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Set Elements: Lecture Notes A. Set Definitions

This document provides an overview of key concepts in sets and probability theory covered in the EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems course. It defines what sets, elements, and subsets are, and how sets can be specified. It also covers classification of sets, set operations like union and intersection, and introduces basic probability concepts like sample space, events, and the probability axioms. The document establishes essential mathematical foundations for further communication systems topics involving signals, noise, and random processes.

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309 views

Set Elements: Lecture Notes A. Set Definitions

This document provides an overview of key concepts in sets and probability theory covered in the EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems course. It defines what sets, elements, and subsets are, and how sets can be specified. It also covers classification of sets, set operations like union and intersection, and introduces basic probability concepts like sample space, events, and the probability axioms. The document establishes essential mathematical foundations for further communication systems topics involving signals, noise, and random processes.

Uploaded by

athenalavega
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems

Lecture notes

A. Set Definitions
Set –collection of objects (denoted by big letters)
Elements- objects contained in a set (denoted by small letters)
- symbol used to represent element

 if a is an element of A, then we write: a A


 a set is specified by the content of two braces { ▪ }

2 METHODS FOR SPECIFYING CONTENTS OF A SET


1. Tabular/Roster method- elements are enumerated explicitly/enumerated
Ex. A = {0,2,4,6,8,10}
2. Rule method- a set’s content is determined by some rule; usually more convenient to
use when the set is large
Ex. A = {even integers ≤10} or A= {x| 0≤x≤10, x is an even integer}

CLASSIFICATION OF SETS

 Countable- elements can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers
 Uncountable- cannot be counted using natural numbers
 Empty/ Null Set- if it has no elements; symbol: ø
 Finite sets- one that is either empty or has elements that can be counted, with the counting process
terminating; has finite number of elements
 Infinite set- not finite
 Countably infinite- infinite set with elements that can be counted

UNIVERSAL SET-the largest or all-encompassing set of objects under discussion in a given situation; all
sets (of the situation considered) are subsets of the universal set.
Symbol: S

SUBSETS- if every element of a set A is also an element in another set B, A is said to be contained in B. A is
known as a subset of B

o Proper subset: Symbol: A B


 If at least one element exists in B which is not in A, then A is a proper subset of B

o Improper subset: Symbol: A B


 If all elements of A are similar to all the elements of B, then A is an improper subset of B

DISJOINT/MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE: no common elements

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EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems. UPLB.APL


Note: to determine the number of subsets, use: 2 N (N – number of elements in S)
B. Set Operations
Venn Diagram- a geometrical representation that enables us to associate a physical picture with sets

S- universal set; rectangleSubsets A, B, C = closed- plane figures

Equality and difference

Two sets A and B are equal if all elements in A are present in B and all elements in B are present in A; A=B

The difference of two sets A and B is the set containing all elements of A that are not present in B; A-B

Union and Intersection

Union ( )- sum of two sets

Intersection ( )- it is the set of elements common to both A and B. Product of two sets

Complement

Denoted by Á or A’; it is defined as the set of all elements not in A.

Á =S-A

Do you agree that: Ø’=S, S’=Ø, A ∪ Á =S, and A ∩ Á = Ø?


Algebra of Sets

Theorems Used:

 Commutative law: A B = B A; A B = B A
 Distributive law: A∩(B∪C) = (A B)∪ (A∩C)

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EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems. UPLB.APL


A∪(B∩C) = (A B)∩ (A ∪C)
 Associative Law: (A∪ B)∪ C=A∪ ¿B∪C)=A∪B ∪C
(A∩ B)∩ C=A∩¿ B ∩C)=A∩B ∩C

NOTE: repeated application of union/ intersection of N sets An , n=1,2...N

C= A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A 3...∪ An =¿ n=1¿ N An

D= A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3...∩ A n= ¿ n=1¿ N An

 De Morgan’s Laws:
´ B )= Á ∩ B́
( A∪
´ B )= Á ∪ B́
( A∩

 Duality Principle:
“If in an identity we replace unions by intersections, intersections by unions, S by Ø, and Ø by S, then the
identity is preserved”

Example:
A∩(B∪C) = (A ∩ B)∪ (A∩C)
If we replace intersections by unions and unions by intersections then we are going to have the following
equation:
A∪(B∩C) = (A ∪ B)∩ (A ∪C)

Which is also a valid identity

C. Probability Introduced Through Sets

 Probability- measure of the likelihood of the occurrence of an event [notation: P(A)-Probability of A]


 Experiment- procedure/algorithm that leads to an outcome
 Random experiment- output cannot be uniquely identified from knowledge of the input.
o Random- assumption: each item in an experiment is equally likely to be selected
 Trial- single performance of an experiment for which there is an outcome.
 Sample space- set of all possible outcomes
 Event-subset of the sample space

3 elements in mathematical models of experiments


1. Sample space
2. Event
3. Probability
Axioms:

Axiom1: P(A)≥0 * probability of an event = 0 if event’s occurrence is impossible

Axiom2: P(S)=1 * probability of an event = 1 if event’s occurrence is certain

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EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems. UPLB.APL


N
Axiom3: P(¿ n=1¿ N An ) = ∑ P( A n) ; Am ∩ A n=ϕ ; m≠n
n =1

OR

P( A ∪ B ¿ =P(A) + P(B)

From axioms 2 & 3:

1 = P(S) = P(A ∪ Á ) = P(A) + P( Á )


P( Á )=1-P(A)

If an event A is a collection of events Ai (equally likely):

1
P( Ai )= ; i=1,2,...N
N
nA
Probability of A: P(A)=
N
D. Joint Probability
 If two or more events can occur together, the probability of their simultaneous occurrence is called the
joint probability

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B)

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B) P(A) + P(B)

Note: equal only for mutually exclusive events because A B= ; P(A B)=P( )=0

Reference:

Peebles, P.Z. Probability, Random Variables, and Random Signal Principles 2 nd edition. McGraw-Hill
International.1987

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EE170 Signals and Noise in Communication Systems. UPLB.APL

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