SPEED TRAINING FOR HIGH
LEVEL ATHLETES
by Yuri V. Verkhoshansky
Re-printed with permission from New Studies in Athletics.
The method to develop speed recommended by the author applies only to top
level sprinters, who have undergone a thorough preparation and have acquired
an efficient technique. In addition, they are to be used only in certain phases of
the training cycle.
The system comprises two stages: 1) A gradual adaptation to an increase in
speed of execution. 2) A phase in which the speed already attained is further
enhanced by means of extra stimuli. To achieve the first goal, four methods of
training are recommended.
The second aim is to be reached by means of four different, more advanced
methods. All of these methods ore described in detail, as well as 3 ways of
intensifying the stimulus during the second phase. ,
1. Introduction
An effective way to adapt to an intensified work regimen is for the athlete to
perform competition specific exercises at high velocity. This system can be used
only:
a) With high level athletes;
b) In particular phases of the annual training cycle;
c) After an adequate preparation.
Two conditions are particularly important:
The athlete must have already mastered the required technique.
He must have achieved the necessary degree of functional preparation for
a high velocity work regimen.
The method may be divided into two stages (Figure 1). The first step aims
principally at a progressive increase of the speed of execution of a competition
specific exercise, so that the organism will gradually adapt to the high velocity
work regimen. The second stage, when a certain velocity has been attained,
aims to produce a further velocity increase by stimulating new adaptive changes,
which correspond to the new work capacity level.
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It is important to underline that in both cases the limiting factor, in terms of
velocity increase, is technique, which must not be allowed to deteriorate. In other
words, velocity should be high enough to stimulate adequate adaptive changes,
but not so high as to produce a deterioration of technique.
2 Methods for a progressive velocity increase
1) Long accelerations.
2) Fartlek.
3) Competition specific exercises performed at increasingly higher speed.
4) Progressively longer distances performed at the aimed at speed.
1) Long accelerations are effective means of producing a programmed
(gradual) adaptation to a high velocity work regimen. The aim is to progress
gradually to maximum speed and then maintain the level achieved. During
accelerations the intensity of the muscle effort decreases gradually, but rhythm
and movement technique must be maintained and controlled right up to the end.
As the training session progresses, maximum speed increases and the distance
that must be covered at maximum speed also increases. Rest intervals must be
sufficient to ensure complete recovery.
2) Fartlek is used mainly with middle distance runners. Long accelerations (8-12
seconds) are interspersed during moderate intensity work not exceeding
anaerobic threshold. The speed, distance and number of the accelerations are
gradually increased, while the intervals between accelerations are maintained
and their duration is dictated by the athletes condition.
Experiments have proved the efficiency of short (up to 8 seconds) maximal
accelerations performed during long distance swimming at anaerobic threshold
level (Figure 2). The intervals between successive accelerations were such that
lactate concentration was not allowed to exceed threshold level. This training
method favors an intensification of phosphocreatine ATP re-synthesis and, at the
same time, stimulates oxidative phosphorylation. In a very short time it induces
an increase in swimming speed at anaerobic threshold level, maximum
swimming speed and speed endurance.
Results obtained in a series of studies showed that this method was more
efficient than the one used with a control group, which also exercised at
anaerobic threshold level but did not perform the short accelerations. According
to data in the scientific literature (MADER/REISS 1977), the improved efficiency
during exercise at anaerobic threshold level may be achieved after 4 - 5 weeks.
In our research (VERKHOSHANSKY/CIERNIYAEVA 1984) this effect could
already be observed on the 14th day and was maintained for the following two
weeks.
3) Competition specific exercises, performed at increasingly higher speeds,
are mainly used for cyclic disciplines requiring speed-strength. In speed-
endurance events and in middle distance events, this method aims at lowering
anat hl
ete’stimeov ert hecompet it
iondi st
anc e,accordingtot hegr aphshown
earlier. One of two variants may be used, both aimed mainly at progressively
increasing average speed.
In the first variant the athlete must run the whole distance using a steady pace. It
is important in this case to monitor technique and movement rhythm, especially
in the end section, where there should be no increase in the rate of movement or
intensity of effort.
In the second variant, the athlete may use any pace as long as he achieves the
programmed result. A graph is used in both variants to monitor the pace over the
whole distance but, in the second case, an effort is also made to identify
individual optimum conditions. The first variant helps to perfect rhythm, find ideal
stride length and maintain speed in the last section. With the second variant, the
athlete works on perfecting an efficient technique and effort distribution,
practicing tactical changes and improving the recovery rate after accelerations. It
is advisable to use a combination of both variants.
In acyclic events requiring speed/strength, the method used to develop increased
speed is determined by the motor structure of the discipline itself. For example, in
discus throwing, optimal speed is always used for the beginning of the rotation
and then, during the subsequent phases up to the release, it is progressively
increased up to its maximum possible value. The rhythmic structure of the whole
movement and the final force applied to the implement is controlled.
Rotation velocity must be increased from one training unit to the next, as well as
the explosive force applied in the final phase. Technique and the distance of
each throw must be carefully monitored.
A variation of this is for the athlete to begin with a number of throws performed at
less than maximum effort and then to continue with throws of progressively
increased speed of rotation up to maximum level. The distance of the throws
gradually increases but a decrease in the velocity of rotation occurs as soon as
technique is disturbed. The training session should comprise a number of series
of 6-8 throws each. The thrower should try to increase rotation velocity (including
release velocity) from one training unit to the next and try also to achieve an
increasingly higher number of technically valid throws.
In the case of triple jumpers, the following method is used (Figure 3): as speed
gradually increases (during the acceleration phase) the accent is first placed on
the step, then on the jump and lastly on the hop. With high jumpers, the crossbar
is progressively raised as high as possible. The exercise can be repeated 2 - 3
times in the course of one training session.
4) Progressively longer distances performed at the aimed at racing speed.
This method consists in first attempting to perform the competition specific
distance at a speed that will produce the programmed result. The exercise
distance is that attained up to the point at which speed decreases and the aim of
the exercise is gradually to increase this distance. For instance, during the above
mentioned research, carried out with the assistance of a luminous indicator, the
swimmers began by swimming 50m intervals at the aimed at speed and then the
distance was gradually increased to 200m for breaststroke and 400m for crawl.
The swimmers were already attempting the full competition distance by the 15-
16th training session. Between the 50th and the 55th session they managed to
cover the distance at the speed shown on the luminous indicator.
(editor
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NUMBEROFSEGMENTS” ,col
umn2:“
LENGTHOFSEGMENTS”
,and
col
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RESULTS”
)
In cycling (50km time trial), the competition distance was divided into l0 x 5km
intervals. On the basis of the final aim, a performance time was set for each
interval. The distance covered was gradually increased so as to achieve the
programmed result. If the athlete is able to achieve the desired result over a
significant portion of the distance (Figure 4), only the remaining distance need be
divided into intervals. This method favors an increase in the level of functional
and psychological preparation and is used with high level athletes at the end of
the preparatory phase and during the competition period.
Interval sprinting may be used as a variation of the above method. It is performed
using sub-maximal speed over fractions of the competition specific distance, with
an adequate rest pause between each fraction. The distance of the first fraction
is gradually increased up to total competition distance, while the duration of the
rest pause is decreased. For example, a 200 meter sprinter will begin with 5 x
50m fractions; the duration of the rest pause is voluntary at first and is then
reduced to 2 minutes. The distance of the first fraction is then increased as
follows: l00m + (3 x 50m) and 150m + (2 x 50m). As the length of the first fraction
increases, speed becomes slightly lower, closer to the aimed at competition
speed.Atf i
rstt helengthoft her estpaus ei sdictatedbyt heat hlete’
scondi ti
on
and it is subsequently reduced. For middle distance runners (800 meters) the
combinations used are the following: 5 x 200m; 400m + (3 x 200m), 600m + (2 x
200m).
3 Methods for a further increase of the achieved speed
Themet hodsusedt oi nt
ensi f
yt heor gani
sm’ sworkr egi
menbymeansofa
competition specific exercise performed at sub-maximal speed are the following:
1) Performing the competition specific exercise under facilitated conditions.
2) Exercise variation.
3) Modeling competition specific conditions during training.
4) Control method.
1) Performing the competition specific exercise in facilitated conditions
signifies the artificial elimination of a percentage of the external resistance to the
movement. Thus conditions will be created which will produce an intense impulse
current from the motor cortex of the brain to the peripheral motor apparatus, so
as to increase movement velocity and rate. This method favors the adaptive
changes of the central and peripheral regulators of movement velocity, activates
the potential of the other physiological systems and induces the development of
a new functional structure, allowing a higher velocity work regimen. Furthermore,
this method allows the athlete to feel the sensations of moving at greater speed
and so acquire the corresponding sensory-motor image.
It should be noted, however, that this method may produce a reduction of stride
length, which must be avoided. Therefore it should be used in combination with
the competition specific exercises performed in normal, or more difficult,
conditions.
In practice, the facilitation of performance conditions may be obtained either by
using simple, natural methods or by means of a specific apparatus. Among the
simple methods, we can mention downhill running, throwing a lighter implement,
long jumps from an inclined board, using a lower gear in downhill cycling,
wrestling matches with partners who belong to a lower weight category or are
less skilled, using smaller - surfaced paddles in canoeing. In the latter, for
example, it has been established that with the use of smaller - surfaced paddles
(reduction of 25, 50 and 75%) the strength index decreases but so does the time
index of the work phase of each movement cycle and so the rhythm improves
and the movement rate increases. When compared to the movement with a
normal paddle, blood flow to the upper limbs increases and that to the lower
limbs decreases. This points to a greater work load on the shoulder girdle and to
the possibility of inducing an adaptive reaction of the cardiovascular system in
response to a higher work rate.
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abovebottom char tr eads:“ HOW SPRI NTERSSHOULDUSETHEVARI ATI
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2) Exercise variation aims at creating contrasting muscular sensations,
produced by performing competition specific exercise under different conditions
(easier
,nor mal ,mor edi ff
icult
).Thi sdiminishest hesensor ysy st
em’ slev elof
adaptation to the stimuli that would otherwise follow one another monotonously.
The result is an intensification of the impulse current from the motor cortex of the
brain to the muscle motor neurons and this, in turn, favors an increase of the
functional velocity of the muscles. Furthermore, the athlete may acquire the
sensory - motor image corresponding to this ease of performance. He will later
try to reproduce similar sensations in normal conditions, thus increasing control
capacities.
There are quite a number of ways to change the conditions. In the case of
sprinters, for example, it is advisable to use not too steep downhill runs (30-40m),
followed by a level stretch over which the athlete should maintain the same
speed by increasing stride length (Figure 5.1). This method is very efficient also
for middle distance runners, but the downhill run should be short (50-60m) and
the level run longer. Experiments have shown that this method is particularly
effective for sprinters (cf. Figure 5.1). The training effect is achieved by varying
the combination of runs: the combination 4 –5 - 2 - 3 and the combination 5 - 2 -
3 - 4 favor maximum speed, while the combination 3 - 4 - 5 - 2 favors speed
endurance (Figure 5.2).
A number of methods have been perfected to improve swimming speed. For
example, swimming against the resistance of an elastic rope, stretching it as far
as possible (10 - 15 arm strokes) and then swimming a short distance (10 - 15m)
at high speed. This combination is repeated 6 to 10 times. Another, very efficient
method is swimming short distances (15 - 20m) at high speed, alternating the
use of an elastic rope and of a towing system (speed 110 –120%).
Experiments in canoeing, in which exercises at high speed were combined with
exercises using a hydrodynamic brake, produced an increase in speed of 9.0%
over a distance of l00m. In the control group, which exercised under normal
conditions (without the hydrodynamic brake), the increase in speed was 5%. In
cycling it is advisable to use different gears. During a 2 year experiment, the
combination of 100 meters high speed exercises, performed under normal and
more difficult conditions, produced an increase in speed equal to 6.8% over 100
meters and 6.5% over 200 meters. For the control group the increase was equal
to 4.3% and 3.8% respectively. An increase in speed has been observed in
soccer players and in women 400 meters runners who used the combination of
uphill runs, level runs, downhill runs.
As regards events requiring speed strength, this method is widely used by
throwers, who alternatively employ lighter and heavier than normal implements.
Lighter implements favor an increase in movement velocity, and the sensory-
motor image is transferred to the same exercise performed under normal
conditions. Heavier implements favor an increase in the strength effort applied to
the standard implement. In order to increase the velocity of the implement it is
advisable to vary the work frequently. In the case of shot putters for instance, a
standard shot is alternated with a lighter one.
3) Modelling competition specific conditions during training. This method is
used in particular phases of the annual training cycle; it aims at intensifying the
organi sm’ shi ghv eloci
tywor kr egimen,bycomi ngascl os easpossi blet o
competition specific conditions. The essence of this method is to perform the
whole exercise at high intensity ( ashi ghast heat hlete’sc ondi tional lows) ,taki
ng
into account also the rules of the event. The effect is similar to that of a real
competition and is efficient in terms of speed training. For example, Figure 6
shows the results of an experiment with three groups of cyclists (1km standing
start sprint) carried out during the period from May to August. The group who
used the modeling method (1) achieved a greater improvement in performance
(2.5 sec), showed less changes in the cardio-respiratory system with competition
type loads, and the highest level of functional parameters with sub-maximal
loads.
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legend{“
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Conv ent i
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The groups using traditional methods (2 and 3) achieved a smaller improvement
in performance (2.1 sec and 0.3 sec respectively). Group 3, who used a lower
training load, showed a reduction of the functional parameters.
Experiments have shown that it is appropriate to increase the work volume in
competition specific conditions. For instance, it is advisable to perform long
jumps, triple jumps, pole vaults and hurdle runs at high speed and over the
complete competition distance.
4) The control method combines an intense, specific speed training effect with
theev al
uat i
onoft heat hlet e’
sdegr eeofpr epar ati
onfort his work regimen. It
implies the performance of the complete exercise, a simplified variation, or an
exercise that is similar in terms of motor structure and energy requirements. The
characteristic features of the movement must be maintained and the exercise
should be performed under normal conditions. This allows an objective
ev aluati
onoft hepr ogr essofanat hl
ete’sspeedcapaci ti
esandoft hebody ’s
functional reactions. As opposed to normal tests, where only the result is taken
into account, this control method monitors also the main functional parameters.
We may use as an example the control model for a 500 meters exercise in
canoeing. During the performance the speed index and the movement time of the
system athlete - canoe were continually recorded (Figure 7). The athletes were
asked to perform this control exercise during training and try to maintain as long
as possible the prescribed speed. This was primarily a means of developing the
athl
et e’sspeci f
icspeedandspeedendur anc e,buti talsohighlighted his weaker
points - deviations from the prescribed model parameters - and thus it was
possible to make the necessary corrections in the training process.
In the past, the prevailing opinion was against performing full effort trials of the
specialized event during training. It was thought that this would entail the
expenditure of nervous energy, deterioration in technique, and excessive fatigue.
Thus, for speed strength disciplines, it was recommended that the distances
used should be shorter or longer than the competition distance, and that they
should be performed at a speed that was also higher or lower than the
competition speed. It is now clear that no group of specific or subsidiary
exercises can be as efficient in preparing an athlete for competition as the
competition specific exercise itself.
It is important to emphasize that these modeling and control methods may be
usedonl yaftert heathl
ete’sor gani sm hasbeenadequat elypr epar
edfort
hist ype
of work and when there are no problems with technique. They can, therefore, be
employed only in particular phases of the annual training cycle.
4 Methods of intensifying the work for speed
These methods are:
1) Sensory stimulation.
2) Emotional stimulation.
3) Stimulation of the motor cortex of the brain.
1) Sensory stimulation signifies the use of visual, acoustic and mechanical
signals that enable self-monitoring of the speed of execution.
It has been shown that, in sprinting, visual self - monitoring (indication of speed
changes) produces a much higher initial acceleration (3.4%) than that achieved
under normal conditions. In the case of young athletes, this training method
favors a significant increase of maximum speed (10.6%), of stride rate (4%) and
stride length (6.8%). The use of a luminous indicator is very effective in achieving
these results.
2) Emotional stimulation intensifies a high velocity work program by directing
theat hlet
e’spr epar at
i
ont owar dsani mprovementofhi smot orskill
s.Av ery
efficient method is immediate feedback, which provides extremely effective
motivation towards better performance. For example, swimmers who immediately
received data concerning technique and arm-stroke rate showed a speed
increase of 4.4%; twice that of athletes who did not have immediate access to
this information.
The emotional component in high velocity work depends on the psychological
motivation provided during the training process — the use of games,
competitions, especially handicap competitions, relays, the modelling of
competition specific conditions (OZOLIN 1970; KUDINOV 1983;
PLATONOV/VALZECHOVSKY, 1985).
For instance, in the pre-competition phase, it is recommended to use long
accelerations trying to catch up with another athlete who is given an earlier start.
This should be carried out during the maximum velocity section, with no
alteration of movement technique.
3) Stimulation of the motor cortex of the brain is designed to take advantage
of the positive effect of previously performed work (tone-up) on the subsequent
special speed training. This method may be used within a single training session
(immediate effect) or within a macrocycle. I nthelat tercaset he‘ tone-up’work
should be carried out one or two days before the high velocity work (delayed
effect) is undertaken.
The following are ‘
toni ficati
on’ex erci
sesusedf oreventsr equi ring
speed/strength: exercises with high overloads, depth jumps, isometric tensions,
intensive jumping exercises. The work volume should be low and individually
tailored. Throwers, for instance, should perform two sets of 2 - 3 squats with a
barbell (90% of maximum load), followed by relaxation exercises and then a full
effort throw.
Ex ploiti
ngt heposi ti
veef f
ectof‘ t
one-up’wor ki salsoappr opr iateforcycli
c
disciplines. It has been observed, for instance, that sprinters increase
acceleration and speed after intensive jumping exercises. Performing a number
of short, explosive strength exercises for the leg muscles, before the training
series (5 starts in swimming) considerably improved the efficiency of the start
(Figure 8).
It has been established that 3 sets of bounds over 100 meters, with rest intervals
of 1.5 - 2 minutes, improved the speed of middle distance runners in the main
portion of the training session, both in terms of achieving higher speed over short
repetitions and of maintaining a relatively high speed over longer repetitions.
Ex pl
oiti
ngt heef f
ectof‘ tone-up’wor k( swimmi ngwi t
hanel asticrope,swi mmi ng
with a towing system and with large flippers) increased speed over short
distances by 4.7%.
Taki ngadv antageoft heposi t
iveef fectof‘tone-up’wor kt
oi ncreas espeedwi tha
limited work volume offers interesting possibilities for improving the efficiency of
speed training.
5 Conclusions
It must be emphasized that high velocity work can be efficient only if the athlete
is adequately prepared for this type of work. In other words, high velocity work
must not induce debilitating reactions (physical exhaustion due to excessive
effort) or produce a deterioration of the rational structure of the movement
(Figure 9).
Therefore, intensive high velocity work can be begun only when the motor
apparatus, the central movement regulators, movement co-ordination and the
energy supply mechanisms have been sufficiently developed by means of
special physical conditioning training.
Many coaches, in particular sprint coaches, make the mistake of using maximum
speedef fort
sdur ingt hepr eparat oryphase,whent heat hlet
e’sfunct i
onal
preparation is not yet sufficient. In this phase of the training process, speed
should always be at an optimal level. Moreover, the use of excessive speed
activities is not consistent with the special physical conditioning training carried
out in that period. Therefore, neither objective will be fully achieved: sometimes
the fulfillment of one will hinder the achievement of the other, especially in the
pre-competition phase, where the accent is on speed training. Indeed, my
collaborators have found that jumping exercises with overloads performed by
sprinters during the preparation period, even when the work volume is optimal,
induce an increased muscle rigidity, a reduction of the muscle relaxation capacity
and a decrease speed.
Figure 10 shows the correlation between muscle rigidity and the work volumes of
special strength training, humping exercises and control test triple jumps for a
standing start, performed by top class sprinters in the spring - summer training
period, It can be easily observed that an increased load of special physical
conditioning training (4 - 6 and 8 - 9 weeks) causes increased muscle rigidity and
a decrease in strength. Therefore, conditions are not conducive to the
improvement of running speed, just when this becomes the principal training
goal. It has also been established that a too high training load (even when it is
specific) causes a reduction of the speed of muscle relaxation, which, in turn,
may result in injury.
Therefore, when the main training goal is intensive preparation for high velocity
work, all the other loads should be brought down to minimum level. This type of
work can be performed not more than twice a week. The rest of the week should
be dedicated to recovery and preparation in view of the following high speed
session.
Figure 11 gives a practical example of this training strategy for top class
sprinters. The graphic representation (Figure 11.1) shows a predicted model of
the functional state of the sprinters, made on the basis of observations during
training and the analysis of the previous cycles.
Figures 11.3 and 11.4 represent the content and the distribution of the essential
loads designed to achieve the predicted functional state.
Figure 11.2 show the functional state of the sprinters after special loads. During
the basic stage it is a mistake to use very high speed running.
The coach should not be afraid to use high speed work in the pre-competition
phase, when the athlete is already prepared for this type of work and when one
can expect adequate recovery capacities of the organism and of the motor
apparatus. Sprint specialists already understand that there are no limits to speed
set by a dynamic stereotype. If performance tends to level - off, it may mean that
the athlete has exhausted his speed capacity for that period or that the special
conditioning training is not consistent with the speed exercises. One should not
forget that speed training favors anat hl
et e’sfunctionalcondi ti
on.Ther efore,in
the annual training cycle, the optimal distribution of concentrated volumes of
special physical conditioning training and phases primarily centered on speed
training (including speed endurance) should take into account the main events of
the competition calendar.
