FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICAL ACCURACY meThis is the third book by Moore Special Tool Co. ‘Moore Special ‘Too! Company, Ine., of Bridgeport, Conn., U.S.A., has built a world-wide reputation sinee 1924, both as 2 manufacturer of speci tooling to extremely close accuracies and of machine tools whieh make possible a very high degree of precision. In the latter category, its jig borers, jig grinders, measuring machines, and the secessorics related to this, ‘equipment are considered to be among the best of its kind produced in the industrial world. ‘A simultaneous characteristic of the company is its desire—and rare ability—to communicate the inti knowledge it has aequired of these specialties to a wide audience. “The ‘Moore Literature Libra well-known within the industries it serves. Besides a wide array of brochures and case-history material, ‘Moore in 1946 published a 448-page book, Precision Hole Location, by 4. Robert Moore, and, in 1954, Holes, Contours and Surfaces, by F.C. Victory and Richard F. Moore. These two books, devoted to Jig boring and Jig grinding, have sold over 40,000 copies. The latter book is still in print. In this third book, Wayne R. Moore has assembled in the 350 pages of Foundations of Mechanical Accuracy the company’s intimate knowledge of ‘and experience with mechanical auceuraey, and how to achieve it. He has illustrated his text with over 500 original photographs and drawings. ‘This book tells how to attain precision in manufacturing to millionths of an inch and how to control such precision by appropriate measuring techniques ‘The book is divided into four main sections: geometry, standards of length, dividing the circle, and roundness. A fifth section covers “Universal Measuring Machine ‘Techniques and Applications.” Introductory by M.LT.’s Dean-Emeritus of Science ‘The introduetion is by Dr. George R, Harrison, Dean-Emeritus, School of Science, Massachusetts Institute of ‘Technology. a world-renowned spectroseopist whose accurate Aiffraction gratings are used for ‘measuring the lengths of light waves in the laboratory and in astronomy. Here are excerpts: “Basie to man’s behavior is his ability to determine, modify, and adapt to his environment. This he hhas been able to do in proportion to his skill at making measurements, ‘and fundamental to all other measuring operations is his abi to determine locations in the mate ‘world. Thus the sefence of mechanical measurements is a fundamental one. It is this science, and the art whieh ‘accompanies and informs it, with whieh this book is concerned.” ‘After recounting his experience in working with the Moore Special Tool Company singe 1959 to develop more accurate ruling engines for produeinge diffraction gratings, Dr. Harrison write “It is easy to see why the scientist who is primarily oceupied with obtaining 100,000 straight grooves in a single operation, each a narrow mirror properly inelined to the beam of light which is to be reflected from them, welcomes most gratefully the development of fine mechanical machines whieh ean, in aan almost literal sense, be ‘bought off the shelves’, The amount of painstaking labor, skill in design, and the heritage of fine workmanship, required before machines can be brought to such # stage of perfection, will be appreciated most of all by readers of this excellent book.”WAYNE R. MOORE literally grew up with a passion for precision, which he inherited from his father, Richard F, Moore. In 1924, Diek Moore, « toolmaker, had opened a two-man shop in Bridgeport to make special tooling for typewriter plants. It has grown to worldwide eminenee. Wayne joined the company in 1953 after earning a degree in economies at Yale, and then completed his apprenticeship as a tool and diemaker. ‘While at Yale, he exptained, in 1952-58, what has heen called the greatest swimming team of Bob gold medals in both intercollegiate championship races and in the 1952 The research and writing of this book, as well as the time he devoted to supervising the extensive illustrations, were sandwiched in over 4 period of 7 years while he has been active in helping the Moore Company develop its advanced metrology and machine tool products. He resides with his wife, Janice, and five chikden in Nichols, Connecticut, where he is @ dedicated organic gardener.FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICAL ACCURACY Copyright © The Moore Special Tool Company 1970, All rights inthis bool are reserved. No part fof the book may be used or reprodted in any? manner whatsoever without permission in writing from the publisher, exeept for the inclusion of brief quotations in reviews. FIRST EDITION THIRD PRINTING 1999 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 78127807 ‘THE MOORE SPECIAL TOOL COMPANY 800 UNION AVENUE - BRIDGEPORT, CONNECTICUT 06607FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICAL ACCURACY WAYNE R.MOORE With an Introductory by Dr. George R. Harrison, Dean-Emeritus of Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ‘THE MOORE SPECIAL, TOOL COMPANY + BRIDGEPORT, CONNECTICUTPreface A TECHNICAL BOOK devoted to 2 little-ex- plored subject originates long before actually written. Many people contribute to its content through their guidance and assistance. This book is no exception, consider myself fortunate to be asso- ciated with a company whose policy has always been to share both its processes and its techniques. To make available the re sourees of Moore Special Tool Company for the improvement of industry, science, and society in general has been the philos- ‘ophy of my father, Richard F. Moore, who founded the company in 1924. The policy hhas been rewarding to the company in ‘many ways. T am grateful that I have the opportunity of continuing in what has be- ‘come a Moore tradition. In 1946, Moore published its first full- length book, Precision Hole Location for Interchangeability in Toolmaking and Pro- duction, by J. Robert Moore. In 1954, Holes, Contours and Surfaces, by Richard F. Moore and Frederick C. Vietory, followed. ‘This volume was planned to explain in graphic detail the significant course which ‘mechanical technology has taken since Holes, Contours and Surfaces appeared. This course is directed inexorably fowards frealer accuracy, I undertook the task largely because of Richard F, Moore's en- couragement, guidance and support. Most of the mechanical principles deseribed herein can be traced to him. ‘The significance of the World’s Bureaus in establishing and maintaining standards Aeseribed in a special section, Pages 95 97, written especially for this book by an outstanding metrologist of each Bureau: P. Carre, of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, France; L. W. Nickols, of the National Physical Laboratory, En- sland; E. Engelhard, of the Physikalisch ‘Technische Bundensanstalt, West Ger many; A. G. Strang, of the National Bue reau of Standards, U.S.A. They made pos sible a description of the functions of their sections of each Bureau, met with the au- thor personally for helpful discussions, and also contributed valuable additional ma- terial. Their colleagues—Stanley P. Poole, of NPL; Rudolf Noch, of PTB, and T. R. ‘Young, of NBS—also provided useful in- formation. warmly thank 'T. R, J. Oakley, of NPL, who not only reviewed the entire manu- script and illustrations meticulously, and gave innumerable suggestions and com- ments. Tt was my good fortune to enlist for this important role a man who soon confirmed that I could have selected no one with a greater depth of knowledge and experience in the subject. Richard L. Parnoff, the Chief Inspector at Moore, also reviewed the manuseript ‘and the illustrations, He brought to the project the same thoroughness and valu- able suggestions that aided the authors of Holes, Contours and Surface. ‘The Moore Company and I are singular- ly honored to have Dr. George R, Harri- son, Dean Emeritus of Seionce of the Mas- suchusetts Institute of Technology, write the Introductory. His encouraging words and advice, including the refining of the Dook’s title, were also in a personal sense very important to me. Robin Gosling, of the Seienee Museum, London, and Bernard Bothmer, Curator of Ancient Art, Brooklyn Museum, led me to many historical works. I was able to find items of historical interest with the help of Gilbert L. Dannehower, of High Precision Products Company; George Schaffer and Rupert LeGrand, of American Machinist, and Mrs. Nettie Wright Adams, editor and publisher, The Lure of Litchfield Hil ‘Many firms, institutions and individ- uals, whose names are credited throughout the pages, contributed to the content of the book. ‘Years of exposure of the Moore staff to world-renowned metrologists, who eame to Bridgeport in their pursuit’ of accuracy, greatly enhanced the scope of the book. I single out particularly James Bryan, of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Uni- versity of California, with whom many in- formative discussions were held. Alfred Sturzenegger, of the Precima Company, West Germany; Robert Mun- dy, of the Catmur Corporation, England; Claude Pardessus, of Stokvis et Fils, France; Walter Zindel, of the Moore Office in Switzerland, and Arvid Arvidsson, of Sweden, all provided helpful liaisons within ‘heir countries,So many of my colleagues at Moore Special Tool Company assisted in bringing this project to a successful conclusion that space doesn’t permit listing all by name. Albert Johnson, chief engineer of special products, and Anto Lindberg, ehief engi neer of standard produets, and their staff Richard Kuba, advertising coordinator, gave much time and interest to it. Mrs Justine Haydu not only typed and re- typed the manuscript with unfailing good humor, but managed to organize a moun- tain of source material, pursue the bibliog raphy and maintain the paperwork so efft- ciently as to permit a book of this size and scope to be researched in an office con cerned with the engineering and sale of ‘machine tools. ‘My deep thanks go to numerous Moore employees, some of whom appear in illus trations throughout the book and others behind the seenes, for their cheerful co- ‘operation in so many ways. ‘The writing itself took place in the quiet confines of the company’s legal offices, the chambers of Charles Brody and Seth Brody, old friends and advisors. To the Brodys, their partners and staff, my grate ful thanks for the splendid retreat they provided. Sinee the Moore Company itself is pub- lishing this book, we also required all the disciplines associated with publishing. For this, T was fortunate to have the services, of the company’s long-time marketing and communications counsellors, ‘The Fred Wittner Company, which had guided both previous books to successful completion, Fred Wittner helped to shape the direetion of the book and to edit it for publication; he also contributed sound advice, based on hhis great breadth of experience, Sel Torby designed it and supervised its production with understanding, good taste, and con- summate skill and patience, All of the color and black and white photography taken at Moore is the work ‘of William Vandivert, aresoureeful journal- ist-photographer, who was a Life Maga- ine “great” for many years, and who also proved to be a discerning eritie and coun sellor. ‘The engineering drawings are the product of F. R. Gruger, Jr, outstanding. technical illustrator, who did the same work for Precision Hole Location and Holes, Contours and Surfaces. ‘Wayne R. Moore Bridgeport, Connecticut, US.A, Suly 22, 1970Table of Contents INTRODUCTORY. THE FOUR MECHANICAL ARTS Geometry 7 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON CAST IRON Foundry Techniques Machining of Cast Iron. Elastie Defleetion. ‘Temperature & Instability. LTHE FLAT PLANE Creating a Master Flat Plane. 115 Minute Cheek for Plainess Granite Surface Plate Granite & Moisture ‘Comparison between Cast Iron & Gr . STRAIGHTEDGES. Case History No. 1. Case History No. 2. Creating a Master Straightedge 3. THE FEMALE DOUBLE V MASTER Form Laan. Center Distance: Vertical & Horizontal Straightness Horizontal Parallelism ‘Vertieal Parallelism. 4. MACHINE DESIGN. Coordinate Location. Geometry as a Function of Machine Accuracy Straightline Travel. Squareness of Travel Temperature Effects ‘Machine Configuration ‘The Planer-Type Jig Borer ‘The Horizontal Spindle Jig Borer. ‘The Compound-Type Jig Borer. Machine Way Design : ‘The V and Flat ‘The Gibbed Way. ‘The Central V. ‘The Double V ‘The 90° Form V-Way 10 SESRRRERSSSES S.THE MOORE NO. 8 DESTGN.. Bee Cross Se Tae Cae ui Honing Final Geometry ‘The Master Lap vss ‘The Electron Indicator and the Autaclimatc Final Inspection ater tale Sted) | 4 Standards of Length Functions of the world’s foremost Standards’ Bureaus, contributed by an official of each: BIPM Bureau International Des Poids et Mesures, ‘Sevres, France. By P. Catre, for the Director, J. Terrien NPL National Physical Laboratory, ‘Teddington, England. By L.W. Nickols, Head, Metrology Centre PTB _ Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig, West Germany. By Prof. Dr. H, Engelhard, Leitender Ditektor NBS _ U.S. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. By A.G. Strang, Chief Engineering Metrology Section, Metrology Division, NBS. 1. HISTORY OF OFFICIAL LENGTH STANDARDS In The Beginning. ...... ‘The Exyptian Heritage. Babylonian Contribution ‘The Ancients and Proportion. Roman Empire Unified Standards. Eerly Standards in France ‘Early Standards in England. ‘The Metric System Later English Standards Early Standards in America International Standard, Light Waves—An Absolute Standard. a 9% 95 96 7 98 98 100 101 102 102 103 - 104 104 104 106 107 1082.PHYSICAL STANDARDS AS MEASURED IN THE BUREAUS. ‘The Precision Seale ‘Phe End Standard. Relative Merit of the Precision Seale and ‘the End Standard Relation to the International Standard, ‘Light Waves Conditions of Comparison Bavironment : ‘Material of the Standard Micro-Geometry: Its Relationship to the ‘Measurement of Length Elastic Deformation in the Gaging of Standards 3. MEASUREMENT IN SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY Significance of Machine ‘Tools ‘What Delayed the Development of Machine Tools? Evolution of Cannon Boring Machines James Watt Wilkinson's Cannon-Boring Machine ‘Machine Tool Development in England .. Henry Meudslay ‘Joseph Whitworth ‘Measurement in American Industry— Interchangeability, Il Whitney Arms-Making, Interchangeabity, Machine Tools. ‘The Development of Standard Machine Tools. ‘The Development of Accurate Measuring Instruments and Machine Tools in, ‘American Industry Brown & Sharpe Pratt & Whitney Carl Edvard Johansson Bskilstuna Rifle Faetory + Evolution of Coardinate-Loeating Machine Tools— Sig Borer Switzerland—Machines & Pointer (SIP company & Disi company) Pratt & Whitney Jig Borer, 1917 ‘Naugatuck Valley Moore Jig Borer 1932 Moore Jig Grinder 1940 Tntroduiction of the Universal Measuring Machine ‘Taper Probe Measuring Machine (CMM) Establishment of Moore Linear Standards. na na 15 15 16 ut ut 1 124 129 16 137 137 189 at ut le ue 14 146 it us 150 15 152 154 154 159 160 161 162 162 12 162 168 165 4. TEMPERATURE CONTROL ‘Measuring Machine Laboratory Problem of Stratifeation Design Features ‘Temperature-Controlied Floor Standards Room Importance of 68°F (20°C) Temperature, 5. TRANSFERAL OF ACCURACY ‘Temperature Precautions ‘Method of Transferal Subdividing the Step Gage. Step Gages Inspected by the Bureaus Second Generation Step Gages ‘Moore Step Gage 168 168 am las a 18 18 180 180 182, 183, 183 184 184 6. CHOICE OF LENGTH-MEASURING ELEMENT FOR MOORE MEASURING MACHINE, End Measure. Precision Seale. ‘Lead Serew : Laser Interferometer. 1. MOORE MASTER LEAD SCREW. Material of the Lead Serew ‘Thread-Grinding of the Lead Serew Lapping of the Thread Lead Serew Nut Lineup of the Lead Serew Step Gage Calibration of Lead Serew Periodie Error ‘Moore Lapping Specialists Dividing the Circle 1. THE NATURE OF THE THIRD MECHANICAL ART Dividing the Circle Versus the Sine Principle Derivation of Present System of Relating Angular Magnitudes ‘Mathematical Inconvenienee of the Sexagesimal System 185, 185 185 185 186 187 187 189 191 91 193 195 198 199 201 208 208 205 206TABLE OF CONTENTS—CONTINUED 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-PROVING THE DIVISION OF A CIRCLE ‘Glo Ualg Divide ‘The Theory of Calibrating « Divided Cirle 3. THE SINE PRINCIPLE ‘The Right Triangle ‘The Practical Applieation of The Sine Principle "The Sine Bar Limitations of the ‘The Sine Table 4, CIRCLE-DIVIDING INSTRUMENTS. ‘The Rotary Table Optical Rotary Tables... ‘Mechanical, Cam-Compensated Rotary Table ‘Accurate Worm-and-Gear Rotary Table ‘The Importance of Accuracy of Rotation in a Rotary Table 5, PRINCIPAL ANGLH STANDARDS Angle Gage Blocks ‘The Polygon. Calibration of the Polygon Criteria Bifeeting Polygon Accuracy .. Polygons Applied to the Calibration of Rotary Tables. Interferometric Calibration of the Rotary Table Sorrated-Tooth Cirele-Divider ‘Moore 1440 Precision Index 6.THE 1440 SMALL ANGLE DIVIDER, Design Principles Setting an Angle with the 1440 ‘Small Angle Divider ‘Method of Calibration of the 1440 Small Angle Divider Use of the 1440 Small Angle Divider Precision Index Center. . Prineiple 206 206 207 = 208 20 an aL az 213 216 216 2216 at 218 224 cy 228 230 231 zat 281 23 233 26 250 Roundness, . 1, WHY CONSIDER ROUNDNESS? Nature of Out-of-Roundness 2. MEASURING ROUNDNESS. Diametral Circumferential Confining Gage... Rotating on Centers Veblocke ‘Three-point Probe Accurate Spindle 3.TWO TYPES OF MEASURING SPINDLES Measuring Spindles Compared Rotating Table Overhead Spindle 4. MOORE UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINE SPINDLE. ‘Need for an Accurate Spindle Measuring Machin Spindle Housing Design Spindle and Quill, ‘The Yoke Rotation of the Spindle. Spindle Housing Travel 5, NOT JUST ROUNDNESS, BUT GEOMETRY ‘Measuring Machine for the Inspection ‘of Hole Geometry 6, HOW TO DEFINE ROUNDNESS? Relation to Surface Finish Definitions of Roundness Compared .. 251 257 259 - 260 260 280 261 263 263 ~ 264 264 265 26r 268 20 a ae 2sUniversal Measuring Machine ‘Techniques and Applications 1. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINE USE. Benefit to the Manufacturing Process Example No, 1—Workpiece Flatnoss Example No, 2—Clamping Distortion Example No, 3—Grinding Techniques Example No. 4—Temperatare Distortion Example No. 5—Inspection and Machining Techniques Example No. §—Roundness in Relation to Location Bxample No. 7—Close Measurement and ‘Mass Production Example No. 8—Beonomies Achieved by ‘Close Measurement 2, UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINE TECHNIQUES Mounting Basies of Measuring Hole-Location Through ‘the Use of Coordinates... Example No. 1—Center of a Part as a Datum Example No. 2—Two Lineup Holes as « Datum Example No. $—Rotary Table Techniques Example No. d—Measuring Coordinates ‘of Smal Holes ‘The Standard Microscope Other Optical Arrangements ‘Example No. 5—Measuring Radius Size (Budge Finder Method) Example No. 6—Piek-up Block Method Measure Diameter of Ring Gage—3 Methods. ‘The Model No, 134 Universal Measuring Machine Readout on the Universal Measuring Machine amr 287 - 287 288 288 21 283 295 296 298 299 808 305 308 309 3.APPLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINE. ‘Ug of Angular Measuring Instruments on the ‘Universal Measuring Machine . ‘The Rotary Table ‘The Precision Index Genter ‘The Mieo-Sine Table Rotary Table Mounted on the MicroSine Table 1440 Small Angle Divider Use ofthe Strip Recorder Spedal Machines Employing the No.3 or No Lg Base Comtruction 4.THE NO. 4 AND NO. 5 UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINES. Applications of Large Universal ‘Measuring Machines Special Designs ‘Teinch Measuring Machine Numerical Conteol of Measuring Machines. 5.RULING ENGINES—DIFFRACTION GRATINGS Diffraction Gratings Ruling Engines for Diffraction Gratings— (Historical) ee Henry A. Rowland Johns Hopkins University, 1882. John A. Anderson—Johns Hopkins University, 1901 John A. Anderson, Harold D. Babcoel— ‘Mount Wilson Observatory, 1916. Albert A. Michelson, early 1900" John Strong—Johns Hopkins University, 1950 Gorge R. Harrison—M.L.T., 1948, "The Ruling Engine and the Lead Serew M,LT, “BY Brine with the No.8 Measuring MLLT. “0” Bngine with the No. & Measuring ‘Machine Base George W. Stroke. Expectations of the MIT. “C” Bugine. Bibliography Index... oe 310 310 310 Cais ai aud 315 316 sit 318 323 au au 325 325 aor ser at ar 328 329 a0 382 a3 33 1 335 338 3a 345Introductory eee cai cai a sail ou eee meh es ee increasingly as his skill at making measure- oe ea acd Hata ecu oan cane inne losing the steal we Ths theadene of mechani mearroment tha om esti selec, nad the art Sich compa dns eh hich ashok i cnceraa Lam particularly happy to be invited to write these introductory words because it gives me an opportunity to testify to the ptt say aad pepe Of machines whith make rede and a0 Sins mecha! mearments pene Hy sequinance with the Mone Spee ful Company tnded 9 gua or Ire ments th utnartechasanedaemant, which could then ‘be refine sl fart By the application of opel ant elotone Sem th tcologtes eed fr bch bps or pat notes a een oe ‘ing to seven significant figures the lengths Ot ighe waver themadves ony 10 to 20 suite oft inch long, 1 sun asking wrye of ang bigger and beter ira Tio watnga With hear the ight waves fromm and melee, whether ne Taporaory or the tar, could Be mone adequately studied. ‘The problem's simple to outne. On a glass or fused quartz mirror blank coated Scag cies agent cn one dee to ngeave 100 C0 long grooves, each straight to a millionth of an inch, parallel to its neighbors to with- nee ce rey ee that every grove i within loth sinclar ation, Fartenmor any repeated or periodic errors in groove Tocation should be held to less than one- tenth of a millionth of an inch. Up until 1947 these specifications had been fairly well met for gratings up to 6 inches in width by purely mechanical ruling engines, builtin scientificlaboratories, usual- ly ina evoperative effort between a physical scientist and a superbly skilled instrument maker. But many experts had spent long years in futile attempts at ruling wider ‘gratings with longer grooves. Some had felt that the way to solve this problem was by ‘malking light waves themselves eorrect the ‘errors of the engraving machine during the ruling process, but the proper technologies for carrying this out were not yetavailable. After having taken solemn oath to my- self never to get entangled with the unend- {ng problems of grating ruling, T decided in 1947 that the newly available mercury isotope lamps might furnish light of a suffi- cient singularity of color to guide such an engine. When the University of Chicago offered M.LT. an old, warped, partially rebuilt engine whose base castings had been machined under the direction of A. A. ‘Michelson back in 1900, I felt that if inter ferometric control could make this devies work, it could make any engine work. ‘The next ten years were spent in devel- oping optical control methods and servo mechanisms which did, indeed, reduce the errors of positioning of the engine ruling tool to 1/600th of their previous magni- tude, With this so-called “A” engine, de- seribed in the last seetion of this book, my colleagues and I were able to rule many gratings of 10-inch width and of a quality never previously attained. In 1959 we were ready to build a second, larger engine, and I began a search for producers of very accurate serews. It seemed of great importance to demon- strate that a commercially built machine, placed under interferometric control, could be made to funetion as a ruling engine. The ‘Moore Special Tool Company had avail- able drive screws which were nine times more accurate than that used in our A engine, and after testing two or three of these we ordered a Moore Universal ‘Measuring Machine of 18-inch capacity, without the superstructure. When placed under interferometrie control this proved ‘much more accurate than the “A” engine, and with it many outstanding gratings up to 16 inches in width, with grooves up to 8 inches long, have been ruled, As recounted later, when this engine was successful we ordered a No. 4 measuring ‘machine from Moore, have now put thi under interferometric control, and have ruled a number of gratings in sizes up to 12 x 15 inches. We hope eventually to pro- duce 18 x 24 inch gratings with it. From this story it is easy to see why the scientist who is primarily oceupied with obtaining 100,000 straight grooves in a igle operation, each a narrow mirror properly inlined to a beam of light whiel to be reflected from them, weleomas most gratefully the development of fine mech- anieal machines which can, in an almost literal sense, be “bought off the shelves.” ‘The amount of painstaking labor and skill in design, and the heritage of fine workmanship required before machines cean be brought to such a stage of perfee- tion, will be appreciated most of all by readers of this exeellent book. That it will bbe weleomed by a wide range of readers goes without saying. Guonce R. HARRISON Dean Emeritus, School of Science Massachusetts Institute of Technologyhese the architect in his work ought to be practiced in all accomplishments. Yet reason, in view of the scope of matters, does not permit us, 3 need demands, to have a complete, but only a ‘moderate knowledge of the various subjects involved. Hence I beg your Highness and other readers of these volumes to pardon any explanation that too little agrees with the rules of literary art. For it is not 43 a lofty thinker, nor as an eloquent speaker, nor as a scholar practiced in the best methods of literary criticism, but as an architect who has a mere tinge of these things, that I have striven to write the present treatise. But in respect to the meaning of my craft and the principles which it involves, T hope and undertake to expound them with assured authority, not only to persons engaged in building, but also to the learned world.” —Vitruvius, “De Architectura””