1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND

The continuous increase in the level of greenhouse gas emissions and the increase in fuel prices
are the main driving forces behind efforts to more effectively utilize various sources of renewable
energy. In many parts of the world, direct solar radiation is considered to be one of the most
prospective sources of energy. The scientists all over the world are in search of new and renewable
energy sources. One of the options is to develop energy storage devices, which are as important as
developing new sources of energy. The storage of energy in suitable forms, which can
conventionally be converted into the required form, is a present day challenge to the technologists.
Energy storage not only reduces the mismatch between supply and demand but also improves the
performance and reliability of energy systems and plays an important role in conserving the
energy.
It leads to saving of premium fuels and makes the system more cost effective by reducing the
wastage of energy and capital cost. For example, storage would improve the performance of a
power generation plant by load levelling and higher efficiency would lead to energy conservation
and lesser generation cost. One of prospective techniques of storing thermal energy is the
application of phase change materials (PCMs).
The use of a latent heat storage system using phase change materials (PCMs) is an effective way
of storing thermal energy and has the advantages of high-energy storage density and the isothermal
nature of the storage process. PCMs have been widely used in latent heat thermal storage systems
for heat pumps, solar engineering, and spacecraft thermal control applications. The uses of PCMs
for heating and cooling applications for buildings have been investigated within the past decade.
There are large numbers of PCMs that melt and solidify at a wide range of temperatures, making
them attractive in a number of applications.
1.2. OBJECTIVE
The objective of this project is to design and fabricate a tube in tube, phase change material (PCM)
based heat exchanger, which can act as a thermal energy storage device, and hence can be
incorporated in solar water heater. The thermal energy storage device will act as a short term
energy storage device.

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1.3. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED

The following methodology was adopted to carry out the project:

a. Demand of hot water during non-sunshine period is estimated.
b. Amount of heat needs to be stored is calculated.
c. A suitable type of heat exchanger is selected.
d. Dimensional parameters of heat exchanger are calculated.
e. A suitable testing rig is constructed, to measure the performance of the heat exchanger.
f. Inlet and outlet temperatures, and temperature distribution of PCM in the heat exchanger, during
charging and discharging is recorded.
g. The melting and solidification pattern of the PCM is studied during charging and discharging.

1.4. SCOPE

The project includes testing of a small heat exchanger, in order to establish the effectiveness of
using paraffin wax as a suitable phase change material. The paraffin wax is incorporated in the
heat exchanger, which acts as thermal energy storage device. This device will then be tested on a
test rig for water heating and other allied applications.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION

A phase change material (PCM) is a substance with a high heat of fusion which, melting and
solidifying at a certain temperature, is capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy.
Heat is absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa; thus,
PCMs are classified as latent heat storage (LHS) units.
Three types of phase changes can happen in a material, solid liquid phase change, solid gas phase
change, liquid gas phase change. Generally solid gas phase change and liquid gas phase change
involve large amount of volume change, hence solid liquid phase change is the most preferred
mode of latent heat storage. Sharma, A. et al (2009), established that the use of a latent heat storage
system using phase change materials (PCMs) is an effective way of storing thermal energy and
2
has the advantages of high-energy storage density and the isothermal nature of the storage process.
PCMs have been widely used in latent heat thermal storage systems for heat pumps, solar
engineering, and spacecraft thermal control applications. There are large numbers of PCMs that
melt and solidify at a wide range of temperatures, making them attractive in a number of
applications.
Demirbas, M. F. (2006), reported that, the storage of thermal energy in the form of sensible and
latent heat has become an important aspect of energy management with the emphasis on efficient
use and conservation of the waste heat and solar energy in industry and buildings.
Latent heat storage is one of the most efficient ways of storing thermal energy. Solar energy is a
renewable energy source that can generate electricity, provide hot water, heat and cool a house,
and provide lighting for buildings. Paraffin waxes are cheap and have moderate thermal energy
storage density but low thermal conductivity and, hence, require a large surface area. Hydrated
salts have a larger energy storage density and a higher thermal conductivity. In response to
increasing electrical energy costs and the desire for better lad management, thermal storage
technology has recently been developed. The storage of thermal energy in the form of sensible and
latent heat has become an important aspect of energy management with the emphasis on the
efficient use and conservation of the waste heat and solar energy in the industry and buildings.
Thermal storage has been characterized as a kind of thermal battery.
Jesumathy, S.P. et al (2012), designed an energy storage system to study the heat transfer
characteristics of paraffin wax during melting and solidification processes in a vertical annulus
energy storage system. In the experimental study, three important issues are focused. The first one
is temperature distribution in the phase change material (PCM) during the phase change processes.
The second one is the thermal characteristics of the paraffin wax, which includes total melting and
total solidification times, the nature of heat transfer phenomena in melted and solidified PCM and
the effect of Reynolds number as inlet heat transfer fluid (HTF) conditions on the heat transfer
parameters. The final one is to calculate heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness during
solidification process. The experimental results proved that the PCM melts and solidifies
congruently, and the melting front moved from the top to the bottom of the PCM container whereas
the solidification front moved from bottom to the top along the axial distances in the PCM
container. Time- based variations of the temperature distributions were explained from the results

3
of observations of melting and solidification curves. Charging and discharging processes were
carried out. Heat transfer characteristics were studied.
Trp, A. (2005), studied the thermal energy storage system of the shell and tube type heat exchanger
during charging and discharging. An experimental and numerical investigation of transient forced
convective heat transfer between the heat transfer fluid (HTF) with moderate Prandtl numbers and
the tube wall, heat conduction through the wall and solid–liquid phase change of the phase change
material (PCM), based on the enthalpy formulation, has been presented. A fully implicit two-
dimensional control volume FORTRAN computer code, with algorithm for non-isothermal phase
transition, has been developed for the solution of the corresponding mathematical model. The
comparison between numerical predictions and experimental data shows good agreement for both
paraffin non-isothermal melting and isothermal solidification.
Akgun, M. et al (2008), in their study, analysed Thermal energy storage performance of paraffin
in a novel tube-in-shell system. A novel design for the storage unit whose geometry is consistent
with the melting/solidification characteristics of phase change materials (PCMs) is introduced.
Three kinds of paraffin with different melting temperatures are used as PCMs. Water is used as
the heat transfer fluid (HTF). At first, the thermo-physical properties of the paraffin used are
determined through the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) analysis. The effects of the
Reynolds number and the Stefan number on the melting and solidification behaviours are
determined. It is disclosed the novel tube-in-shell storage geometry introduced in this study
suggests promising results.
Brian James and Paul Delaney (2012), investigated current PCM market trends and assess their
future potential application in commercial buildings. The goal is to determine their efficacy in peak
demand reduction and energy savings. Discussions with PCM manufacturers provided a better
understanding of the technical potential and current market availability of PCM products.
Evaluation of PCM products for certain applications determined their energy-efficiency potential.
Comparisons were drawn to determine mass equivalents between PCM and conventional thermal
mass, such as stone, concrete, and brick. In addition, temperature and sensible cooling profiles
were developed for a prototypical building based on energy simulations using EnergyPlus. Next,
it was determined which climate zones were most appropriate for PCM installations. This was
based on the day-to-night temperature variation required to regenerate a phase change.

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2.2. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are made from the literature review:

a. Use of phase change material is an effective way of storing thermal energy and has advantages
of high storage density and isothermal nature of energy storage.
b. Use of phase change material is an important aspect of energy management, by utilisation of
excess available energy.
c. A vertical tube in shell type storage system is a simple and effective way of storing thermal
energy using phase change material.
d. The geometry of tube in shell type storage system can be made consistent with melting and
solidification characteristics.
e. Paraffin wax is a good choice of phase change material, for solar water heating application, due
to its easy workability, melting temperature and availability.
f. Phase change material is an important part of energy efficient future.

3. ENERGY STORAGE METHODS

There are various forms of energy available. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can
only be converted from one form of energy to another useful form of energy. (According to the
law of conservation of energy).
Different forms of energies require specific techniques for their proper storage purpose. These
techniques are judged on the factors such as cost (economy), time for which energy can be stored,
amount of energy that can be stored through a particular method etc

5
Different methods to store energy are as follows:

3.1. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

Thermal energy storage (TES) is achieved with greatly differing technologies that collectively
accommodate a wide range of needs. It allows excess thermal energy to be collected for later use,
hours, days or many months later, at individual building, multiuser building, district, town or even
regional scale depending on the specific technology. As examples: energy demand can be balanced
between day time and night time; summer heat from solar collectors can be stored inter seasonally
for use in winter; and cold obtained from winter air can be provided for summer air conditioning.
Storage mediums include: water or ice-slush tanks ranging from small to massive, masses of native
earth or bedrock accessed with heat exchangers in clusters of small-diameter boreholes (sometimes
quite deep); deep aquifers contained between impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with
gravel and water and top-insulated; and eutectic, phase-change materials.

Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with heat pumps from
off-peak, lower cost electric power, a practice called peak shaving; heat from combined heat and
power (CHP) power plants; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that exceeds grid
demand and waste heat from industrial processes.

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3.1.1 SENSIBLE HEAT

Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a thermodynamic system that changes the temperature of the
system without changing some variables such as volume or pressure. As the name implies, sensible
heat is the heat that you can feel. The sensible heat possessed by an object is evidenced by its
temperature. As temperature increases, the sensible heat content also increases. However, for a
given change in sensible heat content, all objects do not change temperature by the same amount.
Each substance has its own characteristics relationship between heat content and temperature. The
proportionality constant between temperature rise and change in heat content is called the specific
heat, measured in calories per gram per degree Celsius or joules per kilogram per kelvin. Water
for example has a specific heat of 1 Cal/g/oC. In general, the gain in heat is accompanied by either
a change in volume or a change in pressure (e.g. the water in the pot swells somewhat as you heat
it; if you heat gas in a fixed volume, its pressure goes up).

3.1.2 LATENT HEAT

This is the energy absorbed or released by a thermodynamic system during a constant temperature
process.

Examples include ice melting or water boiling. When a solid turns into a liquid (melts) or a liquid
turns into a gas (evaporates), the loosening of attraction among the molecules requires energy. If
you raise ice from -20oC to 0 oC, you put in sensible heat. If you keep adding heat to the ice, it
melts but its temperature is constant, the sensible heat of ice/water system is not increasing but
you continue to add heat energy to it. Energy is conserved, such that the extra heat tears apart the
frozen ice molecules and sets them loose as a liquid. The liquid is therefore storing this energy in
a form that you cannot sense. This energy is call latent heat.

7
 Fig:1 Temp-distribution

3.2 TES (Thermal Energy Storage) Systems

A latent heat thermal energy storage system comprises mainly of the following three components
 A PCM that would be effective to work in the systems desired range of temperatures. 
 Encapsulation of PCM (mostly cylindrical aluminum containers are used with proper
insulation or even shell and tube type arrangements are there). 
 Surface for heat exchange which would transfer the heat from the surrounding to PCM. 

3.3 PCM (Phase Change Materials)
Certain materials have the capacity to melt and solidify at certain temperatures and because of this
they are capable of storing or releasing large quantity of energy, such materials with inherent
capacity to store or release energy at constant temperature by undergoing a phase change are called
PCM (phase change materials).

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As compared to sensible heat storage materials PCM have considerably higher heat storage
capacity (almost 5-14 times more heat per unit volume). The selection of a PCM for a particular
application should be based on a careful study of the properties of the substances, since there is no
such material present which has all the properties to become an ideal PCM.
Easy availability of these phase change materials is also a factor to be considered. From the point
of view of reduction in the total cost for storing thermal energy, we should also consider the fact
that as the energy density of PCM increases the necessary storage volume for a given application
decreases. Hence because of this the total area required for storage can be lowered and also
required amount of heat can be stored at a comparatively cheaper rate.

PCM now have become an important thermal energy trapping and storing component and is being
under use in various thermal storage devices. However there is still scope of development in the
characteristics of PCM’s so that they come even closer of being an ideal thermal energy trapping
materials. PCM’s due to their stability at high working temperatures and also because of their high
heat storing capacity these materials are high useful and will find even more application in future
in the field of solar energy harvesting and storage.
3.3.1Principle of phase change material

Fig:2 principle of PCM

The properties that PCM in thermal energy storage system should posses so that it can work
effectively are as follo
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 
General Properties that a Phase Change Material Should Posses
Thermodynamic Physical Chemical Kinetic Thermal Economic
properties properties properties properties properties properties
1)High latent heat of 1) marginal or 1) should be 1) to avoid 1) heat transfer 1) should be
fusion, specific heat and almost zero stable supercooling of rate should be easily available
thermal conductivity supercooling liquid appreciable
during freezing nucleation rate
should be high
2)during phase 2) variation in 2)non- 2) crystal 2) in the solid 2) Initial cost of
transformation volume density should poisonous, non- growth rate and the liquid these materials
change should be be less during inflammable should be high phase the should be less,
marginal phase change and non- thermal materials
explosive conductivity should be
should be high inexpensive.
3)to reduce the 3) phase 3) should not 3) latent heat of
containment problem equilibrium undergo any transition and
there should be small should be chemical specific heat
vapor pressures at favorable reaction with should be high
operating temperature the container
material
4) melting should be 4) material 4) 4) high latent
continuous (congruent) should be of crystallization heat per unit
high density rate should mass
satisfactory

Table:1 properties of pcm

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3.3.2 Examples of PCM
ORGANIC PCM INORGANIC PCM FATTY ACIDS COMMERCIAL PCM

1-dudecanol Na2SO4.10H2O Vinyl stearate R T25

Paraffin C13 Zn(NO3)2.4H2O 34% mistiric acid+ 66% S27
capric acid

Paraffin wax Na2SO2O3.5H2O Lauric acid TH29

1-Tetradecanol LiNO3.3H2O Palmitic acid R T50
Table:2 example of pcm

3.3.2 Organic PCMs

Paraffin (CnH2n+2), carbohydrate and lipid derived.

Advantages

 Freeze without much undercooling

 Ability to melt congruently
 Self nucleating properties

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  Compatibility with conventional material of construction
 No segregation
 Chemically stable
 High heat of fusion
 Safe and non-reactive
 Recyclable
 Carbohydrate and lipid based PCMs can be produced from renewable sources

Disadvantages

 Low thermal conductivity in their solid state. High heat transfer rates are required during
the freezing cycle
 Volumetric latent heat storage capacity can be low
 Flammable. This can be partially alleviated by specialist containment
 To obtain reliable phase change points, most manufacturers use technical grade paraffins
which are essentially paraffin mixture(s) and are completely refined of oil, resulting in
high costs

3.3.3Inorganic

Salt hydrates (MnH2O)

Advantages

 High volumetric latent heat storage capacity

 Availability and low cost
 Sharp melting point
 High thermal conductivity
 High heat of fusion
 Non-flammable

Disadvantages

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  Change of volume is very high
 Super cooling is major problem in solid–liquid transition
 Nucleating agents are needed and they often become inoperative after repeated cycling

3.3.4 Eutectics

c-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic compounds

Advantages

 Eutectics have sharp melting point similar to pure substance

 Volumetric storage density is slightly above organic compounds
 Extra water principle can be used to avoid phase change degradation, involving dissolving
the anhydrous salt during melting to result in a thickening of the liquid material so that it
melts to a gel form

Disadvantages

 Only limited data is available on thermo-physical properties as the use of these materials
are relatively new to thermal storage application

Application

Application of phase change material include

 Thermal energy storage

 Solar cooking
 Cold Energy Battery
 Conditioning of buildings, such as 'ice-storage'
 Cooling of heat and electrical engines
 Cooling: food, beverages, coffee, wine, milk products, green houses

13
 Medical applications: transportation of blood, operating tables, hot-cold therapies, treatment
of birth asphyxia[94]
 Human body cooling under bulky clothing or costumes.
 Waste heat recovery
 Off-peak power utilization: Heating hot water and Cooling
 Heat pump systems
 Passive storage in bioclimatic building/architecture (HDPE, paraffin)
 Smoothing exothermic temperature peaks in chemical reactions
 Solar power plants
 Spacecraft thermal systems
 Thermal comfort in vehicles
 Thermal protection of electronic devices
 Thermal protection of food: transport, hotel trade, ice-cream, etc.
 Textiles used in clothing
 Computer cooling
 Turbine Inlet Chilling with thermal energy storage
 Telecom shelters in tropical regions. They protect the high-value equipment in the shelter by
keeping the indoor air temperature below the maximum permissible by absorbing heat
generated by power-hungry equipment such as a Base Station Subsystem. In case of a power
failure to conventional cooling systems, PCMs minimize use of diesel generators, and this can
translate into enormous savings across thousands of telecom sites in tropics.
3.3.5 Fire and safety
Some phase change materials are suspended in water, and are relatively nontoxic. Others are
hydrocarbons or other flammable materials, or are toxic. As such, PCMs must be selected and
applied very carefully, in accordance with fire and building codes and sound engineering practices.
Because of the increased fire risk, flamespread, smoke, potential for explosion when held in
containers, and liability, it may be wise not to use flammable PCMs within residential or other
regularly occupied buildings. Phase change materials are also being used in thermal regulation of
electronics.

The PCM which we are concentrating our attention on during this analytical study is paraffin.
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4. PARAFFIN
One of the most reliable phase change materials which are being extensively used nowadays
as heat storage material in most of the thermal storage units is paraffin. Paraffin is popularly
used because of its properties such as large latent heat and thermal characteristics. The
thermal characteristics of paraffin are varied phase change temperature, low vapor pressure
in the molten state, negligible super cooling, appreciable thermal and chemical stability and
also self nucleating behavior. A long freeze melt cycle is experienced by the systems which
use paraffin as the phase change material in their thermal energy storage unit. Paraffin is
made of a mixture of long chain of n-alkanes [CH3-(CH2)-CH3 ]. Properties such as latent
heat of fusion and melting point increases as the length of chain is increased. Availability
in large temperature ranges is an important advantage of paraffin and hence is used as heat
of fusion storage material. Eg:-hexadecane, pentadecane, tetradecane etc

4.1Advantage
a) Freezing action with much undercooling
b) Segregation is absent
c) They can be recycled
d) Heat of fusion is high
e) Very stable chemically
f) Self nucleation

4.2Disadvantage
a) In solid state thermal conductivity is low
b) during freezing cycle high heat transfer rates are required
c) They are flammable
d) Special contaminants are required to raise their burning temperatures use of essential
paraffin
e) low volumetric latent heat storage capacity mixtures raise the overall price of energy
storage

15
 Some Paraffin and their properties

Paraffin Freezing point Heat of fusion

(0C) (KJ/Kg)
5838 47-50 189

6499 66-68 189

P116 45-48 210

6403 62-64 189

5. HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat energy from one fluid to another. Typical
heat exchangers experienced by us in our daily lives include condensers and evaporators used in
air conditioning units and refrigerators. Boilers and condensers in thermal power plants are
examples of large industrial heat exchangers. There are heat exchangers in our automobiles in the
form of radiators and oil coolers. Heat exchangers are also abundant in chemical and process
industries. There is a wide variety of heat exchangers for diverse kinds of uses, hence the
construction also would differ widely. However, in spite of the variety, most heat exchangers can
be classified into some common types based on some fundamental design concepts. We will
consider only the more common types here for discussing some analysis and design
methodologies.

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 Fig 4– heat exchanger
5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are broadly classified based on the following considerations.
5.1.1Classification based on Transfer Process
Based on heat transfer process heat exchangers are classified as direct contact and indirect
contact
a) Direct contact
In direct contact heat exchangers, heat transfer takes place between two immiscible fluids
like a gas and a liquid coming into direct contact.
e.g.: Cooling towers, jet condensers for water vapour, and other vapors utilizing water
spray.

Fig:5-direct contact HE

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b) Indirect contact
In indirect - contact type of heat exchangers the hot and cold fluids are separated by an
impervious surface. There is no mixing of the two fluids and these heat exchangers are also
known as surface heat exchangers.
e.g: Automobile radiators.

Fig:6-indirect contact HE

5.1.2. Classification based on Compactness

The ratio of the heat transfer surface area on one side of the heat exchanger to the volume is
used as a measure of compactness.
The heat exchanger having a surface area density on anyone side greater than about 700
m2/m3 is known as a compact heat exchanger.
e.g.: Automobile radiators (1100 m2/m3),Gas turbine engines (6600 m2/m3), Human lungs
(20,000 m2/m3)
5.1.3. Classification based on type of construction
Based on the type of construction heat exchangers are classified as follows.
a) Tubular heat exchangers
Tubular heat exchangers are available in many sizes, flow arrangements and types. They
can withstand a wide range of operating pressures and temperatures. A commonly used
design is shell-and-tube heat exchanger which consists of round tubes mounted on
cylindrical shells with their axes parallel to that of the shell. The combination of fluids
may be liquid-to-liquid, liquid-to -gas or gas-to-gas.

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 Fig:7-tubular HE

b) Plate heat exchangers

In these types thin plates are used to affect heat transfer. The plates may be either smooth
or corrugated. These heat exchangers are suitable only for moderate temperature or
pressure as the plate geometry restricts the use of high pressure and temperature
differentials.
The compactness factor for plate exchangers ranges from 120 to 230 m2/m3.

Fig: 8 plate heat exchanger

c) Plate fin heat exchangers
These heat exchangers use louvered or corrugated fins separated by flat plates. Fins can be
arranged on each side of the plate to get cross-flow, counter-flow or parallel-flow
arrangements. These heat exchangers are used for gas-to-gas applications at low pressures
19
(10 atm.) and temperatures not exceeding 800°C. They also find use in cryogenic
applications. The compactness factor for these heat exchangers is upto 6000 m2/m3.

Fig:9Plate fin heat exchanger

d) Tube-fin heat exchangers

Such heat exchanges are used when a high operating pressure or an extended surface is
needed on one side. The tubes may be either round or flat. Tube-fin heat exchangers are
used in gas- 252 Heat and Mass Transfer turbine, nuclear, fuel cell, automobile, airplane,
heat pump, refrigeration, Cryogenics etc. The operating pressure is about 30 atm. and the
operating temperature ranges from low cryogenic temperatures to about 870 Dc. The
maximum compactness ratio is about 330 m2/m3

Fig;10 Tube Fin HE

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e) Regenerative heat exchangers
Regenerative heat exchangers may be either static type or dynamic type. The static type
has no moving parts and consists of a porous mass like balls, pebbles, powders etc.
through which hot and cold fluids pass alternatively.

Fig:11 regenerative HE
e.g.: air preheaters used in coke manufacturing and glass melting plants.
In dynamic type regenerators, the matrix is arranged in the form of a drum which rotates
about an axis in such a manner that a given portion of the matrix passes periodically
through the hot stream and then through the cold stream.
The heat absorbed by the matrix from the hot stream is transferred to the cold stream
during its run.

5.1.4. Classification based on flow Arrangement Based

on flow arrangement heat exchangers are classified into the following principal types.
a) Parallel-flow
In this heat exchanger, the hot and the cold fluids enter at the same end of the heat
exchanger and flow through in the same direction and leave together at the other end
as shown in fig

21
 FIG:12 Parallel flow

b) Counter flow
In this heat exchanger hot and cold fluids enter in the opposite ends of the heat
exchanger and flow in opposite directions as shown in Fig

Fig:13 –counter flow

c) Cross flow
In this heat exchanger, the two fluids flow at right angles to each other as shown in
Fig 5 (c). In this arrangement the flow may be mixed or unmixed. In general, in a
cross flow exchanger, three idealized flow arrangements are possible
1. The fluids are unmixed
2. One fluid is mixed, and the other is unmixed
3. Both fluids are mixed.

22
 Fig;14-cross flow
d) Multipass flow
Since multi passing increases the overall effectiveness over individual effectiveness
they are frequently used in heat exchanger design. Different multipass flow
arrangements are "One shell pass, two tube pass" known as "one - two" heat
exchanger, "two shell pass, two tube pass", etc.

S.No Type Major Characteristics Applications

Bundle of tubes encased in a

1 Shell and tube Always the first type of exchanger to consider
cylinder shell

Rectangular tube bundles mounted

Air cooled heat
2
exchanger
on frame, with air used as the Economic where cost of cooling water is high
cooling medium

Pipe within a pipe; inner pipe may

3 Double pipe For small units
be finned or plain

Services where the outside tube resistance is

Extended
4
surface
Externally finned tube appreciably greater then inside resistance. Also
used in debottle necking existing units

23
 Series of plates separated by
5 Brazed plate fin Cryogenic services: all fluids must be clean
corrugated fins

Spirally wound tube coils within a

6 Spiral wound Cryogenic services: fluids must be clean
shell

Barometric Where mutual solubilities of water and process

11 Direct contact of water and vapor
condenser fluid permit

Tube elements consists of an inner Useful for high temperature difference between
8 Bayonet tube
and tube shell and tube fluids

Pipe within a pipe, with rotating

Scraped
7
surface
blades scraping the inside wall of Crystallization cooling applications
the inner pipe

Falling film Vertical units using a the film of

9 Special cooling applications
cooler water in tubes

Cascade Cooling water flows over series of Special cooling applications for every corrosive
12
coolers tubes process fluids

Impervious Constructed of graphite for Used in very highly corrosive heat exchanger
13
graphite corrosion protection services

Pipe coils submerged in a box of

10 Worm coolers Emergency cooling
water

Table:-Summary of type of heat exchanger

6. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The PCM based heat exchanger has to be incorporated with solar water heater. So, it is necessary
to know the basic way of incorporating the thermal energy storage device with solar water heater.
The following section shall brief on how to incorporate this device with a solar water heater. Figure
3.1 shows the outline of the thermal energy storage with solar water heater.
6.1.1. Basic components
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The above setup consists of following component
a. Solar Collector: A solar collector consists of an opaque body, a thermal heat transfer fluid,
thermal insulations and a transparent cover on top. A flat plate solar collector is the most
important type of solar collector, since it does not require a lot of maintenance.
b. Storage Tank: A storage tank is used to store both cold and hot water. Cold water is extracted
from below and hot water from collector is released in tank from top.
c. Pump: Since we will be using a forced circulation, we need to incorporate a pump to maintain
flow in the system.
d. Valves: Valves will be used to isolate the daytime water line and night time water line, with
each other.
e. PCM Heat Exchanger: PCM heat exchanger is the most important component of our system
and is the system which is under study.
f. Phase Change Material: PCM will be incorporated in the heat exchanger for thermal energy
storage. This will be discussed in detail later. PCM is the backbone of this project.

7. DESIGNING PCM BASED HEAT EXCHANGER

The calculation for the PCM based heat exchanger is done in the following steps:

a. Amount of hot water required during non-sunshine period is estimated. Accordingly, amount
of energy needs to be stored is estimated.
b. A suitable type of heat exchanger is selected.
c. A suitable phase change material is selected.
d. Dimensional parameters of heat exchanger are then calculated.

7.1. Incorporating heat exchanger with solar water heating application

25
 Figure 15 Outline of thermal energy storage with solar water heater

7.2. WORKING

During sunshine period, valve 1 is kept open and valve 2 is kept closed. The cold water from the
storage tank goes through the flat plate solar collector, absorbing heat energy from the solar
radiations. It then passes through the PCM heat exchanger, where it loses its heat to the phase
change material. It then goes back to the storage tank. In this way, the PCM gains heat energy
which will then be used to heat water during non-sunshine period.

During non-sunshine period, valve 1 is kept closed and valve 2 is kept open. The cold water from
the storage tank goes through the PCM heat exchanger, absorbing heat energy from the heat stored
in the phase change material. It then goes back to the storage tank. By this way cold water is heated
with the help of heat stored in the PCM.
7.3. Amount of hot water required

Usually, in a typical household, during non-sunshine period, requirement of water is around 3

buckets. Taking volume of each bucket as 20 litres, total requirement will amount to 60 litres.
However for our experimental purpose we consider designing of a heat exchanger to heat 10 kg of
water. The same approach may be adopted to design a system of higher requirement.

7.4. Amount of heat energy to be stored

During winter season, the average temperature at which the water is available in the tanks is around
15-20oC. Temperature of water required for comfortable bathing during winter season is around

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40oC. Hence the amount of temperature difference we need to attain for comfortable bathing is
20-25oC.

Initial temperature of water Ti = 20oC

Final (desired) temperature of water Tf = 40oC

Tf – Ti = 20oC

Heat capacity of water, Cv = 4.187 kJ/kg

Hence, amount of heat required to carry out the above transition = Q

Q = mwater x (Tf – Ti) x Cv

i.e. Q = 10 x 20 x 4.187 = 836 kJ

Hence, amount of energy needs to be stored = 836 kJ

7.5 Selection of suitable heat exchanger

A tube in shell type heat exchanger is the simplest choice of heat exchanger. Incorporation of phase
change material is also easy in this type of exchanger. The phase change material is incorporated
in the outer shell of the heat exchanger and the heat transfer fluid (HTF), which is water in this
case, flows from the inner tube.
7.6. Selection of suitable phase change material

Selection of a suitable phase change material is very important and is the fundamental
requirement of our project. The following are desirable characteristics of a good phase change
material:

a. It should possess high latent heat storage density.

b. Thermal conductivity of the PCM should be good.
c. The phase transition temperature should be suitable as per requirements of the system.
d. Small volume change should happen during phase change.
e. It should be chemically stable, less toxic and should be compatible with the components.
f. It should be available and economical.

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 The paraffin wax has high latent heat capacity of 206 kJ/kg. The phase transition temperature
of the wax is 40oC to 50oC, which is suitable for our requirement. The change in volume of wax
from solid to liquid is negligible. The wax is chemically stable and does not affect any
component of the heat exchanger. Above all, wax is available at low cost.

7.7. Thermal properties of PCM

Thermal properties of the paraffin wax used in the project are listed in Table 3.1:

Table 3 Thermal properties of paraffin wax

Transition temperature 40⁰C to 50⁰C

Latent heat capacity 206 kJ/kg

Density 789 kg/m3

7.8. Estimation of amount of PCM

The amount of PCM to be incorporated in estimated as follows:

Amount of energy to be stored = Q = 836 kJ

Hence mass of PCM to be incorporated = Q/(Latent heat) = 836/206 = 4.0582 kg. Hence

approximately 4 kg of PCM needs to be incorporated in the heat exchanger.

7.9. Calculation of dimensional parameters of heat exchanger

From Figure 3.2, we can see that number of energy storage units to be used = n = 3 Length of

each energy storage unit = 0.5 m.

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Container

Single energy storage unit

Figure 16 -Complete heat exchanger showing single units

Mass of PCM in each unit = mpcm/n

i.e. mpcm/unit = 4.058/3 = 1.352 kg

Volume of PCM to be used = mpcm/unit x ῥ

i.e. Vpcm = 1.325 x 789 = 0.00092002 m3

Hence, the cross sectional area of outer portion of heat exchanger

A2 = V/L = 0.00092002/0.5 = 0.00184005 m 2 = 18.4 cm2

Assuming a suitable diameter for the internal pipe.

We select a standard diameter of copper pipe = 1.4 cm

Hence, cross sectional area of the internal pipe = A1 = 1.5393 cm2

Total cross sectional area of the Heat Exchanger unit = A1 + A2

i.e. A = A1 + A2 = 1.5393+18.4 = 19.939 cm2

Hence, the internal diameter of outer pipe = ¼ x ((A1+A2)/π)1/2 = 5.038 cm = 2”

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The dimensions calculated are shown in Figure

Figure 17 Single energy storage unit

8. TESTING OF SINGLE ENERGY STORAGE UNIT

The single energy storage unit as shown in Figure 3.3 is tested on a test rig. The temperatures are
measured at discrete points as shown in Figure 3.4. The following parameters of the energy storage
unit are measured:

a. Inlet and outlet temperatures of heat transfer fluid at specific intervals.

b. The temperatures are recorded during charging and discharging atoutlet

8.1. Construction of test rig

The testing involve, vertically mounting the single energy storage unit. The single energy storage
unit is vertically mounted on inverted ‘T’ stand. The mounting is done in such a way that the inlet
of heat transfer unit is from the below and its outlet is at the top. The heat transfer fluid, which is
water in this case, is stored in a suitable storage tank. The water is routed through a suitable
connecting pipe, through pump and a flow control valve. The heat transfer fluid is then sent back
to the storage tank when it comes out of the outlet through connecting pipe. A suitable arrangement
of heating the water is done in the storage tank. This is being done to eliminate the flat plate
collector from the circuit shown in the Figure 3.1.

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During charging, the pump creates a circulation in the circuit. The heat transfer fluid comes from
the storage tank, through the flow control valve, to the inlet of the energy storage unit. The water
after losing its heat in the energy storage unit goes back to the storage tank.

During discharging, the heating arrangement of the storage tank is kept off and water in the tank
is kept at ambient temperature. The pump creates the circulation and water comes from storage
tank, through flow control valve, to the inlet of the energy storage unit. The water after gaining
heat from the stored heat of PCM in energy storage unit goes back to the storage tank.

The thermocouple wires are incorporated at predetermined points of the energy storage unit as
shown in Figure 3.4. The temperature outputs of the thermocouple are taken with help of an 8
channel temperature indicator, which will indicate temperature of the wax and inlet and outlet
temperature of the heat transfer fluid.

8.2. Components of test rig

Following are components of the test rig constructed for the testing of PCM heat exchanger:

a. Energy storage unit

The energy storage unit is the main component of the test rig. The outline of the energy storage
unit is shown in Figure 3.3. The heat transfer fluid flows from the inner copper pipe. The outer
pipe is of PVC, which also acts as insulating material. It prevents the melted wax to solidify
after charging. The paraffin wax is incorporated in the outer pipe of the energy storage unit.
The actual photograph of the energy storage unit is shown in Figure 3.5.

Fig ;18 -Energy storage unit

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b. Storage tank
The purpose of the storage tank is to act as a reservoir of water which will be circulated in the
circuit. Ideally the storage tank should be insulated to prevent any exchange of heat through it.
The actual photograph of storage tank is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure :19-Storage tank

c. Pump
The purpose of the pump is to create a circulation in the circuit. The pump used in the circuit is
a non-submersible water pump with a head of 6 feet. The mass flow rate of the pump was
calculated as 15 lpm.The pump used is shown in Figure 3.7.

Fig:20- pump
d. Heating coil
The purpose of the heating coil is to heat the water in the storage tank. As mentioned earlier it
is done to eliminate the flat plate collector in the Figure 3.1. The heating coil used in the setup
is of 1500 W rating. The heating coil used is shown in Figure

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e. Flow control valve
The purpose of flow control valve is to regulate the mass flow rate of the heat transfer fluid
through the circuit. The valve used in the circuit is a simple gate valve type valve as shown in
Figure

Fig :21 –flow control valve

g. Temperature indicator
The temperature indicator consists of 8 channels. Each channel receives input from different
thermocouples which are incorporated in the energy storage unit as shown in Figure 3.4. The
temperature indicator used in Figure

h. Connecting pipes
The connecting pipes are used for flow of heat transfer fluid from one component to another.

8.3. Testing procedure

The final test rig for testing the energy storage unit is shown in Figure 3.12. The testing of the
energy storage unit is done in two modes, charging and discharging. The temperature distribution
of phase change material is studied in each mode to study melting and solidification pattern of the
phase change material.

8.3.1 Charging

The procedure of testing in charging mode is as follows:

a. The water of storage tank is heated to the range of 80-85 oC, using the heating arrangement.
b. The flow control valve is adjusted to a suitable mass flow rate of heat transfer fluid.
c. The initial readings of the temperature indicator are recorded.
d. The pump is switched on to initiate the flow in the circuit.

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e. The readings of temperature indicator i.e. temperature at the predetermined points are then taken
at an interval of 2 minutes, for around 40 to 60 minutes.
f. The variation of temperature at each point in the wax is then plotted against time elapsed.

8.3.2. Discharging

The procedure for testing in discharging mode is as follows:

a. The heating arrangement of the storage tank is kept off.

b. The initial readings of the temperature are recorded.
c. The water in the storage tank at ambient temperature is circulated using the pump.
d. The readings of temperature indicator i.e. temperature at predetermined points are taken at an
interval of 2 minutes for around 40 to 60 minutes.
e. The variation of temperature at each point in the wax is then plotted against the time elapsed.

The charging and discharging procedure is repeated again for different mass flow rates of heat
transfer fluid, and thus temperature variation plots are obtained for different mass flow rates.

9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The temperature distribution of the phase change material, during charging and discharging was
taken at three different mass flow rates at 15, 11 and 7 kg/min. For each mass flow rate, curve was
plotted for variation of temperature at each point in the wax against time elapsed, to get melting
curve in case of charging and solidification curve in case of discharging.

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Fig:22- Actual test rig for testing energy storage unit

9.1 Melting curve

Figure 23 Melting curve

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Thermocouple 1 represents curve of temperature variation at point 2, Thermocouple 2 represents
curve of temperature variation at point 3, Thermocouple 3 represents curve of temperature
variation at point 4 and Thermocouple 4 represents curve of temperature variation at point 5, where
points 2 to 5 are according to Figure 3.4.
9.2Solidification curve

Figure 23 Solidification curve

Thermocouple 1 represents curve of temperature variation at point 2, Thermocouple 2 represents

curve of temperature variation at point 3, Thermocouple 3 represents curve of temperature
variation at point 4 and Thermocouple 4 represents curve of temperature variation at point 5, where
points 2 to 5 are according to Figure 3.4.
9.3. DISCUSSION

The melting and solidification curves at all the three mass flow rates, shows similar behaviour.

9.3.1.1. Melting curve

The variation of temperature of the phase change material is almost linear. The temperature
variation curve of wax nearer to the inner tube (Thermocouple 1 in this case), shows more non
linear behaviour than those at the outermost layer.

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Also it can be seen that the melting is more accelerated at the top, compared to that at the bottom.
9.3.2. Solidification curve

At the beginning of the solidification process, the temperature of the paraffin wax decreases
rapidly, as sensible heat stored in the wax is transferred to the flowing heat transfer fluid. In this
case also, the wax nearer to the inner tube (Thermocouple 1 in this case), looses its heat energy
faster than those at the periphery. The wax at the periphery looses their heat more uniformly than
those nearer to the inner tube.
9.4. OBSERVATION TABLES

The temperature variation of wax during charging and discharging at various mass flow rates
are recorded in the following tables:

Table 4 Temperature variation during charging

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Table 5 Temperature variation at 15kg/min during discharging

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10. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the experimental work carried out, following conclusion could be drawn:

Paraffin wax is a good PCM for energy storage in latent heat storage system. It has a suitable
transition temperature range of 45-55°C and a relatively high latent heat of 206 kJ/kg. In addition,
it does not exhibit any sub-cooling. A simple tube-in-tube heat exchanger system can be used for
energy storage with reasonable charging and discharging times. The melting was more at the top
and nearer to the inner tube. The solidification was rapid at the point which was nearer to the inner
tube carrying heat transfer fluid.

The given arrangement can be used to store thermal energy in solar water heating application. The
cost to incorporate the system is also very economical.

REFERENCES

1. Akgun, Mithat, “Thermal energy storage performance of paraffin in a novel tube-in-shell

system” Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 405–413.
2. Demirbas, M. Fatih, “Thermal Energy Storage and Phase Change Materials: An Overview”
Energy Sources, Part B, 1:85–95, 2006.
3. James, Brian; Delaney, Paul, “Phase Change Materials: Are They Part of Our Energy Efficient
Future?” ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, (2012) 3:160 – 172.
4. Jesumathy, S.P.; Udayakumar, M.; Suresh, S., “Heat transfer characteristics in latent heat
storage system using paraffin wax” Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 26 (3)
(2012) 959-965.
5. Sharma, Atul; Tyagi, V.V.; Chen, C.R.; Buddhi, D., “Review on thermal energy storage with
phase change materials and applications” Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 13 (2009) 318–345.
6. Trp, Arnica, “An experimental and numerical investigation of heat transfer during technical
grade paraffin melting and solidification in a shell-and-tube latent thermal energy storage unit”
Solar Energy 79 (2005) 648–660.
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