A and B) Method of chamfering Large Corners preparatory to

rounding. (C and D) Corner Templets

the corner radius should be laid out on a piece of board as at A,

Fig. 5, a 45-degree chamfer marked out, and a line gaged from

the edge each way to guide the workman in removing the cor-
ner B.
Sandpaper. Sandpaper is a heavy paper coated with an
abrasive material of different degrees of coarseness. These are
designated by numbers starting with ooo, which is the finest
grade, and ending with 3, which is the coarsest. The numbers
used in most pattern work are o, J, i, i|, and 2.
Sandpapering
20 K
312 PATTERNMAKING
blocks are wooden blocks around which the sandpaper is tightly
wrapped when operating on large surfaces. For plane surfaces
and convex curves a straight-faced block is used. Blocks of
cork are sometimes used or wooden blocks faced with cork;
they are more elastic than wood and conform slightly to irregu-
larities wood. Blocks for concave surfaces should be
in the

shaped to conform to the surface, while for straight round core-

boxes, cylinders should be turned and kept for this purpose.

Machinery

Fig. 6. Method of folding Sandpaper

These cylinders should be of such a diameter that when the sand-

paper is tightly wound around them, they will just equal the
diameter of the box.
Sandpapering. Pattern sandpapering is done by moving
the sandpaper back and forth across the grain of the wood or
in the opposite direction to which the tool traveled in working
the pieces to shape. Coarse sandpaper should be used first
and fine sandpaper for the finishing touches. Care should be
taken not to destroy plane surfaces, and corners that are meant
to be sharp. Much of the rubbing on rounded corners will be
done with the sandpaper held in the hand. The paper should
be torn in square or rectangular pieces and folded twice, as in
Fig. 6. This will give three working faces and is the most
economical way to use it.
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK 313

Pattern Varnish or Shellac. Varnish used as a protective

covering for patterns has for a base what is known as yellow or

orange shellac. Shellac comes in thin, brown, flaking, irregu-

larly shaped pieces. mixed or cut by placing a quantity
It is
of it in a glass or earthenware jar and adding enough alcohol
to cover it. The
may be grain, denatured, or wood;
alcohol

any but grain alcohol is the best. Wood and

of these will do,
denatured are generally used on account of their lower cost.
Black shellac made by adding to orange shellac a good quality
is

oflampblack that is free from grit. A

good grade of finely dry-
ground vermilion will make an excellent red shellac.
Varnish Pots and Brushes. Pots for holding clear or yel-
low shellac should be of glass or earthenware, as the chemical
action set up by the use of a metal pot will darken the shellac;
a metal pot may, however, be safely used for black or red shellac.
Shellac pots should have tightly fitted covers to prevent exces-
sive loss through evaporation.
Shellac that has become discolored may be cleared or cleaned

by adding a small quantity of powdered oxalic acid, but care

should be taken not to get this mixture into cuts or wounds,
as oxalic acid is
poisonous.
Shellac best applied with the flat chisel-shaped brush
is

made of badger or camel's hair. These brushes come in a num-

ber of widths, but for pattern work the i-, ij-, and 2-inch widths
will be found most convenient. A leather- or rubber-bound
brush should be used for clear shellac, as a metal binding will
affect the shellac in the same manner as a metal pot. To keep
the bristles straight the brushes should hang in the pot and
not stand on the bottom.
Applying Pattern Varnish. Shellac varnish dries quickly

and, if of good quality, is not easily affected by heat or mois-

ture; it has the added advantage of being easy to cut through
if alterations are called for after the pattern is finished. The
firstcoat should be evenly applied and the varnish should not
be too thin, as the moisture has a tendency to raise the grain
of the wood, and applied too thin will roughen the surface so
if

that it may never be smoothed. The first coat should be given

314 PATTERNMAKING

ample time to dry before the second is applied. There is no

rule as to the amount
time to allow, but the more the better.
of

Before applying the second coat, the surface of the pattern

should be rubbed smooth with a piece of fine sandpaper held
in the hand, and this should be done between each successive
coat. Never use a block for sandpapering a varnished surface.
The number of coats to apply will be governed by local practice,
but for good work at least three coats should be given.
Varnishing Core-prints and Outlines. Core-prints and
places where cores will cut through to the exterior of the cast-

ing, as well as core outlines or sections on the joints of parted

patterns, are indicated by a different color of varnish from
that used on the body of the pattern. If yellow is the color
of the pattern, the core-prints and designated portions will be
black; if black is the pattern color, the prints will be either yel-
low or red.

Casting Metal Indicated by Pattern Color. It is the

practice in some shops to use a given color on patterns, as an

indication of the metal it is to be cast in. For example, all
patterns to be cast in iron would be black, red would indicate
steel, and yellow would mean brass or composition.

Rapping and Lifting Plates. Rapping plates are pieces of

metal let in flush with the joint or cope side of the pattern
and fastened with screws. They come in different shapes and
sizes (a few samples are shown at A, Fig. 7) and are provided
with a central hole that is tapped to receive the threaded end

of the lifting iron B. In addition to the tapped hole, there are

one or more plain holes for the reception of the rapping bar.
Countersunk holes are provided for the fastening screws.
The recesses for square and rectangular plates, as well as
with scalloped edges, are laid out by placing the plate
for those
on the pattern and tracing the outline with a scriber. The
scalloped-edge plates are designed to be let in flush by boring
a series of holes to a depth equal to the thickness of the plate.
A Forstner bit and a bit-stop should be used for this purpose.
The number of rapping plates and their location will depend
entirely upon the shape and size of the pattern. If the pattern
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK 315

is small or medium sized and plain in shape, one plate will be

enough. be located at a point where the pattern will

It should

be in balance when it is drawn with the lifting iron. If the

pattern is large or cannot be easily balanced or rapped with
one plate, it will be necessary to install two or more plates to

carry the weight and balance the lift.

Lifting straps D, Fig. 7, are applied to deep patterns. These
are used solely for lifting purposes and are usually made of f-
or iVinch bar iron of suitable width and provided with counter-
sunk screw-holes.

Machinery

Fig. 7. (A) Rapping and Lifting Plates. (B) Lifting Iron. (C) Pattern Letters
and Figures. (D) Lifting Strap

Finishing Metal Patterns. The surfaces of metal patterns

should be filed smooth and all holes filled with solder or lead.
There are several methods of finishing surfaces, the simplest of
which is All oil and grease must be
called the rusting process.
removed by a steam bath or by scrubbing with hot soda water;
this treatment is followed by several successive applications of

a solution of water and sal-ammoniac, in order to obtain a well-

rusted surface which is rubbed to a smooth finish with emery
cloth. The final finish is given by heating the casting and
rubbing beeswax on the surface while it is warm. This is to
316 PATTERNMAKING

prevent the damp sand from sticking to the pattern or causing

it to rust.
Pattern Letters. Pattern letters are used for reproducing
firm names, identification letters, or figures on castings.
Samples are shown at C, Fig. 7. They are made of either brass
or a soft alloy of tin and lead, and they may be procured in
" "
three styles, known as Roman," sharp-faced Gothic," and
"flat-faced Gothic." The sizes range in height from J inch to
4 inches. The brass pattern letters are used on metal pat-
terns and the soft metal ones on wood, as they are easily bent
to conform to curved surfaces.
Brass pattern letters are attached to metal patterns by
sweating. The surface to be covered by the letters, and the
backs of the letters themselves, are tinned or given a thin coat
of solder. This is done by heating the surfaces enough to melt
the solder. A flux such as sal-ammoniac should be applied
before the solder. The tinned surfaces are then reheated and
the letters put in position. Soft metal letters are fastened to
wood patterns by means of shellac, or shellac and small brads.
Before an attempt is made to apply the letters to a pattern,
their position must be decided upon and lines drawn as a guide
for setting the letters. The letters should first be arranged
dry for position and spacing, and the position of the first and
last letter in each line marked. The letters are then placed
face downward on a piece of board and shellacked, as is also the
surface to which the letters are to be applied. When the shel-
lac has become quite sticky, the letters should be reapplied and
adjusted. A
knife with a sharp-pointed blade will be found an
excellent tool for this purpose.

Checking Pattern Work. Checking is the final inspection

to which all patterns should be subjected as a safeguard against

possible errors before they are sent to the foundry. There are
no fixed rules for checking work, but it is a good plan to com-

pare the pattern with the drawing, view for view, before mak-
ing any measurements. Be certain that all the pieces are on
the pattern and in proper relation to each other. The pattern
should then be measured by referring first to the dimensions
 FINISHING PATTERN WORK
on one view of the drawing only. To facilitate checking, all
center lines should be cut rather deeply with a sharp knife point,
so that they will not be obliterated in finishing the pattern.
Over-all lengths and widths, distances between centers of hubs
and bosses, diameters of flanges and all
sizes of facing pieces,

important dimensions on each view should be measured first.

Thicknesses of webs and ribs or other parts of minor impor-
tance should be left to the last. After checking the figures, the

try-square and protractor are used to test those surfaces that

lie at an angle to one another.

Core-boxes should be carefully checked to see that they

will leave the proper thicknesses of metal around the core and

Factors for Obtaining Weight of Casting from Pattern Weight

that the cores will the prints.

fit Allowance must be made
for a natural increase in the size of large cores, due to swelling
and settling, and care must be taken to see that the core-boxes
are somewhat smaller than the prints. The natural tendency
of plates is to increase in thickness in the casting, so that, if a
plate of a required thickness is wanted, the pattern will have
to be made somewhat thinner. Deep beds also will increase
in depth and such castings frequently come out the same size
as the pattern.

Obtaining Weight of Casting from Pattern Weight. Ap-

proximate weights of castings may be obtained by weighing the
pattern and multiplying the weight by a factor given in the
accompanying table. If a white pine pattern weighs 6% pounds,
its approximate weight when cast in iron will be 6| times the
factor found in the table under cast iron and opposite white
3 18 PATTERNMAKING

pine, or 6f X 13
= 84 pounds. If there should be a cored
hole through the casting, the weight of the cored part can be
found by filling the core-box or boxes with dry sand and weigh-
ing the sand, which should then be multiplied by one of the
following factors: For cast iron, 4; for composition, 4.65;
and for aluminum, 1.4. This product should be subtracted
from the first weight obtained to get the net result. As an ex-
ample, if the weight of the sand in the core-box is 8| pounds,
then the net weight of the casting will equal approximately
84 (8} X 4)
= 51 pounds.
 CHAPTER XV
PATTERN LUMBER

THE best lumber for patterns, or in fact any other purpose,

is always cut from mature trees, the fibers of which have be-
come compact through the drying of the sap as well as the
external pressure exerted by the bark. For this reason, wide
boards are invariably superior to the narrow ones that are
milled from immature trees.
A
section of a log (see sketch ^4) on examination will dis-
close a series of concentric rings extending from the center of
the log to the outside. These are called "year" or "growth"

rings and as one is added each year that the tree lives, its age
can be determined by counting these rings. The variations in
the amount of each year's growth can also be. noted by the
varying spaces between these rings. Radiating from the center
of the log and extending to the outside in broken lines are
what are known as the "medullary" or "silver rays." The
"heart wood" is that which lies nearest the center of the
log; it is darker in color and superior in quality to the "sap
wood" which lies directly inside of the bark.
Varieties of Lumber Used in Pattern Work. Many dif-

lumber have been used in pattern work, and

ferent varieties of
some of them Of the softer
possess admirable characteristics.
woods, white pine, white wood, poplar, Washington fir, and
red wood are the most common varieties. The list of harder
woods used for this purpose includes mahogany, baywood,
cherry, maple, and birch. Of the softer woods, all of those

mentioned, except white pine, are too easily affected by atmos-

pheric changes to be entirely satisfactory. They shrink and
swell, warp and twist; and red wood is one of the few woods
that shrinks lengthwise or with the grain. Mahogany is pref-
319
320 PATTERNMAKING

arable amongthe list of harder woods, with baywood and

cherry next in order. Maple and birch are well suited for
small turned patterns, but are too hard to be worked economi-

cally withhand tools.

The Ideal Pattern Lumber. An ideal pattern lumber
should be fairly soft and straight-grained without being splin-
tery. It should be porous enough to take glue well, allowing
it to soak into the fibers of the wood in order to make strong

Machinery

(A) Section ofLog showing Growth Rings. (B) Warped Lumber. (C) Quarter-
sawn Lumber. (D) Method of obtaining Quarter-sawn Lumber. (E and F)
Pieces joined so as to offset the Effects of Shrinkage

glue joints,and when properly seasoned it should not change

itsform much with exposure to heat, cold, or dampness. White
or "cork" pine, as it is sometimes called from the appearance
lumber that comes anywhere near filling
of the bark, is the only
the above requirements. It is easily the best lumber for all
but the smallest patterns, being easy to work and durable
enough to stand a considerable amount of hard usage. It

may be procured in wide boards of considerable length and of

 PATTERN LUMBER 321

different thicknesses. It shrinks but little across the grain,

has no perceptible shrinkage lengthwise, and is porous enough
to take glue well.

Selecting Pattern Lumber.

In selecting pattern lumber,
care should be exercised to use only those boards that are dry,

straight-grained and free from loose knots and excessive sap

wood or worm holes. A board, however, should not be con-
demned if its appearance is marred by a few small tight knots,
or a little sap wood at the edges, or even a few worm holes,
as these are often found in lumber of good quality.
Kiln-dried and Air-dried Lumber. Kiln-dried lumber is

lumber which the seasoning or drying process is hastened by

in

placing the boards in an oven or kiln. Seasoned or air-dried

lumber is lumber that is permitted to dry naturally under
sheds so arranged as to have a free circulation of air in good
weather. Seasoned lumber is superior to kiln-dried, as the
rapid drying destroys much of the natural elasticity of the
fibers of the wood, making them brittle and harder to work.

The dryness of a board is determined largely by its weight and

"feel." A dry board will feel dry to the hand and be reason-
ably light in weight.
Weight of Wood per Foot. The weights, in pounds, of
various kinds of woods (commercially known as "dry" timber),

per foot-board measure, are as follows: White pine, 1.98; Span-

ish mahogany, 4.42; Honduras mahogany, 3; poplar, 3.25;
Washington fir, 2.65; cedar, 1.93; California spruce, 2.08;
cherry, 3.5; maple, 4.08.
Judging Straightness of Grain. The straightness of grain
in a board is determined by the appearance of the sawn face
which should present a uniform roughness over its entire sur-
face. Boards with a twisted or fancy grain should always be
avoided.
Pitch and Sap Wood. The presence
an unusual amount
of
of pitch in a board is
betrayed by weight, which will be
its

excessive. Such a board will prove hard to work and will not
make a dependable pattern. Sap is easily detected, as it will
stand out on the surface in small sticky or resinous globules.
322 PATTERNMAKING
The sap wood along the edges of the board will either show
white or have a brownish tinge.
Sizes of Sawn Lumber. Lumberthe result of sawing
is

trunks of trees into boards or planks that are usually cut to

even feet in length and inches in width. The thicknesses start
at one inch and advance by quarter-inch increments. Pieces
less than if inch thick are called boards and the thicker pieces,
planks, while those 4 inches and over in thickness are known as
timber.
Dressed and Resawn Lumber. Lumber that is planed is
said to be "dressed"and it may be " dressed" on one or both
sides or edges. A i-inch board dressed on both sides will be
f inch in thickness. Resawn lumber is sawn again from the

mill sizes in order to save stock. For example, a ij-inch board

may be split lengthwise and planed or dressed on both sides to
^ inch instead of planing two i-inch boards to the same thickness.
Straight- and Quarter-sawn Lumber. There are two
general methods followed in sawing a log into boards or planks:
one is known either as straight, bastard, or tangent sawing;

and the other is called quarter-sawing. In straight sawing, the

log is put through the saw without regard to the relation be-

tween the longitudinal fibers and the year rings (see sketch B)
while in quarter-sawing the log is split radially, as shown at C.
The section of year rings on the end of a quarter-sawn board
willstand very nearly at right angles to the face of the board.
This effect is secured by sawing the log in quarters on the lines

a-a (see sketch D), and then dividing these quarters by one
of the methods indicated.
Shrinkage of Lumber. A log in drying does not reduce in
diameter as a result of the shrinkage that follows. This shrink-
age is always in the direction of the year rings and results in
the longitudinal cracks or checks that appear in telegraph and
other poles. These checks are radial and follow the lines of
the medullary rays, as well as the line of least resistance, and
occur always on the side of the log that is the shortest distance
from the heart. They do not run in straight lines as a rule,
but follow the longitudinal growth of the tree, which is slightly
 PATTERN LUMBER 323

spiral in direction. This is the reason why the grain on two

sides of a board will always run in opposite directions.
Effects of Lumber Shrinkage. The effect of shrinkage on
straight- and quarter-sawn boards is quite different, as may
be seen by reference to the sections B and C of the accompany-
ing illustration. The
straight-sawn board, owing to the short-
ening of the sections of year rings by shrinkage, becomes con-
caved on one side and convexed on the other, the convexed side
always being the one that faced the heart of the tree. This
shrinkage does not affect the face of the quarter-sawn board at
all,except on thick pieces which will in time become slightly
thinner on the edges. Quarter-sawn lumber is, therefore, the
best for light pattern work, but the cost would be too great
for its general use in patterns of large size, so the skillful pat-
ternmaker who understands the effects of shrinkage will so
combine the various pieces that go into a pattern as to mini-
mize, or, if possible, eliminate the undesirable results caused by
shrinkage.
Examples illustrating how
pieces are put together to offset
the effects of shrinkage are shown at E
and F. Section shows E
four pieces combined with the grain arranged to counteract the

shrinkage strains, while F is a standard method of arranging

the grain in narrow pieces combined to form wide boards or

plates.
Storing Lumber. Lumber is usually piled on the flat side
with three or four strips about a half inch thick between each
board to insure a free circulation of air. This is perhaps the
best plan for storing lumber in quantities, as the weight of the

pile tends to hold the boards straight. The different thick-

nesses should be kept in separate piles and the storage
room should be dry, warm and
light. Lumber for immediate
use should be placed on edge in racks where boards of any size
can be conveniently removed without disturbing an entire pile.
Measuring Lumber. Boards are usually sold at a certain
price per hundred (C)
feet or per thousand (M) feet; the price
is usually quoted by the feet. M
A board foot measures 12
inches by 12 inches by i inch in thickness. For quick measur-
324 PATTERNMAKING

ing of boards i inch thick, multiply the length in feet by the

width in inches and divide by 12; the result will be the board
measure in feet. If the boards are if inch thick, add one
quarter of the quotient to the result, or if ij inch, add one
half. For boards 2 inches thick, divide by 6, or if 3 inches thick,
divide by 4, etc.
Life of Wood Patterns. The length of time that a wood
pattern will last and the number of castings that can be made
from it will depend entirely upon how, and of what material,
it was made in the first place, and upon the amount of care

given it later on. Patterns that are in constant use should be

returned at intervals to the pattern shop for repairs or for re-
varnishing, if no repairs are required. Aside from a certain
amount of wear and tear due to carelessness or abuse, there are
a number of legitimate reasons for causing patterns to wear
out when in constant use. The vent rod which is plunged
through the cope of the mold to provide outlet for the gases
is usually allowed to strike the pattern and results in pock-
marking the cope side, and the practice of driving large nails
into the cope side of parted patterns to prevent their falling out
when the cope is lifted away results, in time, in making a large
hole that must be filled up. Failure on the part of the pat-
tern shop to provide suitable means for rapping and draw-
ing very damaging, as the molder is likely to use a sledge-
is

hammer and crowbar as a substitute for rapping and lifting

plates.
In every foundry there should be someone whose business
it is to take care of the patterns when the molder finishes with

them, as permitting a pattern to lie for hours on a pile of wet

sand or in the gangway usually results in a badly twisted or
burned pattern. Hard- wood patterns will, of course, last
longer than those of softer wood, if given the same care; large
patterns made of soft wood are often reinforced with hard-
wood corners and loose pieces or are faced with hard wood on
the cope and drag sides.
 CHAPTER XVI
FILING AND SETTING SAWS

EVERY
experienced woodworker realizes the importance of
keeping saws sharp and in good condition. A sharp "clean-
cutting" saw is not only conducive to accurate work, but it
enables work to be done more easily and rapidly especially
in the case of hand-operated saws and reduces the danger
of accidents when
using power-driven saws. The maintenance
of saws in good condition involves (i) jointing or straightening
the edges of hand saws which have become worn considerably;
(2) setting the teeth so that they incline equally and form a
path or kerf which is wide enough to provide clearance for the
saw blade; (3) filing the teeth so that cutting edges and
all

points are sharp and uniform; (4) joining the ends of saws of
the band type which must form a continuous loop for operation
over pulleys; and (5) truing circular saws, when necessary, so
that the points of the teeth will lie in a circular path.
all

Most authorities advise setting the teeth of saws before

filing, but many woodworkers prefer to set the teeth after they
are filed. To file saws properly requires good eyesight, prac-
tice,and a correct understanding of what the saw is expected
to do. If it is a cross-cut saw for severing the lengthwise fibers

of wood, the teeth should have knife-like points arranged to

cut two parallel lines while the rest of the teeth remove the

intervening space in the form of dust. The rip-saw, however,

has a different shaped tooth designed to cut with the grain
where there are no fibers to be severed, and its action is similar
to that of a narrow chisel cutting a groove with the grain.
Neither form of tooth could be forced very far into a board un-
less some clearance for the body of the saw was provided for

by bending alternate teeth in opposite directions. This is

"
called spring set." The correct form of tooth and set for a
32S
326 PATTERNMAKING
hand cross-cut saw is shown at A, B, and C, Fig. i, and the
teeth for a rip-saw at D, E, and F. Views C and F are magni-
fied and show the teeth as they appear looking from the point

of the saw blade towards the handle.

Hand Saws.
Jointing Jointing a hand saw means straight-
ening the edge, and this should be done before attempting to

\~S 1 INCH >\

h.

Fig. 1. Correct Forms of Teeth and Set for Hand Cross-cut and Rip-saws

file or set the teeth. There are many good jointers to be had,
but this work can be done very well by holding a flat file length-
wise on the teeth and running it back and forth until the teeth
are all the same height; to keep it square with the side of the
saw a piece of wood about one inch thick and two inches wide
should be held against the saw blade. The file is placed on
the edge and allowed to project just enough to cut the teeth down.
A straightedge should be used to test the edge of the saw.
 FILING AND SETTING SAWS 327

Setting Hand Saws. A saw set (Fig. 3) is used to bend the

teeth right and left; it should be so regulated as to bend the
end of the tooth and not the entire tooth from the body of
the saw, as this may crack the tooth through the gullet or sharp

Fig. 2. Position of File for sharpening Cross-cut Saw

corner. If a set is not at hand, the teeth may be bent with a

nail set and hammer by laying the saw on a piece of hard wood
and striking every other tooth a sharp blow.
Filing a Cross-cut Hand Saw. To file a cross-cut saw it

should be clamped in a suitable vise, but if one is not at hand

328 PATTERNMAKING

the saw may be clamped in the bench vise between two pieces
of f-inch stock having beveled edges. The teeth should be
kept as near as possible to the shape illustrated at A, Fig. i;
or, if the saw is new, the shape of the teeth should be preserved.
The filing should start at the point of the saw with the file
held in a horizontal position or in a plane at right angles to the
side of the saw, but at an angle of about 45 degrees in order to
cut the bevel or fleam forming the knife-like points that make"
the two parallel cuts (see Fig. 2). The filing is done on the
front or cutting edge of every alternate tooth, and the saw
filer should start with the first tooth set towards him. After

Machinery

Fig. 3. Saw Set

every alternate tooth has been filed, the saw is reversed and
filedin the same manner from the other side. Every effort
should be made to keep the filing angles and the size of the teeth
uniform. The corner of the file should be pushed down into
the gullet or corner of each tooth and the angle on the upper
side of the file noted as a guide for keeping the teeth of uniform

shape. A piece of board with angular lines on it is sometimes

laid on the bench as a gage for the side angle or fleam.
Filing Hand Rip-saws. The rip-saw tooth is filed straight
across with the front at right angles to the edge. The teeth of
both cross-cut and rip-saws should be side dressed by laying
them on a flat board and rubbing an oilstone back and forth
over the side of the saw teeth to remove the burrs and
inequalities.
 FILING AND SETTING SAWS 329

Filing Band Saws. A band saw is filed in much the same

manner as a rip-saw, except that the front edges of the teeth
should be filed under to make a slight hook at the points. The
vise should be adjustable so that the teeth will just project
above the jaws the proper distance for filing, as illustrated at A,
Fig. 4. The teeth may be jointed by holding the edge of a
rather worn-out file against the teeth while the saw is running.
Setting Band Saws. Band saws can be set with a hand
saw set, but it is tedious work. A setting machine is best but,
if this is lacking, the vise B, Fig. 4, is the next best thing. It

Machinery

Fig. 4. Filing and setting a Band Saw

is made with one jaw projecting slightly above the other and
with the projecting jaw beveled the proper amount for saw set.

The setting is done with a nail set and hammer.

Brazing Band Saws. The ends to be joined must be
scarfed or beveled for about f inch to form a good joint and
be securely clamped in the brazing vise, Fig. 5, so that the
back of the saw is up against the raised ledge to keep the saw
in line. The parts to be joined should be coated with borax
paste made by mixing pulverized borax with a little water; a
piece of the brazing material then placed in the joint and the
is

heat applied by grasping the joint in a pair of heated tongs

and holding it until the brazing material melts. This brazing
330 PATTERNMAKING

material may be either silver solder or thin brass. If solder is

used, the tongs should be heated to a bright red and be kept

on the joint until it is dull; brass is harder to melt and the
tongs will have to be heated almost to a welding heat. Before
applying the tongs they should be scraped clean of scale as there
should be a bearing completely across the joint and the tongs
should not touch in spots only. If the tongs are heated to a
dull redand applied a second time, this helps to set the joint
and prevents its cooling too quickly. A
gasoline blow-torch
can be used with silver solder by binding the joint tightly to-

MacMncry
Fig. 5. Clamp and Tongs for brazing Band Saw

gether with thin brass wire. The brazed joint should be dressed
by filing to an even thickness with the rest of the saw.
Truing Circular Saws. Circular saws, to give satisfactory
results, must be perfectly round so that the points of all teeth
will cut equally. A saw that is out of round may be trued by
setting the saw so that the tips of the teeth are about flush
with the top of the saw table and grinding them off by means
of a piece of grindstone or a soft
emery wheel. The saw should
be moved upwards until the tip of every tooth has been touched.
After the filing and setting, the saw should be side dressed so
that the teeth project equally on each side of the saw. This
is
accomplished by laying a piece of abrasive flat on the saw
table and grinding each side of the teeth.
 FILING AND SETTING SAWS 331

Filing Cut-off Saw. The teeth in the circular cut-off or

cross-cut saw are similar to those in a hand saw and are filed

in practically the same way, except that the corner or gullet

of the tooth should be rounded out straight across and the
side bevel of the teeth should start just above this round and
extend to the points, which should be filed sharp as at A, Fig.
6. This is the proper form of tooth for cutting soft wood; for
a harder wood, the tooth should have less hook, as at B.

Machinery

Fig. 6. (A and B) Teeth of Circular Cut-off or Cross-cut Saw. (C and D) Teeth

of Circular Rip-saw

Filing Circular Rip-saws. The circular rip-saw is filed

straight across in the same manner as a hand saw and most of

the filing should be on the front or working edge of the tooth.
A superior form of tooth is the one with the patented gullets
(see sketch C, Fig. 6). This form of tooth is easier to file than
the old style, D, and is more economical as the saws last much

longer. Large saws are ground to shape on emery wheels in-

stead of being filed by hand.
Setting Circular Saws. There are two methods of setting
"
circular saws; one is called the spring set," the point of every
 PATTERNMAKING

other tooth being bent in opposite directions. The other

method consists in swaging or spreading the points of the teeth
so that each tooth projects about re inch on each side, as illus-

trated at B, Fig. This swaging or spreading of the teeth is

7.

done with a swage C, which is placed on each tooth and the

end struck with a hammer. Spring setting is more uniformly
done with a machine A, but small saws can be satisfactorily

Machinery

Fig. 7. (A) Machine for setting Teeth of Circular Saws. (B) Swaged Saw Teeth.
(C) Tool for swaging Saw Teeth

set by laying them on a trued plate, which is slightly beveled

near one edge; a tooth projecting over the beveled part is
bent by striking it a sharp blow with a hammer; the saw must
be held in the same position for each tooth which must be struck
with equal force. After a saw is set the teeth should be side
dressed to make There are devices for doing
the set uniform.
this, but the easiest way, with small saws, is to put them on
the mandrel and grind each side of the teeth off with a piece
of an old emery wheel laid flat on the saw table.
 INDEX

caused by circular Bevel-gear patterns, laying out, 275

ACCIDENTS Bevel protractor, 141
saws, 46
Aerial propellers, 271 Bevel, the, 139
Air-chamber patterns, 165 Bevels for hopper patterns, 144
Air-dried and kiln-dried lumber, 321 Bit braces, 33

Allowances, finish, 136 Bit files, 35

finish, for segment work, 127 Bits, auger, 34

shrinkage or contraction, on pat- center, 35
terns, 135 countersink, 37
Angles and lengths of segments, for expansion, 36
setting trimming machine, table, Forstner, 36
123 gimlet, 35
Angles, 45- and 6o-degree, laying out, pod or spoon, 36
142 Bit-stock drills, 36
method of laying out, 142 Bit stops, 37
Architectural patternmaker, 4 Block-planes, 24
Arcs of large 143
radii, laying out, Boards, working face of, 67
Assembling staves and heads, 108 Bolt holes, coring, 134
Assembling, working parts to shape Boss, circular, fitted to cylindrical
before, 94 form, 95
Auger bits, 34 Bosses, turning small, 210
Bottom boards for core-boxes, 176

core-prints, 22 Box, patternmaker's, 84

gALANCING
Balls, method of turning, 221 Boxes, joints for, 80
Band-sawing gear teeth, 277 Braces, bit-, 33
Band saws, 50 Bracket and frame patterns, 152
brazing, 329 Brads and nails, 102
filing, 329 Branches, fitting at an angle, 98
setting, 329 fitting by use of paper patterns, 97
used for making worms and screws. turned, fitting to bodies of equal
281 diameter, 95
Bar clamps, 42 turned, fitting to bodies of unequal
Battens, 83 diameter, 96
Beds, engine, patterns for, 167 Brazing band saws, 329
stopping-off pieces for, 287 Brushes for varnish, 313
Beeswax fillets, 308 Bushing and lining patterns, 15
Belts, care of, in pattern shop, 66 Butt-joints, 75
Bench and vise, 40
Bench hooks, 41
Bench or hand tools used
^AM patterns, 154 268
in pattern- Cants for propellers, gluing,

making, 24 Cap and pillow-block patterns, 156

Bench tools, sharpening, 38 Carving tools, 32
333
334 INDEX

Castings, machining, provisions for, 131 Core-boxes, exhaust-port, 229

obtaining weight from pattern weight, for cores formed partly by
strickles,
3i7 179
shrinkage of, table, 135 for jacketed cylinders, 238
used as patterns, 305 for square or rectangular core, 172
Center bits, 35 of irregular outline, 187

Centering solid and parted pieces, 202 of varying diameters, 184

Center plates for turning, 194 pipe, 1 88

Checked joints, 72 plaster, 293

Checking pattern work, 316 pump cylinder, 232
Chills, 299 rectangular, fillers for, 174
Chisels, 198 right- and
left-hand, 130, 178
paring, 28 roughing out, 181
Chords, length of, for dividing circles, round, fillets for, 185
table, 107 round, method of laying out, 180
Chucks, cup, 197 skeleton, 296
screw, 196 staved or. lagged, 115
Chute or shoot planing, 70 steam-port, 227
Circles, lengths of chord for dividing, stepped, 119
table, 107 with loose pieces, 177
spacing or dividing, 106 without partings, 177
Circular boss fitted to cylindrical form, Core-box machines, 63
95 Core-box plane, 181
Circular planes, 28 geared type, 183
Circular rip-saws, filing, 331 Core-box square, 187
Circular saw bench, 44 Core-plates, 297
Circular saws, causes of accidents, 46 Core-prints, 21
concaving staves, 112 balancing, 22
operating, 47 method of turning small, 206

setting, 331 varnishing, 314

speeds of, 50 Core-prints and flanges, segment, 128
truing, 330 Cores, fillets on, 175
Clamps, bar, 42 for making propellers, 271
core-box, 176 frames used for enlarging, 290
wedge, 42 loam, 304
Clearances, tool, 133 rectangular, projections on, 175
Colors of patterns for indicating kind small, patterns requiring, 150
of casting metal, 314 square or rectangular, core-box for,
Columns, square, stopping 287 off, 172
Contraction or shrinkage, allowance on stock, 170
patterns, 135 used for making molds, 291
rule, 135 Coring bolt and pipe tap holes, 134
" "
Core-box, see Core-boxes Coring holes, solid patterns arranged
Core-box clamps, 176 for, 8
Core-boxes, allowance for swelling of Corner fillets for thin framework, 80
core, 171 Corners, hard-wood, and reinforcing, 80
bottom boards for, 176 removing before turning, 202
construction, 170 tools for rounding, 310
 INDEX 335
Corner templets, 310 Drills, bit-stock, 36
Counterbored screw-holes, 71 hand and automatic, 34
Countersink bits, 37 Drivers, 195
Covering core, use of, in a three-part Duplicate patterns, method of making,
pattern, 14
Crank and eccentric patterns, 153
Cross-cut hand saw, filing, 327 and crank patterns,
gCCENTRIC
Cross-head patterns, 162 153
Cross-planing, 69 Eccentric rings, method of turning,
Cup chuck, 197 220
Curved ribs, building, 126 Edges, working, 69
Cut-off saws, filing, 331 End-wood planes, 24
Cylinder feet, 241 Engine bed patterns, 167
Cylinder head patterns, 239 Exhaust-port core-boxes, 229
Cylinder heads to be finished by hand, Expansion bits, 36
no
Cylinder pattern for vacuum pump, building work on, 213
PACEPLATE,
236 Faceplates, 197
Cylinders, building long, for turning, Faceplate turning, 209
H5 Faceplate work, sizing and testing, 217
fitting and fastening feet, 100 Facing, 211
jacketed, core-box for, 238 Facing disks, tools for, 215
pattern work on, 224 Fastening spiders to rims, 254
pump, 230 Feathered or splined joints, 77
stepped, method of building, 117 Feet, fitting and fastening to cylinders,

stopping-off pieces for, 287 100

Cylindrical forms, circular boss fitted for cylinders, 241

to, 95 Files, bit, 35

fitting to 94 Filing and setting saws, 325
Cylindrical patterns, method of turn- Filing, band saws, 329
ing, 207 circular rip-saws, 331
cross-cut hand saw, 327
joints, 76 cut-off saws, 331
~T)ADO
Discharge cover patterns, 244 hand rip-saws, 328
Disk sanders, 59 Fillers for rectangular core-boxes, 174
Disks, tools for facing, 215 Fillets, 306
Distance marking gages, 43 beeswax, 308
Dividers, 140 corner, for thin framework, 80
Dovetailed joints, 77 for round core-boxes, 185
Doweled frames, 91 leather, 308
Doweled joints, 91 method of turning, 206
Dowel-plates and metal dowels, 90 on cores, 175
Dowels, metal, and dowel-plates, 90 on loose pieces, 83
wood, 88 putty and metal, 309
wood, pointing, 89 wood, 307
Draft on patterns, 134 Finish allowances, 136
Drawbacks, patterns molded with, 20 for segment work, 127
Dressed and resawn lumber, 322 Finishing metal patterns, 315
336 INDEX

Finishing patterns, 306 Hand saws, 37

Flanged wheel patterns, 249 cross-cut, method of filing, 327

Flanges and bands, fitting, 208 jointing, 326

Flanges and core-prints, segment, 128 setting, 327
Flywheel and pulley rims, turning, 218 Hand screws, 41
Follow-boards for patterns, 292 Hand work, reducing amount of, 92
Fore-planes or jointers, 24 Hard-wood corners and reinforcing, 80
Forstner bits, 36 Heads and staves assembling, 108
Frame and bracket patterns, 152 Heads, for cylinders to be finished by
Framed heads, no hand, no
Frames, doweled, 91 formed, staving or lagging, in
for enlarging cores, 290 for staved or lagged work, method of

joints for, 80 laying out, 105

Framework, light, joints used for, 71 framed, no
method of squaring, 79 marking and sawing, 107
thin, corner fillets for, 80 round, staving, 112
Heel, tail, or drop prints, 22

QAGE, marking, 139 Hexagons and squares, turning for, 209

panel, 140 Holes and recesses, turned off center,
Gages, distance marking, 43 220
Gated patterns, 299 Hooks, bench, 41
Gear patterns, 272 Hopper patterns, bevels for, 144
bevel-, laying out, 275 Hub joints for spiders, 251
Gear teeth, band-sawing, 277 Hubs, splitting, 300
jigging, 277
planing, 277 turning, 215
JNSIDE
sanding, 278 Irregular forms, method of turning,
Gimlet bits, modified, 35 207
Glue cookers, 86
Glue, for patterns, 101 core-box for,
JACKETED cylinders,
Gluing and 87
sizing, 238
Gluing, jointing material for, 85 Jack-planes, 24
method of, to overcome lumber warp- Jigging gear teeth, 277
age, 87 Jig saws, 58
Gluing propeller cants, 268 Jigs, use of in connection with circular

Gluing segment work, 124 saws, 49

Gouge for rough-turning, 204 use of on band saws, 52
Gouges, outside-ground, 32 Joinery, pattern, 67
paring, 30 Jointers, 52
Grain of wood, judging straightness, 32 Jointers or fore-planes, 24
Grinders, tool, 63 Jointing hand saws, 326
Jointing material for gluing, 85
joints, 72 Joints, butt, 75
^JALF-LAPPED
Hammers, patternmaker's, 38 checked, 72
Hand and automatic drills, 34 dado, 76
Hand or bench tools used in pattern- dovetailed, 77
making, 24 doweled, 91
Hand rip-saws, filing, 328 fastening with screws, 71
 INDEX 337

Joints, for deep frames and boxes, 80 Lumber, sawn, sizes of, 322
for light framework, 71 shrinkage, 322
for loose pieces, 81 storing, 323

half-lapped, 72 straight- and quarter-sawn, 322

hub-for spiders, 251
mortise-and-tenon, 74 J^/[ACHINE patternmakers, 4
open, 8 1 Machining castings, provision for,
rabbet, 76 131
rabbet-dado, 76 Marking gage, 139
splined or feathered, 77 Match-plate work, 298
tongued-and-grooved, 76 Measuring lumber, 323
Metal and putty fillets, 309
definition of, 47 Metal dowels and dowel-plates, 90
J^ICKBACK,
Kiln-dried and air-dried lumber, Metal patternmaker, 2
321 Metal patterns, finishing, 315
Knife, use of ruling, 141 Milling machines, universal wood, 66
Molds, loam partings in, 305
T AGGED or staved core-boxes, 115 made with cores, 291
Lagged or staved work, method of Mortise-and-tenon joints, 74
laying out head, 105
Lagged work, 104 brads, 102
Lagging, tapered, 114 Nails, steel wire finishing, table,
Lathe centers, 193 102
Lathe speeds, for wood turning, 192
used for
Lathe, wood-turning, 191 QlLSTONES sharpening
Lathe work, sandpapering, 222 bench tools,. 38
Laying out patterns, 130 Open joints, 81

Lay-out and sizing tools, 200 Outside-ground gouges, 32

Lay-out boards, 137
Lay-out lines, working to, 92 pANEL gage, 140
Lay-out tools, 137 Parallel lines, equal spacing be-
Leather fillets, 308 tween, 144
Letters for patterns, 316 Paring chisels, 28
Lever patterns, 147 Paring gouges, 30
Liftingand rapping plates, 314 Parted or two-piece pattern, the, 10
Lining and bushing patterns, 157 Parted pieces, centering, 202
Loam molding, patterns for, 300 fastening for turning, 201
Loam molds, partings, 305 Partings, for turned work, 220
Loam patterns and cores, 304 in loam molds, 305
Loose pieces, fillets on, 83 Parting tools, 198
in patterns, 20 Part patterns, 17
joints for, 81 for plates and pans, 291
Lumber, dressed and resawn, 322 Pattern joinery, 67
for patterns, 319 Pattern letters, 316
for patterns, kiln-dried and air-dried, Pattern lumber, 319
321 selecting, 321
for patterns, selecting, 321 Patternmakers, architectural, 4
measuring, 323 machine, 4
338 INDEX

Patternmakers, metal, 2 Patterns, wood, life of, 324

plaster, 3 wrench, 148

stove, 4 Pattern turning, 190
wood, 3 Pattern varnish, applying, 313
Patternmaker's box, 84 Pattern varnish or shellac, 313
Patternmaker's hammers, 38 Pattern work, finishing, 306
Patterns, cylinder head, 239 method of checking, 316

duplicate, method of making, 151 on cylinders, 224

fastening long projections, 99 special, 285
for air chambers, 165 typical examples of, 147
for brackets and frames, 152 varieties oflumber used, 319
for cams, 154 Pillow-block and cap patterns, 156
for cross-heads, 162 Pinch-dogs, 41
for discharge covers, 244 Pipe bend, stepped 119
for gears, 272 Pipe core-boxes, 188
for loam molding, 300 Pipe patterns, 163
for pipes, 163 Pipe tap holes, coring, 134
for pistons, 161 Piston patterns, 161
for propellers, 258 Pitch and sap wood, 321
for screw propeller wheels, 257 Plane irons, 198
for screws and worms, 279 Planes, block-, 24
for wheels and propellers, 247 circular, 28
for worm-wheels, 282 core-box, 181
gated, 299 core-box, geared type, 183
glue for, 101 end-wood, 24
hopper, bevels for, 144 fore-, or jointers, 24
lever, 147 jack-, 24
loam, 304 rabbet-, 25
metal,method of finishing, 315 round-soled, 184
method of laying out, 130 Planing, cross-, 69
molded with draw-backs, 20 Planing gear teeth, 277
old castings used for, 305 Planing, shoot or chute, 70
on follow-boards, 292 Plaster core-boxes, 293

paper, used for fitting branches, 97 Plaster patternmaker, 3

part, 17 Plates or rings, enlarging, 290

parted or two-piece, 10 Plates, rapping and lifting, 314

part, for plates and pans, 291 Pod or spoon bits, 36

requiring small cores, 150 Pots and brushes for varnish, 313
right- and left-hand, 130 Projections, long, fastened to patterns,
shell, 18 99
skeleton, 16 on rectangular cores, 175
skeleton, types, 294 Propellers, aerial, 271
solid, arranged for coring holes, 8 cants, gluing, 268
solid or one-piece, 5 having "rake aft," 263
three-part, 12 made with cores, 271
types of, and their relation to mold- patterns, 258
ing problems, i right- and left-hand, 257
with loose pieces, 20 Propeller and wheel patterns, 247
 INDEX 339
Propeller wheels, laying out, 259 Saws, band, 50
pitch, 258 circular, causes of accidents, 46
Protractor, bevel, 141 circular, concaving staves, 112
Pulley and flywheel rims, turning, 218 circular, operating, 47
Pulley rims, splitting, 300 circular, setting, 331

Pump cylinder core-boxes, 232 circular, speeds of, 50

Pump cylinders, 230 circular, truing, 330
Pump, vacuum, cylinder pattern for, cut-off, filing, 331
236 filing and setting, 325
Putty and metal fillets, 309 hand, 37
jig, 58
and straight Scraping tools, 198
QUARTER-SAWN
lumber, 322 Screw and worm patterns, 279
Screw chuck, 196
76 Screw holes, counterbored, 71
RABBET-DADO joints,
Rabbet joints, 76 Screw propeller wheel patterns, 257
Rabbet planes, 25 Screws and worms made on hand saw,
"Rake aft" in propellers, 263 281
Rapping and lifting plates, 314 Screws, for fastening joints, 71
Rechucking, 216 hand, 41
Reinforcing and hard-wood corners, 80 wood, 103
Resawn and dressed lumber, 322 Segment core-prints and flanges, 128
Ribs, curved, method of building, 126 Segment lengths and angles for setting
Right-angled triangles, laying out, 141 trimming machine, table, 123
Rings, built for turning, 125 Segments, method of laying out, 122
built in halves, 125 trimming and sawing, 122
eccentric, method of turning, 220 Segment work, 104, 120
Rings or plates, enlarging, 290 finish allowances, 127

Rip-saws, circular, filing, 331 gluing and fastening, 124

hand, filing, 328 method of keeping square, 218
Roll sanders, 62 Selecting pattern lumber, 321
Rough-turning with gouge, 204 Set-square, the, 138
Round core-boxes, laying out, 180 Setting and filing saws, 325
Rounding corners, tools for, 310 Setting band saws, 329
Round-soled plane, 184 Setting circular saws, 331
Routers, 27 Setting hand saws, 327
Rule, contraction or shrinkage, 135 Shellac or varnish for patterns, 313
Shell patterns, 18

GANDERS, disk, 59 Shoot or chute planing, 70

roll, 62 Shoulders,method of turning, 205
Sanding gear teeth, 278 Shrinkage of castings, table, 135
Sanding machines, 59 Shrinkage of lumber, 322
Sandpaper, 311 Shrinkage or contraction allowance on
Sandpapering, 312 patterns, 135
Sandpapering lathe work, 222 Shrinkage or contraction rule, 135
Sap and pitch wood, 321 Sizing and gluing, 87
Saw bench, circular, 44 Sizing and lay-out tools, 200
Sawn lumber, sizes of, 322 Sizing and testing faceplate work, 217
340 INDEX
Sizing tool, 205 Stopping-off pieces, for square plates,
Skeleton core-boxes, 296 287
Skeleton patterns, 16 Stopping off square columns, 287
Skeleton pattern work, 294 Stops, bit, 37
Slide-valve patterns, 158 Storing lumber, 323
Solid or one-piece pattern, a, 5 Stove patternmaker, 4
Solid patterns arranged for coring Straight- and quarter-sawn lumber, 322
holes, 8 Straightedge, 141
Solid pieces, centering, 202 method of making, 69
Speeds of circular saws, 50 Strickles, 16
Sphere, fitting to, 99 used in core-boxes, 179
Spherical turning, 221 Strips, winding,68
Spider arms, tapering, 253 Surfaces, 56
working to form, 253 Sweep and spindle work, 19
Spiders,hub joints, 251 Sweeps for loam work, 302
method of fastening to rims, 254
Spindle and sweep work, 19 TpAIL, heel, or drop prints, 22
Splined or feathered joints, 77 Tapered lagging, 114
Splitting hubs and pulley rims, 300 Tapering spider arms, 253
Spoon or pod bits, 36 Templets, corner, 310
Spur-gear tooth-blocks, laying out, 273 turning to, 216
Square, core-box, 187 Testing and sizing faceplate work, 217
Squares and hexagons, turning for, 209 Three-part pattern, the, 12
Squaring framework, 79 use of covering core in, 14
Staved or lagged core-boxes, 115 Tongued-and-grooved joints, 76
Staved or lagged work, method of Tool grinders, 63
laying out head, 105 Tooth-blocks, method of fastening to
on formed heads, in blanks, 272
Staved work, 104 spur-gear, method of laying out, 273
Staves and heads, assembling, 108 Trammels, 140
Staves, concaving on circular saws, 112 Triangles, right-angled, laying out, 141
number of, 105 Trimmers, 57
planing and sawing, 107 Trimming machine, lengths of segments,
Steam chest patterns, 158 and angles for setting, table, 123

Steam-port core-boxes, 227 Truing circular saws, 330

Steel square, the, 138 Try-squares, 137
Steel wire finishing nails, table, 102 Turning, balls, 221
Stepped core-boxes, 119 cylindrical patterns, 207
Stepped cylinder, method of building, eccentric rings, 220

117 fastening parted pieces for, 201

Stepped pipe bend, 119 fillets, 206
Stepped work, 104, 117 flywheel and pulley rims, 218
Stock cores, 170 for squares and hexagons, 209
Stock list, 137 holes and recesses off center, 220

Stopping-off, in pattern work, 286 inside, 215

Stopping-off pieces, for beds, 288 irregular forms, 207

for cylinders, 287 long slender pieces, 208
for round plate or ring, 287 rings built for, 125
 INDEX 341

Turning, shoulders, 205 Wheel patterns, screw propeller, 257

small bosses, 210 Wheels, flanged, 249
small core-prints, 206 made without the use of a pattern.
tools, 198 255
tools, method of sharpening, 199 propeller, laying out, 259
to templets, 216 propeller, pitch of, 258
with faceplates, 209 webbed, 247
wood, 190 with arms, 251
Types of patterns, 5 Winding strips, 68
Wood dowels, 88

TJNIVERSAL wood milling machines, pointing, 89

66 Wood fillets, 307
Wood milling machines, universal, 66
WACUUM pumps, cylinder pattern Wood patternmaking, 3
for, 236 Wood patterns, life of, 324
Valve-seat and stem, patterns, 160 Wood-screws, 103
Varnish for patterns, applying, 313 Wood-turning lathe, 191
Varnishing core-prints and outlines, 314 Wood, weight of, per foot, 321
Varnish or shellac for patterns, 313 Woodworking machines, 44
Varnish pots and brushes, 313 Working edge, 69
Vise and bench, 40 Working face, method of planing, 68
of a board, 67

wheels, 247 Working spider arms to form, 253

Wedge clamps, 42 Worm and screw patterns, 279
Weight of castings, obtained from Worms and screws made on band saw,
pattern weight, 317 281
Weight of wood per foot, 321 Worm-wheel patterns, 282
Wheel and propeller patterns, 247 Wrench patterns, 148
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